1
SEXUALITY EDUCATION, PEER INFLUENCE, MASS
MEDIA AS CORRELATE OF STUDENTS’ SEXUAL
BEHAVIOUR IN DELTA AND EDO STATES
BY
EGBULE, Elizabeth Osita
DELTA STATE UNIVERSITY, ABRAKA
FEBRUARY, 2017.
2
SEXUALITY EDUCATION, PEER INFLUENCE, MASS
MEDIA AS CORRELATE OF STUDENTS’ SEXUAL
BEHAVIOUR IN DELTA AND EDO STATES
BY
EGBULE, Elizabeth Osita
B.SC.Ed (DELSU) 1998, M.Ed. (DELSU) 2004.
PG/04/05/03/9207
A DOCTORAL THESIS WRITTEN IN THE DEPARTMENT
OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING, FACULTY OF
EDUCATION AND SUBMITTED TO FACULTY BOARD,
DELTA STATE UNIVERSITY, ABRAKA, NIGERIA,
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE AWARD OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Ph.D)
DEGREE IN GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING.
FEBRUARY, 2017.
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CERTIFICATION
We the undersigned certify that this research was carried out by Egbule Elizabeth
Osita of the Department of Guidance and Counselling, Delta State University, Abraka.
____________________ ________________
DR. S.D. CLIFFORD Date
Supervisor
______________________ _______________
DR. (MRS.) F.N. UGOJI Date
Supervisor
_______________________
REV. FR. (DR.) OBIUNU ______________
Head of Department Date
_______________________
PROF. E.P. OGHUVBU ______________
Dean, Faculty of Education Date
5
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The researcher is deeply and sincerely grateful to Almighty God who has continued
to be her strength, her shield, her source of inspiration, her guide and her rock. He alone saw
her through the programme, May His name be praised. The researcher wishes to also express
her sincere thanks to her supervisors Dr. S.D Clifford and Dr. (Mrs.) F.N Ugoji who spent
lots of their precious time to make sure that this work comes out well. The researcher wishes
to express her profound gratitude to her present Ag. Head of Department Dr. P.U. Osadebe
for his useful contributions. The researcher will not fail to acknowledge Dr. (Mrs.) E.E.
Ebenuwa Okoh for her relentless effort and willingness to assist and counsel her each time
she called on her.
Special thanks to Prof. R.I. Okorodudu, Prof. (Mrs.) O.C. Okobiah, Dr. (Mrs.)
Onoyase for their useful contributions. Gratitude also goes to Prof. Chinedu Mordi, Dr. (Mrs.)
G.Akpochafor, Rev. Fr. Jude Obiunu and Prof. J.N. Odili for the knowledge gained from them
as her lecturers. The researcher will not fail to acknowledge Prof. D. Onoyase for his candid
advice whenever the researcher came in contact with him.
Sincere thanks goes to Pst. Obakpolor Evans and also to her computer operators,
Monday_Wyte and Ifeanyi for a job well done. The researcher wishes to acknowledge
specially the unreserved support accorded to her by her loving children, Engr. & Mrs. Collins
Emeka Okwor, Uche, Chidinma, Ujunwa and Amarachi for the unreserved support they
accorded to me throughout this programme. May God bless them.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
COVER PAGE - - - - - - - - - i
TITTLE PAGE - - - - - - - - - ii
CERTIFICATION - - - - - - - - iii
DEDICATION - - - - - - - - - iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS - - - - - - - - v
ABSTRACT - - - - - - - - - vii
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background to the Study - - - - - - - - 1
Statement of the Problem - - - - - - - - 9
Research Questions- - - - - - - - - 10
Hypotheses - - - - - - - - - 11
Purpose of the Study - - - - - - - - 12
Significance of the Study - - - - - - - - 14
Scope and Delimitation of the Study - - - - - - 16
Operational Definition of Terms - - - - - - - 16
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE - - - - - 17
Conceptual Framework - - - - - - - 17
The Concept of Adolescence - - - - - - - 20
The Concept of Sexuality Education - - - - - - 26
Relevance of Sexuality Education to Sexual Behaviour - - - 30
The Concept of Peer Influence - - - - - - 33
Types of Peer Influence - - - - - - - 35
Peer Influence and Student Sexual Behaviour- - - - - 37
Mass Media and Students’ Sexual Behaviour- - - - 48
Types of Mass Media - - - - - - - - 50
Mass Media and Students’ Sexual Behaviour- - - - 55
Dangers and Benefits of Mass Media - - - - - - 57
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Empirical Review - - - - - - - - 58
Appraisal of Literature Review- - - - - - - 82
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHOD AND PROCEDURE - - - - - 85
Research Design - - - - - - - - 85
Population of the Study - - - - - - - - 86
Sample and Sampling Technique - - - - - - - 86
Research Instrument - - - - - - - - 87
Validity of the Instrument - - - - - - - - 88
Reliability of the Instrument - - - - - - - 89
Method of Data Collection - - - - - - - - 89
Method of Data Analysis - - - - - - - - 81
CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION OF RESULTS AND DISCUSSION - - - 90
Presentation of Results - - - - - - - - 90
Discussion of Findings - - - - - - - - 106
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS - - - 115
Summary - - - - - - - - - 115
Conclusion - - - - - - - - - - 116
Implications for Counselling - - - - - - 117
Recommendations - - - - - - - - - 117
Contributions to Knowledge - - - - - - - 118
Suggestion for further Study - - - - - - - 118
REFERENCES- - - - - - - - - 119
APPENDICES - - - - - - - - - 138
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1: Mean, standard deviation and relationship between sexuality education, student
sexual behaviour of secondary school students in Delta and Edo state- - -90
Table 4.2: Mean, standard deviation and relationship between sexuality education, peer
influence and student sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo state- - - -91
Table 4.3: Mean, standard deviation and relationship between sexuality education, peer
influence, mass media and student sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo state- -92
Table 4.4: Mean, standard deviation and relationship between sexuality education, peer
influence, mass media, location and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo state--93
Table 4.5: Mean, standard deviation, relationship between sexuality education, peer influence,
mass media, location, gender and student sexual behaviour- - -94
Table 4.6: Mean, standard deviation and relationship between sexuality education, peer
influence, mass media, location, gender, class and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and
Edo state- - - - - - - - - - -96
Table 4.7: Mean, standard deviation and relationship between sexuality education, peer
influence, mass media, location, gender, class, school type and students’ sexual behaviour in
Delta and Edo state?- - - - - - - - -98
The results presented in table 4.8 - - - - - - - -99
The results presented in table 4.9 - - - - - - - -100
Table 4:10 presents the regression analysis of sexuality education, peer influence, mass media
and students’ sexual behaviour- - - - - - -101
The results presented in table 4.11 - - - - - - - -102
The results presented in table 4.12 - - - - - - - -103
The results presented in table 4.13 - - - - - - - -104
The results presented in table 4.14 - - - - - - - -105
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ABSTRACT
Sexual behaviour of student over the years has become so problematic in nature coital sex and
premarital sexual involvement among Nigeria students are in the increase. Present day school
children value sexual activities compare to their mates of the ester years. This study
investigated sexuality education, peer influence, mass media as correlates of students’ sexual
behaviour in Delta and Edo states of Nigeria. Seven research questions and seven null
hypotheses were formulated to guide the study. In the study, the researcher reviewed related
literature. The study adopted correlational research design. The population of the study
consisted of all junior and senior secondary school students in Delta and Edo states with
estimated population of 98,213. The sample used were four thousand, four hundred and
sixteen (4,416) respondents drawn through a stratified random sampling technique from 12
secondary school in Delta and Edo state. The study employed a questionnaire method of data
collection. Questionnaire titled; Correlate Student Sexual Behaviour Scale (CSSBS). The
instrument was validated through expert judgment of the researcher and factor analysis for
content and construct validities respectively. The reliability of the instrument was established
by the use of Cronbach Alpha and a reliability index of sexual behaviour .80, sexuality
education .63, peer inference .63 and mass media .80 was obtained. The general aims /
objective of this study is to investigate, sexuality education, peer influence, mass media as
correlate of students sexual behaviour from delta and Edo State. The study provided
information that significant relationship existed between sexuality education and students’
sexual behaviour. The study also opined that peer influence and mass media significantly
influence students’ sexual behaviour. It was also confirmed that school type significantly
influence student’s sexual behaviour. The findings also stress that gender, location and class
had no significant influence on student’s sexual behaviour. Appropriate recommendations
were made among which are: That federal and state ministry of education as well as local
government board should create an enlightenment campaign programme that will modify the
attitude of the youths towards cautious sex; That directors on film on media matters should
exclude sexually seducesive part of reality shows, students can be used as model for good
sexual behaviour, lastly group counselling should be made compulsory by ministry of
education concerning cautious sex among the secondary school students.
CHAPTER ONE
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INTRODUCTION
Background to the Study
Sexual behaviour of students in recent times has become so problematic. Coital and
premarital sex among Nigeria students are on the increase. It appears present day school
children value sexual activities more compared to their mates of the old. American Social
Health Association (2003) stressed that more than one million adolescents become pregnant
with sixty-five percent of them having babies out of wedlock. In the same vein, Akinde and
Suleiman (2005) ascertained that between 2.5 and 5 million adolescents acquire sexually
transmitted diseases each year.
Rapid development of social changes has pushed off the traditional customs with
regards to students’ sexual behaviours. Before now, the traditional customs helped to curtail
the premarital sexual involvement among youths. Students exhibit their sexual behaviour in
different forms. Kelly (2004) described different types of sexual behaviour exhibited by
secondary school students. Some of them include bodily contact below the neck, hand
holding, touching one another genital through the clothing and oral sex.
Students who are in their adolescence stage are characterized by increased levels of
emotional problems that should be investigated and understood. Adolescence is defined as the
period of transition from childhood to adulthood. The period of adolescence involves
biological, cognitive, socio-emotional and personality changes. The major task of students is
preparation for adulthood. Indeed, the future of any culture depends on how effective the
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students prepare and how sound their personality is (Larson, Hair, Jager & Garrett 2002).
During the period of transition, an individual leaves childhood and prepares to enter adulthood
(Bruce & Borg, 1993). Many students make this transition without serious difficulties
(Haiman, Lambert, & Rodriques, 2005). However, in this stage, there is always uncertainty
in that the individual is expected to act like an adult, while often being treated as a child
(Haiman et al., 2005). Bogin (1999) found that students learn and practice behaviours
including economic, social, and sexual activities of adults. At the same time, they are treated
like children who are not expected to handle adult responsibilities (Haiman et al.,2005). The
mixed expectations from adults lead to uncertainty and turbulence which manifests in form
of confusion, insecurity, indecision, disorganization, moodiness, and alienation. They also
tend to question their identity.
The period of adolescence is filled with intellectual and emotional changes in addition
to other major biological and physical changes. It is a time of discovery of self and one’s
relationship to the world around them (Merikangas, Nakamura, & Kessler, 2010). Socially, it
is a transitional period from dependent childhood to self-sufficient adulthood.
Psychologically, it is a marginal situation when adjustment has to be made, namely, those that
distinguish childhood behaviours from adulthood. Adolescence spans from approximately 12
years to the early 20s with individual and cultural variations. For most people, it is an
intermediate state between being a child and being an adult. The state is a conflicting one
since the students feel like breaking the childhood ties by becoming independent and
autonomous. In the course of freeing themselves from emotional dependency, they try to
reject parents and teachers’ ways of doing things which result in conflicts.
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During adolescence, students experience rapid physical development at a speed
unparalleled with infancy. Physical development includes rapid increase in height and weight
(seen earlier in girls than in boys), the development of secondary sex characteristics prominent
among which is the onset of menstruation in girls, the growth of pubic hair and a continued
brain development. These physical changes, which differ between boys and girls affect the
students’s emotions as they see them as being abnormal. Research has found that women are
more likely to experience emotional problems than men due to the fact that females are more
exposed to stress than males (Horwitz & White, 1994; Turner, 1999).
Beside physical development, students are also faced with cognitive development and
psycho-social development. There are five recognized psychosocial issues that students deal
with during their student’s years. These include establishing an identity, autonomy, intimacy
and becoming comfortable with one’s sexuality. According to Bootzin, Bower, Crooker and
Hall (1991), adolescence is a period of profound change in every aspect of life during which
both boys and girls experience a lot of bodily changes. An example is the development of
primary sex characteristics which include complex changes in the genitals, uterus, fallopian
tubes and ovaries for the girls. The most obvious signs for boys’ primary sex characteristics
include development of the penis, scrotum and testis. For many students, menstruation, and
nocturnal emission create some degree of embarrassment and inconvenience. Adequate
information about these changes need to be made clear for them to accept the bodily changes.
Those changes affect the way students think about things (especially sexual behaviour) and
relationship with family and their peers which often produces stress. Students frequently find
themselves facing problems about alcohol, breaking parental rules and having sex. Cogen,
13
Birgra and Hans (1993) assert that sex plays an important role in students’ feelings, fantasies
and social relationships.
These changes in students prompt them to begin to spend more time with their friends
than with their family, keep diaries, lock up their rooms, become involved in multiple hobbies,
become more argumentative, would not want to be seen with their parents in public and so
on. These behaviours resulting from the changes make students to become vulnerable to many
forms of sexual, emotional and behavioural problems. As students try new behaviours, they
become vulnerable to injuries, legal consequences, sexually transmitted diseases, unwanted
pregnancies, traumatic problems, stress and tension. Hence, Breslau et al., (2008) pointed out
that sexual behavioural problems are among the most prevalent chronic health conditions of
students and often have serious negative consequences for their all-round development.
Considering the above views of Breslau et al., (2008). As a result of this negative
consequences associated with students’ risk and sexual behaviour, it is timely to investigate
the sexual behaviour of the students right from their early stage in life. This is because a lot
of problems have been created as a result of this inappropriate sexual behaviour of our
students in Delta and Edo States in particular.
The stage of adolescence is looked upon by all with great curiosity, intrigue and
interest. Freud (1958) stated that “every step forward in growth and maturity brings with it
not only new gains but also new problems”. Adolescence has been conceived as a “period of
developmental disturbance with characteristics of internal conflicts, psychic disequilibrium,
erratic behaviour and associated sexual maturation with turmoil” (Carol, 1975; Saraswat,
1989). Sex is probably one area of our lives about which we know so little. And whatever
little we happen to have known about sex is in bits and pieces through sources like parents,
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friends, and acquaintances, the media and cheap sex books (Kumar, 2003). It is indeed ironical
that while sex is such an important issue in our lives, parents, elders and teachers hardly play
any significant role in providing scientific knowledge about sex to students.
Since talking about sex in some homes and societies, especially in most of our
traditional homes and societies is a taboo, it is difficult for students to freely approach their
parents for guidance. Also, those who seek guidance from parents are not satisfied because
the latter try to evade some of such discussions, or are not able to give satisfactory answers.
A few students try to gather information through books, films or from friends where they are
available and can be accessed. Many a time, the students receive wrong information and these
myths and misconceptions are carried throughout their lifetime (Kumar, 2003). This situation,
therefore calls for the introduction of sexuality education into Nigerian education system. We
should also not forget the fact that secondary school students ought to be educated about
sexuality formerly or informally.
Sexuality Education (SE), also referred to as sex education or sexual health education
(SHE) in some literature, is one of the most important educational needs of students and young
adults as noted by Cairns, Collins and Hiebert, (1994). However, Sexuality Education (SE) is
often a controversial topic, with perhaps no other subject (apart from evolution) sparking as
much debate in the society. Sexuality Education (SE) has always been, and will probably
continue to be, an emotional topic. Considering the importance of the issues it deals with, the
intimate nature of the subject, and how tightly bound sexual mores are to the majority of
people’s concepts of good, bad and their own self-image, it could hardly be otherwise. (Caims
et al., 1994).
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The purpose of any Sexuality Education (SE) programme is to develop a proper regard
for the mastery of life and to promote a mature acceptance of self in the young person
(especially the unmarried) and of his fellow man. The introduction of Sexuality Education
(SE) in secondary school is, no doubt, with mixed reaction as some adults consider sex as a
topic that should not be discussed freely with or among young people.
People, especially students are exposed to cultures that uses sex and sexual imagery
to sell almost everything. The consequences for unwanted pregnancies, sexually transmitted
diseases, and rape are therefore, much greater now than ever. There is no doubt that students
are exposed to sex-related-education from different sources outside the family who are
supposed to educate their young ones on sexual mores. They are exposed to magazines which
sell sex on their front pages, films which depict sex, musicals that portray sex as normal
human life as well as commercial adverts which portray sex. Most secondary school students
are students who need proper education (information) about human sexuality. This is because
students have problems with self-control, delay of gratification and risk analysis. Thus,
students may not think about the consequences of their sex behaviour.
Secondary school students who are in developing stage have crucial and stressful
periods in life in which they try to adjust to their varied physical, emotional and psychological
changes. The student is curious to ask questions, but the problem is who to address these
questions to. Most students cannot freely approach their parents for guidance or visit the
guidance counsellor. Also, those who seek guidance from parents are not satisfied because
the latter try to evade discussions (due to some customs, traditions and religious practices) or
they are not able to give satisfactory answers. A few of them, as noted by Turner (1979), try
to gather information through books, films or from friends. Often, they receive wrong
16
information about sex and this misinformation can affect them throughout their life time. This
is due to lack of sexual education (SE) from parents and the school. It is therefore imperative
to provide the students with proper information (sex education) concerning human sexuality
so as to enable them cope better with these physical, emotional and psychological changes.
Studies also show that there is a relationship between peer group influence and sexual
behaviour. One of the key tasks of adolescence is the development of sense of identity. It is
a time of exploration and experimentation. The young person’s reference point at this stage
are mostly parents and family, but peer group often becomes the main point of reference for
decisions about how to behave throughout students years. The level of peer influence can
increase as the young person gains greater independence. Furthermore, they may not yet have
developed the skills, confidence and awareness to resist negative peer influences during this
time. This could result in the teenager shifting away from their family norms and values and
moving instead towards the values of their peer groups. Young people can, both intentionally
and unintentionally, put pressure on each other for various reasons.
Gender of students has also been seen to have influence on the sexual behaviour of
students. Studies conducted in Kenya by Kim and Free (2008) opined that students are
initiated to sex early with gender, father’s absence at home, family economic status and peer
influence as predisposing factors. Agreeing with this is Orpinas (2008) who found that fewer
females than males reported ever having had sexual intercourse before the age of 16 while
Kimani (2005) confirmed that boys were initiated to sex earlier than girls.
The appropriateness of the type of sexual education that should be taught in public
schools continues to be a major topic of debate, and it is motivated by the high teen pregnancy
and birth rate, increased level of sexual promiscuity among girls and sexually transmitted
17
diseases. Much of the debate has centred on whether abstinence only versus comprehensive
sex education should be taught in public schools. Some argue that sex education that covers
safe sexual practices such as condom use sends a mixed message to students and promotes
sexual activity (Darroch, Singh and Frost, 2001).
Secondary school students are in the developing stage where sexual desires and
anxieties are high (Central Bureau of Statistics, 2004). Spear (2000) added that this phase is
known for its rejection of the standards of adults on behaviour. Problems and delinquency
normally originate from this phase. This is a trying period because of the conflict students go
through not knowing whether they are still children or already adults. Majority of them are
tempted to engage in sexual activities that expose them to all sexual related risks (Anyango,
2005). In the school environment, sexual behaviour of students vary with types of schools.
For example, students in day and co-educational schools are more likely to engage in risky
and unsafe sexual behaviours than those in boarding and unisex schools (Kiragu, 2000).
Among boarding school students, sexual activities are higher during school holidays than
among day school students (Kiragu, 2000). Studies have indicated that students lack adequate
reproductive health education to enable them make informed decisions. This has reduced their
level of awareness and perception about available methods of safe sexual behaviour.
Awareness and perception could assist students in delaying their initiation into sexual
activities or protect those who are already involved in sexual activities. African traditional
societies had well-established systems of preparing young people for adult sexual roles and
responsibilities. However, traditional systems have weakened and in some places, become
extinct and have left students poorly informed (World Bank, 2005).
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Nigeria Television Authority (NTA) estimated that more than Twenty million people
are exposed to their commercials each day. A lot of writers and speakers win the minds of
people radio, magazines, books brochures, Facebook, internet and many others. Leaving the
individuals about many choice, about what to do, what to buy and what to be. It was
ascertained that the media, whether print, audio or visual, have been accused of affecting the
minds of individuals negatively, especially the secondary school students, with very little
potential of creating positive change in them. The media has a challenge on sexual education,
this is because it does not necessarily complement the tenets of sexual education because
messages by the media cannot devoid of selfish interest and propaganda. Such messages from
media does not portray accurate information about sexual problems among our students. In
realisation of this information gap, this study examines sexual education and peer influence
as correlates of sexual behaviour of secondary school students in Delta and Edo States.
Statement of Problem
The study was prompted by information from students’ conversation and social media,
that secondary school students are indulging in reckless sexual activities and also have been
exhibiting some sexual behaviour such as masturbation, homosexuality, lesbianism, incest
and rape. The present day school system is gradually transforming from an academic
environment to an institution of promiscuity, moral laxity as well as sexual permissiveness.
The reason for this behaviour is not farfetched. The glamorization of sex and suggestive
sexual scene in the media, permissive attitude of some parents, and peer pressure from the
peer groups may account for this behaviour.
It was observed that the media was a major means to popularize the notion of flirting,
dating and different types of sexual behaviour. Mutual or intimate relationship develop from
19
social activities such as dancing, singing and jokes. Despite the social activities, information
on sexual education are still in the dark, not openly discussed. Hence secondary school
students fall victims of unwanted pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases as a result of
unpleasant sexual activities.
Gender, location, class and school type are some of the influencing factors on students
sexual behaviour, these factors may exert influence differently as secondary school students
are of different gender, class, living in different homes and environment and belong to
different socio-economic status. There is therefore, the need to investigate the level of
influence of sexual education, peer influence and mass media influence on students’ sexual
behaviour as it relates to their gender, location, class and school type.
Some other studies also express the level of sexual behaviour among the students, that
more than 1million adolescents become pregnant with 65% having babies out of wedlock,
moreover, between 2.5 and 5million acquired sexually transmitted disease each year.
The pertinent questions here are: what are the correlates of sexual education, peer
influence, mass media on students sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo State of Nigeria? To
what extent is this relationship moderated by gender, location, class and school type?
Research Questions
The research will be guided with the following research questions;
1. What is the extent of relationship between sexuality education and students’ sexual
behaviour in Delta and Edo State?
2. What is the extent of relationship between sexuality education, peer influence and
students sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo State?
20
3. What is the extent of relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass
media and students sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo State?
4. What is the extent of relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass
media, location and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo State?
5. What is the extent of relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass
media, location, gender and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo State?
6. What is the extent of relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass
media, location, gender, class and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo State?
7. What is the extent of relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass
media, location, gender, class, school type and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and
Edo State?
Hypotheses
The research questions formulated above were addressed by their respective
hypotheses which are;
Ho1: There is no significant relationship between sexuality education and students’ sexual
behaviour in Delta and Edo State.
Ho2: There is no significant relationship between sexuality education, peer influence and
students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo State.
Ho3: There is no significant relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass
media and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo State.
Ho4: There is no significant relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass
media, location and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo State.
21
Ho5: There is no significant relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass
media, location, gender and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo State.
Ho6: There is no significant relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass
media, location, gender, class and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo State.
Ho7: There is no significant relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass
media location, gender, class, school type and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and
Edo State.
Purpose of the Study
The main purpose of this study is to investigate sexuality education, peer influence
and mass media as correlate of student’s sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo State. Specifically
the study investigated the following:
1. identify the extent of relationship between sexuality education and student’s sexual
behaviour in Delta, and Edo State.
2. ascertain the extent of relationship between sexuality education peer influence and
student’s sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo State.
3. investigate the extent of relationship between sexuality education, peer influence mass
media and student’s sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo State.
4. examine the extent of relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass
media, location sexuality education and student sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo
State.
5. ascertain the extent of relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass
media, gender, location, and student’s sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo states.
22
6. investigate the extent of relationship between sexuality education, peer influence mass
media location, gender, class and student’s sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo States.
7. examine the extent of relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass
media, location, gender class school type and student’s sexual behaviour in Delta and
Edo States.
23
Significance of the Study
The research will be of great significance to parents, the government, guidance
counsellors, sociologists, ministries of education, teachers and students. To the parents: the
findings of this study will be of great relevance to the parents as it will help them to encourage
their children to be role models of sexual behaviour among their peers.
This study will also provide the parents with greater knowledge on the level of
involvement of sexual behaviour among students in schools. Such organized information will
enhance their good monitoring of the children as well as knowing the consequence involved
in their children’s involvement on risky sexual behaviour. Therefore, parents will become
more united with the school to monitor and manage the students’ unpleasant sexual activities
in school and at home.
To the government: the findings of this study will be of significance to government as
it serve as a means of conveying to government to come to their aid of the school
administrators to equip the school with qualified personnel like counselors, that will help to
counsel the students in the areas of sexual behaviour without being embarrassed. And also to
provide qualified teachers that will teach students on the areas of sexuality education.
To the guidance counsellors: the findings of this study will be of immense benefit to
the school counsellors who witness this cases on daily basics, for the therapeutic skills needed
to handle risky sexual behaviour among students in secondary schools. It will help the
counsellors inculcating good values and morals into the mind of the students who always
involve themselves in risky sexual behaviour. It will encourage them to change their attitude,
perception and believe towards human sexuality.
24
To the sociologist: the finding of this study will encourage them to know the sexual
problems experienced by the student that affect their behaviour, attitude, concept and believe,
as it will enable them to inform the youth the implication of their unpleasant sexual behaviour.
Ministry of Education will be better informed hence the finding of this study will
create awareness of the prevalence, determinants and remedy of risk sexual behaviour among
our students in secondary schools. It will enable them to evaluate the attitude and reactions to
incidents of risky sexual behaviour of students as well as provide qualified personnel’s to
handle the risky sexual behaviour of students.
To the teacher: the finding of study will be significant to teachers who usually face
with the sexual behaviour of students in class. Through the findings of this study, they are
aware of the different sexual behaviour problems of students of this very stage of their life
and help them to overcome the problems by counselling the students or referring them to the
professional school counsellors. And it will also enable to understand some other aspect of
sexuality education and made it known to students.
