sexuality education, peer influence, mass - Delta State ...

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SEXUALITY EDUCATION, PEER INFLUENCE, MASS

MEDIA AS CORRELATE OF STUDENTS’ SEXUAL

BEHAVIOUR IN DELTA AND EDO STATES

BY

EGBULE, Elizabeth Osita

DELTA STATE UNIVERSITY, ABRAKA

FEBRUARY, 2017.

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SEXUALITY EDUCATION, PEER INFLUENCE, MASS

MEDIA AS CORRELATE OF STUDENTS’ SEXUAL

BEHAVIOUR IN DELTA AND EDO STATES

BY

EGBULE, Elizabeth Osita

B.SC.Ed (DELSU) 1998, M.Ed. (DELSU) 2004.

PG/04/05/03/9207

A DOCTORAL THESIS WRITTEN IN THE DEPARTMENT

OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING, FACULTY OF

EDUCATION AND SUBMITTED TO FACULTY BOARD,

DELTA STATE UNIVERSITY, ABRAKA, NIGERIA,

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR

THE AWARD OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Ph.D)

DEGREE IN GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING.

FEBRUARY, 2017.

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CERTIFICATION

We the undersigned certify that this research was carried out by Egbule Elizabeth

Osita of the Department of Guidance and Counselling, Delta State University, Abraka.

____________________ ________________

DR. S.D. CLIFFORD Date

Supervisor

______________________ _______________

DR. (MRS.) F.N. UGOJI Date

Supervisor

_______________________

REV. FR. (DR.) OBIUNU ______________

Head of Department Date

_______________________

PROF. E.P. OGHUVBU ______________

Dean, Faculty of Education Date

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DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to my Late husband Dr. J.F. Egbule.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The researcher is deeply and sincerely grateful to Almighty God who has continued

to be her strength, her shield, her source of inspiration, her guide and her rock. He alone saw

her through the programme, May His name be praised. The researcher wishes to also express

her sincere thanks to her supervisors Dr. S.D Clifford and Dr. (Mrs.) F.N Ugoji who spent

lots of their precious time to make sure that this work comes out well. The researcher wishes

to express her profound gratitude to her present Ag. Head of Department Dr. P.U. Osadebe

for his useful contributions. The researcher will not fail to acknowledge Dr. (Mrs.) E.E.

Ebenuwa Okoh for her relentless effort and willingness to assist and counsel her each time

she called on her.

Special thanks to Prof. R.I. Okorodudu, Prof. (Mrs.) O.C. Okobiah, Dr. (Mrs.)

Onoyase for their useful contributions. Gratitude also goes to Prof. Chinedu Mordi, Dr. (Mrs.)

G.Akpochafor, Rev. Fr. Jude Obiunu and Prof. J.N. Odili for the knowledge gained from them

as her lecturers. The researcher will not fail to acknowledge Prof. D. Onoyase for his candid

advice whenever the researcher came in contact with him.

Sincere thanks goes to Pst. Obakpolor Evans and also to her computer operators,

Monday_Wyte and Ifeanyi for a job well done. The researcher wishes to acknowledge

specially the unreserved support accorded to her by her loving children, Engr. & Mrs. Collins

Emeka Okwor, Uche, Chidinma, Ujunwa and Amarachi for the unreserved support they

accorded to me throughout this programme. May God bless them.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

COVER PAGE - - - - - - - - - i

TITTLE PAGE - - - - - - - - - ii

CERTIFICATION - - - - - - - - iii

DEDICATION - - - - - - - - - iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS - - - - - - - - v

ABSTRACT - - - - - - - - - vii

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background to the Study - - - - - - - - 1

Statement of the Problem - - - - - - - - 9

Research Questions- - - - - - - - - 10

Hypotheses - - - - - - - - - 11

Purpose of the Study - - - - - - - - 12

Significance of the Study - - - - - - - - 14

Scope and Delimitation of the Study - - - - - - 16

Operational Definition of Terms - - - - - - - 16

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE - - - - - 17

Conceptual Framework - - - - - - - 17

The Concept of Adolescence - - - - - - - 20

The Concept of Sexuality Education - - - - - - 26

Relevance of Sexuality Education to Sexual Behaviour - - - 30

The Concept of Peer Influence - - - - - - 33

Types of Peer Influence - - - - - - - 35

Peer Influence and Student Sexual Behaviour- - - - - 37

Mass Media and Students’ Sexual Behaviour- - - - 48

Types of Mass Media - - - - - - - - 50

Mass Media and Students’ Sexual Behaviour- - - - 55

Dangers and Benefits of Mass Media - - - - - - 57

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Empirical Review - - - - - - - - 58

Appraisal of Literature Review- - - - - - - 82

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHOD AND PROCEDURE - - - - - 85

Research Design - - - - - - - - 85

Population of the Study - - - - - - - - 86

Sample and Sampling Technique - - - - - - - 86

Research Instrument - - - - - - - - 87

Validity of the Instrument - - - - - - - - 88

Reliability of the Instrument - - - - - - - 89

Method of Data Collection - - - - - - - - 89

Method of Data Analysis - - - - - - - - 81

CHAPTER FOUR

PRESENTATION OF RESULTS AND DISCUSSION - - - 90

Presentation of Results - - - - - - - - 90

Discussion of Findings - - - - - - - - 106

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS - - - 115

Summary - - - - - - - - - 115

Conclusion - - - - - - - - - - 116

Implications for Counselling - - - - - - 117

Recommendations - - - - - - - - - 117

Contributions to Knowledge - - - - - - - 118

Suggestion for further Study - - - - - - - 118

REFERENCES- - - - - - - - - 119

APPENDICES - - - - - - - - - 138

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1: Mean, standard deviation and relationship between sexuality education, student

sexual behaviour of secondary school students in Delta and Edo state- - -90

Table 4.2: Mean, standard deviation and relationship between sexuality education, peer

influence and student sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo state- - - -91


influence, mass media and student sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo state- -92


influence, mass media, location and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo state--93

Table 4.5: Mean, standard deviation, relationship between sexuality education, peer influence,

mass media, location, gender and student sexual behaviour- - -94


influence, mass media, location, gender, class and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and

Edo state- - - - - - - - - - -96


influence, mass media, location, gender, class, school type and students’ sexual behaviour in

Delta and Edo state?- - - - - - - - -98

The results presented in table 4.8 - - - - - - - -99


Table 4:10 presents the regression analysis of sexuality education, peer influence, mass media

and students’ sexual behaviour- - - - - - -101





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ABSTRACT

Sexual behaviour of student over the years has become so problematic in nature coital sex and

premarital sexual involvement among Nigeria students are in the increase. Present day school

children value sexual activities compare to their mates of the ester years. This study

investigated sexuality education, peer influence, mass media as correlates of students’ sexual

behaviour in Delta and Edo states of Nigeria. Seven research questions and seven null

hypotheses were formulated to guide the study. In the study, the researcher reviewed related

literature. The study adopted correlational research design. The population of the study

consisted of all junior and senior secondary school students in Delta and Edo states with

estimated population of 98,213. The sample used were four thousand, four hundred and

sixteen (4,416) respondents drawn through a stratified random sampling technique from 12

secondary school in Delta and Edo state. The study employed a questionnaire method of data

collection. Questionnaire titled; Correlate Student Sexual Behaviour Scale (CSSBS). The

instrument was validated through expert judgment of the researcher and factor analysis for

content and construct validities respectively. The reliability of the instrument was established

by the use of Cronbach Alpha and a reliability index of sexual behaviour .80, sexuality

education .63, peer inference .63 and mass media .80 was obtained. The general aims /

objective of this study is to investigate, sexuality education, peer influence, mass media as

correlate of students sexual behaviour from delta and Edo State. The study provided

information that significant relationship existed between sexuality education and students’

sexual behaviour. The study also opined that peer influence and mass media significantly

influence students’ sexual behaviour. It was also confirmed that school type significantly

influence student’s sexual behaviour. The findings also stress that gender, location and class

had no significant influence on student’s sexual behaviour. Appropriate recommendations

were made among which are: That federal and state ministry of education as well as local

government board should create an enlightenment campaign programme that will modify the

attitude of the youths towards cautious sex; That directors on film on media matters should

exclude sexually seducesive part of reality shows, students can be used as model for good

sexual behaviour, lastly group counselling should be made compulsory by ministry of

education concerning cautious sex among the secondary school students.

CHAPTER ONE

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INTRODUCTION

Background to the Study

Sexual behaviour of students in recent times has become so problematic. Coital and

premarital sex among Nigeria students are on the increase. It appears present day school

children value sexual activities more compared to their mates of the old. American Social

Health Association (2003) stressed that more than one million adolescents become pregnant

with sixty-five percent of them having babies out of wedlock. In the same vein, Akinde and

Suleiman (2005) ascertained that between 2.5 and 5 million adolescents acquire sexually

transmitted diseases each year.

Rapid development of social changes has pushed off the traditional customs with

regards to students’ sexual behaviours. Before now, the traditional customs helped to curtail

the premarital sexual involvement among youths. Students exhibit their sexual behaviour in

different forms. Kelly (2004) described different types of sexual behaviour exhibited by

secondary school students. Some of them include bodily contact below the neck, hand

holding, touching one another genital through the clothing and oral sex.

Students who are in their adolescence stage are characterized by increased levels of

emotional problems that should be investigated and understood. Adolescence is defined as the

period of transition from childhood to adulthood. The period of adolescence involves

biological, cognitive, socio-emotional and personality changes. The major task of students is

preparation for adulthood. Indeed, the future of any culture depends on how effective the

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students prepare and how sound their personality is (Larson, Hair, Jager & Garrett 2002).

During the period of transition, an individual leaves childhood and prepares to enter adulthood

(Bruce & Borg, 1993). Many students make this transition without serious difficulties

(Haiman, Lambert, & Rodriques, 2005). However, in this stage, there is always uncertainty

in that the individual is expected to act like an adult, while often being treated as a child

(Haiman et al., 2005). Bogin (1999) found that students learn and practice behaviours

including economic, social, and sexual activities of adults. At the same time, they are treated

like children who are not expected to handle adult responsibilities (Haiman et al.,2005). The

mixed expectations from adults lead to uncertainty and turbulence which manifests in form

of confusion, insecurity, indecision, disorganization, moodiness, and alienation. They also

tend to question their identity.

The period of adolescence is filled with intellectual and emotional changes in addition

to other major biological and physical changes. It is a time of discovery of self and one’s

relationship to the world around them (Merikangas, Nakamura, & Kessler, 2010). Socially, it

is a transitional period from dependent childhood to self-sufficient adulthood.

Psychologically, it is a marginal situation when adjustment has to be made, namely, those that

distinguish childhood behaviours from adulthood. Adolescence spans from approximately 12

years to the early 20s with individual and cultural variations. For most people, it is an

intermediate state between being a child and being an adult. The state is a conflicting one

since the students feel like breaking the childhood ties by becoming independent and

autonomous. In the course of freeing themselves from emotional dependency, they try to

reject parents and teachers’ ways of doing things which result in conflicts.

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During adolescence, students experience rapid physical development at a speed

unparalleled with infancy. Physical development includes rapid increase in height and weight

(seen earlier in girls than in boys), the development of secondary sex characteristics prominent

among which is the onset of menstruation in girls, the growth of pubic hair and a continued

brain development. These physical changes, which differ between boys and girls affect the

students’s emotions as they see them as being abnormal. Research has found that women are

more likely to experience emotional problems than men due to the fact that females are more

exposed to stress than males (Horwitz & White, 1994; Turner, 1999).

Beside physical development, students are also faced with cognitive development and

psycho-social development. There are five recognized psychosocial issues that students deal

with during their student’s years. These include establishing an identity, autonomy, intimacy

and becoming comfortable with one’s sexuality. According to Bootzin, Bower, Crooker and

Hall (1991), adolescence is a period of profound change in every aspect of life during which

both boys and girls experience a lot of bodily changes. An example is the development of

primary sex characteristics which include complex changes in the genitals, uterus, fallopian

tubes and ovaries for the girls. The most obvious signs for boys’ primary sex characteristics

include development of the penis, scrotum and testis. For many students, menstruation, and

nocturnal emission create some degree of embarrassment and inconvenience. Adequate

information about these changes need to be made clear for them to accept the bodily changes.

Those changes affect the way students think about things (especially sexual behaviour) and

relationship with family and their peers which often produces stress. Students frequently find

themselves facing problems about alcohol, breaking parental rules and having sex. Cogen,

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Birgra and Hans (1993) assert that sex plays an important role in students’ feelings, fantasies

and social relationships.

These changes in students prompt them to begin to spend more time with their friends

than with their family, keep diaries, lock up their rooms, become involved in multiple hobbies,

become more argumentative, would not want to be seen with their parents in public and so

on. These behaviours resulting from the changes make students to become vulnerable to many

forms of sexual, emotional and behavioural problems. As students try new behaviours, they

become vulnerable to injuries, legal consequences, sexually transmitted diseases, unwanted

pregnancies, traumatic problems, stress and tension. Hence, Breslau et al., (2008) pointed out

that sexual behavioural problems are among the most prevalent chronic health conditions of

students and often have serious negative consequences for their all-round development.

Considering the above views of Breslau et al., (2008). As a result of this negative

consequences associated with students’ risk and sexual behaviour, it is timely to investigate

the sexual behaviour of the students right from their early stage in life. This is because a lot

of problems have been created as a result of this inappropriate sexual behaviour of our

students in Delta and Edo States in particular.

The stage of adolescence is looked upon by all with great curiosity, intrigue and

interest. Freud (1958) stated that “every step forward in growth and maturity brings with it

not only new gains but also new problems”. Adolescence has been conceived as a “period of

developmental disturbance with characteristics of internal conflicts, psychic disequilibrium,

erratic behaviour and associated sexual maturation with turmoil” (Carol, 1975; Saraswat,

1989). Sex is probably one area of our lives about which we know so little. And whatever

little we happen to have known about sex is in bits and pieces through sources like parents,

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friends, and acquaintances, the media and cheap sex books (Kumar, 2003). It is indeed ironical

that while sex is such an important issue in our lives, parents, elders and teachers hardly play

any significant role in providing scientific knowledge about sex to students.

Since talking about sex in some homes and societies, especially in most of our

traditional homes and societies is a taboo, it is difficult for students to freely approach their

parents for guidance. Also, those who seek guidance from parents are not satisfied because

the latter try to evade some of such discussions, or are not able to give satisfactory answers.

A few students try to gather information through books, films or from friends where they are

available and can be accessed. Many a time, the students receive wrong information and these

myths and misconceptions are carried throughout their lifetime (Kumar, 2003). This situation,

therefore calls for the introduction of sexuality education into Nigerian education system. We

should also not forget the fact that secondary school students ought to be educated about

sexuality formerly or informally.

Sexuality Education (SE), also referred to as sex education or sexual health education

(SHE) in some literature, is one of the most important educational needs of students and young

adults as noted by Cairns, Collins and Hiebert, (1994). However, Sexuality Education (SE) is

often a controversial topic, with perhaps no other subject (apart from evolution) sparking as

much debate in the society. Sexuality Education (SE) has always been, and will probably

continue to be, an emotional topic. Considering the importance of the issues it deals with, the

intimate nature of the subject, and how tightly bound sexual mores are to the majority of

people’s concepts of good, bad and their own self-image, it could hardly be otherwise. (Caims

et al., 1994).