The findings of this study are also significant to students because it will enable them
to be aware of the fact that the sexual problems they are facing is as a result of changes in
their development. It will also enable them to understand the implication of accepting negative
peer pressure as well as watching nude films in the internet and television.
Finally, the findings of this study were added to the stock of knowledge especially for
those who may want to go into studies in the area of adolescence and their developmental
stages.
25
Scope and Delimitation of the Study
The scope of this study is to assess sexuality education, peer influence, mass media as
correlates of sexual behaviour of secondary school students to be moderated by gender,
location and class. The students were drawn from urban and rural school areas (location), and
male and female students (gender). This study was restricted to students 12 – 19 years across
secondary schools in Delta and Edo States. It examines the influence of variables like
sexuality education, peer influence, mass media, location, age, gender, and school type on
sexual behaviour of students. These formed part of the variables for the study.
Operational Definition of Terms
Sexuality Education: This is the education in schools on the subject of sexual activity and
sexual relationships. It refers to the acquisition of information, development, attitudes
and beliefs on reproductive health.
Peer Influence; Peer influence is an influence when a peer group, or individual encourages
another person to change their values, or behaviour to suit other peoples convenience.
Students’ Sexual Behaviour: This refers to students’ sexual activities such as hugging,
kissing, masturbation, touching, sexual intercourse, petting, oral sex, fantasy and so
on.
Mass Media: This is the means of communications such as television, newspaper, magazines
and internet that reach great number of people.
Class: JSS I and SS I of student in Delta and Edo State.
School Type: The nature of school is mixed schools and single schools.
Location: Urban and rural school in Delta and Edo State.
26
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
The literature reviewed was discussed using sub-headings related to this study. They
include the following:-
Conceptual Framework
Concept of Adolescence
Concept of Sexuality Education
Relevance of Sexuality Education to Student’s Sexual Behaviour
Concept of Peer Influence
Types of Peer Influence
Peer Influence and Student’s Sexual Behaviour
Mass Media and students’ sexual behaviour
Types of Mass Media
Danger and Benefit of Mass Media
School type and students’ sexual behaviour
Gender, Location, Class and Student’s Sexual Behaviour
Empirical Review
Appraisal of Reviewed Literature
Conceptual Framework
The conceptual model of the study illustrates the sexual behaviours investigated and
the sexuality education and peer factors that determine if the students will engage in sexual
behaviours or not. The sexual behaviours investigated are; being in a romantic relationship,
27
holding hands, kissing, and fondling, visiting parks/beach, watching pornography and
engaging in sexual intercourse. Sexuality education factor includes formal and informal
teaching of sexuality education to students. Peer factors include peers encouraging the
students to engage in the various sex behaviours. The study posits that if students are
influenced by their peers and the level of sex education they get through formal guidance and
informal guidance (from older adults in the society, magazines and the internet) there is the
likelihood that they may engage in sexual behaviour earlier than anticipated if the influence
is negative On the other hand, if peer influences are positive and the students receive good
sex guidance (which may be done formally) they will delay sex début and concentrate more
in school work which improves their future prospects. The framework also depicts the
influence of mass media on sexual behaviour of students.
This conceptualization is hinged on Bandura and Adams (1977) interaction model
which proposes that behaviour is a product of interactions among variable within and outside
ones environment. Therefore, it could be deduced that sexual behaviour of the students may
be either as a result of factors operating within or outside the students’ environment which
could either be inhibited or reinforced by other factors such as location, gender, school type
and class.
28
Conceptual Framework Sexuality Education, Peer Influence, Mass media as Correlate
of Sexual Behaviour of Students
3333333333333333
Adapted from Bandura and Adams (1977)
Key
S = Stimulus (Independent Variables – Sexuality Education and Peer Group Influence, Mass
Media).
O = Organismic (Moderating Variables – School, Location, Gender, Class.
R = Response (Dependent Variable – Students’ Sexual Behaviour)
INDEPENDENT
VARIABLES
MODERATING
VARIABLES
LOCATION
SEXUALITY
EDUCATION
STUDENTS SEXUAL
BEHAVIOURS
SCHOOL
TYPE
GENDER
DEPENDENT
VARIABLE
PEER GROUP
INFLUENCE
MASS MEDIA
INFLUENCE
CLASS
LEVEL
S R O
29
This conceptualization is following the line of the behavioural theories of Bandura and
Adams (1977). That is the stimulus-organism. Response Theory (S-O-R). Consequently,
stressed that this theory could be rightly illustrated as Stimulus-Organism-Response Model
(S-O-R). This theory is of the opinion than an organism’s behaviour is a product of stimulus
in the environment, where the organism innate potentials are well managed. Based on the
above explanation of the model, there is presumed influence or relationship among sexuality
education, peer influence, mass media and sexual behaviour of adolescent.
This conceptualization is hinged on the stimulus response model which proposes that
behaviour is a product of interactions among variable within and outside ones environment.
Therefore, it could be deduced that unpleasant sexual behaviour of the students may be either
as a result of factors operating within or outside the students’ environment which could either
be inhibited or reinforced by other factors such as location, gender, school and class. That is
to mention, that sexual behaviour of the adolescent cannot be only accounted for by
independent variables.
Concept of Adolescence
Adolescence can be described as the period between childhood and maturity or
adulthood. We call adolescence the evolutionary progress in human life which starts
“biologically” with changes at the physiology of the pubis and completes “psychologically”
with the ultimate organization of sexuality. It covers the period between pubescence, during
which the secondary sex characteristics appear and the age of about 18 to 20 years. The term
“teenager” is not completely accurate: it may refer to youngsters between 10 and 18 years old.
It is, therefore, preferable to consider that the individual passes successively through students
30
stages (precocious, middle and posterior) instead of classifying all students into the category
of “teenagers” (Manolopoulos, 1987).
According to Kulkarni (2008:89), “adolescence is the period of psychosocial
development beginning in the preteen years, usually in conjunction with pubertal onset, and
extending until the individual assumes an adult role in society. The stage of psychosocial
development and the level of cognitive maturation strongly influence each students's response
to any health concern, including those related to sexuality. Early adolescence corresponds to
ages 10 to 15 years, when most youth are entering high school. Most early students progress
through puberty, intensely aware of physical changes, and concerned about any changes
which they perceive as "abnormal". They tend to exaggerate and worry about physical
symptoms, although they may have difficulty verbalizing their concerns. Early students begin
to separate from childhood and their parents but tend to vacillate between adult-like and child-
like behaviour.
They have rapid wide mood swings, become easily upset and emotional, and alternate
between extreme cooperation and extreme resistance to adult guidance. Sexually, as pubertal
events occur, early students may rediscover masturbation and other pleasurable self-
stimulation. They form close friendships with same-sex peers and may experiment sexually
with them usually to satisfy curiosity. Middle adolescence, typically ages 14 to 18 years, finds
youth continuing education or seeking employment. Puberty usually is complete, adult size is
approaching and fertility often is a reality. Middle students struggle the most with the
development of self-identity, and autonomy. They have increased mobility and independence
and less adult presence and protection.
31
Risk-taking behaviour involving driving, substance use, and/or sexual activity may
have harmful consequences which the students is unable to anticipate or effectively prevent.
Experimentation seems to be a normal, even necessary part of students development.
Contemporary society often tolerates and even promotes students experimentation with
smoking, drinking, and sex yet hesitates to provide students with the knowledge and means
of avoiding consequences. Sexually, most middle students discover masturbation and practice
it with varying frequency. By age 17, approximately half of all students have experienced
sexual intercourse, some before puberty, many first at age 15 to 16. Coital frequency ranges
from only once to several times a week.
Sexual activity may include oral, genital or anal sex, especially as more students learn
about these varieties of sexual expression. Most students have heterosexual relationships,
although many have experimented with homosexual intimacy. Late adolescence refers to the
years past high school, from age 17 to 18 into the early twenties. Most late students are
physically adult, accepted as adults in their environments, and fertile. They are self-supporting
or pursuing educational or vocational training to become able to support both self and family.
Their self-identity is consistent with the realities of their size, shape, and abilities and
with societal limits and expectations. Late students have a well-established sexual identity,
usually heterosexual, and the ability to have intimate relationships that satisfy the emotional
and sexual needs of both partners. Many achieve parenthood one or more times, some marry,
with or without children, and some even divorce. Yet many have not yet reached the level of
psychosocial maturity that would facilitate a healthy family life for themselves, their partners
and their children.
32
The World Health Organization (2000), points out that adolescence is a period of
dynamic change representing transition from childhood to adulthood that begins at puberty.
For girls, puberty is a process generally marked by the production of oestrogen, the growth of
breasts, the appearance of pubic hair, the growth of the external genitals, and the start of
menstruation (menarche). For boys, it is marked by the production of testosterone, the
enlargement of the testes and penis, a deepening of the voice, and a growth spurt. Adolescence
is a period in human growth and development that occurs after childhood and before
adulthood, from ages 10 to 19. Students can further be sub-divided into pre-puberty, before
age 10; early adolescence, ages 10–14; middle adolescence, ages 15–19; and late adolescence,
or young adulthood, ages 20–24.
Although age is often not an accurate measure because of variations in cultural norms
and expectations, such categories can be useful as a basis for understanding the process of
adolescence. The biological determinants of adolescence are fairly universal; however, the
duration and defining characteristics of this period may vary across time, cultures, and
socioeconomic situations. Furthermore, this period has been radically altered over the past
century by earlier onset of puberty, later age of marriage, urbanization, global communication,
and changing sexual attitudes and behaviours.
Adolescence is a period of furious growth and development during which young
people are universally exposed not only to exciting new opportunities but also to risks. The
process of adolescence is a period of preparation for adulthood. During this time, several key
developmental experiences occur. These experiences include physical and sexual maturation,
movement toward social and economic independence, and development of identity.
Behaviour patterns that are established during this process, such as drug use or non-use and
33
sexual risk taking or protection, can have long-lasting positive and negative effects on future
health and well-being. As a result, during this process, providers have unique opportunities to
influence young people. Although some problems that occur or that are magnified during
adolescence require special attention, students should be viewed as an assets to the society
rather as problems. In many ways, adolescence is a joyful and creative time, and youth can be
a boundless national and international resource when it is nurtured and if its energies are
thoughtfully channelled in positive directions
Christopher (2008) sees adolescence as a time of profound change which includes the
physical changes of puberty as well as cognitive and psychosocial development. For the
majority of individuals, the cognitive changes ultimately lead to the development of abstract
thought and problem solving abilities which are key elements in self-sufficiency as an adult.
Students are faced with the challenges of understanding and becoming comfortable with the
physical changes of puberty. Between the ages of 10 and 14 most boys and girls begin to
notice changes taking place in their bodies. These changes, which occur over a number of
years, are generally referred to as puberty.
Sexual thoughts, feelings, and behaviours, present throughout life, are often
accentuated during adolescence. The normal developmental task of establishing adult sexual
identity and the capacity for intimacy may be frustrated by the prolonged interval between
attainment of reproductive maturity and social permission to express one's sexuality as an
adult. The changes take place in all boys and girls but they start at different times and take
place at different rates. Not everyone starts puberty between the ages of 10 and 14, some
people start younger, and some much later.
34
On the part of Adegoke (2003), the period of adolescence occupies a unique stage in
every person's life. It is a period of transition from childhood to adulthood. Adolescence has
been described as a stage among human beings where a lot of physiological as well as
anatomical changes take place resulting in reproductive maturity in the students. Many
students manage this transformation successfully while others experience major stress and
find themselves engaging in behaviours (e.g. sexual experimentation, exploration and
promiscuity etc.) that place their well-being at risk. Students display sexual behaviours and
developmental characteristics that place them at risk of Sexually Transmitted Diseases
(STDs).
A primary source of risk of HIV/AIDS, for instance, is unprotected /indiscriminate
sexual activity. By the time they are 18, most students in Nigeria are sexually active. Despite
increased sexual knowledge, students in Nigeria are poor contraceptive users. They are less
likely than adults to consistently use condoms or other methods of protection that could reduce
their chances of infection. Neither specific teaching about contraception nor improving the
contraceptive service consistently increases effective contraceptive use by young teenagers.
Students having sexual intercourse before age 16 are more likely to take risks. They have
more sexual partners during their lifetime and more partners per year and they start sexual
activity earlier in new relationships than those who become sexually active after age 16.
In Nigeria today, sexuality education is yet to be incorporated into the curriculum of
secondary school education. Many Nigerians are reluctant to discuss sexuality and sexual
health openly. In most African countries, Nigeria in particular, matters relating to sex and
sexuality are usually shrouded in secrecy. Neither the students boy nor girl has free access to
the information he or she needs on sexuality. Questions bordering on sexuality and girl-boy
35
relationships are usually hushed up and regarded as taboos. The consequence of this action is
that Nigerian students boys and girls find answers to sex-related questions on their own, often
from questionable sources that are likely to give them wrong information, making them more
likely to indulge in reckless and unguarded sexual experimentation. Some students lack
adequate communication and assertiveness skills to negotiate safe sex. Some feel unable to
refuse unwanted sex or feel compelled to exchange sex for money. Because young people
experiment sexually and because of the consequences of indiscriminate sexual activities on
the youth, there is the need to mount sex education programmes that are geared towards
enlightenment and appropriate education about sex and sexuality.
Concept of Sexuality Education
Sexuality education is as old as family life. Before this present age, parents did educate
their young men and women on family life and parenthood especially when it concerns
husband and wife. Sex education, sometimes called sexuality education, has been defined in
various ways by various schools of thought. Sexuality education is a broad term used to
describe education about human sexual anatomy, sexual reproduction, sexual intercourse,
reproductive health, emotional relations, reproductive rights and responsibilities,
contraception and other aspects of human sexual behaviour. Common avenues for sex
education are parents or caregivers, school programmes, and public health campaigns.
Sex education or sexuality education, according to Forrest (2005), is the process of
acquiring information and forming attitudes and beliefs about sex, sexual identity,
relationships and intimacy. It is also about developing young people’s skills so that they make
informed choices about their behaviour, and feel these sources may or may not really provide
them correct and accurate information. As such, sex education will help in transferring
36
authentic information and, in the process, also correct any misinformation that they may have
apart from adding to their already existing knowledge.
According to Mueller (2008), sex education imparted through schools can prove to be
a significant and effective method of bettering the youngster’s sex-related knowledge, attitude
and behaviour. Mueller went further to state that sex education in school is important because
many parents are shy about talking/teaching their children on this subject, hence, its
importance in school cannot be overemphasized. Akerele (2004), pointed out that educating
children on sex related issues also requires one to know how to broach the subject, what
information to impart and what to hold back. All these can be carefully handled by a trained
sex educator; hence, its importance cannot be doubted.
It is a fact that more and more teens are engaging into premarital sex these days. This
further underscores the need for sex education to students. Thus, Graber and Brooks (2002)
observed that sex education help students make better informed decisions about their personal
sexual activities. They further observed that sex education also helps to lessen risk behaviours
in teenagers like engaging in unprotected sex which result in unwanted pregnancies and STDs.
The period of adolescence, according to Adegoke (2003) occupies a unique stage in every
person's life. It is a period of transition from childhood to adulthood. Adolescence has been
described as a stage among human beings where a lot of physiological as well as anatomical
changes take place resulting in reproductive maturity of the students. Many students manage
this transformation successfully while others experience major stress and find themselves
engaging in behaviours (e.g. sexual experimentation, exploration and promiscuity, etc.) that
place their well-being at risk. Students display sexual behaviours and developmental
characteristics that place them at risk of Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs).
37
A primary source of risk of HIV/AIDS for instance is unprotected/indiscriminate
sexual activity. By the time they are 18, most students in Nigeria are sexually active. Despite
increased sexual knowledge, students in Nigeria are poor contraceptive users. They are less
likely than adults to consistently use condoms or other methods of protection that could reduce
their chances of infection. Neither specific teaching about contraception nor improving the
contraceptive service consistently increases effective contraceptive use by young teenagers
(Adegoke, 2003). Students who have sexual intercourse before age 16 are more likely to take
more risks. They have more sexual partners during their lifetime and more partners per year
and they start sexual activity earlier in new relationships than those who become sexually
active after age 16. Hence, Adegoke (2003) observed that teaching them about sex will give
them information concerning the risk involved in engaging in premarital sex.
Mueller (2008), says that sex education is necessary to our young people. Being
mindful of the exposure given to our young people in school, in the media and among their
peers, sex education teaches them about sexual intimacy, but also enlightens them on their
reproductive systems, birth control, and sexually transmitted diseases. It exposes them to their
gender identity, gender role, family role, body images, sexual expression (what it entails and
how to time it), intimacy and marriage relationship. In sex education, important and accurate
information about sexuality on both boys and girls are given depending on their age. It will
be unfair and criminal to ignore or push aside the fact that they are aware of their sexuality;
in whatever stage or state they are.
Good relevant sex education, as observed by Kulkarni (2008), provides knowledge,
information and confidence about sexual problems of students. It has been noticed that
children who are well-informed on male and female anatomy handle puberty better than the
38
uninformed ones. Kulkarni (2008) noted that sex education affects a child's attitude positively.
Each sex (male or female) becomes more tolerant of the others behaviour pattern and option.
A sexuality oriented child learns to believe in the quality of men and women, the
sacrament of marriage and parental responsibilities. With well accepted sex education, there
is usually a lower rate of unwanted pregnancy and spread of sexually transmitted diseases.
When sex education is passed down to our children from a pure heart, they too receive it with
a pure heart. It is not true that when children are taught anything about sex, they out rightly
go and experiment with sex, with contraception, masturbation and homosexuality. These
occur when they are ignorantly curious and when they are uneducated and exposed to
unprotected sex and pornographic materials (Akerele, 2004). The above statement is the
reason why the researcher is worried about the inappropriate risk of students sexual behaviour,
because the student learn this unpleasant behaviour from their fellow students. On this basis,
there is need to educate the student to really have understanding of their sex life.
Sex education provides opportunities for young people to develop skills, as it can be
hard for them to act on the basis of only having information. The skills young people develop
as part of sex education are linked to more general life-skills. Being able to communicate,
listen, negotiate with others, ask for and identify sources of help and advice, are useful life-
skills which can be applied to sexual relationships (Meshike, 2002). It develops young
people's skills in negotiation, decision-making, assertion and listening. Other important skills
include being able to recognize pressures from other people and to resist them, dealing with
and challenging prejudice and being able to seek help from adults - including parents, and
professionals (Moronkola, 2000). From the above statement, it is clear that sexuality
education, is education for all round development for the students.
39
The primary goal of sexuality education according to UNESCO (2009) is to equip
children and young people with the knowledge, skills and values to make responsible choices
about their sexual and social relationships in a world affected by HIV. In addition to learning
about the risks of pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections (including HIV), children
and young people also need to learn about the risk of sexual exploitation and abuse in order
to recognize these when they occur, to protect themselves as far as possible and to identify
and access available sources of support. Sensitizing children, parents, teachers, police and
local communities to the nature and extent of sexual violence, and giving permission to
discuss it, are essential steps in tackling it. Sexuality education can provide an appropriate
framework and context for educating students about sexual abuse (UNESCO, 2009).
Sexuality education has a number of mutually reinforcing objectives, these includes:
increase knowledge and understanding (such as about sex and the law, the nature of sexual
abuse and what to do about it); explore and clarify feelings, values and attitudes (developing
self-esteem and feeling proud of one’s body); develop or reinforce skills (saying “no”,
resisting pressure); and promote and sustain risk-reducing behaviour (seeking help)
(UNESCO, 2009).
Relevance of Sexuality Education to Sexual Behaviour
Writing on the relevance of sexuality education to sexual behaviour, Melgosa (1997)
noted that students sexuality is an important developmental task, which the students have little
control over, especially the boys. According to Melgosa (1997), establishment of successful
sexual relationship is one of the developmental tasks during late students’ and young
adulthood. This period is characterized by intense sexual urges, exploration and
experimentation. The students must integrate this new dimension in sexuality with other
40
aspect of life with minimum conflict and anxiety. Often, students’ feel like strangers with
their own bodies with newly developed genitals of alarming sizes, breast and body hair.
Interests in sex is alarming and the time alluring.
The above observation of Melgosa (1997) is not surprising because of the attainment
of puberty (sexual maturity) by the students which manifest into various secondary sex
characteristics. The literature on the students’ sexual behaviour did not clearly identify such
behaviour characteristics relating to sexuality. It is the intention of this present study to
measure the behaviour trait or characteristics of students’ relating to sexuality while in
secondary school. A survey by the National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy found that
7% of youth used alcohol the first time they had sex, 6% used alcohol the most recent time
they had sex. Boys will use drugs and alcohol for different reasons than girls. Boys are more
likely to use in order to relax and to prevent premature ejaculation. Girls will often become
intoxicated before engaging in sexual activities because it numbs the experience for them,
making it less embarrassing and less emotionally painful. (Sax & Leonard, 2005).
Sax and Leonard (2005) reviewed that teenage sexual encounters in the United States
do not occur in the context of a romantic relationship, but in a “hook up” that is purely sexual.
Over half of sexually active teens have had sexual partners whom they are not dating. This is
a genuine and puzzling change in teen sexual behaviour and a profound shift in the culture of
high school dating and sex. A friends with benefits relationship is always a disaster for
somebody. Sexual development is an integral and important part of human development.
Sexual health is an important component of health throughout the life-span. Sex education is
a major component of comprehensive health education, the goal of which is to help children
and students become healthy adults with responsible health behaviours. “Family life
41
education” often is considered to be a euphemism for “sex education,” however sex education
is only one part, albeit a vital part of family life education. Family life education encompasses
a broad range of topics that prepare young people for marriage, parenthood, and family
responsibilities. Sex education often is approached with great anxiety and addressed in little
detail in schools, in community programs, and even in the home (Haffner, 1998; Bleakley,
Hennessy, and Fishbein. 2006). There is a pervasive fear in the United States that sex
education will promote students sexual activity and increase the risk of pregnancy, sexually
transmitted infections (STIs), and HIV infection among teenagers. Careful and objective
scholarly research during the last two decades has shown that sex education does not increase
rates of sexual activity among teenagers increase knowledge about sexual behaviour and its
consequences. It also increases prevention behaviours among those who are sexually active
(Kirby, 2001).
Young people are exposed to numerous influences upon their sexual attitudes and
behaviours every day from the media, their peers, their parents, and other adults. Sex
education/family life education is valuable in its ability to truthfully educate young people
about sex and its risks, to provide them with knowledge to protect themselves from unwanted
pregnancy and STIs, including HIV infection (Eisenberg, Bernat, Bearinger and Resnick,
2008). Young people must have accurate and sufficient information to make responsible
choices and to become responsible adults. Teaching correct information about sexuality or
any other topic in school does not prevent any parent from teaching and modelling values and
expectations in the home, rather it should assist parents in providing opportunities for family
communication (Kim & Free, 2008).
42
Sexuality education is assumed to increase safe sexual behaviour, which is, as
mentioned before, one of the reasons of the successful decline in HIV prevalence in Uganda
(WPF 2007, Guttmacher Institute 2007, AVERT 2009). Students are a high-risk group when
it comes to unsafe sexual behaviour. Therefore, sexuality education for students could be an
effective way to increase safe sexual behaviour, thereby preventing the spread of HIV/AIDS
and other problems, such as unwanted pregnancies (Guttmacher Institute 2007).
Concept of Peer Influence
A peer group is both a social group and a primary group of people who have similar
interests (homophile), age, background, and social status. The members of this group are
likely to influence the person’s beliefs and behaviour. Peer groups contain hierarchies and
distinct patterns of behaviour. 18 year olds are not in a peer group with 14 year olds even
though they may be in school together (Steinberg, 2010). During adolescence, peer groups
tend to face dramatic changes. Students tend to spend more time with their peers and have
less adult supervision. Students communication shifts during this time as well. They prefer to
talk about school and their careers with their parents, and they enjoy talking about sex and
other interpersonal relationships with their peers. Children look to join peer groups who
accept them, even if the group is involved in negative activities. Children are less likely to
accept those who are different from them (Tarrant, 2002).
The term peer pressure is often used to describe instances where an individual feels
indirectly pressured into changing his/her behaviour to match that of his/her peers. Taking up
smoking and underage drinking are two of the best known examples. In spite of the often
negative connotations of the term, peer pressure can be used positively, for example, to
encourage other peers to study, or not to engage in activities such as the ones discussed above.
43
Although peer pressure is not isolated to one age group, it is usually most common during the
students stage. Adolescence is a period characterized by experimentation, and students
typically spend a lot of time with their peers in social contexts. Teenagers compel each other
to go along with certain beliefs or behaviours, and studies have shown that boys are more
likely to give in to it than girls. There has been much research done to gain a better
understanding about the effects of peer pressure, and this research will allow parents to handle
and understand their children’s behaviours and obstacles they will face due to their peer
groups. Learning how peer pressure impacts individuals is a step to minimizing the negative
effects it leads to.
According to Bernstein (2001), no influence in the students’ life is as powerful as peer
pressure. At its best, it can mobilize his energy, motivate him to strive for success, and
encourage him to conform to a healthy group norm. At its worst, peer pressure can impair
good judgment and fuel risk-taking behaviour, drawing a child away from the family and
positive influences and luring him into dangerous activities. No matter what kind of peer
pressure students face they must learn how to balance the value of going along with the crowd
(their peers) against the importance of making their own decisions. And you must ensure that
your teen is comfortable with himself so that he will be able to achieve that balance. In order
to achieve this balance, Bernstein (2001) noted that the more comfortable a teen is with his
identity, the less susceptible he will be to negative peer pressure—a force that almost always
leads students to some form of trouble.
What is considered cool and what is considered as not-cool varies widely from year
and from school to school. Cool behaviour (behaviour that is socially acceptable) can range
from dressing in trendy styles to being good at a certain sport as being sarcastic to parents;
44
not-cool behaviour often includes displaying excessive affection and disobedience toward
parents, reaching, out to an unpopular classmate, expressing interest in school work. While
not all teenagers follow the cool/not-cool code of their social set, they're certainly aware of it.
Many feel they have to act a certain way because it's expected of them. That explains why
they put on a show for their friends, going out of their way to do things that would never be
tolerated in their own homes. It's all to gain acceptance from their peer group (Bernstein,
2001). It usually takes some convincing to get a teenager to understand that peer pressure can
be dangerous (Bernstein, 2001).
Types of Peer Influence
The students whether at school or work, peer influence dominate their general outlook
even their output, every one of us have one time or the other experience peer influence mostly
when one is still younger. However, some researchers have shown that, peer influence can
aspire an individual to be better than how the person was in other words, it can aspire the
individual to be focused in life. Peer influence in a right environment can be beneficial to
students. A child can be influenced positively if he or she is motivated to get good grades
because her friends are getting good grade, she need to be like her friend that is a positive
influence. And every parent will urge for this kind of influence on their children.
Positive Peer Influence
Positive peer pressure will enable an individual to reflect on his or her actions and
change unacceptable behaviour and turn a new leave;
When someone is being pressured to join school activities, it is said to be positive because, it
will enable you become more sociable to people. When you are being pressured in life to
respect others mostly your elder ones, it will take you very far in life and it can be called
45
positive peer pressure. If you are being pressured to obey the rules and regulations of the
school, church, country as a good citizen, it is positive pressure because it will make you stay
out of future trouble. Preserving someone to go to church, naming ceremonies, wedding
ceremonies etc, on time is a positive pressure because it will make you to always keep to time
to whatever you are doing or if you have an interview to go to and so on.
Negative Peer Pressure
Negative peer pressure is another kind of pressure that occur when an individual is
being pressured to do things negatively that ordinarily he/she cannot do. Being pressure to
having sex without being properly prepared for it, is a negative influence because it could lead
to having unwanted pregnancy and S.T.Ds. stealing is also a negative peer pressure because
it gives people negative thoughts about you, it could even be a permanent record and can also
lead to life imprisonment if you are being caught stealing. Fighting is a negative pressure
especially when it leads to physical harming, the end result could be a jail term for a long
period of time.
Chevannes (1993) and de Bruin (2001) pointed out that for students girls, the peer
group is also important, and that both boys and girls rely heavily upon school and peers, and
the media to a lesser extent, to develop their knowledge about sexual activity and relations.
Peers provide students with models, support and identity as reported by (Ochieng, Kakai and
Abok (2011). Peers also provide information about sexual activities (Didi, 2004) and model
sexual behaviour (Lema, 1987; Kimani, 2005; UNICEF, 2006). The factors that predispose
students to engage in sex behaviours have been identified as: having peers who are sexually
active and who pressurize others to engage in sex (Didi 2004), among other things.
Peers are presumed to exert a major social influence on students sexual behaviour.
Peer effects may operate at several levels. Same-sex peers are a major source of information
46
about sex (Davis & Harris, 1982), and peers provide settings (e.g., cars, parties) where sex
can occur (Rowe & Linver, 1995). Same-sex friends may influence the perceived acceptability
of sexual behaviour, and sexually experienced friends may serve as role models. Finally,
romantic partners provide opportunities for sexual experimentation and may also exert
pressure for sex (Wyatt & Riederle, 1994). Peer influence can be categorized as one of the
most powerful agents of socialization among the students. This is because the influence of
their peer affects their, perception, belief, conduct and their behaviours. In short, it affects
their total way of life – the kind of dresses they put, their life aspiration, their personality, and
a host of character formation.
Peer Influence and Student’s Sexual Behaviour
Investigators have proved that the sexual behaviour of the students are influenced by
their peer. Most importantly, their best friends influence studies like Bearman and Bruckner
(1999) stressed that students influence their peers by modelling behaviours and setting social
norms. They emphasized that peer pressure is often thought to be a negative force on students,
but their study demonstrates that it is of a more positive one. Using data from the National
Longitudinal Study of Students Health (Add Health 1994-95), Hussong (2002) revealed that
students’ substance use was associated with the substance use of both the students' peer clique
and social crowd, although best friend influence was still most influential, and that best friend
influence interacted with these broader peer concepts.
On the other hand, Urberg (1992) stressed that no evidence of a social crowd influence
affect peers; he pointed only best friend influence was of significant importance. Payne and
Cornwell (2007) tested peer influence by using measures of friends' risk behaviour, the risk
behaviour of friends, and risk behaviour of friends three or more steps beyond the students.
47
Results indicated that friends of friends did affect behaviour in profound ways, but that best
friends of friends, and the risk behaviour of friends three or more steps beyond the students.
Results also indicated that friends of friends did affect behaviour in profound ways, but that
best friends are still most important.
Associations between close friends’ sexual behaviour are well documented (East,
Felice & Morgan, 1993; Rodgers & Rowe, 1990; Whitbeck et al., 1993). Although these
patterns could indicate a peer socialization effect, selection may also play a role, if students
choose friends who are like themselves in attitudes and behaviour (Bauman & Ennett, 1996;
Billy, Rodgers, & Udry, 1984). In a longitudinal study, best friends’ sexual experience was
strongly associated with the initiation of intercourse for white females, but for white males
the association appeared to reflect boys’ selection of friends with levels of sexual experience
similar to their own. No evidence of peer influence was found for blacks of either gender
(Billy & Udry, 1985). Associating with deviant peers has been linked to earlier initiation of
intercourse (Rowe et al., 1989a; Whitbeck et al., 1999). Conversely, spending time with
conventional peers in extracurricular activities is negatively associated with students
intercourse (Miller & Sneesby, 1988). Jaccard, Blanton, and Dodge (2000) attempted to
isolate peer socialization effects by controlling for potential confounds related to inaccurate
reporting of friends’ behaviour, selection of friends, and common experiences (e.g., similar
rate of pubertal development). Once statistical controls were applied, peer effects were small
and occurred only between friends with similar sexual experience. Thus, effects of peer
behaviour may be limited; beliefs about friends’ sexual behaviour appear more influential
than friends’ actual behaviour (Cvetkovich & Grote, 1980).
48
In connection with social learning theory and reference group theory, more network
inspired theories, such as diffusion of innovation studies Coleman, Katz, and Menzel, 1966;
Rogers, 1995; Valente, 1995), social capital theory (Burt, 1987; Coleman, 1988), and
structural theory of social influence (Friedkin, 1988; Marsden and Friedkin, 1993) have
developed a more "structural" approach to the study of social influence, in contrast to the
traditional "relational" one. These theories postulate that social influence not only is the result
of cohesive contacts, such as contacts with friends (that is, influence by cohesive), but also
can be the result of sharing similar positions in the network (that is, influence by structural
equivalence). Structural equivalence is the observation that two individuals are connected
identifiably to all other actors in the network (Lorrain and White, 1971). Influence by cohesion
has been studied extensively in peer influence studies on risk behaviour.
Studies show that students who believe their peers are using condoms are also more
than twice as likely to use condoms compared to teens who do not believe their peers use
condoms (DiClemente, 1991; 1992). In the United States, a peer education program targeting
mostly black, urban female ages 12 through 19 significantly improved HIV/AIDS knowledge
and preventive behaviours. Before the program, 44 percent of sexually active participants
reported not using condoms compared to 33 percent after the intervention. Reports of sex in
the previous two weeks fell from 21 percent at baseline to 14 percent at follow-up (Slap,
1991). Evaluation of a sexual health peer education program in Peru in 2000 found that,
compared to controls, participating males had increased knowledge about pregnancy
prevention and reported reduced incidence of sexual initiation and increased use of
contraception at most recent sex. An evaluated peer health education program in Cameroon
showed increased use of modern contraceptive methods and increased condom use at most
49
recent sex among participants versus comparison youth. The program was more effective
among in- than out-of-school youth (James-Traore, 2002).
The West African Youth Initiative implemented peer education programs in
schools and out-of-school settings in Ghana and Nigeria. Evaluation showed that peer
education significantly increased condom use among in-school youth. The proportion of
youth reporting use of modern contraception methods increased significantly from 47 to 56
percent while use in comparison areas decreased slightly (Brieger, 2001). In an alternative
school in Florida, a peer education program resulted in increased reports of condom use at
most recent intercourse (up from 45 to 55%) and fewer reports of unprotected sex (down from
15 to four percent) among sexually active students (O'Hara, 1996). A program in the South
identified peer leaders in the gay communities of two small cities. The leaders were then
trained to talk individually with their peers about HIV risk behaviours. As a result, the
proportion of men who engaged in any unprotected anal intercourse in a two-month period
decreased from 36.9 percent before the intervention to 27.5 percent after the intervention
(Kelly, 1991). In contrast to sub-Saharan Africa, there is a robust body of research from the
United States suggesting that for teenagers there friend and peers influences are important
determinants of sexual risk behaviours. The broader literature on students development and
behaviour has long emphasized the growing importance of friends and peers as socializing
agents during this stage of the life course (Arnett, 2001; Harris, 1998; Smetana, Campione-
Barr, & Metzger, 2006). This pattern appears to characterize societies throughout the world,
but in some cases applies more to students boys than girls (Schlegel & Barry, 1991). Although
much of this literature has focused on behaviours other than sexual activity and contraceptive
50
use, there is considerable evidence that these behaviours too, may be subject to considerable
friend and peer influence.
Among the most consistent findings in research on students sexual behaviours in the
United States is the strong statistical association between students’ self-reported sexual
initiation and their perceptions of the sexual activity of their close friends. This association
has been documented in numerous cross-sectional investigations (Benda & DiBlasio, 1994;
Bersamin, Walker, Fisher, and Grube, 2006; Little & Rankin, 2001, Maguen & Armistead,
2006; Miller, Norton, Curtis, Hill, Schvaneveldt, & Young, 1997; Rai et al., 2003; Romer et
al., 2004; Stanton et al., 1994; Whitaker & Miller, 2000). Of course, statistical associations
such as these are subject to multiple interpretations.
One important theme in the research on students sexual behaviours in the United
States, therefore, has been the extent to which such associations are attributable to peer
influences, as opposed to selection and de-selection processes in which students form and
dissolve friendships as a result of similarities and differences in behaviours, attitudes, and
values. To some extent, analyses of longitudinal data can help to disentangle these processes.
And in general the association between the perceived sexual activity of friends and young
people’s own self-reported sexual activity has held up in longitudinal studies (Billy and Udry,
1985; Kinsman, Romer, Furstenburg, & Schwarz, 1998; Stanton, Li, Pack, Cottrell, Harris, &
Burns, 2002; Whitbeck, Conger, & Kao, 1993). Some studies have gone further, relying not
upon respondents’ perceptions of their friends’ behaviours, but on designs in which
respondents provide the names of their friends, and investigators then use the self-reported
sexual behaviour data obtained from those friends to predict, longitudinally, respondents’ self-
reported sexual activity (Maxwell, 2000; Sieving, Eisenberg, Pettingell, & Skay, 2006). These
51
findings provide stronger, albeit not indisputable, evidence that peer influences play some
role in shaping students’ sexual behaviours in the United States. Another important theme in
this body of research has been the desire to identify more clearly how peer influences operate.
That is, assuming that friends and peers do influence one another’s sexual behaviour, how is
it exactly that those influences operate? Brown and Theobald (1999) identify four possible
mechanisms: peer pressure, modelling, structuring opportunities, and setting and enforcing
group norms. These processes are not mutually exclusive. In fact, they may be easier to
differentiate conceptually than they are to distinguish empirically. In recent years, the bulk of
research on peer influences and students sexual behaviours in the United States has focused
on perceived norms.
Investigators have employed two different approaches to measuring perceived norms.
In one approach, youth are asked to report on the views of their friends regarding sexual
activity. Carvajal and colleagues (1999), for example, asked high school students whether
most of their friends believed that people of their age should postpone sex until they are older,
and whether most of their friends believed it acceptable for people of their age to have sex.
Controlling for age, sex, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and other psychosocial factors,
they found that youth who reported more restrictive attitudes toward sex among their friends
were less likely to become sexually active between the two waves of this longitudinal study.
Investigators have obtained similar findings in several other cross-sectional and longitudinal
studies in the United States (Bersamin et al., 2006; DiIorio, Dudley, Kelly, Soet, Mbwara, &
Potter, 2001; Little & Rankin, 2001; Maguen & Armistead, 2006; Marín, Coyle, Gómez,
Carvajal, & Kirby, 2000; Santelli, Kaiser, Hirsch, Radosh, Simkin, & Middlestadt, 2004).
52
A second approach to measuring peer norms has focused on the perceived
consequences of sexual activity for respect from one’s friends. Kinsman, Romer, Furstenburg,
and Schwartz (1998), for example, asked sixth grade students in Philadelphia what would
happen if a girl or boy their own age had sex. Net of other factors, those who said that a boy’s
friends would respect him more were more likely, and those who said that a boy’s friends
would respect him less were less likely, than those who indicated that it would not affect his
friends’ respect, to report initiation of sexual activity between baseline and follow-up surveys.
Seiving et al., (2006) confirmed the association between students’ reports of perceived social
gains and losses of sex with their self-reported sexual behaviour.
It remains unclear whether the two approaches – social gains and losses versus friends
restrictive or permissive attitudes – are simply two ways of measuring the same thing; or,
alternatively, whether they tap two distinct (though presumably correlated) aspects of the
normative environments in which students in the United States operate. In any case, a recent
systematic review (Buhi & Goodson, 2007), concluded that perceived norms are “stable
predictors” of students sexual behaviours in this body of research.
Other investigators have moved beyond perceived norms to situate students sexual
risk behaviours within the broader framework of Problem Behaviour Theory (Donovan &
Jessor, 1985). In this approach, early or high-risk sexual activity among teenagers is seen as
part of a “syndrome” of interrelated problem behaviours (also referred to as antisocial or
deviant behaviours). Other behaviours in the syndrome include tobacco use, alcohol and other
drug use, petty crime, school failure, and rejection of adult authority. These may, furthermore,
be negatively correlated with conventional or pro-social behaviours such as church attendance
and school achievement (Donovan, Jessor, & Costa, 1988). Accordingly, investigators
53
studying peer influences on students sexual activity from this perspective have examined the
associations with sexual activity of affiliation with antisocial peers, affiliation with pre-social
peers or both. Capaldi, Crosby, and Stoolmiller (1996), for example, constructed an index of
deviant peer association for participants in the Oregon Youth Study based upon parent,
teacher, and child reports. They found that, controlling for several covariates, this index was
positively associated with self-reported sexual activity. Others have likewise found indices of
antisocial peer affiliation to be positively associated with students sexual activity (Browning,
Leventhal, & Brooks-Gunn, 2004; Capaldi, Stoolmiller, Clark, & Owen, 2002; Cavanagh,
2004; Whitbeck, Yoder, Hoyt, & Conger, 1999) or pregnancy status (Scaramella, Conger,
Simons, Whitbeck, 1998). Some have also found indices or indicators of prosocial peer
affiliation to be negatively associated with sexual activity among students (e.g., Cavanagh,
2004). It is uncertain, however, whether affiliation with pro-social and antisocial peers are
better predictors of students’ sexual activity than peer norms or perceptions of friends’ sexual
activity.
Still other investigators have examined the associations with sexual activity of several
structural or compositional aspects of teenagers’ peer groups. The literature on these topics
remains thin, however, and the findings have been inconsistent. Using data from the National
Longitudinal Study of Students Health, for example, Cavanagh (2004) found that having more
friends predicted transition to first sex among white girls but not among Latinas, but that
having older male friends was associated with this transition for Latina but not among white
girls. Miller and colleagues (1997) found no effect on transition to first sex of having opposite
sex friends or of having older friends in another national sample in the United States.
54
By comparison to the United States, the literature on peer influences on students sexual
and contraceptive use behaviours in sub-Saharan Africa remains sparse. Nevertheless, some
research on these topics has been done. Surveys have documented cross-sectional associations
between perceived peer behaviour and self-reported sexual activity among youth in at least
four countries: Ghana (Magnani, Morgan, and Bond, 2003), Kenya (Kiragu & Zabin, 1993),
Rwanda (Babalola, 2004), and Zambia (Magnani et al., 2002). To date, however, we are aware
of no longitudinal data linking friends’ sexual activity (perceived or self-reported) to the
initiation of sexual activity among youth in sub-Saharan Africa.
Likewise, very little survey research has addressed these issues of peer norms and
students sexual behaviours in sub-Saharan Africa. One study in Cape Town, South Africa,
used the perceived restrictive attitudes of friends approach, but found that such perceptions
had no influence on self-reported sexual activity once other variables were controlled
(Mathews, Aaro, Flisher, Mukoma, Wubs, & Schaalma, 2009). Another study, based in
Bamako, Mali, measured perceived peer norms related not to sexual activity but to condom
use, and found that perceived peer norms favouring condom use were positively associated
with self-reported condom use at last sex, and negatively associated with number of partners
in the past six months (Boileau, Rashed, Sylla, & Zunzunegui, 2008). Other investigators have
studied the social normative context of students sexuality in sub-Saharan Africa using
qualitative methods. One team conducted ethnographic research in northern Tanzania; they
reported that clear norms prescribing abstinence among in-school youth and valuing female
sexual respectability were in potential conflict with other prevailing norms, including one
linking male status to sexual experience (Wight, Plummer, Mshana, Wamoyi, Shigongo, &
Ross, 2006). In a multi-method qualitative study in KwaZulu/Natal, South Africa, Harrison
55
(2008) found that sexual activity among teenagers was strongly disapproved of, especially for
young teenage girls. Another qualitative study in Cape Town, South Africa, suggested that
students boys in particular may be pressured by their peers into sexual activity, and may derive
status within peer groups through having multiple sexual partners (Selikow, Ahmed, Flisher,
Mathews, & Mukoma, 2009). And a mixed-methods study of youth and young adults in
Nigeria emphasized the growing centrality of “born again” Christianity in framing ideologies
about sexuality among young people there (Smith, 2004). These findings suggest that peer
norms in sub-Saharan Africa may often favour sexual abstinence among unmarried teenagers,
especially for younger teens and girls, but may be in conflict with norms valuing sexual
activity within some male peer groups.
Kimani (2005) confirmed that boys were initiated to sex earlier than girls. This agrees
with the findings of this study. According to Wang’eri, and Otanga (2013) more males than
females reported having pressurized by peers to engage in the sexual behaviours investigated
but contrary to expectation those reporting to have been pressurized to engage in sexual
intercourse were few.
Peer pressure is defined as when people your own age encourage or urge you to do
something or to keep from doing something else, no matter if you personally want to do it or
not (Ryan, 2000). The more subtle form of peer pressure is known as peer influence, and it
involves changing one’s behaviour to meet the perceived expectations of others (Burns &
Darling, 2002). In general, most teens conform to peer pressure about fairly insignificant
things like music, clothing, or hairstyles. When it comes to more important issues like moral
values, parents still remain more influential than the peer group (Black, 2002). Peer Influence
56
Biddle, Bank, and Marlin (2001) conducted a study to examine parental and peer influence
on adolescents.
They found that peer behaviours are more likely to affect the adolescent than parental
behaviours, whereas parental norms are more likely to affect the adolescent than peer norms.
This study did not concur with the present study who revealed that peers has great influence
on the student sexual behaviour. Parents have had a longer time to influence adolescents and
retain a responsibility to represent the standards of the adult world. Peers, in contrast, may be
shunned if they attempt to impose standards on their adolescent friends but are likely to be
omnipresent as behavioural models within schools (Biddle, Bank, & Marlin, 2001). It is
unfortunate that many adolescents do not have parents who are actively involved in their lives,
do not provide appropriate supervision, and are unable to clearly communicate their values.
This puts these adolescents in an even greater danger of giving in to negative peer pressure.
Lingren (1995) identified five factors that play a role in how peer groups function today .First,
during adolescence, parents and their children are more physically and psychologically distant
from each other. This is a normal process, but it is shown in decreases in emotional closeness and
warmth, increases in parent-adolescent conflict/disagreement, and an increase in time adolescents
spend with peers. Second, increases in family strains, such as economic pressures and divorce,
have prompted teenagers to depend more on peers for emotional support. Third, in ten to twenty
percent of families, parents and adolescents are in distressed relationships characterized by
emotional coldness and frequent outbursts of anger/conflict. Fourth, youth gangs commonly
associated with inner-city neighborhoods are becoming a more common phenomenon among
youth in smaller cities, suburbs, and even rural areas. Fifth, formal dating patterns have been
replaced with informal socializing patterns in mixed-sex groups. This may encourage casual
sexual relationships that heighten the risk of teenage pregnancy, AIDS, and other sexually
57
transmitted diseases. Sixth, ethnicity is replacing individual abilities or interests as the basis for
defining peer “crowds.” Finally, the increase in part-time employment among youth has had little
effect on peer relations. In order to spend time with peers, teenagers drop extracurricular activities,
reduce time spent on homework, and withdraw from family functions. (Lingren 1995).
Mass Media and Students’ Sexual Behaviour
Mass media is defined as those media that are designed to be consumed by large
audiences through the agencies of technology. An array of communication media reaches
large numbers of the public, including radio, television, movies, newspapers, and magazines.
The Internet is a worldwide, publicly accessible network of interconnected computer
networks that transmits information and services such as electronic mail, online chat, title
transfer, interlinked web pages, and other documents of the World Wide Web (Wakefield,
Loken and Hornik, 2010). Media influences on sexual behaviour were first reported in a sex
education newsletter in 1981, (Corder-Bolz, 1981) and since then several overviews have
examined students’ use of media as a source of information and its possible effect on their
sexual behaviour (Malamuth, 1993). Students are vigorous users of the information broadcast
in the media, (Werner-Wilson, Fitzharris and Morrissey, 2004) and concern has been raised
about the influence of media portrayals on sexual attitudes and the normative expectations of
these students at a critical developmental stage (Rich, 2008).
The mass media and the Internet have their advantages in terms of providing necessary
information for young people on sexual health and healthy sexual relationships, but many
studies have shown that mass media negatively influences teens in their sexual behaviours
(Werner-Wilson, Fitzharris and Morrissey, 2004). Over the past two decades, studies have
shown an overall increase in the number of portrayals of and the amount of discussion about
sex in these media and an increase in the explicitness of these portrayals (Gruber and Grube,
58
2000, Bragg and Buckingham, 2002). Furthermore, television research shows a fairly
consistent sexual message across television genres: most portrayals of sex depict or imply
sexual intercourse between unmarried adults, with little or no reference to sexually transmitted
infections or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), pregnancy, or use of
contraception (Collins, Martino and Shaw, 2011). Gupta and Mahy (2001) stated that other
factors associated with early sex initiation have been identified as exposure to mass media, as
well as the changes taking place in the traditional family, among other factors.
Werner-Wilson et al., (2004) observed that many studies have shown that mass media
negatively influences sexual behaviour among teens. Youths often time like to adapt the
behaviours of some of the heroes or heroines they watch on TV programs. Sexual discussions
and displays are increasingly frequent and explicit in all forms of the mass media. The
Internet, the use of which is growing more rapidly than any previous technology, has
dramatically increased the availability of sexually explicit content. One content analysis found
that the inclusion of sexual content that ranged from flirting to sexual intercourse had
increased from slightly more than half of television programs in 1997–1998, to more than two
thirds of the programs in the 1999–2000 seasons (Gruber and Grube, 2000).
Werner-Wilson et al., (2004), observed that both children and adults have been
reported to believe the media is a central source of information on sex and sexuality for young
people. Content analysis has been performed on print media, television and movies, music,
and computerized media to determine the types of messages delivered through these sources
with results showing students being exposed to both implicit and explicit sexual content
(Werner-Wilson et al.,., 2004). Little is known, however, of the relationship between the
media and young people’s sexual behaviour in Nigeria, or indeed in developing countries in
59
general, because of the dearth of studies in this area. The alarming increase of rape, teenage
pregnancies, septic abortions, and sexually transmitted infections, especially human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV), among undergraduates in Nigeria makes research into the
effects of the mass media and the Internet on their sexual behaviour even more important
(Olasode, 2007).
Types of Mass Media
Mass media is known to be a device used in communicating and interacting with a
large number of people in different languages. Mass media can be describe as communication
device used in interacting and charting with millions of people with different languages. Mass
media can be used for entertainment, effective ways for communication, dissemination of
opinions, advertising, marketing as well as sharing views and ideas. There are different types
of mass media. They are as follows:
Print Media: print media includes newspapers, magazines, booklets and brochures, house
magazines, periodical or newsletter, direct mailers, handbills or flyers, billboards, press
releases and books.
Electronic Media: in this type of media the user employ the use of electric connection to
access it. It can also be called broadcast media. The electronic media includes, television,
radio and new-age media. Like internet, computer, telephone.
New Age Media: the world is enjoying the high technology mass media because of the advent
of internet which has a wide spread range of information. Internet, mobile phone and computer
are known as new age media. Internet created various new opportunity for mass
communication which includes; email, website, podcasts, e-forums, e-books, blogging,
internet, T.V and host of others. Internet also are on social networking site which have
60
changed mass communication, such site are as follows; Facebook, Twitter and YouTube.
Internet have made communication so interesting, entertaining and simple. Internet is known
to be the most discovering in mass media. The creation of internet have unfolded many hidden
things round about the global world.
The advent of the telephone and the automobile and their subsequent integration into
the mainstream culture are often identified as key factors in the rise of modern dating. Not
only did these technologies allow for rapid communication between couples, but they also
removed familial supervision from the dating process. The automobile especially afforded a
young couple the opportunity to have time together away from parental constraints (Lawson
and Kira, 2006). Dating, like many other forms of relationships, is being influenced by the
application of new technologies, especially the internet. The most prominent among these
technological advances is the rise in popularity of social networking and matchmaking sites
such as Date-My-School, a website dedicated to college dating (established in 2010). These
new technologies modify certain aspects of the current system of relationship formation,
rather than fundamentally changing it. Participants in these services who are looking for a
face-to-face relationship still tend to impose geographical and group-based limitations on the
pool of potential mates. This indicates that, despite the increased number of possibilities, users
still value the possibility of an offline relationship. Participants use the services in order to
meet others who are outside their social circles, but still attempt to impose some limitations
to maintain the possibility of a physical relationship (Barraket, and Millsom, 2008; Steven
and Morris, 2007).