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The purpose of any Sexuality Education (SE) programme is to develop a proper regard

for the mastery of life and to promote a mature acceptance of self in the young person

(especially the unmarried) and of his fellow man. The introduction of Sexuality Education

(SE) in secondary school is, no doubt, with mixed reaction as some adults consider sex as a

topic that should not be discussed freely with or among young people.

People, especially students are exposed to cultures that uses sex and sexual imagery

to sell almost everything. The consequences for unwanted pregnancies, sexually transmitted

diseases, and rape are therefore, much greater now than ever. There is no doubt that students

are exposed to sex-related-education from different sources outside the family who are

supposed to educate their young ones on sexual mores. They are exposed to magazines which

sell sex on their front pages, films which depict sex, musicals that portray sex as normal

human life as well as commercial adverts which portray sex. Most secondary school students

are students who need proper education (information) about human sexuality. This is because

students have problems with self-control, delay of gratification and risk analysis. Thus,

students may not think about the consequences of their sex behaviour.

Secondary school students who are in developing stage have crucial and stressful

periods in life in which they try to adjust to their varied physical, emotional and psychological

changes. The student is curious to ask questions, but the problem is who to address these

questions to. Most students cannot freely approach their parents for guidance or visit the

guidance counsellor. Also, those who seek guidance from parents are not satisfied because

the latter try to evade discussions (due to some customs, traditions and religious practices) or

they are not able to give satisfactory answers. A few of them, as noted by Turner (1979), try

to gather information through books, films or from friends. Often, they receive wrong

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information about sex and this misinformation can affect them throughout their life time. This

is due to lack of sexual education (SE) from parents and the school. It is therefore imperative

to provide the students with proper information (sex education) concerning human sexuality

so as to enable them cope better with these physical, emotional and psychological changes.

Studies also show that there is a relationship between peer group influence and sexual

behaviour. One of the key tasks of adolescence is the development of sense of identity. It is

a time of exploration and experimentation. The young person’s reference point at this stage

are mostly parents and family, but peer group often becomes the main point of reference for

decisions about how to behave throughout students years. The level of peer influence can

increase as the young person gains greater independence. Furthermore, they may not yet have

developed the skills, confidence and awareness to resist negative peer influences during this

time. This could result in the teenager shifting away from their family norms and values and

moving instead towards the values of their peer groups. Young people can, both intentionally

and unintentionally, put pressure on each other for various reasons.

Gender of students has also been seen to have influence on the sexual behaviour of

students. Studies conducted in Kenya by Kim and Free (2008) opined that students are

initiated to sex early with gender, father’s absence at home, family economic status and peer

influence as predisposing factors. Agreeing with this is Orpinas (2008) who found that fewer

females than males reported ever having had sexual intercourse before the age of 16 while

Kimani (2005) confirmed that boys were initiated to sex earlier than girls.

The appropriateness of the type of sexual education that should be taught in public

schools continues to be a major topic of debate, and it is motivated by the high teen pregnancy

and birth rate, increased level of sexual promiscuity among girls and sexually transmitted

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diseases. Much of the debate has centred on whether abstinence only versus comprehensive

sex education should be taught in public schools. Some argue that sex education that covers

safe sexual practices such as condom use sends a mixed message to students and promotes

sexual activity (Darroch, Singh and Frost, 2001).

Secondary school students are in the developing stage where sexual desires and

anxieties are high (Central Bureau of Statistics, 2004). Spear (2000) added that this phase is

known for its rejection of the standards of adults on behaviour. Problems and delinquency

normally originate from this phase. This is a trying period because of the conflict students go

through not knowing whether they are still children or already adults. Majority of them are

tempted to engage in sexual activities that expose them to all sexual related risks (Anyango,

2005). In the school environment, sexual behaviour of students vary with types of schools.

For example, students in day and co-educational schools are more likely to engage in risky

and unsafe sexual behaviours than those in boarding and unisex schools (Kiragu, 2000).

Among boarding school students, sexual activities are higher during school holidays than

among day school students (Kiragu, 2000). Studies have indicated that students lack adequate

reproductive health education to enable them make informed decisions. This has reduced their

level of awareness and perception about available methods of safe sexual behaviour.

Awareness and perception could assist students in delaying their initiation into sexual

activities or protect those who are already involved in sexual activities. African traditional

societies had well-established systems of preparing young people for adult sexual roles and

responsibilities. However, traditional systems have weakened and in some places, become

extinct and have left students poorly informed (World Bank, 2005).

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Nigeria Television Authority (NTA) estimated that more than Twenty million people

are exposed to their commercials each day. A lot of writers and speakers win the minds of

people radio, magazines, books brochures, Facebook, internet and many others. Leaving the

individuals about many choice, about what to do, what to buy and what to be. It was

ascertained that the media, whether print, audio or visual, have been accused of affecting the

minds of individuals negatively, especially the secondary school students, with very little

potential of creating positive change in them. The media has a challenge on sexual education,

this is because it does not necessarily complement the tenets of sexual education because

messages by the media cannot devoid of selfish interest and propaganda. Such messages from

media does not portray accurate information about sexual problems among our students. In

realisation of this information gap, this study examines sexual education and peer influence

as correlates of sexual behaviour of secondary school students in Delta and Edo States.

Statement of Problem

The study was prompted by information from students’ conversation and social media,

that secondary school students are indulging in reckless sexual activities and also have been

exhibiting some sexual behaviour such as masturbation, homosexuality, lesbianism, incest

and rape. The present day school system is gradually transforming from an academic

environment to an institution of promiscuity, moral laxity as well as sexual permissiveness.

The reason for this behaviour is not farfetched. The glamorization of sex and suggestive

sexual scene in the media, permissive attitude of some parents, and peer pressure from the

peer groups may account for this behaviour.

It was observed that the media was a major means to popularize the notion of flirting,

dating and different types of sexual behaviour. Mutual or intimate relationship develop from

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social activities such as dancing, singing and jokes. Despite the social activities, information

on sexual education are still in the dark, not openly discussed. Hence secondary school

students fall victims of unwanted pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases as a result of

unpleasant sexual activities.

Gender, location, class and school type are some of the influencing factors on students

sexual behaviour, these factors may exert influence differently as secondary school students

are of different gender, class, living in different homes and environment and belong to

different socio-economic status. There is therefore, the need to investigate the level of

influence of sexual education, peer influence and mass media influence on students’ sexual

behaviour as it relates to their gender, location, class and school type.

Some other studies also express the level of sexual behaviour among the students, that

more than 1million adolescents become pregnant with 65% having babies out of wedlock,

moreover, between 2.5 and 5million acquired sexually transmitted disease each year.

The pertinent questions here are: what are the correlates of sexual education, peer

influence, mass media on students sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo State of Nigeria? To

what extent is this relationship moderated by gender, location, class and school type?

Research Questions

The research will be guided with the following research questions;

1. What is the extent of relationship between sexuality education and students’ sexual

behaviour in Delta and Edo State?

2. What is the extent of relationship between sexuality education, peer influence and

students sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo State?

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3. What is the extent of relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass

media and students sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo State?


media, location and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo State?


media, location, gender and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo State?


media, location, gender, class and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo State?


media, location, gender, class, school type and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and

Edo State?

Hypotheses

The research questions formulated above were addressed by their respective

hypotheses which are;

Ho1: There is no significant relationship between sexuality education and students’ sexual

behaviour in Delta and Edo State.

Ho2: There is no significant relationship between sexuality education, peer influence and

students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo State.

Ho3: There is no significant relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass

media and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo State.


media, location and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo State.

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media, location, gender and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo State.


media, location, gender, class and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo State.


media location, gender, class, school type and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and

Edo State.

Purpose of the Study

The main purpose of this study is to investigate sexuality education, peer influence

and mass media as correlate of student’s sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo State. Specifically

the study investigated the following:

1. identify the extent of relationship between sexuality education and student’s sexual

behaviour in Delta, and Edo State.

2. ascertain the extent of relationship between sexuality education peer influence and

student’s sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo State.

3. investigate the extent of relationship between sexuality education, peer influence mass

media and student’s sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo State.

4. examine the extent of relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass

media, location sexuality education and student sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo

State.

5. ascertain the extent of relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass

media, gender, location, and student’s sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo states.

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6. investigate the extent of relationship between sexuality education, peer influence mass

media location, gender, class and student’s sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo States.

7. examine the extent of relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass

media, location, gender class school type and student’s sexual behaviour in Delta and

Edo States.

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Significance of the Study

The research will be of great significance to parents, the government, guidance

counsellors, sociologists, ministries of education, teachers and students. To the parents: the

findings of this study will be of great relevance to the parents as it will help them to encourage

their children to be role models of sexual behaviour among their peers.

This study will also provide the parents with greater knowledge on the level of

involvement of sexual behaviour among students in schools. Such organized information will

enhance their good monitoring of the children as well as knowing the consequence involved

in their children’s involvement on risky sexual behaviour. Therefore, parents will become

more united with the school to monitor and manage the students’ unpleasant sexual activities

in school and at home.

To the government: the findings of this study will be of significance to government as

it serve as a means of conveying to government to come to their aid of the school

administrators to equip the school with qualified personnel like counselors, that will help to

counsel the students in the areas of sexual behaviour without being embarrassed. And also to

provide qualified teachers that will teach students on the areas of sexuality education.

To the guidance counsellors: the findings of this study will be of immense benefit to

the school counsellors who witness this cases on daily basics, for the therapeutic skills needed

to handle risky sexual behaviour among students in secondary schools. It will help the

counsellors inculcating good values and morals into the mind of the students who always

involve themselves in risky sexual behaviour. It will encourage them to change their attitude,

perception and believe towards human sexuality.

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To the sociologist: the finding of this study will encourage them to know the sexual

problems experienced by the student that affect their behaviour, attitude, concept and believe,

as it will enable them to inform the youth the implication of their unpleasant sexual behaviour.

Ministry of Education will be better informed hence the finding of this study will

create awareness of the prevalence, determinants and remedy of risk sexual behaviour among

our students in secondary schools. It will enable them to evaluate the attitude and reactions to

incidents of risky sexual behaviour of students as well as provide qualified personnel’s to

handle the risky sexual behaviour of students.

To the teacher: the finding of study will be significant to teachers who usually face

with the sexual behaviour of students in class. Through the findings of this study, they are

aware of the different sexual behaviour problems of students of this very stage of their life

and help them to overcome the problems by counselling the students or referring them to the

professional school counsellors. And it will also enable to understand some other aspect of

sexuality education and made it known to students.

The findings of this study are also significant to students because it will enable them

to be aware of the fact that the sexual problems they are facing is as a result of changes in

their development. It will also enable them to understand the implication of accepting negative

peer pressure as well as watching nude films in the internet and television.

Finally, the findings of this study were added to the stock of knowledge especially for

those who may want to go into studies in the area of adolescence and their developmental

stages.

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Scope and Delimitation of the Study

The scope of this study is to assess sexuality education, peer influence, mass media as

correlates of sexual behaviour of secondary school students to be moderated by gender,

location and class. The students were drawn from urban and rural school areas (location), and

male and female students (gender). This study was restricted to students 12 – 19 years across

secondary schools in Delta and Edo States. It examines the influence of variables like

sexuality education, peer influence, mass media, location, age, gender, and school type on

sexual behaviour of students. These formed part of the variables for the study.

Operational Definition of Terms

Sexuality Education: This is the education in schools on the subject of sexual activity and

sexual relationships. It refers to the acquisition of information, development, attitudes

and beliefs on reproductive health.

Peer Influence; Peer influence is an influence when a peer group, or individual encourages

another person to change their values, or behaviour to suit other peoples convenience.

Students’ Sexual Behaviour: This refers to students’ sexual activities such as hugging,

kissing, masturbation, touching, sexual intercourse, petting, oral sex, fantasy and so

on.

Mass Media: This is the means of communications such as television, newspaper, magazines

and internet that reach great number of people.

Class: JSS I and SS I of student in Delta and Edo State.

School Type: The nature of school is mixed schools and single schools.

Location: Urban and rural school in Delta and Edo State.

26

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The literature reviewed was discussed using sub-headings related to this study. They

include the following:-

Conceptual Framework

Concept of Adolescence

Concept of Sexuality Education

Relevance of Sexuality Education to Student’s Sexual Behaviour

Concept of Peer Influence

Types of Peer Influence

Peer Influence and Student’s Sexual Behaviour

Mass Media and students’ sexual behaviour

Types of Mass Media

Danger and Benefit of Mass Media

School type and students’ sexual behaviour

Gender, Location, Class and Student’s Sexual Behaviour

Empirical Review

Appraisal of Reviewed Literature

Conceptual Framework

The conceptual model of the study illustrates the sexual behaviours investigated and

the sexuality education and peer factors that determine if the students will engage in sexual

behaviours or not. The sexual behaviours investigated are; being in a romantic relationship,

27

holding hands, kissing, and fondling, visiting parks/beach, watching pornography and

engaging in sexual intercourse. Sexuality education factor includes formal and informal

teaching of sexuality education to students. Peer factors include peers encouraging the

students to engage in the various sex behaviours. The study posits that if students are

influenced by their peers and the level of sex education they get through formal guidance and

informal guidance (from older adults in the society, magazines and the internet) there is the

likelihood that they may engage in sexual behaviour earlier than anticipated if the influence

is negative On the other hand, if peer influences are positive and the students receive good

sex guidance (which may be done formally) they will delay sex début and concentrate more

in school work which improves their future prospects. The framework also depicts the

influence of mass media on sexual behaviour of students.

This conceptualization is hinged on Bandura and Adams (1977) interaction model

which proposes that behaviour is a product of interactions among variable within and outside

ones environment. Therefore, it could be deduced that sexual behaviour of the students may

be either as a result of factors operating within or outside the students’ environment which

could either be inhibited or reinforced by other factors such as location, gender, school type

and class.

28

Conceptual Framework Sexuality Education, Peer Influence, Mass media as Correlate

of Sexual Behaviour of Students

3333333333333333

Adapted from Bandura and Adams (1977)

Key

S = Stimulus (Independent Variables – Sexuality Education and Peer Group Influence, Mass

Media).

O = Organismic (Moderating Variables – School, Location, Gender, Class.

R = Response (Dependent Variable – Students’ Sexual Behaviour)

INDEPENDENT

VARIABLES

MODERATING

VARIABLES

LOCATION

SEXUALITY

EDUCATION

STUDENTS SEXUAL

BEHAVIOURS

SCHOOL

TYPE

GENDER

DEPENDENT

VARIABLE

PEER GROUP

INFLUENCE

MASS MEDIA

INFLUENCE

CLASS

LEVEL

S R O

29

This conceptualization is following the line of the behavioural theories of Bandura and

Adams (1977). That is the stimulus-organism. Response Theory (S-O-R). Consequently,

stressed that this theory could be rightly illustrated as Stimulus-Organism-Response Model

(S-O-R). This theory is of the opinion than an organism’s behaviour is a product of stimulus

in the environment, where the organism innate potentials are well managed. Based on the

above explanation of the model, there is presumed influence or relationship among sexuality

education, peer influence, mass media and sexual behaviour of adolescent.

This conceptualization is hinged on the stimulus response model which proposes that

behaviour is a product of interactions among variable within and outside ones environment.