When students use the internet to find and create relationships, the most common
bonds formed are on the level of friends and acquaintances. About ten percent of those
61
interviewed reported one or more romantic relationships that had originated online (Steven
and Morris, 2007). The researchers measured levels of exposure to three kinds of sexual
content on television: (1) sexual behaviour, such as kissing, intimate touching, and implied or
depicted intercourse, (2) talk about sexual plans or desires or about sex that has occurred, and
expert advice, and (3) talk about or behaviour showing the risks of or the need for safety in
regard to sexual activity: abstinence, waiting to have sex, portrayals mentioning or showing
contraceptives, and portrayals related to consequences, such as AIDS, STDs, pregnancy, and
abortion.
The results showed that heavy exposure to sexual content on television related
strongly to teens’ initiation of intercourse or their progression to more advanced sexual
activities (such as “making out” or oral sex) apart from intercourse in the following year.
Youths who viewed the greatest amounts of sexual content were two times more likely than
those who viewed the smallest amount to initiate sexual intercourse during the following year
or to progress to more-advanced levels of other sexual activity. In effect, youths who watched
the most sexual content “acted older”.
The Internet is a worldwide, publicly accessible network of interconnected computer
networks that transmits information and services such as electronic mail, online chat, title
transfer, interlinked web pages, and other documents of the World Wide Web (Brown, 2002).
Media influences on sexual behaviour were first reported in a sex education newsletter in
1981 and since then several overviews have examined young people’s use of media as a
source of information and its possible effect on their sexual behaviour (Malamuth & Impett,
2001). The Internet is altering patterns of social communication and interpersonal
relationships. This is nowhere more true than in the field of sexuality (Cooper, Delmonico &
62
Burg, 2000). Furthermore, sex is the most frequently searched for topic on the Internet
(Freeman-Longo & Blanchard, 2001). Freeman-Longo & Blanchard, (2001) claims that the
convenience of online pornography and adult chatting sites provides an immediately available
vehicle to easily fall into compulsive patterns of online use. Pornographers have always been
the first to exploit new publishing technologies (e.g., photography, videotape, Internet etc.).
Sexually explicit content on the internet may present new ideas, which in turn may
influence students’ values and perception of healthy sexual relationships. The sexually
explicit information found on the Internet is often inaccurate and harmful. It often lacks
descriptions of intimacy or the development of deep personal relationships. Rather, it
encourages sexual acts without any emotional connection, which in turn may begin to shape
a person’s sexual values, attitudes, and behaviours, and consequently may interfere with
healthy sexual development (Asekun-Olarinmoye, Asekun-Olarinmoye, Adebimpe, &
Omisore, 2014).
In this regard, it is critical to view the Internet as a new social environment in which
universal young peoples’ issues pertaining to identity formation, sexuality, and self-worth are
explored in a virtual world. Easy and continuous access to the Internet provides tremendous
opportunities for students’ socialization, allowing them to connect with their peers as well as
with complete strangers from across the world. Clearly, the Internet is transforming the social
world of young people by influencing how they communicate, establish and maintain
relationships, and find social support (Brown, 2002). Therefore, it is essential to gain
awareness of both the potential benefits and risks of students’ Internet use and to provide
strategies to guide safe and positive practice.
63
In a study conducted by Asekun-Olarinmoye et al (2014) half of the respondents
indicated that they used the Internet often, and there was a significant association between
frequency of Internet use and frequency of accessing sexually explicit materials on the
Internet, with frequent users of the Internet more likely to frequently access sexually explicit
materials. There was also a significant association between being sexually active and the
frequency of Internet use and frequency of accessing sexually explicit materials on the
Internet, with those who used the Internet or accessed sexually explicit materials often being
more likely to be sexually active. This is similar to the study conducted by Brown et al.,
(2006) who in their longitudinal study found that the quintile of youths who consumed the
greatest amount of sexual-media content in early adolescence were more than twice as likely
as those with lighter sexual-media diets to have initiated sexual intercourse.
Students as youths are vigorous users of the information broadcast (internet) in the
media (Werner-Wilson et al., 2004) and concern has been raised about the influence of the
internet on other media outlay portrayals on sexual attitudes and the normative expectations
of these youths at a critical developmental stage (Rich, 2008). The mass media and the
Internet have their advantages in terms of providing necessary information for young people
on sexual health and healthy sexual relationships (Brown, 2002) but many studies have shown
that mass media negatively influences teens in their sexual behaviours (Stern & Handel, 2001;
Wakefield et al., 2010).
Over the past two decades, studies have shown an overall increase in the number of
portrayals of and the amount of discussion about sex in these media (especially the internet)
and an increase in the explicitness of these portrayals (Bragg & Buckingham, 2002). Sexual
discussions and displays are increasingly frequent and explicit in all forms of the mass
64
media. The Internet, the use of which is growing more rapidly than any previous technology
Idowu, Ogunbodede & Idowu (2003) has dramatically increased the availability of sexually
explicit content (Brown, 2002). Little is known, however, of the relationship between the
media and young people’s sexual behaviour in Nigeria, or indeed in developing countries in
general, because of the dearth of studies in this area. The alarming increase of rape, teenage
pregnancies, septic abortions, and sexually transmitted infections, especially human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV), among undergraduates in Nigeria makes research into the
effects of the mass media and the Internet on their sexual behaviour even more important.
Exposure to sexually explicit material on the internet, according to Hald (2013) may
have only a moderate influence on young people’s sexual behaviour, suggests a major study
in the Netherlands. Previous research has generally found significant associations between
sexually explicit material consumption and sexual behaviours among young people. The new
study of 4,600 young people, aged 15-25 years, investigated SEM consumption and a broad
range of sexual behaviours, and took account of a wide range of variables. The study found
that 88.2 per cent of men and 45.8 per cent of women had consumed SEM in the previous 12
months. The internet was the preferred media for both women and men, followed by television
and DVDs/videos.
Mass Media and Students Sexual Behaviour
In line with previous studies, Hald (2013) found that frequency of internet sexually
explicit material consumption was associated with adventurous sex, paying for sex or being
paid for sex. However, after controlling for other variables, sexually explicit material
consumption accounted for between 0.3 per cent and 4 per cent of the total variance in sexual
behaviours. The authors conclude that sexually explicit material is ‘just one factor among
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many that may influence youth sexual behaviours’. Individuals who watch a heavy diet of
internet with sexual content were twice as likely to engage in sexual intercourse over the
following year as those who were light viewers of sexual content, even after controlling for
other possible factors (Collins, Elliott, Berry, Kanouse, Kunkel, & Hunter, 2004). Heavy
internet viewing of sexual content was also associated with other non-coital sexual behaviours
(heavy petting, deep kissing, etc.). These findings were the same regardless of whether the
sexual content was explicitly shown in behaviour or only discussed in dialogue. On the other
hand, sexual content in media can have positive effects of increasing knowledge and
instigating information seeking. For example, exposing students to three minutes on
emergency contraception, 51% of viewers reported talking with others about the issue, 23%
sought information from another source, and 14% talked to their doctor about it (Kaiser
Family Foundation, 2002).
Sometime the internet may actually teach new behaviours, including potentially some
extremely violent and destructive ones. Although examples like men watching a movie
depicting a gang rape on a pool table and soon afterward perpetrating a similar act are
thankfully not commonplace, the juxtaposition of such events when they actually happen is
compelling. Aside from teaching new behaviours, sexual media may also break down natural
inhibitions of previously learned behaviours. For example, watching a video with oral sex or
bondage may dis-inhibit the viewer’s prior existing inhibitions against engaging in such
behaviour. Watching a rape scene where a woman appears to enjoy being assaulted may
disinhibit the constraint against some men’s secret urge to commit such a crime. Amount of
violent pornography consumed significantly predicted self-rated likelihood to rape, although
there was no effect of nonviolent pornography (Demare, Briere, & Lips, 2008). Check and
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Guloien (1989) found that men exposed to a steady diet of rape-myth sexual violence reported
a higher likelihood of committing rape themselves, compared to a no-exposure control group,
but the same result was found for a group exposed to nonviolent erotica.
According to Wanyonyi (2014), despite the presence of aspects of Sex Education in
the Christian Religious Education (CRE) curriculum in secondary schools in Kenya, youth
involvement in sexual immorality is still rampant. Cases are many in the media of youth
engaging in sex related misdemeanor. Such cases coupled with unwanted pregnancies,
abortions, and the prevalence of HIV and AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases among
youth in secondary schools in Kenya call for urgent measures to address the problem
especially when statistics show that about 66% of high school boys and girls have already had
sex (Wanyonyi, 2014). American Social Health Association (2003) reported that each year,
more than one million students become pregnant with 65% of them born out of wedlock. In
the same vein, Akinade and Suleiman (2005), ascertain that between 2.5- 5.0 million students
acquire sexually transmitted diseases every year.
Dangers and Benefits of Mass Media
Moscovitch (2007) Canadian and international research on the media; in her report
she stressed that media has positive side and negative side. The positive side is the one that is
useful source of education and entertainment as well as aiding families stay in contact with
greater ease. On the other, the report also claimed that there are more negative consequence
attached to media usage. She stressed that heavy user of electronic media in all age groups
spend less time interacting with their families. The researcher also opined that excessive
exposure to media mostly the young once may lead to problems of attention control,
aggressive behaviour and poor cognitive development.
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Mass media has a great influence in the life of the general public. Media is the major
source of information, where people sample their opinion concern a particular issue. So media
plays a significant role in educating the public. The dangers and benefits of mass media have
been investigated in the work of Moscovitch (2007).
Empirical Review
Sexuality Education and Students’ Sexual Behaviour
Adeomi, Adeoye, Adewole, Oluwaseyi and Temitayo-Oboh (2014) investigated
Sexual risk behaviors among adolescents attending secondary schools in a Southwestern State
in Nigeria. The study adopted a descriptive cross-sectional study, carried out among in-school
adolescents in Osun State, Southwestern Nigeria. The multi-stage sampling technique was
used to select the respondents, and data were collected with pre-tested, semi-structured
questionnaires which were self-administered and supervised by trained research assistants. A
total of 815 questionnaires was administered, but only 786 (96.4%) were properly filled and
analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences version 16. Many of the respondents
(406, 51.7%) were early adolescents, while the remaining 380 (48.3%) were late adolescents
with a mean age of 14.2 ± 2.2 years. One hundred and eight (22.9%) were sexually exposed
with a mean age of sexual debut of 12.7 ± 2.7 years. Of the 180 that were sexually exposed,
134 (74.4%) had sex in the month preceding the study, 40 (22.2%) had paid for or demanded
for payment for sex before, and only 48 (26.7%) used condom for their last sexual intercourse.
Only 2 (0.3%) respondents reported having had sexually transmitted infections (STI), but, 128
(16.3%) had had symptoms suggestive of STI before.
Adegoke (2014) studied the attitude towards premarital sex among secondary school
adolescents in Ibadan Metropolis, Nigeria. The study adopted a descriptive survey design and
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data were collected cross-sectionally from the sampled adolescents. Participants for this study
were drawn from a survey of 1902 secondary school adolescents in Ibadan metropolis, South
west Nigeria. The method of data collection adopted was a questionnaire, Chi-square analysis
and independent t-test were adopted to analyse the variables. The results obtained revealed a
conservative attitude towards premarital sex. A non-significant difference was observed
between male and female adolescents on attitude toward premarital sex, but age of adolescent
and their religious affiliation has significant influence on attitude toward premarital sex.
According to Samson-Akpan, Ojona, Ella-R.,and Edet (2014), they opined that, most
young people in our society whose sexual behaviour are of serious concern are the ones found
in secondary schools, some of this young people terminate their academic dreams and
mortgage their future because of one careless ill advise or poorly timed sexual behaviour. A
study on knowledge and practice of human sexuality among Cross-River University of
Technology students in Calabar, Nigeria, investigated that 60% of students experienced their
first intercourse as early as 14 years. Only one female student out of 400 in that study reported
being a virgin. Opara, (2008). In another study carried out by Okonko , Okerentugba ,
Adejuwon and Onoh (2012). On prevalence of STIs among attendees at Lead City University
Medical Centre in Ibadan South East. They reported that out of 200 samples investigated, 195
(97.5%) were infected with different with various etiologic agents and 5(2.5%) had growth of
staphylococcus.
Glover, Bannerman, Pence, Jones, Miller, Weiss and Nerquaye-Tetteh (2003) studied
Sexual Health Experiences of Adolescents in Three Ghanaian Towns. The study adopted a
descriptive survey design and a purposive sampling procedure was used to select 750 never-
married youths. In-person interviews on sexual health issues was the instrument used to obtain
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data. The result revealed that more than half of the respondents had ever had sexual
intercourse (52%), with the adjusted odds for females being 1.6 times those for males and the
odds for unaffiliated and apprenticed youth being 2.5–3.2 times those for in school youth. The
odds of having had sex in the previous month were elevated for females (2.0) and apprentices
(2.7). Both sexes tended to accept violence towards women, with unaffiliated youth showing
the highest level of acceptance and in-school youth the lowest. Nearly all respondents (99%)
knew of condoms, but fewer than half (48%) could identify any of four elements of correct
use; females and sexually inexperienced youth were the least informed. Two-thirds of
respondents considered it unacceptable for males to carry condoms, and three-quarters
considered it unacceptable for females. Twenty-five percent of males and 8% of females
reported having had a sexually transmitted infection. One-third of sexually experienced
females reported having ever been pregnant; of those, 70% reported having had or having
attempted to have an abortion. The same study reported that 61%) of the respondents agreed
that someone-especially students’ can get sexual satisfaction with partner without having
penetrative vaginal sex. Among such non-contact experiences or behaviours listed included
kissing, foundling and toughing. (Glover Ek at al 2003).
A research was conducted by Mmaduakonam, and Obi (2013) on sexual behaviour
and level of knowledge of reproductive health among in-school female students’ in-school
female students in Awka education zone. It was reported that a sample of 408 that had sexual
intercourse, 42.2% were forced while 57.8% said they consented to the act. This shows that
greater number of students engaged in sexual relations with their consent. They also reported
that most of the students who had experienced sexual relationship, were between the range of
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13-15 (54.9%). This was followed by those within the age range of 10-12 years (22.5%) while
the least proportion where within 16-18.
In another study conducted, they examine those who use condom on their first
experience of sexual intercourse greater proportion 212(52%) said they did not, while
168(41.2%) said they use condom. 28% (6.9%) did it respond. This shows that most of the
students have had unprotected sex. In addition, of the 408 students who have engage in sexual
intercourse, 276(67.7%), who currently engaging in sexual intercourse while 132(82.3%) said
they are not. This implies that over half of students are currently engaging in sexual
relationship. Of the 276(67.7%), who are currently involve in sexual intercourse greater
proportion 164.1% engaged in it between 2-3 times per month. Furthermore, 28.5% who
engage in it between 10-12 times. Result shows that proportion of the respondents (59.4%)
engage in sex with multiple partner (more than one) while (40.6%) said they have just one
sex partner. This shows that most of the students that currently engage in sex have risky sexual
behaviours (Mmaduakonam. and Obi. 2013).
Based on the above findings of Mmaduakonam . and Obi. 2013. The sexual behaviour
of reproductive health or sexuality education have showed that students knowledge of
sexuality education is very low, hence they are involved in casual sex without the use of
condom, which may result of sexually transmitted disease. Their sexual behaviour or activities
are increasing day by day, this is the reason why the engage in risky sexual behaviour.
Researching on reproductive health needs of students, Wescher (2003) in Canada
attempted a cross sectional survey of 2000 students aged 12-20 years. His findings provided
a baseline data for implementing appropriate interventions to address the reproductive health
needs of students from these areas. One of the major findings of this study is that males tend
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to be behind their female counterparts in each of the three main reproductive health issues
namely knowledge, sexual behaviour and coercion. The implication is that the gender based
interventions would be required to address both the needs of male and female students.
A critical analysis of the research by Weschler (2003) indicates two limitations.
Firstly, the relatively small sample size selected, which when interpreted may not be
generalized to the entire students population selected from different sections (age bracket).
Secondly, the data analyses were interpreted with caution with the use of percentage and
ranking. Despite this limitation, the study is important because it represents a systematic
attempt to collect data on young people’s reproductive health needs and behaviour.
Investigating the determinant of sexual behaviour Okonofua (2004) conducted an
empirical survey using a structured questionnaire on a sample of 1,500 secondary school
students in Edo State of Nigeria. Using simple percentages and ranking, 10 factors were
reported to be significant factors, determining the sexual behaviour of students. These include
gender (68%), type of school (72%), class (68%), age (70%) religion (40%), location (55%)
family stability (3 0%), living with parents (75%), involvement with boy friends and girl
friends (82%) and family socio economic status (42%). Okonofua (2004) concluded that
students who were not living with their parents were likely to be involved in sexual activities
than their counterparts living with their parents. Similarly, students who were involved in boy
or girl friend relationship were more likely to be sexuality active than those who were not
involved.
Loewenson, Ireland and Resnick (2004) in their investigation, they reviews that
students who have received sex education in school or church settings are less likely to be
sexually active. For girls, they were 59% less likely and boys were 71% less likely. It appears
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therefore that for sex education to be effective it should take place before the teens become
sexually active.
National Attitudes and Sexual Lifestyles Survey (NATSAL 2000) is a major source
of information on sexual attitudes and behaviour among young people. In 2000 over 11,000
males and females aged 16-44 were surveyed across Britain. The median age at first
intercourse among respondents aged 16-19 in 2000 was 16. This was the same among both
male and female. Among those currently aged 25-29 (who were 16-19 in 2000 was 16. This
was the same among both males and females. Among those currently aged 2 5-29 (who were
1 6-. 19 ten years earlier) the median age was 17. The proportion of men reporting intercourse
before age 16(30%) has remained fairly constant over recent years. In contrast, the proportion
of women reporting intercourse before age 16 (26%) is higher among those under 30, but has
shown little change over the past decade.
Nanchahal (2001) students who had their first sex before 16 is more common than
those from manual social classes, without qualifications, who did not live with both parents
up to age 16, those leaving school before age 16, and those who do not cite school at their
main source of information about sex. Early intercourse was more commonly reported by
women who were younger than 13 years old at menarche. Earlier first intercourse is less likely
to be an autonomous and a consensual event, and more likely to be regretted and unprotected
against pregnancy and infection. Moore & Toubia (1996) conducted an empirical survey using
documented method of data collection to assess the causes, effects and remedies of unwanted
pregnancy in Sub-Sahara Africa. Their findings show that 20 million pregnancies are
conceived each year, one-third or 6.75 million are unwanted pregnancies that can be deadly,
leading to unsafe abortions causing the death of at least 200 women each month with a high
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rate of school drop-out among students girls. Their study recommended that government and
donor agencies should make program me changes to ensure that all individuals-including
students girls and unmarried women should have access to good quality confidential family
planning service. Secondly, to ensure that all health workers should provide information
technology and communication skills necessary for offering high quality care. They also
recommended that Government should offer reliable information and compassionate
counselling to all women with an unwanted pregnancy, Moorse & Toubia (1996) went further
to recommend that women have control over their sexuality and reproduction, reconcile power
imbalances between men and women and promote caring, responsible behaviour among men
in sexual relationship, use of contraception, pregnancy and child care, also to address sexual
coercion and all forms of sexual violence against women, and lastly to address the problem
of unwanted pregnancy among young people and modify attitudes that stigmatize pregnant
girls. However the study did not consider the impact of other variables affecting sexual
behaviour and unwanted pregnancies, such as age, educational attainment, and socio-
economic status. Melgosa (1997) surveyed the profile of students sexual relationship in
Philippines using a sample of 3,000 urban and rural students in secondary schools. The
purpose of this survey was to determine the profile of students sexual relationship, factors of
students sexuality, profile of students sexual act as well as profile of students mother. Melgosa
(1997) reported that sex in adolescence usually occurs in unfavorable circumstances very
quickly in strange dark places with fear of being surprised or caught in the act. According to
her, there is the fear of a possible pregnancy. Melgosa (1997) further reported that initial
sexual relationship and experiences are not usually motivated by genuine love.
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On the basis, she summarized that the factors of students sexuality to include
physiological changes, search for affection, curiosity, demonstration of maturity and
fulfillment of group expectation. Melgosa (1997) also reviewed two separate viewpoints of
students’ sex which include single parenting and students’ early sexual act as well as adequate
stable parenting and students that postpone sex. The implication of the first view point of
Melgosa (1997) is the son or daughter of a single mother, divorced parents or from an
unstructured family, low academic achievement, low soda-economic level, has brothers or
sisters and friends who are sexually active, has parents of a low cultural level, he/she rejects
religion, has tendency to consume tobacco, alcohol and other drugs, and has few
communication skills (Melgosa, 1997:102).
On the other hand, Melgosa (1997) second view point maintains that there are
tendencies of postponement of sexual act of students from a very stable family, has good
scores in intelligence tests and the family’s socio-economic level is comfortable, God fearing
child has brother or sisters and friends who do not practice the sexual act, also has parents
with a good cultural level, he/she is a God fearing child with clear moral principle, he/she
hardly ever uses psychoactive substance (or not at all) and good verbal expression ability
(Melgosa 1997). However, the findings of Melgosa (1997) is contrary to the work of Schuster,
Bell Nakagima Kanouse (1998) in the Pacific Island on the sexual practices of high school
student Schuster Ct al (1998) claimed that family background, educational attainment and
even religion have no significant impact on the students sexual activities or behaviours. In a
survey deigned to determine the pattern of sexual behaviour, contraceptive and reproductive
health knowledge among school students in rural Transkei (South Africa), Buga, Amoko and
Ncayiyana (1998), observed that sexual maturation occurs at an earlier age with the rural
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students, than those in urban. According to them, sexual maturation in the rural students in
South Africa is associated with early initiation and a high level of sexual activity coupled with
low contraceptive usage. Moreover, there is a high rate of students’ pregnancy and sexually
transmitted diseases, which exposes rural students in South Africa to a high risk of HIV
infection. Given the above findings, Buga, Amoko and Ncayiyana (1998) recommended
contraceptive use and provision of sexuality education among rural students.
Conducting an empirical research on the attitude and belief of parents, teachers and
students towards sex education in the Netherlands, Forrest and Kanabus (2000) were
interested in providing answers to the following questions: What is sex education? What are
the aims of sex education? What skills should sex education provide or develop? Who should
teach sex education? What should constitute the content of sex education? What are the moral
implications of teaching sex education to students? Forrest and Kanabas (2000) observed that
sex education sought both to reduce the risk of potentially negative outcomes from sexual
behaviour like unwanted or unplanned pregnancies, infection with sexual transmitted diseases
and enhancement of quality relationships. They recommended that sex education should start
early before young people could reach puberty and that sex education should be provided by
teachers, parents, or guardians as well as prints and electronic media in schools, at home and
other recreational Centers with emphasis on fertility awareness and human reproduction.
Plummer, Farornoju and Ademolo (2006) sampled 5,000 students using a cross cultural
survey and noted that only half of the students knew that pregnancy could occur during sexual
intercourse.
Plummer et al., (2006) also observed that females generally had a higher knowledge
of reproduction than males. One possible explanation may be the fact that girls are
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disproportionately affected by the burden of reproductive health morbidity, (unwanted
pregnancy and abortion). They are more likely than boys to seek for information about
reproductive health. Also, parents are more likely to discuss reproductive health issues with
girls than boys because of the belief in Nigeria that boys will learn somehow through
experimentation. Overall, 13% of the students were sexually experienced (Faromoju et al.,
2006). This figure is lower than the 34% reported among high school students from Plateau
State, 62% of secondary school students in Ilorin, Kwara State both of which are located in
North Central Nigeria, 48% of students school girls in Lagos South Western area, and 55%
of students in Anambra and Enugu states in southeastern Nigeria (Pulmmer et al., 2006). More
importantly, significantly more males than females reported sexual activities, a finding
consistent with previous surveys among young person in this environment. However, these
data must be interpreted within the context of local culture in which the study took place and
the methodological challenges associated with collecting data on sexual behaviour from
young persons. The apparently relatively low level of sexual activities among the surveyed
students may be due to the fact that both Islamic and cultural sexual norms forbid premarital
sexual activity which is a justification for the encouragement of early marriage in these areas.
At the same time these data may be an underestimation of actual levels of sexual activities
because of the face-to face interview method used in this study.
Plummer et al., (2006) opined that collection of valid data on sexual behaviour from
young persons is fraught with several methodological challenges including problems of recall,
ambiguous terminology, and the sensitive nature of sexual information. Self-reported data
may be invalid if respondents tell researchers what they believe is socially desirable. Thus, it
is possible that males may have over-reported their sexual activities and females under-
77
reported their sexual activities in an attempt to conform to religious and cultural norms
affecting sex in Northern Nigeria. Previous studies of analysis of student reproduction health
knowledge in Nigeria have shown that data from the self- completion questionnaire are likely
to be more valid than those obtained from face-to-face interviews because a greater sense of
confidentiality for the respondent may reduce social desirability bias. Yet, the self-completed
method of data collection typically yields lower response rates and more missing data than
the face-to-face method.
Anderson and Truan (2008) collected data from the 1222 secondary students in a
Health Risk Survey. The finding showed that 54 percent of all high school students in the
United States had some form of HIV/AIDS. The sexual attitude and behaviour of high school
male teens Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (2002), noted that sexual activity
increases with age. Their findings showed that 41% 9 grade boys are sexually experienced
compared to 61% of 12th grade boys. In other words, as students, class progresses with
increase in age, there is a corresponding increase in sexual activity and attitude. This is
evidenced in their findings. In the grade 9, 41% of students have had sex. In the” grade10, it
is 42%, 11th grade, 54% and 61% by the 12th grade.
Similarly, Kaiser (2005) revealed that by the 12th grade, 62% of high school students
have had sex compared to 33% of the graders. However, the gap between male and female
students sexual experience is greatest in the 9 grade; by grade 12, the proportion of male and
female students who have had sex is virtually the same. In a national representative sample of
1,025 teens aged 12 to 17, teens attitude towards sexual behaviour during high school years
was examined. When asked if it is acceptable for high school age teens to be sexually active:
58% of respondents (64% girls and 53% of boys) stated that it is not acceptable for high school
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students to be sexually active even with safer precautions. In comparison, older teens ages 15-
17 (51%) were more likely than younger teens ages 12-14 (25%) to respond that it is
acceptable for high school teens to be sexually active, National Campaign to Prevent Teen
Pregnancy (2000). Following the above findings, it obvious that older teens are more sexually
active compared to the younger teens.