Therefore, it could be deduced that unpleasant sexual behaviour of the students may be either

as a result of factors operating within or outside the students’ environment which could either

be inhibited or reinforced by other factors such as location, gender, school and class. That is

to mention, that sexual behaviour of the adolescent cannot be only accounted for by

independent variables.

Concept of Adolescence

Adolescence can be described as the period between childhood and maturity or

adulthood. We call adolescence the evolutionary progress in human life which starts

“biologically” with changes at the physiology of the pubis and completes “psychologically”

with the ultimate organization of sexuality. It covers the period between pubescence, during

which the secondary sex characteristics appear and the age of about 18 to 20 years. The term

“teenager” is not completely accurate: it may refer to youngsters between 10 and 18 years old.

It is, therefore, preferable to consider that the individual passes successively through students

30

stages (precocious, middle and posterior) instead of classifying all students into the category

of “teenagers” (Manolopoulos, 1987).

According to Kulkarni (2008:89), “adolescence is the period of psychosocial

development beginning in the preteen years, usually in conjunction with pubertal onset, and

extending until the individual assumes an adult role in society. The stage of psychosocial

development and the level of cognitive maturation strongly influence each students's response

to any health concern, including those related to sexuality. Early adolescence corresponds to

ages 10 to 15 years, when most youth are entering high school. Most early students progress

through puberty, intensely aware of physical changes, and concerned about any changes

which they perceive as "abnormal". They tend to exaggerate and worry about physical

symptoms, although they may have difficulty verbalizing their concerns. Early students begin

to separate from childhood and their parents but tend to vacillate between adult-like and child-

like behaviour.

They have rapid wide mood swings, become easily upset and emotional, and alternate

between extreme cooperation and extreme resistance to adult guidance. Sexually, as pubertal

events occur, early students may rediscover masturbation and other pleasurable self-

stimulation. They form close friendships with same-sex peers and may experiment sexually

with them usually to satisfy curiosity. Middle adolescence, typically ages 14 to 18 years, finds

youth continuing education or seeking employment. Puberty usually is complete, adult size is

approaching and fertility often is a reality. Middle students struggle the most with the

development of self-identity, and autonomy. They have increased mobility and independence

and less adult presence and protection.

31

Risk-taking behaviour involving driving, substance use, and/or sexual activity may

have harmful consequences which the students is unable to anticipate or effectively prevent.

Experimentation seems to be a normal, even necessary part of students development.

Contemporary society often tolerates and even promotes students experimentation with

smoking, drinking, and sex yet hesitates to provide students with the knowledge and means

of avoiding consequences. Sexually, most middle students discover masturbation and practice

it with varying frequency. By age 17, approximately half of all students have experienced

sexual intercourse, some before puberty, many first at age 15 to 16. Coital frequency ranges

from only once to several times a week.

Sexual activity may include oral, genital or anal sex, especially as more students learn

about these varieties of sexual expression. Most students have heterosexual relationships,

although many have experimented with homosexual intimacy. Late adolescence refers to the

years past high school, from age 17 to 18 into the early twenties. Most late students are

physically adult, accepted as adults in their environments, and fertile. They are self-supporting

or pursuing educational or vocational training to become able to support both self and family.

Their self-identity is consistent with the realities of their size, shape, and abilities and

with societal limits and expectations. Late students have a well-established sexual identity,

usually heterosexual, and the ability to have intimate relationships that satisfy the emotional

and sexual needs of both partners. Many achieve parenthood one or more times, some marry,

with or without children, and some even divorce. Yet many have not yet reached the level of

psychosocial maturity that would facilitate a healthy family life for themselves, their partners

and their children.

32

The World Health Organization (2000), points out that adolescence is a period of

dynamic change representing transition from childhood to adulthood that begins at puberty.

For girls, puberty is a process generally marked by the production of oestrogen, the growth of

breasts, the appearance of pubic hair, the growth of the external genitals, and the start of

menstruation (menarche). For boys, it is marked by the production of testosterone, the

enlargement of the testes and penis, a deepening of the voice, and a growth spurt. Adolescence

is a period in human growth and development that occurs after childhood and before

adulthood, from ages 10 to 19. Students can further be sub-divided into pre-puberty, before

age 10; early adolescence, ages 10–14; middle adolescence, ages 15–19; and late adolescence,

or young adulthood, ages 20–24.

Although age is often not an accurate measure because of variations in cultural norms

and expectations, such categories can be useful as a basis for understanding the process of

adolescence. The biological determinants of adolescence are fairly universal; however, the

duration and defining characteristics of this period may vary across time, cultures, and

socioeconomic situations. Furthermore, this period has been radically altered over the past

century by earlier onset of puberty, later age of marriage, urbanization, global communication,

and changing sexual attitudes and behaviours.

Adolescence is a period of furious growth and development during which young

people are universally exposed not only to exciting new opportunities but also to risks. The

process of adolescence is a period of preparation for adulthood. During this time, several key

developmental experiences occur. These experiences include physical and sexual maturation,

movement toward social and economic independence, and development of identity.

Behaviour patterns that are established during this process, such as drug use or non-use and

33

sexual risk taking or protection, can have long-lasting positive and negative effects on future

health and well-being. As a result, during this process, providers have unique opportunities to

influence young people. Although some problems that occur or that are magnified during

adolescence require special attention, students should be viewed as an assets to the society

rather as problems. In many ways, adolescence is a joyful and creative time, and youth can be

a boundless national and international resource when it is nurtured and if its energies are

thoughtfully channelled in positive directions

Christopher (2008) sees adolescence as a time of profound change which includes the

physical changes of puberty as well as cognitive and psychosocial development. For the

majority of individuals, the cognitive changes ultimately lead to the development of abstract

thought and problem solving abilities which are key elements in self-sufficiency as an adult.

Students are faced with the challenges of understanding and becoming comfortable with the

physical changes of puberty. Between the ages of 10 and 14 most boys and girls begin to

notice changes taking place in their bodies. These changes, which occur over a number of

years, are generally referred to as puberty.

Sexual thoughts, feelings, and behaviours, present throughout life, are often

accentuated during adolescence. The normal developmental task of establishing adult sexual

identity and the capacity for intimacy may be frustrated by the prolonged interval between

attainment of reproductive maturity and social permission to express one's sexuality as an

adult. The changes take place in all boys and girls but they start at different times and take

place at different rates. Not everyone starts puberty between the ages of 10 and 14, some

people start younger, and some much later.

34

On the part of Adegoke (2003), the period of adolescence occupies a unique stage in

every person's life. It is a period of transition from childhood to adulthood. Adolescence has

been described as a stage among human beings where a lot of physiological as well as

anatomical changes take place resulting in reproductive maturity in the students. Many

students manage this transformation successfully while others experience major stress and

find themselves engaging in behaviours (e.g. sexual experimentation, exploration and

promiscuity etc.) that place their well-being at risk. Students display sexual behaviours and

developmental characteristics that place them at risk of Sexually Transmitted Diseases

(STDs).

A primary source of risk of HIV/AIDS, for instance, is unprotected /indiscriminate

sexual activity. By the time they are 18, most students in Nigeria are sexually active. Despite

increased sexual knowledge, students in Nigeria are poor contraceptive users. They are less

likely than adults to consistently use condoms or other methods of protection that could reduce

their chances of infection. Neither specific teaching about contraception nor improving the

contraceptive service consistently increases effective contraceptive use by young teenagers.

Students having sexual intercourse before age 16 are more likely to take risks. They have

more sexual partners during their lifetime and more partners per year and they start sexual

activity earlier in new relationships than those who become sexually active after age 16.

In Nigeria today, sexuality education is yet to be incorporated into the curriculum of

secondary school education. Many Nigerians are reluctant to discuss sexuality and sexual

health openly. In most African countries, Nigeria in particular, matters relating to sex and

sexuality are usually shrouded in secrecy. Neither the students boy nor girl has free access to

the information he or she needs on sexuality. Questions bordering on sexuality and girl-boy

35

relationships are usually hushed up and regarded as taboos. The consequence of this action is

that Nigerian students boys and girls find answers to sex-related questions on their own, often

from questionable sources that are likely to give them wrong information, making them more

likely to indulge in reckless and unguarded sexual experimentation. Some students lack

adequate communication and assertiveness skills to negotiate safe sex. Some feel unable to

refuse unwanted sex or feel compelled to exchange sex for money. Because young people

experiment sexually and because of the consequences of indiscriminate sexual activities on

the youth, there is the need to mount sex education programmes that are geared towards

enlightenment and appropriate education about sex and sexuality.

Concept of Sexuality Education

Sexuality education is as old as family life. Before this present age, parents did educate

their young men and women on family life and parenthood especially when it concerns

husband and wife. Sex education, sometimes called sexuality education, has been defined in

various ways by various schools of thought. Sexuality education is a broad term used to

describe education about human sexual anatomy, sexual reproduction, sexual intercourse,

reproductive health, emotional relations, reproductive rights and responsibilities,

contraception and other aspects of human sexual behaviour. Common avenues for sex

education are parents or caregivers, school programmes, and public health campaigns.

Sex education or sexuality education, according to Forrest (2005), is the process of

acquiring information and forming attitudes and beliefs about sex, sexual identity,

relationships and intimacy. It is also about developing young people’s skills so that they make

informed choices about their behaviour, and feel these sources may or may not really provide

them correct and accurate information. As such, sex education will help in transferring

36

authentic information and, in the process, also correct any misinformation that they may have

apart from adding to their already existing knowledge.

According to Mueller (2008), sex education imparted through schools can prove to be

a significant and effective method of bettering the youngster’s sex-related knowledge, attitude

and behaviour. Mueller went further to state that sex education in school is important because

many parents are shy about talking/teaching their children on this subject, hence, its

importance in school cannot be overemphasized. Akerele (2004), pointed out that educating

children on sex related issues also requires one to know how to broach the subject, what

information to impart and what to hold back. All these can be carefully handled by a trained

sex educator; hence, its importance cannot be doubted.

It is a fact that more and more teens are engaging into premarital sex these days. This

further underscores the need for sex education to students. Thus, Graber and Brooks (2002)

observed that sex education help students make better informed decisions about their personal

sexual activities. They further observed that sex education also helps to lessen risk behaviours

in teenagers like engaging in unprotected sex which result in unwanted pregnancies and STDs.

The period of adolescence, according to Adegoke (2003) occupies a unique stage in every

person's life. It is a period of transition from childhood to adulthood. Adolescence has been

described as a stage among human beings where a lot of physiological as well as anatomical

changes take place resulting in reproductive maturity of the students. Many students manage

this transformation successfully while others experience major stress and find themselves

engaging in behaviours (e.g. sexual experimentation, exploration and promiscuity, etc.) that

place their well-being at risk. Students display sexual behaviours and developmental

characteristics that place them at risk of Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs).

37

A primary source of risk of HIV/AIDS for instance is unprotected/indiscriminate

sexual activity. By the time they are 18, most students in Nigeria are sexually active. Despite

increased sexual knowledge, students in Nigeria are poor contraceptive users. They are less

likely than adults to consistently use condoms or other methods of protection that could reduce

their chances of infection. Neither specific teaching about contraception nor improving the

contraceptive service consistently increases effective contraceptive use by young teenagers

(Adegoke, 2003). Students who have sexual intercourse before age 16 are more likely to take

more risks. They have more sexual partners during their lifetime and more partners per year

and they start sexual activity earlier in new relationships than those who become sexually

active after age 16. Hence, Adegoke (2003) observed that teaching them about sex will give

them information concerning the risk involved in engaging in premarital sex.

Mueller (2008), says that sex education is necessary to our young people. Being

mindful of the exposure given to our young people in school, in the media and among their

peers, sex education teaches them about sexual intimacy, but also enlightens them on their

reproductive systems, birth control, and sexually transmitted diseases. It exposes them to their

gender identity, gender role, family role, body images, sexual expression (what it entails and

how to time it), intimacy and marriage relationship. In sex education, important and accurate

information about sexuality on both boys and girls are given depending on their age. It will

be unfair and criminal to ignore or push aside the fact that they are aware of their sexuality;

in whatever stage or state they are.

Good relevant sex education, as observed by Kulkarni (2008), provides knowledge,

information and confidence about sexual problems of students. It has been noticed that

children who are well-informed on male and female anatomy handle puberty better than the

38

uninformed ones. Kulkarni (2008) noted that sex education affects a child's attitude positively.

Each sex (male or female) becomes more tolerant of the others behaviour pattern and option.

A sexuality oriented child learns to believe in the quality of men and women, the

sacrament of marriage and parental responsibilities. With well accepted sex education, there

is usually a lower rate of unwanted pregnancy and spread of sexually transmitted diseases.

When sex education is passed down to our children from a pure heart, they too receive it with

a pure heart. It is not true that when children are taught anything about sex, they out rightly

go and experiment with sex, with contraception, masturbation and homosexuality. These

occur when they are ignorantly curious and when they are uneducated and exposed to

unprotected sex and pornographic materials (Akerele, 2004). The above statement is the

reason why the researcher is worried about the inappropriate risk of students sexual behaviour,

because the student learn this unpleasant behaviour from their fellow students. On this basis,

there is need to educate the student to really have understanding of their sex life.

Sex education provides opportunities for young people to develop skills, as it can be

hard for them to act on the basis of only having information. The skills young people develop

as part of sex education are linked to more general life-skills. Being able to communicate,

listen, negotiate with others, ask for and identify sources of help and advice, are useful life-

skills which can be applied to sexual relationships (Meshike, 2002). It develops young

people's skills in negotiation, decision-making, assertion and listening. Other important skills

include being able to recognize pressures from other people and to resist them, dealing with

and challenging prejudice and being able to seek help from adults - including parents, and

professionals (Moronkola, 2000). From the above statement, it is clear that sexuality

education, is education for all round development for the students.

39

The primary goal of sexuality education according to UNESCO (2009) is to equip

children and young people with the knowledge, skills and values to make responsible choices

about their sexual and social relationships in a world affected by HIV. In addition to learning

about the risks of pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections (including HIV), children

and young people also need to learn about the risk of sexual exploitation and abuse in order

to recognize these when they occur, to protect themselves as far as possible and to identify

and access available sources of support. Sensitizing children, parents, teachers, police and

local communities to the nature and extent of sexual violence, and giving permission to

discuss it, are essential steps in tackling it. Sexuality education can provide an appropriate

framework and context for educating students about sexual abuse (UNESCO, 2009).

Sexuality education has a number of mutually reinforcing objectives, these includes:

increase knowledge and understanding (such as about sex and the law, the nature of sexual

abuse and what to do about it); explore and clarify feelings, values and attitudes (developing

self-esteem and feeling proud of one’s body); develop or reinforce skills (saying “no”,

resisting pressure); and promote and sustain risk-reducing behaviour (seeking help)

(UNESCO, 2009).

Relevance of Sexuality Education to Sexual Behaviour

Writing on the relevance of sexuality education to sexual behaviour, Melgosa (1997)

noted that students sexuality is an important developmental task, which the students have little

control over, especially the boys. According to Melgosa (1997), establishment of successful

sexual relationship is one of the developmental tasks during late students’ and young

adulthood. This period is characterized by intense sexual urges, exploration and

experimentation. The students must integrate this new dimension in sexuality with other

40

aspect of life with minimum conflict and anxiety. Often, students’ feel like strangers with

their own bodies with newly developed genitals of alarming sizes, breast and body hair.

Interests in sex is alarming and the time alluring.

The above observation of Melgosa (1997) is not surprising because of the attainment

of puberty (sexual maturity) by the students which manifest into various secondary sex

characteristics. The literature on the students’ sexual behaviour did not clearly identify such

behaviour characteristics relating to sexuality. It is the intention of this present study to

measure the behaviour trait or characteristics of students’ relating to sexuality while in

secondary school. A survey by the National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy found that

7% of youth used alcohol the first time they had sex, 6% used alcohol the most recent time

they had sex. Boys will use drugs and alcohol for different reasons than girls. Boys are more

likely to use in order to relax and to prevent premature ejaculation. Girls will often become

intoxicated before engaging in sexual activities because it numbs the experience for them,

making it less embarrassing and less emotionally painful. (Sax & Leonard, 2005).

Sax and Leonard (2005) reviewed that teenage sexual encounters in the United States

do not occur in the context of a romantic relationship, but in a “hook up” that is purely sexual.

Over half of sexually active teens have had sexual partners whom they are not dating. This is

a genuine and puzzling change in teen sexual behaviour and a profound shift in the culture of

high school dating and sex. A friends with benefits relationship is always a disaster for

somebody. Sexual development is an integral and important part of human development.

Sexual health is an important component of health throughout the life-span. Sex education is

a major component of comprehensive health education, the goal of which is to help children

and students become healthy adults with responsible health behaviours. “Family life

41

education” often is considered to be a euphemism for “sex education,” however sex education

is only one part, albeit a vital part of family life education. Family life education encompasses

a broad range of topics that prepare young people for marriage, parenthood, and family

responsibilities. Sex education often is approached with great anxiety and addressed in little

detail in schools, in community programs, and even in the home (Haffner, 1998; Bleakley,

Hennessy, and Fishbein. 2006). There is a pervasive fear in the United States that sex

education will promote students sexual activity and increase the risk of pregnancy, sexually

transmitted infections (STIs), and HIV infection among teenagers. Careful and objective

scholarly research during the last two decades has shown that sex education does not increase

rates of sexual activity among teenagers increase knowledge about sexual behaviour and its

consequences. It also increases prevention behaviours among those who are sexually active

(Kirby, 2001).

Young people are exposed to numerous influences upon their sexual attitudes and

behaviours every day from the media, their peers, their parents, and other adults. Sex

education/family life education is valuable in its ability to truthfully educate young people

about sex and its risks, to provide them with knowledge to protect themselves from unwanted

pregnancy and STIs, including HIV infection (Eisenberg, Bernat, Bearinger and Resnick,

2008). Young people must have accurate and sufficient information to make responsible

choices and to become responsible adults. Teaching correct information about sexuality or

any other topic in school does not prevent any parent from teaching and modelling values and

expectations in the home, rather it should assist parents in providing opportunities for family

communication (Kim & Free, 2008).

42

Sexuality education is assumed to increase safe sexual behaviour, which is, as

mentioned before, one of the reasons of the successful decline in HIV prevalence in Uganda

(WPF 2007, Guttmacher Institute 2007, AVERT 2009). Students are a high-risk group when

it comes to unsafe sexual behaviour. Therefore, sexuality education for students could be an

effective way to increase safe sexual behaviour, thereby preventing the spread of HIV/AIDS

and other problems, such as unwanted pregnancies (Guttmacher Institute 2007).

Concept of Peer Influence

A peer group is both a social group and a primary group of people who have similar

interests (homophile), age, background, and social status. The members of this group are

likely to influence the person’s beliefs and behaviour. Peer groups contain hierarchies and

distinct patterns of behaviour. 18 year olds are not in a peer group with 14 year olds even

though they may be in school together (Steinberg, 2010). During adolescence, peer groups

tend to face dramatic changes. Students tend to spend more time with their peers and have

less adult supervision. Students communication shifts during this time as well. They prefer to

talk about school and their careers with their parents, and they enjoy talking about sex and

other interpersonal relationships with their peers. Children look to join peer groups who

accept them, even if the group is involved in negative activities. Children are less likely to

accept those who are different from them (Tarrant, 2002).

The term peer pressure is often used to describe instances where an individual feels

indirectly pressured into changing his/her behaviour to match that of his/her peers. Taking up

smoking and underage drinking are two of the best known examples. In spite of the often

negative connotations of the term, peer pressure can be used positively, for example, to

encourage other peers to study, or not to engage in activities such as the ones discussed above.

43

Although peer pressure is not isolated to one age group, it is usually most common during the

students stage. Adolescence is a period characterized by experimentation, and students

typically spend a lot of time with their peers in social contexts. Teenagers compel each other

to go along with certain beliefs or behaviours, and studies have shown that boys are more

likely to give in to it than girls. There has been much research done to gain a better

understanding about the effects of peer pressure, and this research will allow parents to handle

and understand their children’s behaviours and obstacles they will face due to their peer

groups. Learning how peer pressure impacts individuals is a step to minimizing the negative

effects it leads to.

According to Bernstein (2001), no influence in the students’ life is as powerful as peer

pressure. At its best, it can mobilize his energy, motivate him to strive for success, and

encourage him to conform to a healthy group norm. At its worst, peer pressure can impair

good judgment and fuel risk-taking behaviour, drawing a child away from the family and

positive influences and luring him into dangerous activities. No matter what kind of peer

pressure students face they must learn how to balance the value of going along with the crowd

(their peers) against the importance of making their own decisions. And you must ensure that

your teen is comfortable with himself so that he will be able to achieve that balance. In order

to achieve this balance, Bernstein (2001) noted that the more comfortable a teen is with his

identity, the less susceptible he will be to negative peer pressure—a force that almost always

leads students to some form of trouble.

What is considered cool and what is considered as not-cool varies widely from year

and from school to school. Cool behaviour (behaviour that is socially acceptable) can range

from dressing in trendy styles to being good at a certain sport as being sarcastic to parents;

44

not-cool behaviour often includes displaying excessive affection and disobedience toward

parents, reaching, out to an unpopular classmate, expressing interest in school work. While

not all teenagers follow the cool/not-cool code of their social set, they're certainly aware of it.

Many feel they have to act a certain way because it's expected of them. That explains why

they put on a show for their friends, going out of their way to do things that would never be

tolerated in their own homes. It's all to gain acceptance from their peer group (Bernstein,

2001). It usually takes some convincing to get a teenager to understand that peer pressure can

be dangerous (Bernstein, 2001).

Types of Peer Influence

The students whether at school or work, peer influence dominate their general outlook

even their output, every one of us have one time or the other experience peer influence mostly

when one is still younger. However, some researchers have shown that, peer influence can

aspire an individual to be better than how the person was in other words, it can aspire the

individual to be focused in life. Peer influence in a right environment can be beneficial to

students. A child can be influenced positively if he or she is motivated to get good grades

because her friends are getting good grade, she need to be like her friend that is a positive

influence. And every parent will urge for this kind of influence on their children.

Positive Peer Influence

Positive peer pressure will enable an individual to reflect on his or her actions and

change unacceptable behaviour and turn a new leave;

When someone is being pressured to join school activities, it is said to be positive because, it

will enable you become more sociable to people. When you are being pressured in life to

respect others mostly your elder ones, it will take you very far in life and it can be called

45

positive peer pressure. If you are being pressured to obey the rules and regulations of the

school, church, country as a good citizen, it is positive pressure because it will make you stay

out of future trouble. Preserving someone to go to church, naming ceremonies, wedding

ceremonies etc, on time is a positive pressure because it will make you to always keep to time

to whatever you are doing or if you have an interview to go to and so on.

Negative Peer Pressure

Negative peer pressure is another kind of pressure that occur when an individual is

being pressured to do things negatively that ordinarily he/she cannot do. Being pressure to

having sex without being properly prepared for it, is a negative influence because it could lead

to having unwanted pregnancy and S.T.Ds. stealing is also a negative peer pressure because

it gives people negative thoughts about you, it could even be a permanent record and can also

lead to life imprisonment if you are being caught stealing. Fighting is a negative pressure

especially when it leads to physical harming, the end result could be a jail term for a long

period of time.

Chevannes (1993) and de Bruin (2001) pointed out that for students girls, the peer

group is also important, and that both boys and girls rely heavily upon school and peers, and

the media to a lesser extent, to develop their knowledge about sexual activity and relations.

Peers provide students with models, support and identity as reported by (Ochieng, Kakai and

Abok (2011). Peers also provide information about sexual activities (Didi, 2004) and model

sexual behaviour (Lema, 1987; Kimani, 2005; UNICEF, 2006). The factors that predispose

students to engage in sex behaviours have been identified as: having peers who are sexually

active and who pressurize others to engage in sex (Didi 2004), among other things.

Peers are presumed to exert a major social influence on students sexual behaviour.

Peer effects may operate at several levels. Same-sex peers are a major source of information

46

about sex (Davis & Harris, 1982), and peers provide settings (e.g., cars, parties) where sex

can occur (Rowe & Linver, 1995). Same-sex friends may influence the perceived acceptability

of sexual behaviour, and sexually experienced friends may serve as role models. Finally,

romantic partners provide opportunities for sexual experimentation and may also exert

pressure for sex (Wyatt & Riederle, 1994). Peer influence can be categorized as one of the

most powerful agents of socialization among the students. This is because the influence of

their peer affects their, perception, belief, conduct and their behaviours. In short, it affects

their total way of life – the kind of dresses they put, their life aspiration, their personality, and

a host of character formation.

Peer Influence and Student’s Sexual Behaviour

Investigators have proved that the sexual behaviour of the students are influenced by

their peer. Most importantly, their best friends influence studies like Bearman and Bruckner

(1999) stressed that students influence their peers by modelling behaviours and setting social

norms. They emphasized that peer pressure is often thought to be a negative force on students,

but their study demonstrates that it is of a more positive one. Using data from the National

Longitudinal Study of Students Health (Add Health 1994-95), Hussong (2002) revealed that

students’ substance use was associated with the substance use of both the students' peer clique

and social crowd, although best friend influence was still most influential, and that best friend

influence interacted with these broader peer concepts.

On the other hand, Urberg (1992) stressed that no evidence of a social crowd influence

affect peers; he pointed only best friend influence was of significant importance. Payne and

Cornwell (2007) tested peer influence by using measures of friends' risk behaviour, the risk

behaviour of friends, and risk behaviour of friends three or more steps beyond the students.

47

Results indicated that friends of friends did affect behaviour in profound ways, but that best

friends of friends, and the risk behaviour of friends three or more steps beyond the students.

Results also indicated that friends of friends did affect behaviour in profound ways, but that

best friends are still most important.

Associations between close friends’ sexual behaviour are well documented (East,

Felice & Morgan, 1993; Rodgers & Rowe, 1990; Whitbeck et al., 1993). Although these

patterns could indicate a peer socialization effect, selection may also play a role, if students

choose friends who are like themselves in attitudes and behaviour (Bauman & Ennett, 1996;

Billy, Rodgers, & Udry, 1984). In a longitudinal study, best friends’ sexual experience was

strongly associated with the initiation of intercourse for white females, but for white males

the association appeared to reflect boys’ selection of friends with levels of sexual experience

similar to their own. No evidence of peer influence was found for blacks of either gender

(Billy & Udry, 1985). Associating with deviant peers has been linked to earlier initiation of

intercourse (Rowe et al., 1989a; Whitbeck et al., 1999). Conversely, spending time with

conventional peers in extracurricular activities is negatively associated with students

intercourse (Miller & Sneesby, 1988). Jaccard, Blanton, and Dodge (2000) attempted to

isolate peer socialization effects by controlling for potential confounds related to inaccurate

reporting of friends’ behaviour, selection of friends, and common experiences (e.g., similar

rate of pubertal development). Once statistical controls were applied, peer effects were small

and occurred only between friends with similar sexual experience. Thus, effects of peer

behaviour may be limited; beliefs about friends’ sexual behaviour appear more influential

than friends’ actual behaviour (Cvetkovich & Grote, 1980).

48

In connection with social learning theory and reference group theory, more network

inspired theories, such as diffusion of innovation studies Coleman, Katz, and Menzel, 1966;

Rogers, 1995; Valente, 1995), social capital theory (Burt, 1987; Coleman, 1988), and

structural theory of social influence (Friedkin, 1988; Marsden and Friedkin, 1993) have

developed a more "structural" approach to the study of social influence, in contrast to the

traditional "relational" one. These theories postulate that social influence not only is the result

of cohesive contacts, such as contacts with friends (that is, influence by cohesive), but also

can be the result of sharing similar positions in the network (that is, influence by structural

equivalence). Structural equivalence is the observation that two individuals are connected

identifiably to all other actors in the network (Lorrain and White, 1971). Influence by cohesion

has been studied extensively in peer influence studies on risk behaviour.

Studies show that students who believe their peers are using condoms are also more

than twice as likely to use condoms compared to teens who do not believe their peers use

condoms (DiClemente, 1991; 1992). In the United States, a peer education program targeting

mostly black, urban female ages 12 through 19 significantly improved HIV/AIDS knowledge

and preventive behaviours. Before the program, 44 percent of sexually active participants

reported not using condoms compared to 33 percent after the intervention. Reports of sex in

the previous two weeks fell from 21 percent at baseline to 14 percent at follow-up (Slap,

1991). Evaluation of a sexual health peer education program in Peru in 2000 found that,

compared to controls, participating males had increased knowledge about pregnancy

prevention and reported reduced incidence of sexual initiation and increased use of

contraception at most recent sex. An evaluated peer health education program in Cameroon

showed increased use of modern contraceptive methods and increased condom use at most

49

recent sex among participants versus comparison youth. The program was more effective

among in- than out-of-school youth (James-Traore, 2002).

The West African Youth Initiative implemented peer education programs in

schools and out-of-school settings in Ghana and Nigeria. Evaluation showed that peer

education significantly increased condom use among in-school youth. The proportion of

youth reporting use of modern contraception methods increased significantly from 47 to 56

percent while use in comparison areas decreased slightly (Brieger, 2001). In an alternative

school in Florida, a peer education program resulted in increased reports of condom use at

most recent intercourse (up from 45 to 55%) and fewer reports of unprotected sex (down from

15 to four percent) among sexually active students (O'Hara, 1996). A program in the South

identified peer leaders in the gay communities of two small cities. The leaders were then

trained to talk individually with their peers about HIV risk behaviours. As a result, the

proportion of men who engaged in any unprotected anal intercourse in a two-month period

decreased from 36.9 percent before the intervention to 27.5 percent after the intervention

(Kelly, 1991). In contrast to sub-Saharan Africa, there is a robust body of research from the

United States suggesting that for teenagers there friend and peers influences are important

determinants of sexual risk behaviours. The broader literature on students development and

behaviour has long emphasized the growing importance of friends and peers as socializing

agents during this stage of the life course (Arnett, 2001; Harris, 1998; Smetana, Campione-

Barr, & Metzger, 2006). This pattern appears to characterize societies throughout the world,

but in some cases applies more to students boys than girls (Schlegel & Barry, 1991). Although

much of this literature has focused on behaviours other than sexual activity and contraceptive

50

use, there is considerable evidence that these behaviours too, may be subject to considerable

friend and peer influence.

Among the most consistent findings in research on students sexual behaviours in the

United States is the strong statistical association between students’ self-reported sexual

initiation and their perceptions of the sexual activity of their close friends. This association

has been documented in numerous cross-sectional investigations (Benda & DiBlasio, 1994;

Bersamin, Walker, Fisher, and Grube, 2006; Little & Rankin, 2001, Maguen & Armistead,

2006; Miller, Norton, Curtis, Hill, Schvaneveldt, & Young, 1997; Rai et al., 2003; Romer et

al., 2004; Stanton et al., 1994; Whitaker & Miller, 2000). Of course, statistical associations

such as these are subject to multiple interpretations.