Peer Influence and Students Sexual Behaviour
Envuladu, Kwaak, Zwanikken and Zoakah (2017) studied Exploring the Factors
Influencing Adolescent Sexual Behavior in Plateau State Nigeria. The study was a qualitative
exploratory study that was conducted among adolescents between the ages of 18 and 19 years
in two Local government areas (LGAs) of Plateau State; Jos North and Bassa LGAs. The two
LGAs were selected out of the 17 LGAs in the State. An FGD guide questions adapted from
UNFPA and WHO data collection instruments for adolescent sexual and reproductive health
survey was used for the study. Data was transcribed after the close of each day. Common
themes were generated from the responses and categorized accordingly, it was entered into
excel sheet and given codes based on the themes and similarities in the responses. The results
were presented according to the majority and important minor responses. Verbatim quotes
were then used to illustrate important responses. The adolescents in this study reported sexual
debut from ages 10 to 15 years. Those who were in school mostly mentioned pleasure love
and peer pressure as reasons for their sexual act while majority of those out of school reported
forceful sex and transactional sex as major reasons for their sexual activities. Transactional
sex as a reason for sex was reported by both sexes. Most males reported curiosity and show
of power as influences to their sexual activity, while females reported trying to please the
males as a reason for having sex; this was concurred by majority of the females.
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Nwoke, Okafor and Nwankwo (2012) investigated Socio-demographic correlates of
sexual behaviours II. A cross sectional survey design was used and sample size was 3360
(2.2%) of 153,586 adolescents. A structured, validated and reliable questionnaire (r = 0.79)
as well as focus group discussions were used as the instruments for data collection. Data
analysis was done using mean, z-test and ANOVA statistics. The result showed that in Imo
State secondary schools, peer pressure significantly influenced the sexual behaviours of the
adolescents (Zcal. 9.51, Z-tab. 1.96; p < 0.05). Various ages at first sexual intercourse
significantly influenced their sexual behaviours (F- cal. 437.92, F-tab. 2.60; p<0.05) and
various age groups of the adolescents influenced the adolescents sexual behaviours
significantly (Z- cal. 6.19, Z-tab. 1.96; p<0.05). The older adolescents (μ = 1.49) were more
involved in sexual behaviours than the younger adolescents (μ = 1.40).
The study carried out in Kenya by Tabitha & Habil (2013) on peer and gender in
relation to sexual behaviours among secondary school students revealed that more boys
than girls were influenced by peers to engage in all the behaviours reviewed. According to
them, girls who reported having been encouraged by friend to engage in romantic
relationships were (8.3%) while the boys who reported the same were 22.1%. while those who
reported having been influenced by friends to attend parties, music clubs and discos were
8.8% of the girls and 22.6% of the boys. In addition 11.5% of the girls and 30.4% of the boys
reported having been actively encouraged to have friends of the opposite sex. Girls who
reported having been influenced by friend to watch pornography were 5.1% against 24% of
their male counterparts. Adolescents who reported having been influenced by friends to use
drugs to gain courage in sexual matters were 1.8% of the girls and 19.8% of the boys while
those pressurized to do sexual things were 0.9% of girls and 14.7% of boys.
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These findings seem to concur with the Twa-Twa (1997) and Kimani (2005) that
adolescent males experience more peer pressure than the females with regard to engaging in
sexual behaviours. From the above investigation, it is obvious that sexual behaviour is more
rampant among the male students compare to the female students. However, the low
percentages of adolescents who reported being pressured by peers seem to contradict the view
that adolescents are under great pressure from their peers to engage in sexual intercourse
(Tabitha & Habil, 2013).
Mass Media and Students’ Sexual Behaviour
In line with previous studies, Hald (2013) found that frequency of internet sexually
explicit material consumption was associated with adventurous sex, paying for sex or being
paid for sex. However, after controlling for other variables, sexually explicit material
consumption accounted for between 0.3 per cent and 4 per cent of the total variance in sexual
behaviours. The authors conclude that sexually explicit material is ‘just one factor among
many that may influence youth sexual behaviours’. Individuals who watch a heavy diet of
internet with sexual content were twice as likely to engage in sexual intercourse over the
following year as those who were light viewers of sexual content, even after controlling for
other possible factors (Collins, Elliott, Berry, Kanouse, Kunkel, & Hunter, 2004). Heavy
internet viewing of sexual content was also associated with other non-coital sexual behaviours
(heavy petting, deep kissing, etc.). These findings were the same regardless of whether the
sexual content was explicitly shown in behaviour or only discussed in dialogue. On the other
hand, sexual content in media can have positive effects of increasing knowledge and
instigating information seeking. For example, exposing students to three minutes on
emergency contraception, 51% of viewers reported talking with others about the issue, 23%
81
sought information from another source, and 14% talked to their doctor about it (Kaiser
Family Foundation, 2002).
Moscovitch (2007) noted that according to the Consumers Electronics Association of
American, that every average U.S. home equipped their home with about 26 different
electronic devices for communication and media. In 2005, Media Awareness Network
revealed that among young people 28% have their own website. 15% have online diaries and
blogs and grade nine, 80% of all students are listening to music online and instant message
daily. According to them, by late 2006, 55% of all U.S online students were using social
networks such as Myspace and Facebook and 55% had created online profiles.
Another report by new internet and American lite project on what they titled “Teens
and Online Stranger Contact” the report stressed the dangers of social networking sites. They
reported that 32% of online students had been contracted by someone with no connection to
them or any of their friends 7% of online teens say they have felt uncomfortable as a result of
contact by online stranger. They went feature to emphasis that those who post their photo
online are more likely to be contacted without knowing the people. The study claimed that
girls are more scared or uncomfortable compare those boys who keeps online relationship.
Consequently, considering the above research conducted on danger and benefit of
mass media usage, it is clear, that mass media is like two edged sword. This is because mass
media educates an individual, helps an individual to develop is an eye opener to many people
in the world, it helps an individual to develop intellectually, emotionally, psychologically and
otherwise. Despite the good aspect of mass media, it has great consequence in the life of the
users, more especially, those who are not developed i.e the students to be précised. As a result
of mass media usage many evil things are going on right now. Pornographic materials,
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fraudsters popularly known as 419, internet loving making and so many other unpleasant
activities that are associated with mass media.
Location and Students’ Sexual Behaviour
Ojong, Ojong-Alasia and Samson-Akpan (2014) conducted a study on influence of
gender and school location on sexual behaviors among secondary school students in Southern
Cross River State, Nigeria. The research design was a non-experimental descriptive survey.
The sample size was 440 senior secondary school students from 11 public secondary schools
in Cross River State. Simple random sampling technique was used to select 260 students from
7 schools in urban areas and 180 students from 4 schools in rural areas. For the analysis of
data, chi-square test analysis was used to test the relationship between variables at P<0.05
significant level and the result showed a statistical relationship of P<0.05 significant level
between gender of urban school children and sexual behaviours. There was no significant
relationship between the gender of rural secondary school students and their sexual
behaviours and lastly, school geographical location significantly influenced adolescents
sexual behaviours, when the calculated X2 of 24.79 was greater than crit. X2 5.991.
Azmawati, Hazariah, Shamsul, Norfazilah, Azimatun and Rozita (2015) investigated
Risk taking behaviour among urban and rural adolescents in two selected districts in Malaysia.
The study adopted a comparative cross-sectional study. A total of 306 adolescents were
selected through multistage sampling from two selected schools with involvement of their
parents. The instrument of data collection used was a questionnaire and the data was analysed
using multiple logistic regress statistics. The prevalence of risk taking behaviours was 81.7%
in the urban and 83.7% in the rural area (p = 0.650). Parental background factors such as
parent’s education level, marital status, health status, and income were unrelated with risk
83
taking behaviour among adolescents. The multiple logistic regression test showed that being
a male (AOR = 4.55, 95% CI = 2.28–9.07), inadequate number of bedrooms (AOR = 11.54,
95% CI = 1.48–89.75), and presence of family conflict (AOR = 3.64, 95% CI = 1.49–8.89)
were the predictors among adolescents for risk taking behaviour in rural areas.
Difference in living location (urban or rural settlement) and age can lead to different
sexual behaviour patterns among students. For instance, young men and women in the ages
15-24 years in urban settlements are more likely to have comprehensive knowledge of sexual
behaviour, HIV/AIDS, HIV/AIDS transmission, and prevention methods, when: they have
never been married before; did have sex before; live in urban areas; have a higher education;
and live in a higher wealth quintile. Furthermore, female students in urban areas with a higher
education have a lower chance to have sex at an early age than their female counterparts in
rural settlements. For male students it seems to be opposite. Among young adults, premarital
sexual activity is more common when they are higher educated and live in urban areas.
However, they are more likely to have used a condom at their first and last sexual activity too.
Nyanzi et al., (2001) suggest geographical differences in sexual behaviour patterns among
students as well.
According to Nyanzi et al., (2001), girls in rural Uganda are not supposed to suggest
sex to a boy but urban girls, who have been 14, but town girls, who have been 14 exposed to
western culture, sexuality education and who are seen as sophisticated and modern, are
allowed to take the initiative. The contradictory pressure to have sex and to abstain, by peers,
family, culture, and religion, the possible related sexual health risks of students boys having
sexual relationships with sugar mommies, and a lack of information on the ways boys deal
with rejections from girls when they are short of money are all examples of sexual behaviour
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patterns that could be harmful to the sexual and reproductive health and rights of students in
Uganda and that demand further exploration and understanding.
Gender and Students’ Sexual Behaviour
Ojong, Achi and Kalun (2016) conducted a study on Determinants of Reproductive
Health Awareness among Secondary School Students in Northern, Cross River State, Nigeria.
A cross-sectional descriptive design was used. A proportionate multistage sampling technique
was used to get 1,060 students used for the study. The instrument for data collection was
questionnaire with reliability coefficient of 0.89. Data analysis was done using independent
t-test and analysis of variance at 0.05 level of significance. Finding revealed that the females
were more aware of reproductive issues than male students with t-calculated of -2.79, -3.87
and 2.07. Urban students were more aware of reproductive issues than rural students; in family
planning with critical t-value of 2.92. There was no significant influence of students’ age on
reproductive health awareness with calculated F-ratios of 1.308, 2.316 and 1.315.
Folayan, Adebajo, Adeyemi and Ogungbemi (2015) investigated Differences in
Sexual Practices, Sexual Behavior and HIV Risk Profile between Adolescents and Young
Persons in Rural and Urban Nigeria. A cross-sectional study design was adopted. The total
sample size for the study was 776. A structured questionnaire was used for data collection.
Pearson chi square and or ANOVA were used to test significance of associations between
variables. Comparison of continuous variables was done using t-test. Statistical significance
was defined at P<0.05 with a 95% confidence interval. Analysis was conducted using STATA
SE version 12.0. The result revealed that more than half (53.5%) of the respondents were
sexually active, with more residing in the rural than urban areas (64.9% vs 44.1%; p<0.001)
and more resident in the rural area reporting having more than one sexual partner (29.5% vs
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20.4%; p = 0.04). Also, 97.3% of sexually active respondents reported having vaginal sex,
8.7% reported oral sex and 1.9% reported anal sex. More male than female respondents in the
urban area used condoms during the last vaginal sexual intercourse (69.1% vs 51.9%; p =
0.02), and reported sex with casual partners (7.0% vs 15.3%; p = 0.007). More female than
male respondents residing in the rural area engaged in transactional sex (1.0% vs 6.7%; p =
0.005). More females than males in both rural (3.6% vs 10.2%; p = 0.04) and urban (4.7% vs
26.6%; p<0.001) areas self-reported a history of discharge. More females than males in both
rural (1.4% vs 17.0%; p = 0.04) and urban (15.0% vs 29.1%; p<0.001) areas self-reported a
history of itching.
Before the developmental outbreak which marks the beginning of prudence, the
hatched students realizes certain other physical changes. In most young girls, the first and
most obvious change is the growth of the bust (although the 1/3 of the girls shows pubic hair
before the growth of the bust). Also, the girls start becoming taller and heavier at the age of
10 ½ or on average 2 years earlier than the boys (Brunsteffer and Silver, 1985). Both boys
and girls develop their sexuality during this period. The increase of the height, strength and
sex appeal is usually welcome from both sexes. Researches during the last 20 years have
shown that the arrival time of those changes is very important and may influence decisively
the individual’s adjustment during the beginning of adolescence. Boys that mature earlier than
usual (precocious pubescence) are often more socially popular and boys that mature at a later
stage (delayed pubescence) often have an increased awareness of their disadvantageous
position. The same applies to overweight boys. It has been observed that they worry for their
size and their casual clumsiness. Contrary to boys, girls may not always be pleased with this
biophysical growth when it comes precociously. Some girls worry because they weight more
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than the average coetaneous, since, during adolescence, girls often show a growth at the hips
and fat accumulation when their height growth stops. This concern for the image of their
bodies may worsen when they receive mock comments from others as well as the excessive
emphasis the Media give to a slim figure. Contrary to boys, girls who are more satisfied with
their bodies, usually weight less than normal, a fact that explains why so many girls
experiment with diets during adolescence, frequently without result (Manos, 1990).
With the development of the sexual desire, the students often worry about their appeal
to the other sex. The harmonic changes are likely to stimulate the sebaceous glands which
may generate acne, a situation that may cause embarrassment to students. The students, who
are considered attractive, live better as long as the reactions they receive from others are
positive. Nevertheless, most students manage to avoid intense problems as they receive
adequate support from the family and friends. Only a small number of students experience
acute depression due to their stress for their external appearance (Brunsteffer and Silver,
1985).
Class of Students’ Sexual Behaviour
Ihaji and Nase (2015) investigated the level of class, gender type of secondary school
and Nigeria adolescents sexual behaviour. A cross-sectional survey design was used. A total
of 500 school secondary school adolescents in Gboko metropolis took part in the study. . The
safe sex behavior scale was used to measure sexual behavior of Nigerian adolescent in
secondary school. Independent t-test was used to test the statistical significance of the
hypotheses and to compare the different categories of the respondents in the study. The study
revealed a significant difference between junior and senior secondary school adolescents on
sexual behavior (t(df=486) = 2.88; p<.05), and there was a significant difference between
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male and female secondary school adolescents on sexual behavior (t(df=478) = 1.65; p<.05).
Also significant difference was found between Nigerian day and boarding students on sexual
behavior (t(df=486) = 1.56; p<.05) Based on the findings, level of class of secondary school,
Gender and type of school in Nigeria play important role in Adolescent sexual behaviour.
Azuike, Iloghalu, Nwabueze, Emelumadu, Balogun, Azuike, Mmadunem, Enwonwu,
Ebulue, Chukwudinma and Chikezie (2015) studied Sexual Behaviour among Senior
Secondary School Students in Nnewi North and NnewiSouth Local Government Areas of
Anambra State, South-Eastern Nigeria. The study was a descriptive cross-sectional study. A
total of 394 students, age range of 12 – 24 years with mean of 17 ± 1.6years were studied.
The study instrument was a self-administered questionnaire, which was a modified version of
the Sexual Activity Survey by Diana Flannery and Lyndall Ellingson (2003). The data was
analyzed with Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software package, version 20.0
and the results were presented in frequency tables. It was revealed in the study that 95 (24.1%)
admitted to previous sexual exposure with mean age at sexual debut of 12 ± 3.6 years. More
than half of them had multiple sex partners and learnt about sex from the media. 74.7% of the
respondents did not use condom during their first sexual exposure and 83.3% of those who
had been pregnant or got someone pregnant terminated the pregnancy.
Age or stage of development also influences comprehension and interpretation of
sexual content. In a study of sexual innuendo on television, 12-year-old youths were less likely
to understand suggestive material than 14- and 16-year-olds. Similarly, in a qualitative study
of students girls aged 11 to 15, those who were at an earlier stage of physiologic development
were less interested in sex portrayed in the media whereas more mature young women were
intrigued and more actively sought out sexual content in the media as a means of “learning
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the rules, rituals, and skills” of romance and relationships. Specifically, they reported that the
media provided models for achieving the “right look” to become popular and attract boys,
portrayed teen characters with problems similar to their own, showed how they solved those
problems, and gave examples of how to behave in sexual situations
To fight HIV/AIDS, other STIs, and unwanted pregnancies, students and their sexual
and reproductive health and rights have been identified as an important target, especially in
sub-Saharan Africa (UNFPA 2003). Different sexual behaviour patterns have been identified
to be unsafe for students’ sexual and reproductive health and rights. First of all, some authors
state that it is seen as prestigious for both students boys and girls to have multiple partners at
the same time, and that there is a high peer pressure to lose virginity at an early age (Nyanzi,
2005). However, these findings seem to be contradictory to the preliminary results of a
quantitative study, which found that many secondary students in Uganda plan to abstain from
sexual intercourse until marriage (Nyanzi et al., 2005). The contradictory pressure to have sex
and to abstain, by peers, family, culture, and religion, has earlier been addressed in a study in
Senegal (Van Eerdewijk, 2007).
A second risk for students’ sexual and reproductive health and rights in Nigeria seems
to be money, as it plays an important role in their negotiation of sexual relationships. Cross-
generational sex is a money-related example. Among Nigerian young women (students in
secondary schools) in the ages 15-19 years, cross-generational sex is estimated to be seven
percent. This percentage varies between groups, for example, it seems to be less among
females who live in urban areas, have a higher education, and know a source to buy condoms.
According to Nyanzi et al., (2001), girls can be showing off with their sugar daddies but boys
are not always telling their peers about their sugar mommies. They state that sugar mommies
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are regularly widows of whom the husband died of unknown circumstances. Boys usually do
not tell their peers about dating these older women and will often be seeing other girls at the
same time (Nyanzi et al., 2001). Although the sexual health risks of students girls dating older
men have often been addressed in literature (e.g. Luke and Kurz 2002), it is less studied
whether sexual relationships with sugar mommies are practiced safely, and their possible
related sexual health risks. Money and gifts are used to negotiate sexual relationships with
people within the same age generation as well. Boys claimed it is hard to get into a relationship
with a girl without the use of money, and that it can be bitter to find out that a girl will choose
a sugar daddy over them because of money (Nyanzi et al., 2001).
School Type and Students’ Sexual Behaviour
School type terms to play a prominent role in the life of the secondary school students.
This is because the type of school they attends have influence in their opportunities to learn
and also their behaviour. The fact remains that majority of the student are still mis-informed
about their sexual behaviour, therefore most of their questions about sex is been giving by
their peers. Awolo [1998] he stressed that sex before marriage represent an effort to submit
to peer group pressures. Secondary school student who are involved in sexual exploits have
their peer groups as their source of information.[Esen 1974]. He stated that if a student
happens to tell their friends in school about how sex is fun, he/she will like to praticalized it.
Consequently, the type of school a student attends influence their sexual behaviour,
hence the present study intends to investigate the relationship between school type and
students’ sexual behaviour. Argument has been going on between single school and mixed
school and their sexual behviour. Ajuwon, Olaleye Faromoju and Ladipo [2006] worked on
sexual behaviour among secondary school students in three states in North Eastern Nigeria.
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They stressed that male sex student were likely to be involved in sexual intercourse 18 percent
those from mixed school 14% and female school 2% . In their findings, It was revealed that
sexual activities were attributed more on school type, location of the school, sex and age based
on this findings, it was observed that sexual behaviour were more influential among student
who are in mixed school living in urban areas. They also investigated that sexual coercion
among the students are common issues. About 5.1% of the secondary school students have
being raped.
Their report on sexual attitude also shows that, female students in mixed school are
always faced with forced sex or sexual harassment even in the United States. Also in his
findings on forced sex, about 17 magazines in (2008) confirmed that 39% of over 2000
respondents had faced unwanted touch. The American association of university women and
polls (1993) investigated that one high school girl in four experienced forced kissing, another
15% had their clothes pulled off. 2.3% of the girls admitted that sexual harassment always
take place. Consequently, in Nigeria Alika (2007) stressed that about 10% of girls droped out
of school because of the bullying by the male students.
On the other hand, Sadker and Sadker (1994) opined that girls in single sex schools are free
from sexual harassment that affects 90% of girls in mixed sex schools. It is good to say that
single girl’s school is free from sexual embarrassment from their opposite sex. Trickett and
Trickett et al (1982) in comparing students at private single sex school in the United States,
with their counterpart at private mixed school, found that students in the single sex school had
a far more positive attitude towards their academic than students in mixed schools. This
finding shows that single sex schools are more focused in their development of organizational
skills and classroom activities. They also emphases that at majority of the mixed schools what
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was really important was “ who like who”, who ‘s going out with who ,and s’ not’’ Ekanem
(2008) in his findings he stressed that in investigating the effect of school type on treatment,
he noted that the mean difference between the two single sex school was not statistically
significant. He also investigated that the type of school a student attends determines how
successful a student sexual behaviour can be modified, and that mixed schools is superior
compare to the single schools. The present study attempts to investigate the influence of
school type on students’ sexual behaviour.
Appraisal of Literature Review
So far, in this study, literatures on the concept of sexual behaviour of students as a
dependent variable and the independent variables of sexuality education peer influence, and
mass media. Through the review it was found out that the adolescence stage of life occupies
a unique stage in every person's life, a period of turmoil for students at the secondary school.
At this stage of development review pointed out that there are several factors which influences
the students’ developmental and reproductive health. Although their degree of influence may
vary at different points, they all shape how the students experiences the transition from
childhood to adulthood. The identified factors are biological, emotions, cognition, identity,
family, sexuality, society, ethics and morality. Sexual desires and arousal, sexual
experimentation, and the formation of a sexual identity are more pronounced in adolescence
than at any stage.
Literatures on the concept of sexuality were reviewed. Through the review it was seen
that sexual behaviour of students which are increased “feelings of arousal” or “desire”
manifest themselves in a variety of non-coital (kissing, hugging, petting and so on) and coital
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(intercourse) thoughts and behaviours. The review further pointed out that sexuality education
is an intervention programme to help students delay sex, and as well as help students prevent
sexually transmitted diseases, early pregnancy and other risky sexual behaviour. It is primarily
seen as the information provided to students to help them make realistic and responsible
decisions about sexual behaviours. The study further highlighted on the relationship between
sexuality education and students’ sexual behaviour. The review under this section showed
conflicting views on the impact of sexuality behaviour. Some authors had the view that
sexuality education lead students to experiment to sex earlier than they should have done
while other studies disagreed with this view. Instead, the proponents of sexuality education
proposed that sexuality education helps students make information choices on the dangers of
their sexual behaviour. Hence, this present study intends to proffer solution to this conflict or
add to it. Furthermore, the review concentrated on the effect of peer group influence on the
sexual behaviour of students. There is no doubting the fact that “no man is an island”.
This is certainly true when it comes to the influence we all have on one another, for
we are all influenced negatively or positively by our peers. The society of children or students
with its face-to-face contacts has been known to exert a great deal of influence on the
behaviour of students. Hence, the review under section this showed that students are heavily
influenced by their peers when it comes to their sexual behaviour. Review was also conducted
on the relationship between gender, location and class of students. The review showed that
gender and location is a good predictor of sexual behaviour among students in secondary
schools with female students in urban schools predisposed to risky sexual behaviour than their
female counterparts in rural schools. From the review of related literature, the research
observed that little or no research has looked at the Sexuality education, Peer influence, Mass
93
media as correlate of students sexual behaviour. This, in essence is the gap that this study
filled.
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CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHOD AND PROCEDURE
This chapter describes the method and procedure employed in carrying out the
investigation of this study. The following sub-headings have been discussed in the following
order.
Research design
Population of the study
Sample and sampling techniques
Research instrument
Validity of the instrument
Reliability of the instrument
Method of data collection
Method of data analysis
Research Design
This study adopted correlational research design. These were considered appropriate
as it examined the survey of sexuality education, peer influence on sexual behaviour of
students in Delta and Edo State. Also the socio-demographic data of students which include,
gender, location, class, as well as mass media were also included in the survey so as to
determine their influence on sexual behaviour among the students in the study. This study
also helped to find out the level of contribution each independent variables accounted to
dependent variable.
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Population of the Study
The population of this study consisted of all junior and senior secondary school
students in Delta and Edo States of Nigeria. The two states have a total of 975 public
secondary schools. The current student’s population of the both states as at 2014/2015
academic session was estimated to be 98,213. The two states have six senatorial districts, three
from Delta State and three from Edo State. (Source: Department of Research and statistics
Delta and Edo States).
Sample and Sampling Technique
A sample of size of 4,416 were drawn from Delta and Edo States. In Delta state, a total sample
of 2400 respondents were randomly selected (consisting of junior and senior secondary
school students from Urban and Rural schools).While in Edo State, a total sample of 2016
respondents were randomly selected (consisting of junior and senior secondary school
students from Urban and Rural schools). In all, 4,416 students were sampled from the study
area, representing 32.6% of the population of secondary school students in the study area.
Multi Stage Sample Technique: multi stage sampling techniques were employed to obtained
a sample size of 4,416 respondents from Delta and Edo State. The procedures are as follows.
Stage 1: A sample of 2 Local Government Areas from each of the senatorial zone.
Stage II: Random sampling of 2 schools from each of the 2 Local Government Areas selected
in stage I and the school both junior and senior were from rural and urban schools.
Stage III: Stratified random sampling of 4,416 students from both states. In Delta, out of the
2400 sampled, 1300 were selected from female junior/senior students from urban and rural
areas and 1,100 male junior and senior students were sampled from urban and rural areas in
Delta State. Same is applicable to Edo State; out of 2016, 900 male, junior and senior
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secondary school students were sample while 1,116 female junior/senior students from urban
and rural areas were also sampled (i.e) 2016 from Edo State.
Research Instrument
The study used an instrument known as “Correlates of Students Sexual Behaviour
Scale” (CSSBS) that was constructed by the researcher.
Section A: Sought for demographic data: class, school. From the items boxes are provided
for respondents to tick (√) as applies to item.
Section B: This section measures sexuality education which was an independent variable. It
contains 12 items respectively. Using the four point rating scales: Strongly Disagreed (SD)
Disagree (D) Agree (A) and strongly agree (SA), Respondents would be asked to tick ( ) under
the rating that represents the degree of their attitude to such item. The data solicited by the
instrument is relevant to prestige and sureness/economic and non-economic. This scale
initially had 30 items was reduced to 12 through item section.