One important theme in the research on students sexual behaviours in the United

States, therefore, has been the extent to which such associations are attributable to peer

influences, as opposed to selection and de-selection processes in which students form and

dissolve friendships as a result of similarities and differences in behaviours, attitudes, and

values. To some extent, analyses of longitudinal data can help to disentangle these processes.

And in general the association between the perceived sexual activity of friends and young

people’s own self-reported sexual activity has held up in longitudinal studies (Billy and Udry,

1985; Kinsman, Romer, Furstenburg, & Schwarz, 1998; Stanton, Li, Pack, Cottrell, Harris, &

Burns, 2002; Whitbeck, Conger, & Kao, 1993). Some studies have gone further, relying not

upon respondents’ perceptions of their friends’ behaviours, but on designs in which

respondents provide the names of their friends, and investigators then use the self-reported

sexual behaviour data obtained from those friends to predict, longitudinally, respondents’ self-

reported sexual activity (Maxwell, 2000; Sieving, Eisenberg, Pettingell, & Skay, 2006). These

51

findings provide stronger, albeit not indisputable, evidence that peer influences play some

role in shaping students’ sexual behaviours in the United States. Another important theme in

this body of research has been the desire to identify more clearly how peer influences operate.

That is, assuming that friends and peers do influence one another’s sexual behaviour, how is

it exactly that those influences operate? Brown and Theobald (1999) identify four possible

mechanisms: peer pressure, modelling, structuring opportunities, and setting and enforcing

group norms. These processes are not mutually exclusive. In fact, they may be easier to

differentiate conceptually than they are to distinguish empirically. In recent years, the bulk of

research on peer influences and students sexual behaviours in the United States has focused

on perceived norms.

Investigators have employed two different approaches to measuring perceived norms.

In one approach, youth are asked to report on the views of their friends regarding sexual

activity. Carvajal and colleagues (1999), for example, asked high school students whether

most of their friends believed that people of their age should postpone sex until they are older,

and whether most of their friends believed it acceptable for people of their age to have sex.

Controlling for age, sex, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and other psychosocial factors,

they found that youth who reported more restrictive attitudes toward sex among their friends

were less likely to become sexually active between the two waves of this longitudinal study.

Investigators have obtained similar findings in several other cross-sectional and longitudinal

studies in the United States (Bersamin et al., 2006; DiIorio, Dudley, Kelly, Soet, Mbwara, &

Potter, 2001; Little & Rankin, 2001; Maguen & Armistead, 2006; Marín, Coyle, Gómez,

Carvajal, & Kirby, 2000; Santelli, Kaiser, Hirsch, Radosh, Simkin, & Middlestadt, 2004).

52

A second approach to measuring peer norms has focused on the perceived

consequences of sexual activity for respect from one’s friends. Kinsman, Romer, Furstenburg,

and Schwartz (1998), for example, asked sixth grade students in Philadelphia what would

happen if a girl or boy their own age had sex. Net of other factors, those who said that a boy’s

friends would respect him more were more likely, and those who said that a boy’s friends

would respect him less were less likely, than those who indicated that it would not affect his

friends’ respect, to report initiation of sexual activity between baseline and follow-up surveys.

Seiving et al., (2006) confirmed the association between students’ reports of perceived social

gains and losses of sex with their self-reported sexual behaviour.

It remains unclear whether the two approaches – social gains and losses versus friends

restrictive or permissive attitudes – are simply two ways of measuring the same thing; or,

alternatively, whether they tap two distinct (though presumably correlated) aspects of the

normative environments in which students in the United States operate. In any case, a recent

systematic review (Buhi & Goodson, 2007), concluded that perceived norms are “stable

predictors” of students sexual behaviours in this body of research.

Other investigators have moved beyond perceived norms to situate students sexual

risk behaviours within the broader framework of Problem Behaviour Theory (Donovan &

Jessor, 1985). In this approach, early or high-risk sexual activity among teenagers is seen as

part of a “syndrome” of interrelated problem behaviours (also referred to as antisocial or

deviant behaviours). Other behaviours in the syndrome include tobacco use, alcohol and other

drug use, petty crime, school failure, and rejection of adult authority. These may, furthermore,

be negatively correlated with conventional or pro-social behaviours such as church attendance

and school achievement (Donovan, Jessor, & Costa, 1988). Accordingly, investigators

53

studying peer influences on students sexual activity from this perspective have examined the

associations with sexual activity of affiliation with antisocial peers, affiliation with pre-social

peers or both. Capaldi, Crosby, and Stoolmiller (1996), for example, constructed an index of

deviant peer association for participants in the Oregon Youth Study based upon parent,

teacher, and child reports. They found that, controlling for several covariates, this index was

positively associated with self-reported sexual activity. Others have likewise found indices of

antisocial peer affiliation to be positively associated with students sexual activity (Browning,

Leventhal, & Brooks-Gunn, 2004; Capaldi, Stoolmiller, Clark, & Owen, 2002; Cavanagh,

2004; Whitbeck, Yoder, Hoyt, & Conger, 1999) or pregnancy status (Scaramella, Conger,

Simons, Whitbeck, 1998). Some have also found indices or indicators of prosocial peer

affiliation to be negatively associated with sexual activity among students (e.g., Cavanagh,

2004). It is uncertain, however, whether affiliation with pro-social and antisocial peers are

better predictors of students’ sexual activity than peer norms or perceptions of friends’ sexual

activity.

Still other investigators have examined the associations with sexual activity of several

structural or compositional aspects of teenagers’ peer groups. The literature on these topics

remains thin, however, and the findings have been inconsistent. Using data from the National

Longitudinal Study of Students Health, for example, Cavanagh (2004) found that having more

friends predicted transition to first sex among white girls but not among Latinas, but that

having older male friends was associated with this transition for Latina but not among white

girls. Miller and colleagues (1997) found no effect on transition to first sex of having opposite

sex friends or of having older friends in another national sample in the United States.

54

By comparison to the United States, the literature on peer influences on students sexual

and contraceptive use behaviours in sub-Saharan Africa remains sparse. Nevertheless, some

research on these topics has been done. Surveys have documented cross-sectional associations

between perceived peer behaviour and self-reported sexual activity among youth in at least

four countries: Ghana (Magnani, Morgan, and Bond, 2003), Kenya (Kiragu & Zabin, 1993),

Rwanda (Babalola, 2004), and Zambia (Magnani et al., 2002). To date, however, we are aware

of no longitudinal data linking friends’ sexual activity (perceived or self-reported) to the

initiation of sexual activity among youth in sub-Saharan Africa.

Likewise, very little survey research has addressed these issues of peer norms and

students sexual behaviours in sub-Saharan Africa. One study in Cape Town, South Africa,

used the perceived restrictive attitudes of friends approach, but found that such perceptions

had no influence on self-reported sexual activity once other variables were controlled

(Mathews, Aaro, Flisher, Mukoma, Wubs, & Schaalma, 2009). Another study, based in

Bamako, Mali, measured perceived peer norms related not to sexual activity but to condom

use, and found that perceived peer norms favouring condom use were positively associated

with self-reported condom use at last sex, and negatively associated with number of partners

in the past six months (Boileau, Rashed, Sylla, & Zunzunegui, 2008). Other investigators have

studied the social normative context of students sexuality in sub-Saharan Africa using

qualitative methods. One team conducted ethnographic research in northern Tanzania; they

reported that clear norms prescribing abstinence among in-school youth and valuing female

sexual respectability were in potential conflict with other prevailing norms, including one

linking male status to sexual experience (Wight, Plummer, Mshana, Wamoyi, Shigongo, &

Ross, 2006). In a multi-method qualitative study in KwaZulu/Natal, South Africa, Harrison

55

(2008) found that sexual activity among teenagers was strongly disapproved of, especially for

young teenage girls. Another qualitative study in Cape Town, South Africa, suggested that

students boys in particular may be pressured by their peers into sexual activity, and may derive

status within peer groups through having multiple sexual partners (Selikow, Ahmed, Flisher,

Mathews, & Mukoma, 2009). And a mixed-methods study of youth and young adults in

Nigeria emphasized the growing centrality of “born again” Christianity in framing ideologies

about sexuality among young people there (Smith, 2004). These findings suggest that peer

norms in sub-Saharan Africa may often favour sexual abstinence among unmarried teenagers,

especially for younger teens and girls, but may be in conflict with norms valuing sexual

activity within some male peer groups.

Kimani (2005) confirmed that boys were initiated to sex earlier than girls. This agrees

with the findings of this study. According to Wang’eri, and Otanga (2013) more males than

females reported having pressurized by peers to engage in the sexual behaviours investigated

but contrary to expectation those reporting to have been pressurized to engage in sexual

intercourse were few.

Peer pressure is defined as when people your own age encourage or urge you to do

something or to keep from doing something else, no matter if you personally want to do it or

not (Ryan, 2000). The more subtle form of peer pressure is known as peer influence, and it

involves changing one’s behaviour to meet the perceived expectations of others (Burns &

Darling, 2002). In general, most teens conform to peer pressure about fairly insignificant

things like music, clothing, or hairstyles. When it comes to more important issues like moral

values, parents still remain more influential than the peer group (Black, 2002). Peer Influence

56

Biddle, Bank, and Marlin (2001) conducted a study to examine parental and peer influence

on adolescents.

They found that peer behaviours are more likely to affect the adolescent than parental

behaviours, whereas parental norms are more likely to affect the adolescent than peer norms.

This study did not concur with the present study who revealed that peers has great influence

on the student sexual behaviour. Parents have had a longer time to influence adolescents and

retain a responsibility to represent the standards of the adult world. Peers, in contrast, may be

shunned if they attempt to impose standards on their adolescent friends but are likely to be

omnipresent as behavioural models within schools (Biddle, Bank, & Marlin, 2001). It is

unfortunate that many adolescents do not have parents who are actively involved in their lives,

do not provide appropriate supervision, and are unable to clearly communicate their values.

This puts these adolescents in an even greater danger of giving in to negative peer pressure.

Lingren (1995) identified five factors that play a role in how peer groups function today .First,

during adolescence, parents and their children are more physically and psychologically distant

from each other. This is a normal process, but it is shown in decreases in emotional closeness and

warmth, increases in parent-adolescent conflict/disagreement, and an increase in time adolescents

spend with peers. Second, increases in family strains, such as economic pressures and divorce,

have prompted teenagers to depend more on peers for emotional support. Third, in ten to twenty

percent of families, parents and adolescents are in distressed relationships characterized by

emotional coldness and frequent outbursts of anger/conflict. Fourth, youth gangs commonly

associated with inner-city neighborhoods are becoming a more common phenomenon among

youth in smaller cities, suburbs, and even rural areas. Fifth, formal dating patterns have been

replaced with informal socializing patterns in mixed-sex groups. This may encourage casual

sexual relationships that heighten the risk of teenage pregnancy, AIDS, and other sexually

57

transmitted diseases. Sixth, ethnicity is replacing individual abilities or interests as the basis for

defining peer “crowds.” Finally, the increase in part-time employment among youth has had little

effect on peer relations. In order to spend time with peers, teenagers drop extracurricular activities,

reduce time spent on homework, and withdraw from family functions. (Lingren 1995).

Mass Media and Students’ Sexual Behaviour

Mass media is defined as those media that are designed to be consumed by large

audiences through the agencies of technology. An array of communication media reaches

large numbers of the public, including radio, television, movies, newspapers, and magazines.

The Internet is a worldwide, publicly accessible network of interconnected computer

networks that transmits information and services such as electronic mail, online chat, title

transfer, interlinked web pages, and other documents of the World Wide Web (Wakefield,

Loken and Hornik, 2010). Media influences on sexual behaviour were first reported in a sex

education newsletter in 1981, (Corder-Bolz, 1981) and since then several overviews have

examined students’ use of media as a source of information and its possible effect on their

sexual behaviour (Malamuth, 1993). Students are vigorous users of the information broadcast

in the media, (Werner-Wilson, Fitzharris and Morrissey, 2004) and concern has been raised

about the influence of media portrayals on sexual attitudes and the normative expectations of

these students at a critical developmental stage (Rich, 2008).

The mass media and the Internet have their advantages in terms of providing necessary

information for young people on sexual health and healthy sexual relationships, but many

studies have shown that mass media negatively influences teens in their sexual behaviours

(Werner-Wilson, Fitzharris and Morrissey, 2004). Over the past two decades, studies have

shown an overall increase in the number of portrayals of and the amount of discussion about

sex in these media and an increase in the explicitness of these portrayals (Gruber and Grube,

58

2000, Bragg and Buckingham, 2002). Furthermore, television research shows a fairly

consistent sexual message across television genres: most portrayals of sex depict or imply

sexual intercourse between unmarried adults, with little or no reference to sexually transmitted

infections or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), pregnancy, or use of

contraception (Collins, Martino and Shaw, 2011). Gupta and Mahy (2001) stated that other

factors associated with early sex initiation have been identified as exposure to mass media, as

well as the changes taking place in the traditional family, among other factors.

Werner-Wilson et al., (2004) observed that many studies have shown that mass media

negatively influences sexual behaviour among teens. Youths often time like to adapt the

behaviours of some of the heroes or heroines they watch on TV programs. Sexual discussions

and displays are increasingly frequent and explicit in all forms of the mass media. The

Internet, the use of which is growing more rapidly than any previous technology, has

dramatically increased the availability of sexually explicit content. One content analysis found

that the inclusion of sexual content that ranged from flirting to sexual intercourse had

increased from slightly more than half of television programs in 1997–1998, to more than two

thirds of the programs in the 1999–2000 seasons (Gruber and Grube, 2000).

Werner-Wilson et al., (2004), observed that both children and adults have been

reported to believe the media is a central source of information on sex and sexuality for young

people. Content analysis has been performed on print media, television and movies, music,

and computerized media to determine the types of messages delivered through these sources

with results showing students being exposed to both implicit and explicit sexual content

(Werner-Wilson et al.,., 2004). Little is known, however, of the relationship between the

media and young people’s sexual behaviour in Nigeria, or indeed in developing countries in

59

general, because of the dearth of studies in this area. The alarming increase of rape, teenage

pregnancies, septic abortions, and sexually transmitted infections, especially human

immunodeficiency virus (HIV), among undergraduates in Nigeria makes research into the

effects of the mass media and the Internet on their sexual behaviour even more important

(Olasode, 2007).

Types of Mass Media

Mass media is known to be a device used in communicating and interacting with a

large number of people in different languages. Mass media can be describe as communication

device used in interacting and charting with millions of people with different languages. Mass

media can be used for entertainment, effective ways for communication, dissemination of

opinions, advertising, marketing as well as sharing views and ideas. There are different types

of mass media. They are as follows:

Print Media: print media includes newspapers, magazines, booklets and brochures, house

magazines, periodical or newsletter, direct mailers, handbills or flyers, billboards, press

releases and books.

Electronic Media: in this type of media the user employ the use of electric connection to

access it. It can also be called broadcast media. The electronic media includes, television,

radio and new-age media. Like internet, computer, telephone.

New Age Media: the world is enjoying the high technology mass media because of the advent

of internet which has a wide spread range of information. Internet, mobile phone and computer

are known as new age media. Internet created various new opportunity for mass

communication which includes; email, website, podcasts, e-forums, e-books, blogging,

internet, T.V and host of others. Internet also are on social networking site which have

60

changed mass communication, such site are as follows; Facebook, Twitter and YouTube.

Internet have made communication so interesting, entertaining and simple. Internet is known

to be the most discovering in mass media. The creation of internet have unfolded many hidden

things round about the global world.

The advent of the telephone and the automobile and their subsequent integration into

the mainstream culture are often identified as key factors in the rise of modern dating. Not

only did these technologies allow for rapid communication between couples, but they also

removed familial supervision from the dating process. The automobile especially afforded a

young couple the opportunity to have time together away from parental constraints (Lawson

and Kira, 2006). Dating, like many other forms of relationships, is being influenced by the

application of new technologies, especially the internet. The most prominent among these

technological advances is the rise in popularity of social networking and matchmaking sites

such as Date-My-School, a website dedicated to college dating (established in 2010). These

new technologies modify certain aspects of the current system of relationship formation,

rather than fundamentally changing it. Participants in these services who are looking for a

face-to-face relationship still tend to impose geographical and group-based limitations on the

pool of potential mates. This indicates that, despite the increased number of possibilities, users

still value the possibility of an offline relationship. Participants use the services in order to

meet others who are outside their social circles, but still attempt to impose some limitations

to maintain the possibility of a physical relationship (Barraket, and Millsom, 2008; Steven

and Morris, 2007).

When students use the internet to find and create relationships, the most common

bonds formed are on the level of friends and acquaintances. About ten percent of those

61

interviewed reported one or more romantic relationships that had originated online (Steven

and Morris, 2007). The researchers measured levels of exposure to three kinds of sexual

content on television: (1) sexual behaviour, such as kissing, intimate touching, and implied or

depicted intercourse, (2) talk about sexual plans or desires or about sex that has occurred, and

expert advice, and (3) talk about or behaviour showing the risks of or the need for safety in

regard to sexual activity: abstinence, waiting to have sex, portrayals mentioning or showing

contraceptives, and portrayals related to consequences, such as AIDS, STDs, pregnancy, and

abortion.

The results showed that heavy exposure to sexual content on television related

strongly to teens’ initiation of intercourse or their progression to more advanced sexual

activities (such as “making out” or oral sex) apart from intercourse in the following year.

Youths who viewed the greatest amounts of sexual content were two times more likely than

those who viewed the smallest amount to initiate sexual intercourse during the following year

or to progress to more-advanced levels of other sexual activity. In effect, youths who watched

the most sexual content “acted older”.

The Internet is a worldwide, publicly accessible network of interconnected computer

networks that transmits information and services such as electronic mail, online chat, title

transfer, interlinked web pages, and other documents of the World Wide Web (Brown, 2002).

Media influences on sexual behaviour were first reported in a sex education newsletter in

1981 and since then several overviews have examined young people’s use of media as a

source of information and its possible effect on their sexual behaviour (Malamuth & Impett,

2001). The Internet is altering patterns of social communication and interpersonal

relationships. This is nowhere more true than in the field of sexuality (Cooper, Delmonico &

62

Burg, 2000). Furthermore, sex is the most frequently searched for topic on the Internet

(Freeman-Longo & Blanchard, 2001). Freeman-Longo & Blanchard, (2001) claims that the

convenience of online pornography and adult chatting sites provides an immediately available

vehicle to easily fall into compulsive patterns of online use. Pornographers have always been

the first to exploit new publishing technologies (e.g., photography, videotape, Internet etc.).

Sexually explicit content on the internet may present new ideas, which in turn may

influence students’ values and perception of healthy sexual relationships. The sexually

explicit information found on the Internet is often inaccurate and harmful. It often lacks

descriptions of intimacy or the development of deep personal relationships. Rather, it

encourages sexual acts without any emotional connection, which in turn may begin to shape

a person’s sexual values, attitudes, and behaviours, and consequently may interfere with

healthy sexual development (Asekun-Olarinmoye, Asekun-Olarinmoye, Adebimpe, &

Omisore, 2014).

In this regard, it is critical to view the Internet as a new social environment in which

universal young peoples’ issues pertaining to identity formation, sexuality, and self-worth are

explored in a virtual world. Easy and continuous access to the Internet provides tremendous

opportunities for students’ socialization, allowing them to connect with their peers as well as

with complete strangers from across the world. Clearly, the Internet is transforming the social

world of young people by influencing how they communicate, establish and maintain

relationships, and find social support (Brown, 2002). Therefore, it is essential to gain

awareness of both the potential benefits and risks of students’ Internet use and to provide

strategies to guide safe and positive practice.

63

In a study conducted by Asekun-Olarinmoye et al (2014) half of the respondents

indicated that they used the Internet often, and there was a significant association between

frequency of Internet use and frequency of accessing sexually explicit materials on the

Internet, with frequent users of the Internet more likely to frequently access sexually explicit

materials. There was also a significant association between being sexually active and the

frequency of Internet use and frequency of accessing sexually explicit materials on the

Internet, with those who used the Internet or accessed sexually explicit materials often being

more likely to be sexually active. This is similar to the study conducted by Brown et al.,

(2006) who in their longitudinal study found that the quintile of youths who consumed the

greatest amount of sexual-media content in early adolescence were more than twice as likely

as those with lighter sexual-media diets to have initiated sexual intercourse.

Students as youths are vigorous users of the information broadcast (internet) in the

media (Werner-Wilson et al., 2004) and concern has been raised about the influence of the

internet on other media outlay portrayals on sexual attitudes and the normative expectations

of these youths at a critical developmental stage (Rich, 2008). The mass media and the

Internet have their advantages in terms of providing necessary information for young people

on sexual health and healthy sexual relationships (Brown, 2002) but many studies have shown

that mass media negatively influences teens in their sexual behaviours (Stern & Handel, 2001;

Wakefield et al., 2010).

Over the past two decades, studies have shown an overall increase in the number of

portrayals of and the amount of discussion about sex in these media (especially the internet)

and an increase in the explicitness of these portrayals (Bragg & Buckingham, 2002). Sexual

discussions and displays are increasingly frequent and explicit in all forms of the mass

64

media. The Internet, the use of which is growing more rapidly than any previous technology

Idowu, Ogunbodede & Idowu (2003) has dramatically increased the availability of sexually

explicit content (Brown, 2002). Little is known, however, of the relationship between the

media and young people’s sexual behaviour in Nigeria, or indeed in developing countries in

general, because of the dearth of studies in this area. The alarming increase of rape, teenage

pregnancies, septic abortions, and sexually transmitted infections, especially human

immunodeficiency virus (HIV), among undergraduates in Nigeria makes research into the

effects of the mass media and the Internet on their sexual behaviour even more important.

Exposure to sexually explicit material on the internet, according to Hald (2013) may

have only a moderate influence on young people’s sexual behaviour, suggests a major study

in the Netherlands. Previous research has generally found significant associations between

sexually explicit material consumption and sexual behaviours among young people. The new

study of 4,600 young people, aged 15-25 years, investigated SEM consumption and a broad

range of sexual behaviours, and took account of a wide range of variables. The study found

that 88.2 per cent of men and 45.8 per cent of women had consumed SEM in the previous 12

months. The internet was the preferred media for both women and men, followed by television

and DVDs/videos.

Mass Media and Students Sexual Behaviour

In line with previous studies, Hald (2013) found that frequency of internet sexually

explicit material consumption was associated with adventurous sex, paying for sex or being

paid for sex. However, after controlling for other variables, sexually explicit material

consumption accounted for between 0.3 per cent and 4 per cent of the total variance in sexual

behaviours. The authors conclude that sexually explicit material is ‘just one factor among

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many that may influence youth sexual behaviours’. Individuals who watch a heavy diet of

internet with sexual content were twice as likely to engage in sexual intercourse over the

following year as those who were light viewers of sexual content, even after controlling for

other possible factors (Collins, Elliott, Berry, Kanouse, Kunkel, & Hunter, 2004). Heavy

internet viewing of sexual content was also associated with other non-coital sexual behaviours

(heavy petting, deep kissing, etc.). These findings were the same regardless of whether the

sexual content was explicitly shown in behaviour or only discussed in dialogue. On the other

hand, sexual content in media can have positive effects of increasing knowledge and

instigating information seeking. For example, exposing students to three minutes on

emergency contraception, 51% of viewers reported talking with others about the issue, 23%

sought information from another source, and 14% talked to their doctor about it (Kaiser

Family Foundation, 2002).

Sometime the internet may actually teach new behaviours, including potentially some

extremely violent and destructive ones. Although examples like men watching a movie

depicting a gang rape on a pool table and soon afterward perpetrating a similar act are

thankfully not commonplace, the juxtaposition of such events when they actually happen is

compelling. Aside from teaching new behaviours, sexual media may also break down natural

inhibitions of previously learned behaviours. For example, watching a video with oral sex or

bondage may dis-inhibit the viewer’s prior existing inhibitions against engaging in such

behaviour. Watching a rape scene where a woman appears to enjoy being assaulted may

disinhibit the constraint against some men’s secret urge to commit such a crime. Amount of

violent pornography consumed significantly predicted self-rated likelihood to rape, although

there was no effect of nonviolent pornography (Demare, Briere, & Lips, 2008). Check and

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Guloien (1989) found that men exposed to a steady diet of rape-myth sexual violence reported

a higher likelihood of committing rape themselves, compared to a no-exposure control group,

but the same result was found for a group exposed to nonviolent erotica.

According to Wanyonyi (2014), despite the presence of aspects of Sex Education in

the Christian Religious Education (CRE) curriculum in secondary schools in Kenya, youth

involvement in sexual immorality is still rampant. Cases are many in the media of youth

engaging in sex related misdemeanor. Such cases coupled with unwanted pregnancies,

abortions, and the prevalence of HIV and AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases among

youth in secondary schools in Kenya call for urgent measures to address the problem

especially when statistics show that about 66% of high school boys and girls have already had

sex (Wanyonyi, 2014). American Social Health Association (2003) reported that each year,

more than one million students become pregnant with 65% of them born out of wedlock. In

the same vein, Akinade and Suleiman (2005), ascertain that between 2.5- 5.0 million students

acquire sexually transmitted diseases every year.

Dangers and Benefits of Mass Media

Moscovitch (2007) Canadian and international research on the media; in her report

she stressed that media has positive side and negative side. The positive side is the one that is

useful source of education and entertainment as well as aiding families stay in contact with

greater ease. On the other, the report also claimed that there are more negative consequence

attached to media usage. She stressed that heavy user of electronic media in all age groups

spend less time interacting with their families. The researcher also opined that excessive

exposure to media mostly the young once may lead to problems of attention control,

aggressive behaviour and poor cognitive development.

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Mass media has a great influence in the life of the general public. Media is the major

source of information, where people sample their opinion concern a particular issue. So media

plays a significant role in educating the public. The dangers and benefits of mass media have

been investigated in the work of Moscovitch (2007).

Empirical Review

Sexuality Education and Students’ Sexual Behaviour

Adeomi, Adeoye, Adewole, Oluwaseyi and Temitayo-Oboh (2014) investigated

Sexual risk behaviors among adolescents attending secondary schools in a Southwestern State

in Nigeria. The study adopted a descriptive cross-sectional study, carried out among in-school

adolescents in Osun State, Southwestern Nigeria. The multi-stage sampling technique was

used to select the respondents, and data were collected with pre-tested, semi-structured

questionnaires which were self-administered and supervised by trained research assistants. A

total of 815 questionnaires was administered, but only 786 (96.4%) were properly filled and

analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences version 16. Many of the respondents

(406, 51.7%) were early adolescents, while the remaining 380 (48.3%) were late adolescents

with a mean age of 14.2 ± 2.2 years. One hundred and eight (22.9%) were sexually exposed

with a mean age of sexual debut of 12.7 ± 2.7 years. Of the 180 that were sexually exposed,

134 (74.4%) had sex in the month preceding the study, 40 (22.2%) had paid for or demanded

for payment for sex before, and only 48 (26.7%) used condom for their last sexual intercourse.

Only 2 (0.3%) respondents reported having had sexually transmitted infections (STI), but, 128

(16.3%) had had symptoms suggestive of STI before.

Adegoke (2014) studied the attitude towards premarital sex among secondary school

adolescents in Ibadan Metropolis, Nigeria. The study adopted a descriptive survey design and

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data were collected cross-sectionally from the sampled adolescents. Participants for this study

were drawn from a survey of 1902 secondary school adolescents in Ibadan metropolis, South

west Nigeria. The method of data collection adopted was a questionnaire, Chi-square analysis

and independent t-test were adopted to analyse the variables. The results obtained revealed a

conservative attitude towards premarital sex. A non-significant difference was observed

between male and female adolescents on attitude toward premarital sex, but age of adolescent

and their religious affiliation has significant influence on attitude toward premarital sex.

According to Samson-Akpan, Ojona, Ella-R.,and Edet (2014), they opined that, most

young people in our society whose sexual behaviour are of serious concern are the ones found

in secondary schools, some of this young people terminate their academic dreams and

mortgage their future because of one careless ill advise or poorly timed sexual behaviour. A

study on knowledge and practice of human sexuality among Cross-River University of

Technology students in Calabar, Nigeria, investigated that 60% of students experienced their

first intercourse as early as 14 years. Only one female student out of 400 in that study reported

being a virgin. Opara, (2008). In another study carried out by Okonko , Okerentugba ,

Adejuwon and Onoh (2012). On prevalence of STIs among attendees at Lead City University

Medical Centre in Ibadan South East. They reported that out of 200 samples investigated, 195

(97.5%) were infected with different with various etiologic agents and 5(2.5%) had growth of

staphylococcus.

Glover, Bannerman, Pence, Jones, Miller, Weiss and Nerquaye-Tetteh (2003) studied

Sexual Health Experiences of Adolescents in Three Ghanaian Towns. The study adopted a

descriptive survey design and a purposive sampling procedure was used to select 750 never-

married youths. In-person interviews on sexual health issues was the instrument used to obtain

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data. The result revealed that more than half of the respondents had ever had sexual

intercourse (52%), with the adjusted odds for females being 1.6 times those for males and the

odds for unaffiliated and apprenticed youth being 2.5–3.2 times those for in school youth. The

odds of having had sex in the previous month were elevated for females (2.0) and apprentices

(2.7). Both sexes tended to accept violence towards women, with unaffiliated youth showing

the highest level of acceptance and in-school youth the lowest. Nearly all respondents (99%)

knew of condoms, but fewer than half (48%) could identify any of four elements of correct

use; females and sexually inexperienced youth were the least informed. Two-thirds of

respondents considered it unacceptable for males to carry condoms, and three-quarters

considered it unacceptable for females. Twenty-five percent of males and 8% of females

reported having had a sexually transmitted infection. One-third of sexually experienced

females reported having ever been pregnant; of those, 70% reported having had or having

attempted to have an abortion. The same study reported that 61%) of the respondents agreed

that someone-especially students’ can get sexual satisfaction with partner without having

penetrative vaginal sex. Among such non-contact experiences or behaviours listed included

kissing, foundling and toughing. (Glover Ek at al 2003).