Section C: Measure sexual behaviour which is the dependent variable in the study. This
section contains 14 items.
Section D: Measure peer influence which is also independent variable. This instrument
consist of 12 items. Varimax with Kaiser Normalization rotation method was used for the
components.
Section E: Measures mass media influence which is also independent variable in the study.
This instrument consist of 11 items.
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Validity of the Instrument
In order to ascertain the degree to which the instrument measured what it is supposed
to measure, it was evaluated with the assistance of the supervisors and two other experts in
the field of measurement and evaluation in the faculty of education Delta State University,
Abraka. The instrument was screened for face validity, construct validity and content validity
and it was considered adequate by expert judgment. The principal component analysis was
used to estimate the content validity. Using the extraction method, the total cumulative
variance was obtained.
The sexual behaviour scale with initial 30 items was now reduced to 14 items with an
interclass correlation coefficient =. 805 and a 95% confidence interval between .744 and .857.
This accounted for 64.35% of variance. (See appendix). Sexuality Education scale with initial
items of 29 was now reduced to 12 items with an interclass correlation coefficient=.634 and
95% confidence interval between 519 and .732. This account for 71.82% of variable. See
appendix
Peer influence scale with initial items of 30 was reduced to 14 items with an infraclass
correlation coefficient = .627 and 95% of confidence interval between .627 and 95% of
confidence interval between .509 and .726. The plotted score out of the initial 30 items 13
items were validated to be extracted. Mass media influence scale with initial items of 20 was
reduced to 11 items with an interclass correlation coefficient = 0. 802 and 95% of confidence
interval between 0.739 and 0.855. The score plot shows that out of initial 20 items 11 items
were validated to be extracted.
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Reliability of the Instrument
To determine the reliability of the research instrument, It was initially administered to
a convenience sample of 100 respondents from junior and senior secondary school students
who were not to be part of the study. The reliability of the instrument was established by using
Cronbach Alpha for estimating the internal consistency of the instrument . The result of the
factor analysis showed that Cronbach alpha correlation for more than. 78 (see appendix). For
sexually Education scale, the Cronbach alpha coefficient was 0.634 with each of them
registering more than 0.58 reliability coefficient. For mass media influence scale the
Cronbach alpha coefficient value = 0.802 with each items registering a reliability coefficient
of more than 0.76. For Peer influence scale the Cronbach alpha coefficient reliability value
was 0.63. With each of the 13 extracted items registered more than 0.56. Coefficient reliability
(see appendix). Based on the above analysis the instrument are adequately reliable and
suitable for data collection in the proposed study.
Method of Data Collection
The researcher administered the questionnaire personally to the respondents, she
travelled to the two states, Delta and Edo to administer the questionnaire to the students in
their respective schools. The researcher employed the assistance of the classroom teachers in
administering the questionnaire and retrieving them the same day.
Method of Data Analysis
Descriptive Statistics, Simple and multiple regression models were used to analyze
the data. The hierarchical multiple regression model, SPSS 22 was used. Dummy variables
were used to measure discrete variables of location, gender, and class and school type. The
significance level was set at P<0.05 in testing the hypothesis.
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CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION OF RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Chapter four presents the results of the study followed by their discussion. The results
are presented according to the research questions and their respective hypotheses, firstly, for
each of the states and then for both states jointly. It should be noted that each research question
is addressed by its respective hypotheses.
Research Question 1
What is the relationship between sexuality education and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta
and Edo states?
Table 4.1 below presents the results of the relationship between of sexuality education and
students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo state.
Table 4.1: Mean, standard deviation and relationship between sexuality education,
student sexual behaviour of secondary school students in Delta and Edo state.
State No Variable Mean SD r r2 r2(adj)
Delta
2015 Sexuality
education
Sexual
behaviour
34.578
35.079
6.652
9.895
.454 0.215 0.215
Edo
1960 Sexuality
education
Sexual
behaviour
30.842
29.382
5.576
8.865
0.245 0.060 0.59
Combined
Delta and
Edo
3975 Sexuality
education
Sexual
behaviour
32.736
32.29
6.422
9.82
0.424 0.180 0.179
The table 4.1 above shows that for Delta state, mean for sexuality education �̅� = 34.58, SD =
6.65, r = 0.454, r2 = 0.215. This shows that there is positive and moderate relationship between
sexuality education and student sexual behaviour in Delta state. For Edo state mean for
sexuality education is �̅� = 30.84, SD = 5.58, r = 0.245, r2 = 0.060, r2(adj) = 0.59. With r =
100
0.245, this shows that the relationship between sexuality education and students’ sexual
behaviour in Edo state is positive but low.
For Delta and Edo state combined, the mean for sexuality education �̅� = 32.736, SD = 6.422,
with r = 0.424, r2 = 0.180, r2(adj) = 0.179. This shows that there is a positive and moderate
relationship between sexuality and students’ sexual behaviour in the combined state.
Research Question 2
What is the relationship between sexuality education, peer influence and student sexual
behaviour in Delta and Edo States?
Table 4.2 below presents the results of the relationship between of sexuality education, peer
influence and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo state.
Table 4.2: Mean, standard deviation and relationship between sexuality education, peer
influence and student sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo state.
State No Variable Mean SD r r2 r2(adj)
Delta
2015 SE
PIF
SSB
34.58
29.51
35.08
6.65
7.27
9.89
0.583 0.340 0.339
Edo
1960 SE
PIF
SSB
30.84
27.35
29.38
5.58
5.89
8.89
0.404 0.164 0.163
Combined
Delta and
Edo
3975 SE
PIF
SSB
32.74
28.45
32.27
6.42
6.71
9.82
0.545 0.278 0.2971
Note: Where: SE-Sexuality Education, PIF-Peer Influence, SSB– Students’ Sexual Behaviour
Table 4.2 above shows that for Delta state mean for sexuality education �̅� = 34.58, SD = 6.65
with r = 0.583, r2 = 0.340, r2(adj) = 0.339. For peer influence, �̅� = 29.51, SD = 7.27 with r =
0.583. This shows that there is a positive and moderate relationship between sexuality
education, peer influence and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta.
For Edo state, �̅� =30.84, SD = 5.58, r = 0.404, r2 = 0.164, r2(adj) = 0.163 with the r = 0.404,
this shows that there is a positive and moderate relationship between sexuality education, peer
influence and students’ sexual behaviour in Edo state.
For Delta and Edo state combined, mean for sexuality education is �̅� = 32.74, SD = 6.42, r=
0.545, r2 = 0.278, r2(adj) = 0.2971 with r = 0.545. This shows that there is a positive and
101
moderate significant relationship between, sexuality education, peer influence and students’
sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo state.
Research Question 3
What is the relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass media and student
sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo state?
Table 4.3 below presents the results of the relationship between of sexuality education, peer
influence and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo state.
Table 4.3: Mean, standard deviation and relationship between sexuality education, peer
influence, mass media and student sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo state.
State No Variable Mean SD r r2 r2(adj)
Delta
2015 SE
PIF
MM
SSB
34.58
29.51
27.64
35.08
6.652
7.271
6.797
9.894
.613 .376 0.375
Edo
1960 SE
PIF
MM
SSB
30.84
27.35
25.67
29.38
5.576
5.886
6.214
8.865
.428 0.183 0.181
Delta
and Edo
3975 SE
PIF
MM
SSB
32.74
28.45
26.67
32.27
6.422
6.711
6.589
9.822
.571 .326 0.326
Note: SE-Sexuality Education, PIF- Peer Inference, MM- Mass media, SSB-Students’ Sexual
Behaviour.
Table 4.3 above shows that in Delta state, the mean for sexuality education is �̅� = 34.58,
SD = 6.652, r = 0.613, r2 = 0.376, r2(adj) = 0.375 with r = 0.613 shows that is a positive and
moderate relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass media and students’
sexual behaviour in Delta state. For Edo state, sexuality education is �̅� = 30.84, SD = 5.576,
r = 0.428, r2 = 0.183, r2(adj) = 0.375 with r = 0.428. This shows that is a positive and moderate
relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass media and students’ sexual
behaviour in Edo state.
Consequently, Delta and Edo combined for sexuality education, �̅� = 32.74, SD = 6.422, r =
0.571, r2 = 0.326, r2(adj) = 0.326. For peer influence the mean �̅� = 28.45, SD = 6.711, for
102
mass media the mean �̅� = 26.67, SD = 6.589. With r = 0.571 there is a positive and moderate
relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass media and students’ sexual
behaviour in Delta and Edo state.
Research Question 4
What is the relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass media, location
and student sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo state?
Table 4.4 below presents the results of the relationship between of sexuality education, peer
influence, mass media, location and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo state.
Table 4.4: Mean, standard deviation and relationship between sexuality education, peer
influence, mass media, location and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo state.
State No Variable Mean SD r r2 r2(adj)
Delta
2015 SE
PIF
MM
LOC
SSB
34.58
29.51
27.64
0.635
35.08
6.652
7.271
6.797
0.482
9.845
.627 0.393 0.392
Edo
1960 SE
PIF
MM
LOC
SSB
30.84
27.35
25.67
0.040
29.38
5.576
5.886
6.214
0.491
8.865
.430 0.1847 0.1830
Delta
and
Edo
3975 SE
PIF
MM
LOC
SSB
32.74
28.45
26.67
0.520
32.27
6.422
6.712
6.589
0.490
9.822
.573 0.327 0.328
Note: SE- Sexuality Education, PIF- Peer Influence, MM-mass Media, LOC-Location, SSB- Students’ Sexual
Behaviour.
Table 4.4 above shows that in Delta state the mean for sexuality education is �̅� = 34.58, SD =
6.652, r = 6.627, r2 = 0.393, r2(adj) = 0.392. For the peer influence the �̅� = 29.51, SD = 7.271;
for mass media �̅� = 27.64, SD = 6.797; for location �̅� = 6.635, SD = 0.482. With r2 = 0.627,
this shows that there is a positive and moderate relationship between sexuality education, peer
influence, mass media, location and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta state.
For Edo state, the mean for sexuality education is �̅� = 30.84, SD = 5.576, r = 0.430, r2 =
0.1847, r2(adj) = 0.1830. For peer influence �̅� = 27.35, SD = 5.886; for mass media �̅� = 25.67,
103
SD = 6.214; for location �̅� = 0.040, SD = 0.491. With r = 0.430 this shows that there is a
positive relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass media, location and
students’ sexual in behaviour Edo state.
For Delta and Edo state combined, for sexuality education the �̅� = 32.74, SD = 6.422, r =
0.573, r 2 = 0.327, r2(adj) = 0.328. For peer influence �̅� = 28.45, SD = 6.712; for mass media
�̅� = 26.67, SD = 6.589; for location �̅� = 0.520, SD = 0.490. This shows that there is a
significant positive and moderate relationship between sexuality education, peer influence,
mass media, location and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo state combined.
Research Question 5
What is the relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass media, location,
gender and student sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo state.
Table 4.5 below presents the results of the relationship between of sexuality education, peer
influence, mass media, location, gender and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo state.
Table 4.5: Mean, standard deviation, relationship between sexuality education, peer
influence, mass media, location, gender and student sexual behaviour.
State No Variable Mean SD r r2 r2(adj)
Delta
2015 SE
PIF
MM
LOC
GD
SSB
34.58
29.51
27.64
0.635
0.548
35.08
6.652
7.271
6.777
0.482
0.498
6.562
.639 .408 .407
Edo
1960 SE
PIF
MM
LOC
GD
SSB
30.84
27.35
25.67
0.0406
0.456
29.38
5.578
5.886
6.214
0.491
0.498
8.865
.438 .192 0.189
Delta
and Edo
3975 SE
PIF
MM
LOC
GD
SSB
32.74
28.45
26.67
0.520
0.501
32.27
6.422
9.822
0.589
0.490
0.500
9.822
.579 0.336 0.335
Note: SE- Sexuality Education, PIF- Peer Influence, MM-mass Media, LOC-Location, GD-Gender, SSB-
Students’ Sexual Behaviour.
104
Table 4.5 above shows that in Delta state the mean for sexuality education is �̅� = 34.58, SD =
6.652, r = 0.639, r 2 = 0.408, r 2(adj) = 0.407. For peer influence �̅� = 29.51, SD = 7.271; for
mass media �̅� = 27.64, SD = 6.777; for location �̅� = 0.635, SD = 0.482; for gender �̅� = 0.548,
SD = 0.498. With r = 0.438 there is a direct and moderate relationship between sexuality
education, peer influence, mass media, location, gender and students sexual behaviour in
Delta state.
Furthermore, in Edo state, the mean for sexuality education �̅� = 30.84, SD = 5.578, r
= 0.438, r 2 = 0.192, r 2(adj) = 0.189. For peer influence �̅� = 27.35, SD = 5.886; for mass media
�̅� = 25.67, SD = 6.214; for location �̅� = 0.0406, SD = 0.491; for gender �̅� = 0.456, SD = 0.498.
This shows that there is a direct and moderate relationship between sexuality education, peer
influence, mass media, location, gender and students sexual behaviour in Edo state.
For Delta and Edo state combined, the mean for sexuality education is �̅� = 32.74, SD
= 6.422, r = 0.579, r 2 = 0.336, r 2(adj) = 0.335. For peer influence �̅� = 28.45, SD = 9.822; for
mass media �̅� = 26.67, SD = 0.589; for location �̅� = 0.520, SD = 0.490; for gender �̅� = 0.501,
SD = 0.500. With r = 0.579 there is a direct and moderate relationship between sexuality
education, peer influence, mass media, location, gender and students’ sexual behaviour in
Delta and Edo state combined.
Research Question 6
What is the relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass media, location,
gender, class and student sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo state.
Table 4.6 below presents the results of the relationship between of sexuality education, peer
influence, mass media, location, gender, class and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and
Edo state.
105
Table 4.6: Mean, standard deviation and relationship between sexuality education, peer
influence, mass media, location, gender, class and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta
and Edo state.
State No Variable Mean SD r r2 r2(adj)
Delta
2015 SE
PIF
MM
LOC
GD
CL
SSB
34.56
29.51
27.64
0.635
0.548
0.531
35.08
6.652
7.271
6.797
0.482
0.498
0.504
9.895
.640 .410 .408
Edo
1960 SE
PIF
MM
LOC
GD
CL
SSB
30.84
27.35
25.67
0.406
0.456
0.533
29.38
5.578
5.886
6.214
0.491
8.865
0.499
8.865
.444 0.197 0.195
Delta
and Edo
3975 SE
PIF
MM
LOC
GD
CL
SSB
32.74
28.45
26.67
0.522
0.501
0.532
32.27
6.422
6.712
6.589
0.490
0.500
0.502
9.822
.580 0.336 0.335
Note: SE- Sexuality Education, PIF- Peer Influence, MM-mass Media, LOC-Location, GD-Gender, CL- Class,
SSB- Students’ Sexual Behaviour.
Table 4.6 above shows that in Delta state the mean for sexuality education is �̅� = 34.56, SD =
6.652, r = 0.640, r 2 = 0.410, r 2(adj) = 0.408. For peer influence �̅� = 29.51, SD = 7.271; for
mass media �̅� = 27.64, SD = 6.797; for location �̅� = 0.635, SD = 0.482; for gender �̅� = 0.548,
SD = 0.498; for class �̅� = 0.531, SD = 0.504. With r = 0.640 there is a direct and moderate
relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass media, location, gender, class
and students sexual behaviour in Delta state.
Furthermore, in Edo state, the mean for sexuality education �̅� = 30.84, SD = 5.578, R = 0.444,
r 2 = 0.197, r 2(adj) = 0.195. For peer influence �̅� = 27.35, SD = 5.886; for mass media �̅� =
106
25.67, SD = 6.214; for location �̅� = 0.406, SD = 0.491; for gender �̅� = 0.456, SD = -0.498;
for class �̅� = 0.533, SD = 0.499. This shows that there is a direct and moderate relationship
between sexuality education, peer influence, mass media, location, gender, class and students
sexual behaviour in Edo state.
For Delta and Edo state combined, the mean for sexuality education is �̅� = 32.74, SD = 6.422,
r = 0.580, r 2 = 0.336, r2(adj) = 0.335. For peer influence �̅� = 28.45, SD = 6.712; for mass
media �̅� = 26.67, SD = 6.589; for location �̅� = 0.522, SD = 0.490; for gender �̅� = 0.501, SD
= 0.500; class �̅� = 0.532, SD = 0.502. With r = 0.580 there is a direct and moderate
relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass media, location, gender, class
and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo state combined.
Research Question 7
What is the relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass media, location,
gender, class, school type and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo state?
Table 4.7 below presents the results of the relationship between of sexuality education, peer
influence, mass media, location, gender, class, school type and students’ sexual behaviour in
Delta and Edo state.
107
Table 4.7: Mean, standard deviation and relationship between sexuality education, peer
influence, mass media, location, gender, class, school type and students’ sexual
behaviour in Delta and Edo state?
State No Variable Mean SD r r2 r2(adj)
Delta
2015 SE
PIF
MM
LOC
GD
CL
ST
SSB
34.58
29.51
27.64
0.635
0.5484
0.5310
0.3350
35.08
6.652
7.271
6.797
0.482
0.504
0.5904
0.482
9.894
.641 .412 .409
Edo
1960 SE
PIF
MM
LOC
GD
CL
ST
SSB
30.84
27.35
25.67
0.406
0.452
0.533
0.635
29.38
5.578
5.886
6.214
0.491
0.498
0.499
0.482
8.865
.444 .198 .195
Delta
and Edo
3975 SE
PIF
MM
LOC
GD
CL
ST
SSB
32.74
28.45
26.65
0.522
0.501
0.532
0.483
32.27
9.822
6.712
6.589
0.499
0.500
0.506
0.499
9.822
.580 .336 .335
Note: SE- Sexuality Education, PIF- Peer Influence, MM-mass Media, LOC-Location, GD-Gender, ST-school
type, SSB- Students’ Sexual Behaviour.
Table 4.7 above shows that in Delta state the mean for sexuality education is �̅� = 34.58, SD =
6.652, r = 0.641, r 2 = 0.412, r 2(adj) = 0.409. For peer influence �̅� = 29.51, SD = 7.271; for
mass media �̅� = 27.64, SD = 6.797; for location �̅� = 0.635, SD = 0.482; for gender �̅� = 0.5484,
SD = 0.504; for class �̅� = 0.5310, SD = 0.5904; for school type �̅� = 0.3350, SD = 0.482. With
r = 0.641 there is a direct and moderate relationship between sexuality education, peer
influence, mass media, location, gender, class, school type and students sexual behaviour in
Delta state.
108
Furthermore, in Edo state, the mean for sexuality education �̅� = 30.84, SD = 5.578, r = 0.444,
r 2 = 0.198, r 2(adj) = 0.195. For peer influence �̅� = 27.35, SD = 5.886; for mass media �̅� =
25.67, SD = 6.214; for location �̅� = 0.406, SD = 0.491; for gender �̅� = 0.452, SD = -0.498;
for class �̅� = 0.533, SD = 0.499, for school type �̅� = 0.635, SD = 0.482. This shows that there
is a direct and moderate relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass media,
location, gender, class, school type and students sexual behaviour in Edo state.
For Delta and Edo state combined, the mean for sexuality education is �̅� = 32.74, SD = 9.822,
r = 0.580, r2 = 0.336, r2(adj) = 0.335. For peer influence �̅� = 28.45, SD = 6.712; for mass
media �̅� = 26.65, SD = 6.589; for location �̅� = 0.522, SD = +++
0.490; for gender �̅� = 0.501, SD = 0.500; class �̅� = 0.532, SD = 0.506; for school type �̅� =
0.483, SD = 0.499. With r = 0.580 there is a direct and moderate relationship between
sexuality education, peer influence, mass media, location, gender, class and students’ sexual
behaviour in Delta and Edo state combined.
Hypothesis 1
HO1: There is no significant relationship between sexuality education and students sexual
behaviour
The results presented in table 4.8 below
Predictor
Variables Coefficient Std Error t P
Constant 11.0205 0.73293 15.04 0.0000
Sexuality Education 0.64913 0.02197 29.545 0.0000
R-Squared 0.1801 Resid. Mean Square (MSE) 79.1181
Adjusted R-Squared 0.1799 Standard Deviation 8.89484
Source DF SS MS F P
Regression 1 69064 69063.5 872.92 0.0000
Residual 3973 314336 79.1
Total 3974 383400
Predictor: Sexuality Education
Dependent Variable: Sexual Behaviour
109
From Table 4.8 r2 = .18, r 2(adj) = .18, F = 872.92 P = 0.000. With F = 872.92 and P = 0.000,
the relationship between sexuality education and students’ sexual behaviour is significant.
The hypotheses, HO1 which states that there is no significant relationship between sexuality
education and students’ sexual behaviour is hereby rejected. With r2 = .18, sexuality education
accounted for 18% variation of sexual behaviour
Hypothesis 2
HO2: There is no significant relationship between sexuality education, peer influence and
students sexual behaviour.
The results presented in table 4.9 below
Predictor
Variables Coefficient Std Error t P VIF
Constant 2.47348 0.75534 3.27 0.0011
Sexuality education 0.44170 0.02188 20.19 0.0000 1.2
Peer influence 0.53918 0.02093 25.76 0.0000 1.2
R-Squared 0.2975 Resid. Mean Square (MSE) 67.8116
Adjusted R-Squared 0.2971 Standard Deviation 8.23478
Source DF SS MS F P
Regression 2 114052 57026.0 840.95 0.0036
Residual 3972 269348 67.8
Total 3974 383400
Predictor: Sexuality Education, Peer influence
Dependent Variable: Sexual behaviour.
From Table 4.9, r 2 = .30, r2(adj) = .30, p = 840.95, p = 0036, the relationship between sexuality
education, peer influence and sexual behaviour of students is significant. With T = 20.19, P =
0.000 for sexuality education and also peer influence with t = 25.76 P = 0.000 is also
significant with the above computation. The hypothesis which states that there is no
significant relationship between sexuality education, peer influence and students’ sexual
behaviour is rejected. This indicates that there is a significant relationship between sexuality
education, peer influence and students’ sexual behaviour. The analysis of variance showed
that sexuality education with t = 20.19, P = 0.000 and peer influence with t = 25.76, P = 0.000
110
are significant. The two variables accounted for 30% variation, peer influence with T = 25.76
accounted for more of the variation.
Hypothesis 3
HO3: There is no significant relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass
media and students’ sexual behaviour.
Table 4:10 presents the regression analysis of sexuality education, peer influence, mass
media and students’ sexual behaviour.
Predictor
Variables Coefficient Std Error T P VIF
Constant -0.56468 0.77546 -0.73 0.4665
Sexuality education 0.40853 0.02157 18.94 0.0000 1.2
Peer influence 0.40938 0.02278 17.97 0.0000 1.4
Mass media 0.29313 0.02245 13.06 0.0000 1.3
R-Squared 0.3264 Resid. Mean Square (MSE) 65.0368
Adjusted R-Squared 0.3259 Standard Deviation 8.06454
Source DF SS MS F P
Regression 3 125139 41712.9 641.37 0.0053
Residual 3971 258261 65.0
Total 3974 383400
Predictor: Sexuality education, peer influence, mass media, sexual behaviour
The regression output in table 4.10 reveals that sexuality education, peer influence and
mass media affects students sexual behaviour, r 2 = 33, r 2(adj) = 33, F=641.37, P=0.00036.
The relationship between sexuality education, peer influence mass media and student’s sexual
behaviour are significant. The analysis of variance of the regression function shows that
sexuality education with t=18.941, and p=0.000, peer influence with t=17097, p=0.000 and
mass media with t= 13.06, P=0.000 as significant. The analysis of variance showed that
sexuality education with t = 18.94, P = 0.000; peer influence t = 17.97, P = 0.000 and mass
media with T = 13.06, P = 0.000 are significant. The three variables accounted for 33%
variation, sexuality education with T = 18.94 accounted for more of the variation.
111
Hypothesis 4
There is no significant relationship between sexuality education, and students’ sexual
behaviour.
The results presented in table 4.11 below
Predictor
Variables Coefficient Std Error t P VIF
Constant 0.07747 0.79260 0.10 0.9221
Sexuality education 0.41565 0.02162 19.22 0.0000 1.2
Peer influence 0.40399 0.02279 17.73 0.0000 1.4
Mass media 0.28519 0.02251 12.67 0.0000 1.3
Location -0.97719 0.25862 -3.78 0.0002 1.0
R-Squared 0.3288 Resid. Mean Square (MSE) 64.8200
Adjusted R-Squared 0.3281 Standard Deviation 8.05109
Source DF SS MS F P
Regression 4 126064 31516.1 486.21 0.0052
Residual 3970 257336 64.8
Total 3974 383400
Predictors: Sexuality education, peer influence, and mass media location
Dependent variable: Sexual behaviour
The regression output in table in Table 4.11, reveals that there is significant
relationship between sexuality education, mass media location and students’ sexual
behaviour. r = 0.33, r2 = 0.33, F= 486.21, P=0.0052. The relationship between sexuality
education, mass media location and students’ sexual behaviour is significant. The null
hypothesis. Consequently, the null hypothesis of no significant relationship between sexuality
education, mass media location and students’ sexual behaviour is rejected. This means that
there is a significant relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass media,
location and students’ sexual behaviour. The analysis of variance showed that sexuality
education with t = 19.22, P = 0.000; peer influence with t = 17.73, P = 0.000, mass media with
t = 12.67, P = 0.000 and location with t = -3.78, P = 0.0002 are significant. The four variables
accounted for 33% variation, sexuality education with t = 19.22 accounted for more of the
variation and location accounted for the lowest variation with t = -3.78.
112
Hypothesis 5
Ho5: There is no significant relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass
media, location, gender and students’ sexual behaviour.
The results presented in table 4.12 below
Predictor
Variables Coefficient Std Error t P VIF
Constant 1.12409 0.80560 1.40 0.1630
Sexuality education 0.40004 0.02165 18.48 0.0000 1.2
Peer influence 0.40551 0.02268 17.88 0.0000 1.4
Mass media 0.28440 0.02240 12.70 0.0000 1.3
Location -0.46501 0.26960 -1.72 0.0846 1.1
Gender -1.22734 0.25730 -0.88 0.3770 1.0
R-Squared 0.3356 Resid. Mean Square (MSE) 64.1798
Adjusted R-Squared 0.3348 Standard Deviation 8.01123
Source DF SS MS F P
Regression 5 128670 25734.0 400.97 0.0057
Residual 3969 254730 64.2
Total 3974 383400
Predictor: sexuality education, mass media, location, gender.