A research was conducted by Mmaduakonam, and Obi (2013) on sexual behaviour

and level of knowledge of reproductive health among in-school female students’ in-school

female students in Awka education zone. It was reported that a sample of 408 that had sexual

intercourse, 42.2% were forced while 57.8% said they consented to the act. This shows that

greater number of students engaged in sexual relations with their consent. They also reported

that most of the students who had experienced sexual relationship, were between the range of

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13-15 (54.9%). This was followed by those within the age range of 10-12 years (22.5%) while

the least proportion where within 16-18.

In another study conducted, they examine those who use condom on their first

experience of sexual intercourse greater proportion 212(52%) said they did not, while

168(41.2%) said they use condom. 28% (6.9%) did it respond. This shows that most of the

students have had unprotected sex. In addition, of the 408 students who have engage in sexual

intercourse, 276(67.7%), who currently engaging in sexual intercourse while 132(82.3%) said

they are not. This implies that over half of students are currently engaging in sexual

relationship. Of the 276(67.7%), who are currently involve in sexual intercourse greater

proportion 164.1% engaged in it between 2-3 times per month. Furthermore, 28.5% who

engage in it between 10-12 times. Result shows that proportion of the respondents (59.4%)

engage in sex with multiple partner (more than one) while (40.6%) said they have just one

sex partner. This shows that most of the students that currently engage in sex have risky sexual

behaviours (Mmaduakonam. and Obi. 2013).

Based on the above findings of Mmaduakonam . and Obi. 2013. The sexual behaviour

of reproductive health or sexuality education have showed that students knowledge of

sexuality education is very low, hence they are involved in casual sex without the use of

condom, which may result of sexually transmitted disease. Their sexual behaviour or activities

are increasing day by day, this is the reason why the engage in risky sexual behaviour.

Researching on reproductive health needs of students, Wescher (2003) in Canada

attempted a cross sectional survey of 2000 students aged 12-20 years. His findings provided

a baseline data for implementing appropriate interventions to address the reproductive health

needs of students from these areas. One of the major findings of this study is that males tend

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to be behind their female counterparts in each of the three main reproductive health issues

namely knowledge, sexual behaviour and coercion. The implication is that the gender based

interventions would be required to address both the needs of male and female students.

A critical analysis of the research by Weschler (2003) indicates two limitations.

Firstly, the relatively small sample size selected, which when interpreted may not be

generalized to the entire students population selected from different sections (age bracket).

Secondly, the data analyses were interpreted with caution with the use of percentage and

ranking. Despite this limitation, the study is important because it represents a systematic

attempt to collect data on young people’s reproductive health needs and behaviour.

Investigating the determinant of sexual behaviour Okonofua (2004) conducted an

empirical survey using a structured questionnaire on a sample of 1,500 secondary school

students in Edo State of Nigeria. Using simple percentages and ranking, 10 factors were

reported to be significant factors, determining the sexual behaviour of students. These include

gender (68%), type of school (72%), class (68%), age (70%) religion (40%), location (55%)

family stability (3 0%), living with parents (75%), involvement with boy friends and girl

friends (82%) and family socio economic status (42%). Okonofua (2004) concluded that

students who were not living with their parents were likely to be involved in sexual activities

than their counterparts living with their parents. Similarly, students who were involved in boy

or girl friend relationship were more likely to be sexuality active than those who were not

involved.

Loewenson, Ireland and Resnick (2004) in their investigation, they reviews that

students who have received sex education in school or church settings are less likely to be

sexually active. For girls, they were 59% less likely and boys were 71% less likely. It appears

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therefore that for sex education to be effective it should take place before the teens become

sexually active.

National Attitudes and Sexual Lifestyles Survey (NATSAL 2000) is a major source

of information on sexual attitudes and behaviour among young people. In 2000 over 11,000

males and females aged 16-44 were surveyed across Britain. The median age at first

intercourse among respondents aged 16-19 in 2000 was 16. This was the same among both

male and female. Among those currently aged 25-29 (who were 16-19 in 2000 was 16. This

was the same among both males and females. Among those currently aged 2 5-29 (who were

1 6-. 19 ten years earlier) the median age was 17. The proportion of men reporting intercourse

before age 16(30%) has remained fairly constant over recent years. In contrast, the proportion

of women reporting intercourse before age 16 (26%) is higher among those under 30, but has

shown little change over the past decade.

Nanchahal (2001) students who had their first sex before 16 is more common than

those from manual social classes, without qualifications, who did not live with both parents

up to age 16, those leaving school before age 16, and those who do not cite school at their

main source of information about sex. Early intercourse was more commonly reported by

women who were younger than 13 years old at menarche. Earlier first intercourse is less likely

to be an autonomous and a consensual event, and more likely to be regretted and unprotected

against pregnancy and infection. Moore & Toubia (1996) conducted an empirical survey using

documented method of data collection to assess the causes, effects and remedies of unwanted

pregnancy in Sub-Sahara Africa. Their findings show that 20 million pregnancies are

conceived each year, one-third or 6.75 million are unwanted pregnancies that can be deadly,

leading to unsafe abortions causing the death of at least 200 women each month with a high

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rate of school drop-out among students girls. Their study recommended that government and

donor agencies should make program me changes to ensure that all individuals-including

students girls and unmarried women should have access to good quality confidential family

planning service. Secondly, to ensure that all health workers should provide information

technology and communication skills necessary for offering high quality care. They also

recommended that Government should offer reliable information and compassionate

counselling to all women with an unwanted pregnancy, Moorse & Toubia (1996) went further

to recommend that women have control over their sexuality and reproduction, reconcile power

imbalances between men and women and promote caring, responsible behaviour among men

in sexual relationship, use of contraception, pregnancy and child care, also to address sexual

coercion and all forms of sexual violence against women, and lastly to address the problem

of unwanted pregnancy among young people and modify attitudes that stigmatize pregnant

girls. However the study did not consider the impact of other variables affecting sexual

behaviour and unwanted pregnancies, such as age, educational attainment, and socio-

economic status. Melgosa (1997) surveyed the profile of students sexual relationship in

Philippines using a sample of 3,000 urban and rural students in secondary schools. The

purpose of this survey was to determine the profile of students sexual relationship, factors of

students sexuality, profile of students sexual act as well as profile of students mother. Melgosa

(1997) reported that sex in adolescence usually occurs in unfavorable circumstances very

quickly in strange dark places with fear of being surprised or caught in the act. According to

her, there is the fear of a possible pregnancy. Melgosa (1997) further reported that initial

sexual relationship and experiences are not usually motivated by genuine love.

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On the basis, she summarized that the factors of students sexuality to include

physiological changes, search for affection, curiosity, demonstration of maturity and

fulfillment of group expectation. Melgosa (1997) also reviewed two separate viewpoints of

students’ sex which include single parenting and students’ early sexual act as well as adequate

stable parenting and students that postpone sex. The implication of the first view point of

Melgosa (1997) is the son or daughter of a single mother, divorced parents or from an

unstructured family, low academic achievement, low soda-economic level, has brothers or

sisters and friends who are sexually active, has parents of a low cultural level, he/she rejects

religion, has tendency to consume tobacco, alcohol and other drugs, and has few

communication skills (Melgosa, 1997:102).

On the other hand, Melgosa (1997) second view point maintains that there are

tendencies of postponement of sexual act of students from a very stable family, has good

scores in intelligence tests and the family’s socio-economic level is comfortable, God fearing

child has brother or sisters and friends who do not practice the sexual act, also has parents

with a good cultural level, he/she is a God fearing child with clear moral principle, he/she

hardly ever uses psychoactive substance (or not at all) and good verbal expression ability

(Melgosa 1997). However, the findings of Melgosa (1997) is contrary to the work of Schuster,

Bell Nakagima Kanouse (1998) in the Pacific Island on the sexual practices of high school

student Schuster Ct al (1998) claimed that family background, educational attainment and

even religion have no significant impact on the students sexual activities or behaviours. In a

survey deigned to determine the pattern of sexual behaviour, contraceptive and reproductive

health knowledge among school students in rural Transkei (South Africa), Buga, Amoko and

Ncayiyana (1998), observed that sexual maturation occurs at an earlier age with the rural

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students, than those in urban. According to them, sexual maturation in the rural students in

South Africa is associated with early initiation and a high level of sexual activity coupled with

low contraceptive usage. Moreover, there is a high rate of students’ pregnancy and sexually

transmitted diseases, which exposes rural students in South Africa to a high risk of HIV

infection. Given the above findings, Buga, Amoko and Ncayiyana (1998) recommended

contraceptive use and provision of sexuality education among rural students.

Conducting an empirical research on the attitude and belief of parents, teachers and

students towards sex education in the Netherlands, Forrest and Kanabus (2000) were

interested in providing answers to the following questions: What is sex education? What are

the aims of sex education? What skills should sex education provide or develop? Who should

teach sex education? What should constitute the content of sex education? What are the moral

implications of teaching sex education to students? Forrest and Kanabas (2000) observed that

sex education sought both to reduce the risk of potentially negative outcomes from sexual

behaviour like unwanted or unplanned pregnancies, infection with sexual transmitted diseases

and enhancement of quality relationships. They recommended that sex education should start

early before young people could reach puberty and that sex education should be provided by

teachers, parents, or guardians as well as prints and electronic media in schools, at home and

other recreational Centers with emphasis on fertility awareness and human reproduction.

Plummer, Farornoju and Ademolo (2006) sampled 5,000 students using a cross cultural

survey and noted that only half of the students knew that pregnancy could occur during sexual

intercourse.

Plummer et al., (2006) also observed that females generally had a higher knowledge

of reproduction than males. One possible explanation may be the fact that girls are

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disproportionately affected by the burden of reproductive health morbidity, (unwanted

pregnancy and abortion). They are more likely than boys to seek for information about

reproductive health. Also, parents are more likely to discuss reproductive health issues with

girls than boys because of the belief in Nigeria that boys will learn somehow through

experimentation. Overall, 13% of the students were sexually experienced (Faromoju et al.,

2006). This figure is lower than the 34% reported among high school students from Plateau

State, 62% of secondary school students in Ilorin, Kwara State both of which are located in

North Central Nigeria, 48% of students school girls in Lagos South Western area, and 55%

of students in Anambra and Enugu states in southeastern Nigeria (Pulmmer et al., 2006). More

importantly, significantly more males than females reported sexual activities, a finding

consistent with previous surveys among young person in this environment. However, these

data must be interpreted within the context of local culture in which the study took place and

the methodological challenges associated with collecting data on sexual behaviour from

young persons. The apparently relatively low level of sexual activities among the surveyed

students may be due to the fact that both Islamic and cultural sexual norms forbid premarital

sexual activity which is a justification for the encouragement of early marriage in these areas.

At the same time these data may be an underestimation of actual levels of sexual activities

because of the face-to face interview method used in this study.

Plummer et al., (2006) opined that collection of valid data on sexual behaviour from

young persons is fraught with several methodological challenges including problems of recall,

ambiguous terminology, and the sensitive nature of sexual information. Self-reported data

may be invalid if respondents tell researchers what they believe is socially desirable. Thus, it

is possible that males may have over-reported their sexual activities and females under-

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reported their sexual activities in an attempt to conform to religious and cultural norms

affecting sex in Northern Nigeria. Previous studies of analysis of student reproduction health

knowledge in Nigeria have shown that data from the self- completion questionnaire are likely

to be more valid than those obtained from face-to-face interviews because a greater sense of

confidentiality for the respondent may reduce social desirability bias. Yet, the self-completed

method of data collection typically yields lower response rates and more missing data than

the face-to-face method.

Anderson and Truan (2008) collected data from the 1222 secondary students in a

Health Risk Survey. The finding showed that 54 percent of all high school students in the

United States had some form of HIV/AIDS. The sexual attitude and behaviour of high school

male teens Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (2002), noted that sexual activity

increases with age. Their findings showed that 41% 9 grade boys are sexually experienced

compared to 61% of 12th grade boys. In other words, as students, class progresses with

increase in age, there is a corresponding increase in sexual activity and attitude. This is

evidenced in their findings. In the grade 9, 41% of students have had sex. In the” grade10, it

is 42%, 11th grade, 54% and 61% by the 12th grade.

Similarly, Kaiser (2005) revealed that by the 12th grade, 62% of high school students

have had sex compared to 33% of the graders. However, the gap between male and female

students sexual experience is greatest in the 9 grade; by grade 12, the proportion of male and

female students who have had sex is virtually the same. In a national representative sample of

1,025 teens aged 12 to 17, teens attitude towards sexual behaviour during high school years

was examined. When asked if it is acceptable for high school age teens to be sexually active:

58% of respondents (64% girls and 53% of boys) stated that it is not acceptable for high school

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students to be sexually active even with safer precautions. In comparison, older teens ages 15-

17 (51%) were more likely than younger teens ages 12-14 (25%) to respond that it is

acceptable for high school teens to be sexually active, National Campaign to Prevent Teen

Pregnancy (2000). Following the above findings, it obvious that older teens are more sexually

active compared to the younger teens.

Peer Influence and Students Sexual Behaviour

Envuladu, Kwaak, Zwanikken and Zoakah (2017) studied Exploring the Factors

Influencing Adolescent Sexual Behavior in Plateau State Nigeria. The study was a qualitative

exploratory study that was conducted among adolescents between the ages of 18 and 19 years

in two Local government areas (LGAs) of Plateau State; Jos North and Bassa LGAs. The two

LGAs were selected out of the 17 LGAs in the State. An FGD guide questions adapted from

UNFPA and WHO data collection instruments for adolescent sexual and reproductive health

survey was used for the study. Data was transcribed after the close of each day. Common

themes were generated from the responses and categorized accordingly, it was entered into

excel sheet and given codes based on the themes and similarities in the responses. The results

were presented according to the majority and important minor responses. Verbatim quotes

were then used to illustrate important responses. The adolescents in this study reported sexual

debut from ages 10 to 15 years. Those who were in school mostly mentioned pleasure love

and peer pressure as reasons for their sexual act while majority of those out of school reported

forceful sex and transactional sex as major reasons for their sexual activities. Transactional

sex as a reason for sex was reported by both sexes. Most males reported curiosity and show

of power as influences to their sexual activity, while females reported trying to please the

males as a reason for having sex; this was concurred by majority of the females.

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Nwoke, Okafor and Nwankwo (2012) investigated Socio-demographic correlates of

sexual behaviours II. A cross sectional survey design was used and sample size was 3360

(2.2%) of 153,586 adolescents. A structured, validated and reliable questionnaire (r = 0.79)

as well as focus group discussions were used as the instruments for data collection. Data

analysis was done using mean, z-test and ANOVA statistics. The result showed that in Imo

State secondary schools, peer pressure significantly influenced the sexual behaviours of the

adolescents (Zcal. 9.51, Z-tab. 1.96; p < 0.05). Various ages at first sexual intercourse

significantly influenced their sexual behaviours (F- cal. 437.92, F-tab. 2.60; p<0.05) and

various age groups of the adolescents influenced the adolescents sexual behaviours

significantly (Z- cal. 6.19, Z-tab. 1.96; p<0.05). The older adolescents (μ = 1.49) were more

involved in sexual behaviours than the younger adolescents (μ = 1.40).