Dependent variable: sexual behaviour.
Table 4.12 above shows that the regression function with F = 400.97, P = 0.0057 is significant.
Therefore the relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass media, location,
gender and students sexual behaviour is significant. However, an examination of the analysis
of variance shows that location with t = -1.72, P = 0.084 and gender with t = -0.88, P = 0.3770
are not significant. The variables which were significant are sexuality education with T =
18.48, P = 0.000; peer influence with t = 17.88, P = 0.000 and mass media with t = 12.70, P
= 0.000 are significant. These variables; sexuality education, peer influence and mass media
accounted for 33% variation.
113
Hypothesis 6
Ho6: There is no significant relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass
media, location, gender, class and students’ sexual behaviour.
The results presented in table 4.13 below
Predictor
Variables Coefficient Std Error t P VIF
Constant 1.20771 0.79830 0.26 0.7947
Sexuality education 0.41436 0.02166 19.13 0.0000 1.2
Peer influence 0.40823 0.02306 17.70 0.0000 1.5
Mass media 0.28662 0.02254 12.72 0.0000 1.4
Location -0.95391 0.26016 -3.67 0.0002 1.0
Gender -0.22734 0.25730 -0.88 0.3770 1.0
class -0.27321 0.25926 -1.05 0.2920 1.0
R-Squared 0.3291 Resid. Mean Square (MSE) 64.8212
Adjusted R-Squared 0.3281 Standard Deviation 8.05116
Source DF SS MS F P
Regression 6 126189 21031.5 324.45 0.0056
Residual 3968 257211 64.8
Total 3974 383400
Predictors: Sexuality education, Peer influence, Mass media, Location, Gender, Class.
Dependent variable: Sexual behaviour
Table 4.13 above shows that the regression function with F = 324.45, P = 0.0056 is significant.
Therefore the relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass media, location,
gender, class and students sexual behaviour is significant. However, an examination of the
analysis of variance shows that location with t = -3.67, P = 0.0002; gender with t = -0.88, P =
0.3770 and class with t = -1.05, P = 0.2920 are not significant. The variables which were
significant are sexuality education with t = 19.13, P = 0.000; peer influence with t = 17.70, P
= 0.000 and mass media with t = 12.72, P = 0.000 are significant. These variables; sexuality
education, peer influence and mass media accounted for 33% variation.
Hypothesis 7
Ho7: There is no significant relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass
media, location, gender, class, school type and students’ sexual behaviour.
114
The results presented in table 4.14 below
Predictor
Variables Coefficient Std Error t P VIF
Constant 1.25902 0.81117 1.55 0.1207
Sexuality education 0.39838 0.02170 18.36 0.0000 1.2
Peer influence 0.41043 0.02295 17.89 0.0000 1.5
Mass media 0.28586 0.02242 12.75 0.0000 1.4
Location -0.44529 0.27082 -1.64 0.1002 1.1
Gender -1.17919 0.25613 -0.70 0.4842 1.0
Class -0.33253 0.25813 -1.29 0.1977 1.0
School type -0.71501 0.26835 -6.39 0.0000 1.1
R-Squared 0.3360 Resid. Mean Square (MSE) 64.1768
Adjusted R-Squared 0.3348 Standard Deviation 8.01104
Source DF SS MS F P
Regression 7 128810 18401.5 286.73 0.0058
Residual 3967 254589 64.2
Total 3974 383400
Predictor: sexuality education, peer influence, mass media, location, gender, class, school
type student’s sexual behaviour.
Dependent variable: student’s sexual behaviour
Table 4.14 above shows that the regression function with F = 286.73, P = 0.0058 is significant.
Therefore the relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass media, location,
gender, class, school type and students sexual behaviour is significant. However, an
examination of the analysis of variance shows that location with t = -1.64, P = 0.1002; gender
with t = -0.70, P = 0.4842 and class with t = -1.29, P = 0.1977 are not significant. The variables
which were significant are sexuality education with t = 18.36, P = 0.0000; peer influence with
t = 17.89, P = 0.0000 mass media with t = 12.75, P = 0.0000 and school type with t = -6.39,
P = 0.0000 are significant. When all the variables are in the regression function; sexuality
education, peer influence, mass media and school type accounted are significant and
contributed 34% variation. The variables location, gender and class are not significant and
therefore do not account for any variation.
115
Discussion of Findings
The study examined sexuality education, peer influence, Mass media as correlates of
students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo State. The findings are discussed below:
Sexuality Education and Sexual Behaviour
+ The study showed that there is a significant relationship between sexuality education
and students sexual behaviour. This positive relationship suggests that the more sexuality
education is expose to students, the better their sexual behaviour. Another reason is that
sexuality education helps to improve sexual behaviour; hence, students who receive sex
education are most likely to have better orientation towards sex than those without sexual
education. There is need therefore to educate the adolescent at the early stage in life
concerning their sexual life as this will help them to develop positive attitude towards their
reproductive health knowledge. This finding agrees with the observation of Adegboyega and
Fabiji (1994) who explained that sex education provides opportunities for young people to
develop skills, which in turn helps them develop a better attitude towards sex.
The result also corroborates the view of Awake (2001) who noted that sexuality
education helps young people to prepare to meet the problems of life that are centered on sex
instincts which are inevitable, thereby agreeing with the findings of the present study. Also,
the finding is in line with Momodu (1988) who opined that sexuality education is important
to students because it promotes understanding and tolerance towards others and their ways of
life. The findings also corroborates the view of Mueller (2008), who noted that sexuality
education imparted through schools can prove to be a significant and effective method of
bettering youngsters’ sex-related knowledge, attitude and behaviour. This is in line with the
outcome of this study. The outcome of this study agrees with the findings of who Adegoke
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(2003) and Kulkarni (2008), which claimed that teaching them about sex will give them
information concerning the risk involved in engaging in premarital sex.
The finding of this study concur with the views of UNESCO (2009), contented that
primary goal of sexuality education is to equip children and young people with the knowledge,
skills and values to make responsible choices about their sexual and social relationships in a
world affected by HIV. In addition to learning about the risks of pregnancy and sexually
transmitted infections (including HIV), children and young people also need to learn about
the risk of sexual exploitation and abuse in order to recognize these when they occur, to
protect themselves as far as possible and to identify and access available sources of support.
Sensitizing children, parents, teachers, police and local communities to the nature and extent
of sexual violence, and giving permission to discuss it, are essential steps in tackling it.
Sexuality education can provide an appropriate framework and context for educating students
about sexual abuse.
The present study did not collaborate with the findings of Wanyonyi (2014) which
suggests that the bumpy road that the Government of Kenya has travelled in seeking to
introduce Sexuality Education is presented with the indication that in spite of all controversies
and challenges, the Government of Kenya has made attempts to implement aspects of
Sexuality Education in secondary schools. These aspects have been integrated into various
curricula. For example, an AIDS education curriculum has been integrated in various subjects
in secondary schools. The most notable and holistic integration of the aspects of Sexuality
Education is in the Christian Religious Knowledge (C.R.S) curriculum where these aspects
are taught in the form four C.R.E syllabus content. This is because, according to the findings
of this study, the technological development of mass media have played down the role of
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sexuality education. Therefore, sexuality education cannot be seen as the only source of
information about human sexuality. Although, mass media has positive and negative influence
on sexual behaviour of students.
Peer Group Influence and Sexual Behaviour
The study demonstrated that there is a significant relationship between peer influence
and students’ sexual behaviour. This means that as peer groups influence increase, sexual
behaviour also increases, since peer group influence or peer pressure is described as the
instances where an individual feels indirectly pressured into changing his/her behaviour to
match that of his/ her peers. The probable reason for this finding is that matured persons and
children alike are influenced by their peers. But the younger ones are more vulnerable to
negative influence because they are still in the process of development. Another reason is that
the influence of peers may have contributed to make the students more engulfed in the
activities of sexual intercourse, because they believe that whatever their peers do is the best
for them rather than receiving instructions from their parents. It therefore implies that peer
influence could be negative or positive. This may therefore mean that a student that finds
himself in the right peer group will develop a good behaviour towards sex, while the one who
finds himself in the wrong peer group may develop a wrong behaviour or attitude towards
sex. The findings of this study also concur with the work of Billy and Udry (1985) who
stressed that best friend’s sexual experience was strongly associated with the initiation of
intercourse for white females, although no information was given for blacks of both genders.
Also the outcone of this study concur with the work of DiClemente (1991; 1992) which
claimed- that students who believe their peers are using condoms are also more than twice
likely to use condoms compared with teens who do not believe their peers use condom. In
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this study it has been demonstrated that peer influence has a significant role to play in the life
of the students. This is in support with the work of Bersamin et al., (2006) and Romer et al.,
(2004) which stressed that there is a strong association between students’ self-reported sexual
initiation and their perceptions of the sexual activities of their close friends.
It was a clear issue that peer group is important for boys to gain information and
knowledge concerning human sexuality. The present research collaborated with the
viewpoints of (Ochieng, Kakai and Abok (2011) which stressed that for student girls, the peer
group is also important, and that both boys and girls rely heavily upon school and peers, and
the media to a lesser extent, to develop their knowledge about sexual activity and relations.
Peers provide students with models, support and identity. The factors that predispose students
to engage in sex behaviours have been identified as: having peers who are sexually active and
who pressurize others to engage in sex.
The present research disagreed with the viewpoint of Miller and Major (2011) who
stressed that sexual behaviour of students’ may be controlled by the influence of home
background of the students. They believe that since the home is the first agent of socialization,
it will play an important role in amending the sexual behaviour of the adolescent. The probable
reason for this finding is that peer influence has a great influence in the behaviour and attitude
of their peers. Hence, a child that has positive influence towards his/her peer, it can make that
students to change for good.
The present work did not collaborate with the work of Tabitha & Habil (1995) who
noticed the low percentage of adolescents who reported being pressured by peers seem to
contradict the view that adolescents are under great pressure from their peers to engage in
sexual intercourse.
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Mass Media and Sexual Behaviour
The study showed that there is significant relationship between mass media and
students’ sexual behaviour. The influence of mass media on sexual behaviour of students
could be due to the fact that sexuality education may be embedded in mass media which is a
form of informal education. The probable reason for this finding is that the access to electronic
media, such as television, video, satellite and internet bring about permissive attitude of the
students. Another reason is that mass media have influence on students’ sexual behaviour
because they are living day and night with information from the media which embedded on
issues relating to sex. They believe that mass media will provide them with the knowledge
needed to adjust with, concerning their sexual life. The current research collaborated with the
findings of American Academy of Pediatrics (2003) on the media habit of United States
children. The study mentioned that almost 70% of children under two years spend average of
two hours every day watching television shows or videos. With this electronic media the
reasons for the media to influence the sexual behaviour of the student is eminent.
This implies that the more frequently mass media is accessed, the more sexual
behaviour is exhibited by students. Certainly, students are the vigorous users of the
information broadcast in the media. Werner-Wilson et al.,.(2004) observed that many studies
have shown that mass media negatively influences sexual behaviour among teens. Stern &
Handel (2001); Wakefield et al. (2010) also agrees with this observation, and this is in line
with the findings of this study. Hald (2013) found that the frequency of internet sexually
explicit material consumption was associated with adventurous sex, paying for sex or being
paid for sex. This also agrees with the findings of this study,
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The present research disagreed with the study of Moscovitch (2007) who observed
that mass media has a positive influence among the students, she went further to portray that
mass media is a useful source of information and entertainment as well as helping the family
to stay in contact with greater ease. The probable reason is that, it was generally believe that
mass media has great negative influence on students behaviour. The study claimed that there
are more negative influence mass media usage.
Location and Sexual Behaviour
The study demonstrated that there is no significant relationship between location and
students’ sexual behaviour. The reason is that sexual behaviour is more or less the same for
students in rural and urban areas. This is because, the use of internet have opened the eyes of
rural girls and boys. Another reason is that students in rural areas are behaving the same way
with those in urban areas, because the popularity of media, for instance, hand-set have
changed their mentality unlike before when there is nothing like social media, so location
have no significant influence on students sexual behaviour as the study revealed. This means
that both male and female students in urban and rural secondary schools are all sexually active.
The finding in this study disagrees with the work of Nyanzi et al., (2005), which stressed that
difference in living location (urban or rural areas) can lead to different sexual behaviour
patterns among students. For instance, young men and women in the ages 15- 24years in urban
settlements are more likely to have comprehensive knowledge of sexual behaviour. He also
claimed that female students in urban areas with higher education have lower chances of
having sex in earlier ages than their counterparts in rural settlements.
Another reasons for this significant relationship is not farfetched because, the students
in rural areas only depends on their cultural norms and values in determining their level of
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sexual behaviour. In some rural environment, their culture permit a student with age of 15 to
have boyfriend. And so they have sexual intercourse without knowing the measure to control
their sexual behave thereby involving themselves in an unwanted pregnancy and contract of
sexually transmitted disease. Unlike their counterpart in urban settlement, who have gathered
tremendous knowledge concerning their sexual behaviour. They are aware of different types
of contraceptives and so the urban dwellers have a lower chance of been influence present
study did not support the view of the above claim because the use of handset have changed
their sexual behaviour they no longer fall victim of unwanted pregnancy or sexually
transmitted diseases.
Gender and Sexual Behaviour
The finding of this study has revealed that there is no significant correlation between
gender and sexual behaviour. It is obvious that both male and female students are sexually
active or they engage in sex, the reason for this is that sexual behaviour among students may
not be impulsive as it is influenced by a host of factors such as; sexuality education, peer
influence and mass media in varying degrees. The observation of this present study did not
collaborate with Wang’eri, and Otanga (2013) who stressed that more males than females
reported having pressurized by peers to engage in the sexual behaviours investigated but
contrary to expectation those reporting to have been pressurized to engage in sexual
intercourse were few. Most students manage to avoid intense problems as they receive
adequate support from the family and friends. Only a small number of students experienced
acute depression due to stress from their peers. The findings claim that there was no significant
relationship between gender and sexual behaviour of students. The probable reason is that,
male and female students have equal access to the internet.
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Class and Sexual Behaviour
The finding of this study has shown that there was no significant relationship between
class and sexual behaviour of students. This means that sexual behaviour is the same, among
junior and senior secondary school students. Both junior and senior secondary students are
sexually active. If this be the case their sexual activities may have started in early adolescence.
This may be the result of media influence. The present study did not support the viewpoint of
the Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (2002), they investigated on sexual attitude and
behaviour of high school male students, and they claimed that sexual behaviour increases by
age. This means that as student moves from one class to another their age also increases. In
the same vein their sexual urge also increases with age.
School Type and Students Sexual Behaviour
The finding of this study has indicated that there is significant correlation between
school type and students sexual behaviour. This means that the type of school students attend,
plays a dominant role in their skill development as well as their academic activities. It also
means that the mixed schools are more involved in sexual behaviour as a result of their
opposite sex. The present study concurred with the work of Ajuwon, Faromoju, and Ladipo
(2006), they stressed that male sex school were more likely to be involved in sexual
intercourse than the female sex schools.
The result of this study is in consonance with the viewpoint of like Alika (2007) who
argued that about 10% of girls’ dropped out of school, because of bulling by the male students.
Also the finding were in consonance with the findings of Ajala (1998), though did not use life
skills as treatment, found significant difference between sexual behaviour of those exposed to
sex education, and those who had no treatment. This also confirms the findings of Isiugo-
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Abanihe and Offrey (2003) and Fola-Anoemuah (2004) who found significant effects in the
knowledge and attitude indicators of sexuality education influence. This study agree with the
present study, that school type can influence sexual behaviour.
The present study is not in consonance with the work of Ekanem (2008) who confirms
that mixed school is superior to single school. He also noted that the mean difference between
the two, single-sex school was not statistically significant.
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CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
This chapter focuses on the concluding aspect of the study under the following sub-heading:
Summary of Study
Conclusion
Implication for Counselling
Recommendations
Contributions to Knowledge
Suggestion for further Study
Summary
The study examined the correlation among sexuality education, peer influence, mass
media, and sexual behaviour among students in junior and senior secondary schools students. In
Delta and Edo State. Seven (7) research questions and seven (7) hypotheses was formulated. The
first research question focused on the extent of relationship between sexuality education and
location among students, while the null hypothesis focused on the relationship between these
variables. Subsequently, the other research questions focused on the extent of relationship among
the variables in a stepwise manner, while the null hypotheses focused on the relationship among
independent, mediating variables and the dependent variable in the same order.
The study was a correlation study that employed questionnaire type of instrument titled:
correlate of students’ sexual behaviour scale (CSSBS). The research instrument consists of five
sections (A to E). The data collected from 4,416 respondents were analyzed with the linear and
multiple correlation and regression analysis, and the results presented in Tables 4.1 to 4.21. The
findings listed below were arrived at from the analysis of the data.
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The following are the findings in this study:
i. There was a direct and moderate relationship between sexuality education and sexual
behaviour of students in Delta and Edo States.
ii. There was a moderate and direct relationship between peer influence and students’ sexual
behaviour in Delta and Edo States.
iii. There was a significant relationship between mass media and students’ sexual behaviour
in Delta and Edo States.
iv. There was a relationship between school type and students sexual behaviour in Delta and
Edo States.
v. There was no significant relationship between Location and students sexual behaviour in
Delta and Edo States.
vi. It was also investigated that there was no significant relationship between Class and
students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo States.
vii. Lastly, it was investigated that there was an inverse relationship between Gender and
students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo States.
Conclusion
Sexual behaviour in adolescence is inevitable as it is a developmental task. Its
orientation includes physiological, psychological and sociological influences. Research has
reported different findings. In this investigation, it is demonstrated that students engage in sex
and that their sexual behaviour is influenced by peer pressure, sexuality education and mass
media, in diverse degrees. In view of this, this study concludes that since sexual behaviour is
practiced by adolescents, measures should be taken to minimize its negative effects because
to stop it altogether may not be feasible.
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Implication for Counselling
Counsellors could offer to organize group counselling programme to address
the issue of unpleasant sexual behaviour among secondary school students.
Secondly, the professional school counsellor should work hand in hand with the school
personnel to give public enlightenment programmes in the school premises against
negative influence of mass media and how the student should try as much as possible
not to be influenced negatively by their peers.
Lastly, as the session begins the counselling centre is to organize an orientation
programmes for all new and old students, the purpose or objective of the orientation is
to spelt out the ills and consequences of students involving themselves in an unpleasant
sexual behaviour as well as adopting to negative peer influence so as to caution them
not to be involved.
Recommendations
Based on the conclusion reached on the study, the following recommendation where
made.
i. The Federal and State Ministries of Education as well as the Local Education board
should create an enlightenment campaign programme that concerns sexuality
education. This programme will include students, teachers and parents. The campaign
will address cautious sex amongst youths and to change their beliefs, perception,
attitude and behaviour in accordance with relevant facts and concepts towards human
sexuality.
ii. The directors on film and media matters like senate committee on media should
exclude sexually suggestive part of reality show. The media can also use student to
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model good sexual behaviour such as popular “Binta and Friends” programme on
television.
iii. Group counselling should on sexuality education should be made compulsory by the
department of counselling through the ministry of education. Teachers and counsellor
should teach or counsel on the issues relating to sexual behaviour without
embarrassment.
Contributions to Knowledge
The study provides following contribution to knowledge:
i. There is no gender difference in students sexual behaviour i.e both male and female
students engage in sex.
ii. That sexual behaviour may not be impulsive as it is influenced by host of factors such
as sexuality education, peer influence and mass media in varying degrees.
iii. It may not be feasible to eliminate sex in secondary schools.
iv. That sexual behaviour is more in mixed schools than single schools.
Suggestion for Further Study
There is need for further research to cover the variables that had influence on sexual
behaviour among older students such as those in tertiary institutions so as to evaluate the
strength of these variables in generally influencing sexual behaviour, and as such ascertain
that no other variable is responsible for the influence they had.
128
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DEPARTMENT OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELING
DELTA STATE UNIVERSITY, ABRAKA
CORRELATE OF STUDENTS’ SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR SCALE (CSSBS)
Information
This questionnaire is designed to elicit information from junior and senior secondary
school students. It will be used for the purpose of carrying out a research investigation only.
Please kindly and honestly respond to this items, and your answers will be kept in strict
confidence.
RESPONDENTS BIODATA
Instruction:
Fill the blank space and tick (√) where appropriate.
1. Location of school: Urban ( ) Rural ( )
2. Nature of school: Mixed ( ) Single ( )
3. Gender of respondent: Male ( ) Female ( )
4. Class: JSS 1 ( ) SS I ( )
SECTION B
Sexuality education scale (SSES)
Rank extent to which you agree or disagree with the following statement.
Note that:
SA – strongly agree, A – Agree, D – Disagree, SD – Strongly Disagree
S/N ITEM SA A D SD
1 sexuality education delay first sexual involvement
2 Most of the secondary school student are sexually
active.
3 Ejaculation ability in male is an indication of
manhood.
4 Monthly menstruation in female indicate attainment
of womanhood.
5 Sex with the opposite partner can lead to pregnancy.
6 Most unwanted pregnancies are terminated legally
through abortion
7 Ejaculation ability in male are indication of the
attainment of manhood and subsequent procreation
ability
8 Attainment of womanhood leads to procreation
ability.
9 Contraceptive use is important among the students
10 Participating in an unprotected sex can lead to
infections.
148
11 Complete abstinence from sexual intercourse is
effective for the prevention of sexually transmitted
diseases.
12 I know that sexuality education is advantageous to me.
SECTION C
Sexual Behaviour Scale (SBC)
Introduction:
Rank the occurrence of the following behaviour relating to your sexual behaviour.
Note that: A-Always, OF- Often, OC- Occasionally, R-Rarely/Seldom
S/N ITEMS A OF OC R
13 I do engage myself in oral sex
14 kissing my opposite sex
15 I hold hands when strolling with my friends
16 I engaging myself in anal sex
17 I have a quiet time with the opposite sex for the purpose of
discussing love issues
18 I watch blue film with the opposite sex
19 I have experience oral sex before
20 I believed that students are getting exposed to highly sexual
active society.
21 I have Sex with the opposite sex
22 I receive reward from sex partner
23 I expose erotic part of my body to the opposite sex
24 I am turned on when I am with my opposite sex
25 I enjoy self-sexual stimulation (masturbation).
26 I hug my opposite sex.
149
SECTION D
Peer Influence Scale (SSIS)
Rank extent to which you agree or disagree with the following statement.
Note that; SA- strongly Agree, A- Agree, D- Disagree, SD- Strongly Disagree
S/N ITEMS SA A D SD
27 I feel comfortable while discussing sex with my
friends
28 I like looking sexy because all my friends are
always looking sexy
29 I will want to have sex because my friends say is
enjoyable
30 My friends intimidate me because I don’t have a
boyfriend
31 I make friends with peers that have more than one
sex partner
32 I go along with my friends .
33 I follow my friends out for night club
34 I hang out with sugar daddy because my friend do
35 I look sexy because all my friends are always
looking sexy.
36 I feel comfortable when discussing sex matters with
my friends
38 I go along with friends just to keep them happy
39 I am good at making friends
SECTION E
Mass Media Influence Scale (MMIS)
Rate the extent to which you agree or disagree with the following statement.
Note that; SA- Strongly Agree, A- Agree, D- Disagree, SD- Strongly Disagree
S/N ITEMS SA A D SD
40 My sexual urge increases after enjoying sex scenes
in movies
41 I believe that everyone is sexual according to what I
watch in television.
42 I am motivated to think about sex after watching
internet sex.
43 I believe that sex scene in movies are part of human
life
44 I Watch Pornographic Movies from the television.
45 I am influenced by internet dating
46 I admire the manner they kiss each other when
acting.
47 I believe that television has more sex scenes than
print media e.g. Newspaper
150
48 I believe that sex scene in movies are good examples
in parting good sexual behaviour to the students.
49 I like most entertainment on mass media because
they make a big deal out of sex.
50 I love reading novels that have sex content.
CONTENT VALIDITY ESTIMATE OF LOADED ITEMS IN FIVE STRUCTURE
OF PEER INFLUENCE SCALE (PIS)
FACTOR NO OF ITEM COMPONENT EXPLAINED
1 86, 84 and 74 Engaging in romantic relationship 15.25%
2 68, 66 and 83 Hooking up 12.13%
3 72 and 85 Playmate 11.07%
4 87 and 65 Clubbing 13.05%
5 61 and 59 Gangsters 9.09%
Explained cumulative variance 60.59%
unexplained variance 39.41%
CONTENT VALIDITY ESTIMATE OF LOADED ITEMS IN FIVE STRUCTURE
OF MASS MEDIA INFLUENCE SCALE
FACTOR NO OF ITEM COMPONENT EXPLAINED
1 98,97 and 94 Watching pornographic movies 9.31%
2 100 and 90 Novels with sex content 10.02%
3 92 and 96 Watching internet sexual movies 13.80%
4 101 and 106 Enjoying blue films 15 10%
5 108 and 104 Enjoying movies on television with
sex content
12.11%
Explained cumulative variance 63.34%
Unexplained variance 36.66%
11 Items
151
CONTENT VALIDITY ESTIMATE OF LOADED ITEMS IN FOUR STRUCTURE
OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR
FACTORS NO. OF ITEMS COMPONENT
VARIABLE
EXPLAINED
VARIANCE
1 40, 42 and 38 Masturbation 17.05%
2 52, 58, 54 and 50 Exposing erotic part of
the body.
11.09%
3 34, 48 and 46 Uncontrolled sexual
desire.
16.11%
4 30 and 32 Prolong hand shake 10.12%
36 and 34 Oral sex 12.09%
Explained cumulative
variance
66.46%
14 Items Unexplained variance 33.54%
CONTENT VALIDITY ESTIMATE OF LOADED ITEMS IN FIVE STRUCTURE
OF SEXUALITY EDUCATIONAL SCALE
FACTORS NO. OF ITEMS COMPONENT
VARIABLE
EXPLAINED
VARIANCE
1 29, 29 and 26 Contraceptive use 16.63%
2 24 and 21 Fertility awareness 13.25%
3 10, 25 and 23 Complete abstained 13.07%
4 2.7 and 02 Monthly menstruation 11.19%
5 14 and 05 Procreation ability 9.97%
12 items Explained cumulative
variance
64.11%
Unexplained variance 35.89%
RELIABILITY STATISTIC OF INSTRUMENT
SECTIONS CRONBACHS
ALPHA
CRONBACHS ALPHA ON
STANDARDIZED ITEMS
NO OF
ITEMS
Sexual behaviour 81 80 15
Sexuality education 63 63 12
Peer influence 62 63 14
Mass media
influence
80 80 11
152
FACTORS LOADING ITEM SELECTION AND COMMUNALITIES
OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR SCALE
SERIAL NO ITEMS/VARIABLES F1 F2 F3 F4
1 40 Masturbation .74
2 36 Strolling .71
3 34 Kissing .66
4 42 Discussing love issues .62
5 38 Oral sex .48
6 52 Anal sex .76
7 58 Reward from sex partner .69
8 54 Exposing erotic part of the body .62
9 50 Watching blue film .58
10 43 Uncontrolled sexual desire .74
11 48 Vagina penetration .67
12 46 Prolong hugging .62
13 30 Prolong hand shake .81
14 32 Fondling .65
FACTOR LOADING ITEM SELECTION AND COMMUNALITIES OF
SEXUALITY EDUCATION SCALE
SERIAL NO. ITEM/VARIABLES F1 F2 F3 F4 F5
1 29 Contraceptive .73
2 28 Sexually transmitted diseases .68
3 26 Unwanted pregnancy .60
4 24 Fertility .53
5 01 Abortion 83
6 10 Unprotected sex .58
7 25 Complete abstained .89
8 23 Reproductive health Knowledge 73
9 27 Monthly menstruation .81
10 02 Ejaculation ability .79
11 14 Procreation ability .77
12 05 Legally terminated pregnancy .55
153
FACTOR LOADING ITEM SELECTION AND COMMUNALITIES OF MASS
MEDIA INFLUENCE SCALE
SERIAL NO ITEM/VARIABLES F1 F2 F3 F4 F5
1 98 Watching internet sex .69
2 94 Enjoying sex scenes in movies .69
3 104 Always thinking about sex after watching
sexy movies
.69
4 100 Watching pornographic movies 65
5 90 Internet dating .62
6 102 Pornographic magazines .61
7 92 Entertainment on sex matter .59
8 96 Novels with sex content .60
9 92 Text massages that contain sex matters .82
10 101 Dressing nude on television .62
11 108 Dancing naked .56
154
TABLE SHOWING SENATORIAL ZONES, LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREAS, SCHOOLS, NUMBER OF STUDENTS
GENDER AND LOCATION
Sampled Urban Senior Secondary Schools Urban Junior
Secondary Schools
Rural Senior Secondary
Schools
Rural Junior Secondary
Schools
Senatorial
zone
LGA Name of
Schools
Sampled
No of
Students
Sampled
Name of
Schools
Sampled
No of
Students
Sampled
Name of
Schools
Sampled
No of
Students
Sampled
Name of
Schools
Sampled
No of
Students
Sampled
Total
M F M F M F M F
Edo South Oredo Edo College
Benin city
42
42
Edo
College
Benin
city
42
42
Iyekogbe
Secondary
School
42
42
Iyekogbe
Secondary
School
42
42
336
Ikpoba
Okha
Western
boys high
school
42
42
Western
boys high
school
42
42
Obasuye
College
Abayanto
42
42
Obasuye
College
Abayanto
42
42
336
Edo Central Esan North Agba
Grammar
School
Uromi
42
42
Agba
Grammar
School
Uromi
42
42
Uzea
Secondary
School Uzea
42
42
Uzea
Secondary
School Uzea
42
42
336
Esan South
East
St.
Johnbosco
College
Ubiaja
42
42
St.
Johnbosc
o College
Ubiaja
42
42
Ewatto
Grammar
School Ewatto
42
42
Ewatto
Grammar
School
Ewatto
42
42
336
Edo North Akoko Edo Anglican
Grammar
School
42
42
Anglican
Grammar
School
42
42
Ojirame
Mixed
Secondary
School
Ojirame
42
42
Ojirame
Mixed
Secondary
School
Ojirame
42
42
336
Owan East St. James
Grammar
School
42
42
St. James
Grammar
School
42
42
Azama
College Otuo
42
42
Azama
College
Otuo
42
42
336
Total 252 252 252 252 252 252 252 252 2016
155
Sampled Urban Senior Secondary Schools Urban Junior Secondary
Schools
Rural Senior Secondary
Schools
Rural Junior Secondary
Schools
Senator
ial zone
LGA Name of
Schools
Sampled
No of
Students
Sampled
Name of
Schools
Sampled
No of
Students
Sampled
Name of
Schools
Sampled
No of
Students
Sampled
Name of
Schools
Sampled
No of
Students
Sampled
Total
M F M F M F M F
Delta
South
Isoko
North
Alaka
Grammar
School Ozoro
45
55
Alaka
Grammar
School Ozoro
55
45
Okete Mixed
Secondary
School Ofagbe
55
45
Okete
Mixed
Secondary
School
Ofagbe
55
45
400
Isoko
South
Emore
Grammar
School Oleh
55
45
Emore
Grammar
School Oleh
45
55
Uzere
Grammar
School
45
55
Uzere
Grammar
School
45
55
400
Delta
Central
Ethiope
East
Abraka
Grammar
School
45
55
Abraka
Grammar
School
45
55
Urhuoka
Secondary
School
55
45
Urhuoka
Secondary
School
55
55
400
Uvwie Army Day
Secondary
School
55
45
Army Day
Secondary
School
55
45
Alegbo
Secondary
School
45
55
Alegbo
Secondary
School
45
45
400
Delta
North
Oshimili
South
Western
Mixed
Secondary
School
50
55
Western Mixed
Secondary
School
55
45
Okwe
Secondary
School
45
55
Okwe
Secondary
School
45
55
400
Ika
South
Ogbemudien
Secondary
School Agbor
50
45
Ogbemudien
Secondary
School Agbor
45
55
Okpe Mixed
Secondary
School
55
45
Okpe Mixed
Secondary
School
55
45
400
Total 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 2,400
156
Statistix 8.0 Egbule / Edo, 5/4/2016, 1:09:33 AM
Descriptive Statistics
Variable N Mean SD Minimum Maximum
V001 1960 0.4056 0.4911 0.0000 1.0000
V002 1960 0.6352 0.4815 0.0000 1.0000
V003 1960 0.4515 0.4978 0.0000 1.0000
V005 1960 0.5332 0.4990 0.0000 1.0000
V006 1960 30.842 5.5762 0.0000 48.000
V007 1960 29.382 8.8652 0.0000 54.000
V008 1960 27.348 5.8863 10.000 42.000
V009 1960 25.667 6.2144 1.0000 43.000
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
------
Statistix 8.0 Egbule / Edo, 5/1/2016, 10:30:49 PM
Correlations (Pearson)
V006
V007 0.2448
Cases Included 1960 Missing Cases 0
Statistix 8.0 Egbule / Edo,
5/4/2016, 1:12:46 AM
Unweighted Least Squares Linear Regression of V007
Predictor
Variables Coefficient Std Error T P
Constant 17.3810 1.09183 15.92 0.0000
V006 0.38912 0.03484 11.17 0.0000
R-Squared 0.0599 Resid. Mean Square (MSE) 73.9222
Adjusted R-Squared 0.0594 Standard Deviation 8.59780
Source DF SS MS F P
Regression 1 9223 9223.11 124.77 0.0000
Residual 1958 144740 73.92
Total 1959 153963
Cases Included 1960 Missing Cases 0
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
157
Statistix 8.0 Egbule / Edo, 5/1/2016, 10:33:39 PM
Unweighted Least Squares Linear Regression of V007
Predictor
Variables Coefficient Std Error T P VIF
Constant 7.39520 1.21338 6.09 0.0000
V006 0.27176 0.03372 8.06 0.0000 1.1
V008 0.49749 0.03194 15.57 0.0000 1.1
R-Squared 0.1636 Resid. Mean Square (MSE) 65.8044
Adjusted R-Squared 0.1627 Standard Deviation 8.11199
Source DF SS MS F P
Regression 2 25184 12591.8 191.35 0.0012
Residual 1957 128779 65.8
Total 1959 153963
Cases Included 1960 Missing Cases 0
Statistix 8.0 Egbule / Edo, 5/1/2016, 10:35:37 PM
Unweighted Least Squares Linear Regression of V007
Predictor
Variables Coefficient Std Error T P VIF
Constant 4.61191 1.26868 3.64 0.0003
V006 0.26256 0.03337 7.87 0.0000 1.1
V008 0.40746 0.03429 11.88 0.0000 1.2
V009 0.21542 0.03191 6.75 0.0000 1.2
R-Squared 0.1826 Resid. Mean Square (MSE) 64.3393
Adjusted R-Squared 0.1814 Standard Deviation 8.02118
Source DF SS MS F P
Regression 3 28115 9371.72 145.66 0.0012
Residual 1956 125848 64.34
Total 1959 153963
Cases Included 1960 Missing Cases 0
158
Statistix 8.0 Egbule / Edo, 5/1/2016, 10:38:24
PM
Unweighted Least Squares Linear Regression of V007
Predictor
Variables Coefficient Std Error T P VIF
Constant 5.24361 1.29910 4.04 0.0001
V006 0.26264 0.03334 7.88 0.0000 1.1
V008 0.40060 0.03439 11.65 0.0000 1.3
V009 0.21105 0.03194 6.61 0.0000 1.2
V001 -0.82471 0.37232 -2.22 0.0269 1.0
R-Squared 0.1847 Resid. Mean Square (MSE) 64.2110
Adjusted R-Squared 0.1830 Standard Deviation 8.01318
Source DF SS MS F P
Regression 4 28430 7107.55 110.69 0.0013
Residual 1955 125533 64.21
Total 1959 153963
Cases Included 1960 Missing Cases 0
Statistix 8.0 Egbule / Edo, 5/1/2016,
10:40:08 PM
Unweighted Least Squares Linear Regression of V007
Predictor
Variables Coefficient Std Error T P VIF
Constant 4.43590 1.30777 3.39 0.0007
V006 0.25832 0.03321 7.78 0.0000 1.1
V008 0.39424 0.03428 11.50 0.0000 1.3
V009 0.22241 0.03192 6.97 0.0000 1.2
V001 -1.49575 0.40361 -3.71 0.0002 1.2
V002 1.72486 0.41009 4.21 0.0000 1.2
R-Squared 0.1920 Resid. Mean Square (MSE) 63.6675
Adjusted R-Squared 0.1899 Standard Deviation 7.97919
Source DF SS MS F P
Regression 5 29557 5911.30 92.85 0.0013
Residual 1954 124406 63.67
Total 1959 153963
Cases Included 1960 Missing Cases 0
Statistix 8.0 clif edo, 5/4/2016,
6:54:14 AM
159
Unweighted Least Squares Linear Regression of V007
Predictor
Variables Coefficient Std Error T P VIF
Constant 6.05304 1.31226 4.61 0.0000
V006 0.25538 0.03332 7.66 0.0000 1.1
V008 0.40922 0.03435 11.91 0.0000 1.3
V009 0.21788 0.03192 6.83 0.0000 1.2
V001 -0.98056 0.37465 -2.62 0.0089 1.0
V003 -0.58287 0.36536 -1.60 0.1108 1.0
V005 -1.25687 0.36827 -3.41 0.0007 1.0
R-Squared 0.1909 Resid. Mean Square (MSE) 63.7829
Adjusted R-Squared 0.1884 Standard Deviation 7.98642
Source DF SS MS F P
Regression 6 29395 4899.12 76.81 0.0013
Residual 1953 124568 63.78
Total 1959 153963
Cases Included 1960 Missing Cases 0
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------- Statistix 8.0 Egbule / Edo, 5/4/2016,
6:56:56 AM
Unweighted Least Squares Linear Regression of V007
Predictor
Variables Coefficient Std Error T P VIF
Constant 5.24614 1.32143 3.97 0.0001
V006 0.25118 0.03320 7.57 0.0000 1.1
V008 0.40278 0.03424 11.76 0.0000 1.3
V009 0.22869 0.03190 7.17 0.0000 1.2
V001 -1.63654 0.40554 -4.04 0.0001 1.2
V003 -0.53912 0.36403 -1.48 0.1388 1.0
V005 -1.24089 0.36679 -3.38 0.0007 1.0
V002 1.68883 0.40899 4.13 0.0000 1.2
R-Squared 0.1979 Resid. Mean Square (MSE) 63.2630
Adjusted R-Squared 0.1951 Standard Deviation 7.95380
Source DF SS MS F P
Regression 7 30473 4353.34 68.81 0.0013
Residual 1952 123489 63.26
Total 1959 153963
Cases Included 1960 Missing Cases 0
160
Statistix 8.0 Egbule / Delta, 5/4/2016,
12:52:41 AM
Descriptive Statistics
Variable N Mean SD Minimum Maximum
V001 2015 0.6352 0.4815 0.0000 1.0000
V002 2015 0.3350 0.4721 0.0000 1.0000
V003 2015 0.5484 0.4978 0.0000 1.0000
V005 2015 0.5310 0.5041 0.0000 2.0000
V006 2015 34.578 6.6521 16.000 60.000
V007 2015 35.079 9.8949 13.000 64.000
V008 2015 29.514 7.2709 12.000 62.000
V009 2015 27.635 6.7971 11.000 52.000
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
-----
Statistix 8.0 Egbule / Delta, 5/1/2016,
10:06:26 PM
Correlations (Pearson)
V006
V007 0.4642
Cases Included 2015 Missing Cases 0
Statistix 8.0 Egbule / Delta, 5/4/2016,
12:56:35 AM
Unweighted Least Squares Linear Regression of V007
Predictor
Variables Coefficient Std Error T P
Constant 11.2016 1.03397 10.83 0.0000
V006 0.69055 0.02936 23.52 0.0000
R-Squared 0.2155 Resid. Mean Square (MSE) 76.8452
Adjusted R-Squared 0.2151 Standard Deviation 8.76614
Source DF SS MS F P
Regression 1 42498 42498.0 553.03 0.0000
Residual 2013 154689 76.8
Total 2014 197187
Cases Included 2015 Missing Cases 0
161
Statistix 8.0 Egbule / Delta, 5/1/2016,
10:11:43 PM
Unweighted Least Squares Linear Regression of V007
Predictor
Variables Coefficient Std Error T P VIF
Constant 3.95460 1.01960 3.88 0.0001
V006 0.45005 0.02966 15.18 0.0000 1.2
V008 0.52731 0.02713 19.44 0.0000 1.2
R-Squared 0.3395 Resid. Mean Square (MSE) 64.7307
Adjusted R-Squared 0.3389 Standard Deviation 8.04554
Source DF SS MS F P
Regression 2 66949 33474.6 517.14 0.0017
Residual 2012 130238 64.7
Total 2014 197187
Cases Included 2015 Missing Cases 0
Statistix 8.0 Egbule / Delta, 5/1/2016,
10:14:28 PM
Unweighted Least Squares Linear Regression of V007
Predictor
Variables Coefficient Std Error T P VIF
Constant 0.74721 1.03449 0.72 0.4702
V006 0.40374 0.02915 13.85 0.0000 1.2
V008 0.37888 0.02972 12.75 0.0000 1.5
V009 0.33252 0.03067 10.84 0.0000 1.4
R-Squared 0.3760 Resid. Mean Square (MSE) 61.1862
Adjusted R-Squared 0.3751 Standard Deviation 7.82216
Source DF SS MS F P
Regression 3 74142 24714.0 403.91 0.0029
Residual 2011 123045 61.2
Total 2014 197187
Cases Included 2015 Missing Cases 0
162
Statistix 8.0 Egbule / Delta, 5/1/2016,
10:17:06 PM
Unweighted Least Squares Linear Regression of V007
Predictor
Variables Coefficient Std Error T P VIF
Constant 3.50066 1.08281 3.23 0.0012
V006 0.41490 0.02878 14.42 0.0000 1.2
V008 0.36684 0.02935 12.50 0.0000 1.5
V009 0.29555 0.03064 9.65 0.0000 1.5
V001 -2.77417 0.36550 -7.59 0.0000 1.0
R-Squared 0.3934 Resid. Mean Square (MSE) 59.5110
Adjusted R-Squared 0.3922 Standard Deviation 7.71434
Source DF SS MS F P
Regression 4 77570 19392.5 325.86 0.0027
Residual 2010 119617 59.5
Total 2014 197187
Cases Included 2015 Missing Cases 0
Statistix 8.0 Egbule / Delta, 5/1/2016,
10:19:01 PM
Unweighted Least Squares Linear Regression of V007
Predictor
Variables Coefficient Std Error T P VIF
Constant 3.41723 1.06958 3.19 0.0014
V006 0.39670 0.02854 13.90 0.0000 1.3
V008 0.36938 0.02899 12.74 0.0000 1.5
V009 0.32641 0.03057 10.68 0.0000 1.5
V001 -1.62022 0.39535 -4.10 0.0000 1.3
V002 -2.83011 0.39523 -7.16 0.0000 1.2
R-Squared 0.4085 Resid. Mean Square (MSE) 58.0588
Adjusted R-Squared 0.4070 Standard Deviation 7.61963
Source DF SS MS F P
Regression 5 80547 16109.4 277.47 0.0037
Residual 2009 116640 58.1
Total 2014 197187
Cases Included 2015 Missing Cases 0
163
Statistix 8.0 Egbule / Delta,
5/4/2016, 6:46:44 AM
Unweighted Least Squares Linear Regression of V007
Predictor
Variables Coefficient Std Error T P VIF
Constant 3.52491 1.09296 3.23 0.0013
V006 0.41995 0.02880 14.58 0.0000 1.2
V008 0.34717 0.03008 11.54 0.0000 1.6
V009 0.29126 0.03062 9.51 0.0000 1.5
V001 -2.92973 0.37269 -7.86 0.0000 1.1
V003 0.08619 0.34943 0.25 0.8052 1.0
V005 1.03913 0.35612 2.92 0.0036 1.1
R-Squared 0.3959 Resid. Mean Square (MSE) 59.3184
Adjusted R-Squared 0.3941 Standard Deviation 7.70184
Source DF SS MS F P
Regression 6 78076 13012.7 219.37 0.0030
Residual 2008 119111 59.3
Total 2014 197187
Cases Included 2015 Missing Cases 0
Statistix 8.0 Egbule / Delta, 5/4/2016,
6:50:24 AM
Unweighted Least Squares Linear Regression of V007
Predictor
Variables Coefficient Std Error T P VIF
Constant 3.25711 1.08054 3.01 0.0026
V006 0.40173 0.02857 14.06 0.0000 1.3
V008 0.35230 0.02973 11.85 0.0000 1.6
V009 0.32314 0.03059 10.56 0.0000 1.5
V001 -1.80841 0.40097 -4.51 0.0000 1.3
V003 0.46166 0.34931 1.32 0.1864 1.1
V005 0.84390 0.35294 2.39 0.0169 1.1
V002 -2.83218 0.40079 -7.07 0.0000 1.2
R-Squared 0.4106 Resid. Mean Square (MSE) 57.9072
Adjusted R-Squared 0.4086 Standard Deviation 7.60968
Source DF SS MS F P
Regression 7 80968 11566.8 199.75 0.0038
Residual 2007 116220 57.9
Total 2014 197187
Cases Included 2015 Missing Cases 0
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164
Statistix 8.0 Egbule / ALL data, 5/2/2016,
7:21:03 AM
Descriptive Statistics
Variable N Mean SD Minimum Maximum
V001 3975 0.5220 0.4996 0.0000 1.0000
V002 3975 0.4830 0.4998 0.0000 1.0000
V003 3975 0.5006 0.5001 0.0000 1.0000
V005 3975 0.5321 0.5015 0.0000 2.0000
V006 3975 32.736 6.4222 0.0000 60.000
V007 3975 32.270 9.8223 0.0000 64.000
V008 3975 28.446 6.7116 10.000 62.000
V009 3975 26.665 6.5894 1.0000 52.000
Statistix 8.0 Egbule / ALL data, 5/1/2016,
9:11:46 PM
Correlations (Pearson)
V006
V007 0.4244
Cases Included 3975 Missing Cases 0
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Statistix 8.0 Egbule / ALL data, 5/4/2016,
12:23:44 AM
Unweighted Least Squares Linear Regression of V007
Predictor
Variables Coefficient Std Error T P
Constant 11.0205 0.73293 15.04 0.0000
V006 0.64913 0.02197 29.55 0.0000
R-Squared 0.1801 Resid. Mean Square (MSE) 79.1181
Adjusted R-Squared 0.1799 Standard Deviation 8.89484
Source DF SS MS F P
Regression 1 69064 69063.5 872.92 0.0000
Residual 3973 314336 79.1
Total 3974 383400
Cases Included 3975 Missing Cases 0
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
165
Unweighted Least Squares Linear Regression of V007
Predictor
Variables Coefficient Std Error T P VIF
Constant 2.47348 0.75534 3.27 0.0011
V006 0.44170 0.02188 20.19 0.0000 1.2
V008 0.53918 0.02093 25.76 0.0000 1.2
R-Squared 0.2975 Resid. Mean Square (MSE) 67.8116
Adjusted R-Squared 0.2971 Standard Deviation 8.23478
Source DF SS MS F P
Regression 2 114052 57026.0 840.95 0.0036
Residual 3972 269348 67.8
Total 3974 383400
Cases Included 3975 Missing Cases 0
Statistix 8.0 Egbule / ALL data, 5/1/2016,
9:15:19 PM
Unweighted Least Squares Linear Regression of V007
Predictor
Variables Coefficient Std Error T P VIF
Constant -0.56468 0.77546 -0.73 0.4665
V006 0.40853 0.02157 18.94 0.0000 1.2
V008 0.40938 0.02278 17.97 0.0000 1.4
V009 0.29313 0.02245 13.06 0.0000 1.3
R-Squared 0.3264 Resid. Mean Square (MSE) 65.0368
Adjusted R-Squared 0.3259 Standard Deviation 8.06454
Source DF SS MS F P
Regression 3 125139 41712.9 641.37 0.0053
Residual 3971 258261 65.0
Total 3974 383400
Cases Included 3975 Missing Cases 0
166
Statistix 8.0 Egbule / ALL data, 5/1/2016,
9:52:32 PM
Unweighted Least Squares Linear Regression of V007
Predictor
Variables Coefficient Std Error T P VIF
Constant 0.07747 0.79260 0.10 0.9221
V006 0.41565 0.02162 19.22 0.0000 1.2
V008 0.40399 0.02279 17.73 0.0000 1.4
V009 0.28519 0.02251 12.67 0.0000 1.3
V001 -0.97719 0.25862 -3.78 0.0002 1.0
R-Squared 0.3288 Resid. Mean Square (MSE) 64.8200
Adjusted R-Squared 0.3281 Standard Deviation 8.05109
Source DF SS MS F P
Regression 4 126064 31516.1 486.21 0.0052
Residual 3970 257336 64.8
Total 3974 383400
Cases Included 3975 Missing Cases 0
Statistix 8.0 Egbule / ALL data, 5/1/2016,
9:49:06 PM
Unweighted Least Squares Linear Regression of V007
Predictor
Variables Coefficient Std Error T P VIF
Constant 1.12409 0.80560 1.40 0.1630
V006 0.40004 0.02165 18.48 0.0000 1.2
V008 0.40551 0.02268 17.88 0.0000 1.4
V009 0.28440 0.02240 12.70 0.0000 1.3
V001 -0.46501 0.26960 -1.72 0.0846 1.1
V002 -1.70817 0.26808 -6.37 0.0000 1.1
R-Squared 0.3356 Resid. Mean Square (MSE) 64.1798
Adjusted R-Squared 0.3348 Standard Deviation 8.01123
Source DF SS MS F P
Regression 5 128670 25734.0 400.97 0.0057
Residual 3969 254730 64.2
Total 3974 383400
Cases Included 3975 Missing Cases 0
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
167
Statistix 8.0 Egbule ALL data, 5/4/2016,
6:39:27 AM
Unweighted Least Squares Linear Regression of V007
Predictor
Variables Coefficient Std Error T P VIF
Constant 0.20771 0.79830 0.26 0.7947
V006 0.41436 0.02166 19.13 0.0000 1.2
V008 0.40823 0.02306 17.70 0.0000 1.5
V009 0.28662 0.02254 12.72 0.0000 1.4
V001 -0.95391 0.26016 -3.67 0.0002 1.0
V003 -0.22734 0.25730 -0.88 0.3770 1.0
V005 -0.27321 0.25926 -1.05 0.2920 1.0
R-Squared 0.3291 Resid. Mean Square (MSE) 64.8212
Adjusted R-Squared 0.3281 Standard Deviation 8.05116
Source DF SS MS F P
Regression 6 126189 21031.5 324.45 0.0056
Residual 3968 257211 64.8
Total 3974 383400
Cases Included 3975 Missing Cases 0
Statistix 8.0 Egbule / ALL data, 5/4/2016,
6:44:20 AM
Unweighted Least Squares Linear Regression of V007
Predictor
Variables Coefficient Std Error T P VIF
Constant 1.25902 0.81117 1.55 0.1207
V006 0.39838 0.02170 18.36 0.0000 1.2
V008 0.41043 0.02295 17.89 0.0000 1.5
V009 0.28586 0.02242 12.75 0.0000 1.4
V001 -0.44529 0.27082 -1.64 0.1002 1.1
V003 -0.17919 0.25613 -0.70 0.4842 1.0
V005 -0.33253 0.25813 -1.29 0.1977 1.0
V002 -1.71501 0.26835 -6.39 0.0000 1.1
R-Squared 0.3360 Resid. Mean Square (MSE) 64.1768
Adjusted R-Squared 0.3348 Standard Deviation 8.01104
Source DF SS MS F P
Regression 7 128810 18401.5 286.73 0.0058
Residual 3967 254589 64.2
Total 3974 383400
Cases Included 3975 Missing Cases 0
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