The study carried out in Kenya by Tabitha & Habil (2013) on peer and gender in

relation to sexual behaviours among secondary school students revealed that more boys

than girls were influenced by peers to engage in all the behaviours reviewed. According to

them, girls who reported having been encouraged by friend to engage in romantic

relationships were (8.3%) while the boys who reported the same were 22.1%. while those who

reported having been influenced by friends to attend parties, music clubs and discos were

8.8% of the girls and 22.6% of the boys. In addition 11.5% of the girls and 30.4% of the boys

reported having been actively encouraged to have friends of the opposite sex. Girls who

reported having been influenced by friend to watch pornography were 5.1% against 24% of

their male counterparts. Adolescents who reported having been influenced by friends to use

drugs to gain courage in sexual matters were 1.8% of the girls and 19.8% of the boys while

those pressurized to do sexual things were 0.9% of girls and 14.7% of boys.

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These findings seem to concur with the Twa-Twa (1997) and Kimani (2005) that

adolescent males experience more peer pressure than the females with regard to engaging in

sexual behaviours. From the above investigation, it is obvious that sexual behaviour is more

rampant among the male students compare to the female students. However, the low

percentages of adolescents who reported being pressured by peers seem to contradict the view

that adolescents are under great pressure from their peers to engage in sexual intercourse

(Tabitha & Habil, 2013).

Mass Media and Students’ Sexual Behaviour

In line with previous studies, Hald (2013) found that frequency of internet sexually


paid for sex. However, after controlling for other variables, sexually explicit material

consumption accounted for between 0.3 per cent and 4 per cent of the total variance in sexual

behaviours. The authors conclude that sexually explicit material is ‘just one factor among

many that may influence youth sexual behaviours’. Individuals who watch a heavy diet of

internet with sexual content were twice as likely to engage in sexual intercourse over the

following year as those who were light viewers of sexual content, even after controlling for

other possible factors (Collins, Elliott, Berry, Kanouse, Kunkel, & Hunter, 2004). Heavy

internet viewing of sexual content was also associated with other non-coital sexual behaviours

(heavy petting, deep kissing, etc.). These findings were the same regardless of whether the

sexual content was explicitly shown in behaviour or only discussed in dialogue. On the other

hand, sexual content in media can have positive effects of increasing knowledge and

instigating information seeking. For example, exposing students to three minutes on

emergency contraception, 51% of viewers reported talking with others about the issue, 23%

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sought information from another source, and 14% talked to their doctor about it (Kaiser

Family Foundation, 2002).

Moscovitch (2007) noted that according to the Consumers Electronics Association of

American, that every average U.S. home equipped their home with about 26 different

electronic devices for communication and media. In 2005, Media Awareness Network

revealed that among young people 28% have their own website. 15% have online diaries and

blogs and grade nine, 80% of all students are listening to music online and instant message

daily. According to them, by late 2006, 55% of all U.S online students were using social

networks such as Myspace and Facebook and 55% had created online profiles.

Another report by new internet and American lite project on what they titled “Teens

and Online Stranger Contact” the report stressed the dangers of social networking sites. They

reported that 32% of online students had been contracted by someone with no connection to

them or any of their friends 7% of online teens say they have felt uncomfortable as a result of

contact by online stranger. They went feature to emphasis that those who post their photo

online are more likely to be contacted without knowing the people. The study claimed that

girls are more scared or uncomfortable compare those boys who keeps online relationship.

Consequently, considering the above research conducted on danger and benefit of

mass media usage, it is clear, that mass media is like two edged sword. This is because mass

media educates an individual, helps an individual to develop is an eye opener to many people

in the world, it helps an individual to develop intellectually, emotionally, psychologically and

otherwise. Despite the good aspect of mass media, it has great consequence in the life of the

users, more especially, those who are not developed i.e the students to be précised. As a result

of mass media usage many evil things are going on right now. Pornographic materials,

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fraudsters popularly known as 419, internet loving making and so many other unpleasant

activities that are associated with mass media.

Location and Students’ Sexual Behaviour

Ojong, Ojong-Alasia and Samson-Akpan (2014) conducted a study on influence of

gender and school location on sexual behaviors among secondary school students in Southern

Cross River State, Nigeria. The research design was a non-experimental descriptive survey.

The sample size was 440 senior secondary school students from 11 public secondary schools

in Cross River State. Simple random sampling technique was used to select 260 students from

7 schools in urban areas and 180 students from 4 schools in rural areas. For the analysis of

data, chi-square test analysis was used to test the relationship between variables at P<0.05

significant level and the result showed a statistical relationship of P<0.05 significant level

between gender of urban school children and sexual behaviours. There was no significant

relationship between the gender of rural secondary school students and their sexual

behaviours and lastly, school geographical location significantly influenced adolescents

sexual behaviours, when the calculated X2 of 24.79 was greater than crit. X2 5.991.

Azmawati, Hazariah, Shamsul, Norfazilah, Azimatun and Rozita (2015) investigated

Risk taking behaviour among urban and rural adolescents in two selected districts in Malaysia.

The study adopted a comparative cross-sectional study. A total of 306 adolescents were

selected through multistage sampling from two selected schools with involvement of their

parents. The instrument of data collection used was a questionnaire and the data was analysed

using multiple logistic regress statistics. The prevalence of risk taking behaviours was 81.7%

in the urban and 83.7% in the rural area (p = 0.650). Parental background factors such as

parent’s education level, marital status, health status, and income were unrelated with risk

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taking behaviour among adolescents. The multiple logistic regression test showed that being

a male (AOR = 4.55, 95% CI = 2.28–9.07), inadequate number of bedrooms (AOR = 11.54,

95% CI = 1.48–89.75), and presence of family conflict (AOR = 3.64, 95% CI = 1.49–8.89)

were the predictors among adolescents for risk taking behaviour in rural areas.

Difference in living location (urban or rural settlement) and age can lead to different

sexual behaviour patterns among students. For instance, young men and women in the ages

15-24 years in urban settlements are more likely to have comprehensive knowledge of sexual

behaviour, HIV/AIDS, HIV/AIDS transmission, and prevention methods, when: they have

never been married before; did have sex before; live in urban areas; have a higher education;

and live in a higher wealth quintile. Furthermore, female students in urban areas with a higher

education have a lower chance to have sex at an early age than their female counterparts in

rural settlements. For male students it seems to be opposite. Among young adults, premarital

sexual activity is more common when they are higher educated and live in urban areas.

However, they are more likely to have used a condom at their first and last sexual activity too.

Nyanzi et al., (2001) suggest geographical differences in sexual behaviour patterns among

students as well.

According to Nyanzi et al., (2001), girls in rural Uganda are not supposed to suggest

sex to a boy but urban girls, who have been 14, but town girls, who have been 14 exposed to

western culture, sexuality education and who are seen as sophisticated and modern, are

allowed to take the initiative. The contradictory pressure to have sex and to abstain, by peers,

family, culture, and religion, the possible related sexual health risks of students boys having

sexual relationships with sugar mommies, and a lack of information on the ways boys deal

with rejections from girls when they are short of money are all examples of sexual behaviour

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patterns that could be harmful to the sexual and reproductive health and rights of students in

Uganda and that demand further exploration and understanding.

Gender and Students’ Sexual Behaviour

Ojong, Achi and Kalun (2016) conducted a study on Determinants of Reproductive

Health Awareness among Secondary School Students in Northern, Cross River State, Nigeria.

A cross-sectional descriptive design was used. A proportionate multistage sampling technique

was used to get 1,060 students used for the study. The instrument for data collection was

questionnaire with reliability coefficient of 0.89. Data analysis was done using independent

t-test and analysis of variance at 0.05 level of significance. Finding revealed that the females

were more aware of reproductive issues than male students with t-calculated of -2.79, -3.87

and 2.07. Urban students were more aware of reproductive issues than rural students; in family

planning with critical t-value of 2.92. There was no significant influence of students’ age on

reproductive health awareness with calculated F-ratios of 1.308, 2.316 and 1.315.

Folayan, Adebajo, Adeyemi and Ogungbemi (2015) investigated Differences in

Sexual Practices, Sexual Behavior and HIV Risk Profile between Adolescents and Young

Persons in Rural and Urban Nigeria. A cross-sectional study design was adopted. The total

sample size for the study was 776. A structured questionnaire was used for data collection.

Pearson chi square and or ANOVA were used to test significance of associations between

variables. Comparison of continuous variables was done using t-test. Statistical significance

was defined at P<0.05 with a 95% confidence interval. Analysis was conducted using STATA

SE version 12.0. The result revealed that more than half (53.5%) of the respondents were

sexually active, with more residing in the rural than urban areas (64.9% vs 44.1%; p<0.001)

and more resident in the rural area reporting having more than one sexual partner (29.5% vs

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20.4%; p = 0.04). Also, 97.3% of sexually active respondents reported having vaginal sex,

8.7% reported oral sex and 1.9% reported anal sex. More male than female respondents in the

urban area used condoms during the last vaginal sexual intercourse (69.1% vs 51.9%; p =

0.02), and reported sex with casual partners (7.0% vs 15.3%; p = 0.007). More female than

male respondents residing in the rural area engaged in transactional sex (1.0% vs 6.7%; p =

0.005). More females than males in both rural (3.6% vs 10.2%; p = 0.04) and urban (4.7% vs

26.6%; p<0.001) areas self-reported a history of discharge. More females than males in both

rural (1.4% vs 17.0%; p = 0.04) and urban (15.0% vs 29.1%; p<0.001) areas self-reported a

history of itching.

Before the developmental outbreak which marks the beginning of prudence, the

hatched students realizes certain other physical changes. In most young girls, the first and

most obvious change is the growth of the bust (although the 1/3 of the girls shows pubic hair

before the growth of the bust). Also, the girls start becoming taller and heavier at the age of

10 ½ or on average 2 years earlier than the boys (Brunsteffer and Silver, 1985). Both boys

and girls develop their sexuality during this period. The increase of the height, strength and

sex appeal is usually welcome from both sexes. Researches during the last 20 years have

shown that the arrival time of those changes is very important and may influence decisively

the individual’s adjustment during the beginning of adolescence. Boys that mature earlier than

usual (precocious pubescence) are often more socially popular and boys that mature at a later

stage (delayed pubescence) often have an increased awareness of their disadvantageous

position. The same applies to overweight boys. It has been observed that they worry for their

size and their casual clumsiness. Contrary to boys, girls may not always be pleased with this

biophysical growth when it comes precociously. Some girls worry because they weight more

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than the average coetaneous, since, during adolescence, girls often show a growth at the hips

and fat accumulation when their height growth stops. This concern for the image of their

bodies may worsen when they receive mock comments from others as well as the excessive

emphasis the Media give to a slim figure. Contrary to boys, girls who are more satisfied with

their bodies, usually weight less than normal, a fact that explains why so many girls

experiment with diets during adolescence, frequently without result (Manos, 1990).

With the development of the sexual desire, the students often worry about their appeal

to the other sex. The harmonic changes are likely to stimulate the sebaceous glands which

may generate acne, a situation that may cause embarrassment to students. The students, who

are considered attractive, live better as long as the reactions they receive from others are

positive. Nevertheless, most students manage to avoid intense problems as they receive

adequate support from the family and friends. Only a small number of students experience

acute depression due to their stress for their external appearance (Brunsteffer and Silver,

1985).

Class of Students’ Sexual Behaviour

Ihaji and Nase (2015) investigated the level of class, gender type of secondary school

and Nigeria adolescents sexual behaviour. A cross-sectional survey design was used. A total

of 500 school secondary school adolescents in Gboko metropolis took part in the study. . The

safe sex behavior scale was used to measure sexual behavior of Nigerian adolescent in

secondary school. Independent t-test was used to test the statistical significance of the

hypotheses and to compare the different categories of the respondents in the study. The study

revealed a significant difference between junior and senior secondary school adolescents on

sexual behavior (t(df=486) = 2.88; p<.05), and there was a significant difference between

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male and female secondary school adolescents on sexual behavior (t(df=478) = 1.65; p<.05).

Also significant difference was found between Nigerian day and boarding students on sexual

behavior (t(df=486) = 1.56; p<.05) Based on the findings, level of class of secondary school,

Gender and type of school in Nigeria play important role in Adolescent sexual behaviour.

Azuike, Iloghalu, Nwabueze, Emelumadu, Balogun, Azuike, Mmadunem, Enwonwu,

Ebulue, Chukwudinma and Chikezie (2015) studied Sexual Behaviour among Senior

Secondary School Students in Nnewi North and NnewiSouth Local Government Areas of

Anambra State, South-Eastern Nigeria. The study was a descriptive cross-sectional study. A

total of 394 students, age range of 12 – 24 years with mean of 17 ± 1.6years were studied.

The study instrument was a self-administered questionnaire, which was a modified version of

the Sexual Activity Survey by Diana Flannery and Lyndall Ellingson (2003). The data was

analyzed with Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software package, version 20.0

and the results were presented in frequency tables. It was revealed in the study that 95 (24.1%)

admitted to previous sexual exposure with mean age at sexual debut of 12 ± 3.6 years. More

than half of them had multiple sex partners and learnt about sex from the media. 74.7% of the

respondents did not use condom during their first sexual exposure and 83.3% of those who

had been pregnant or got someone pregnant terminated the pregnancy.

Age or stage of development also influences comprehension and interpretation of

sexual content. In a study of sexual innuendo on television, 12-year-old youths were less likely

to understand suggestive material than 14- and 16-year-olds. Similarly, in a qualitative study

of students girls aged 11 to 15, those who were at an earlier stage of physiologic development

were less interested in sex portrayed in the media whereas more mature young women were

intrigued and more actively sought out sexual content in the media as a means of “learning

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the rules, rituals, and skills” of romance and relationships. Specifically, they reported that the

media provided models for achieving the “right look” to become popular and attract boys,

portrayed teen characters with problems similar to their own, showed how they solved those

problems, and gave examples of how to behave in sexual situations

To fight HIV/AIDS, other STIs, and unwanted pregnancies, students and their sexual

and reproductive health and rights have been identified as an important target, especially in

sub-Saharan Africa (UNFPA 2003). Different sexual behaviour patterns have been identified

to be unsafe for students’ sexual and reproductive health and rights. First of all, some authors

state that it is seen as prestigious for both students boys and girls to have multiple partners at

the same time, and that there is a high peer pressure to lose virginity at an early age (Nyanzi,

2005). However, these findings seem to be contradictory to the preliminary results of a

quantitative study, which found that many secondary students in Uganda plan to abstain from

sexual intercourse until marriage (Nyanzi et al., 2005). The contradictory pressure to have sex

and to abstain, by peers, family, culture, and religion, has earlier been addressed in a study in

Senegal (Van Eerdewijk, 2007).

A second risk for students’ sexual and reproductive health and rights in Nigeria seems

to be money, as it plays an important role in their negotiation of sexual relationships. Cross-

generational sex is a money-related example. Among Nigerian young women (students in

secondary schools) in the ages 15-19 years, cross-generational sex is estimated to be seven

percent. This percentage varies between groups, for example, it seems to be less among

females who live in urban areas, have a higher education, and know a source to buy condoms.

According to Nyanzi et al., (2001), girls can be showing off with their sugar daddies but boys

are not always telling their peers about their sugar mommies. They state that sugar mommies

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are regularly widows of whom the husband died of unknown circumstances. Boys usually do

not tell their peers about dating these older women and will often be seeing other girls at the

same time (Nyanzi et al., 2001). Although the sexual health risks of students girls dating older

men have often been addressed in literature (e.g. Luke and Kurz 2002), it is less studied

whether sexual relationships with sugar mommies are practiced safely, and their possible

related sexual health risks. Money and gifts are used to negotiate sexual relationships with

people within the same age generation as well. Boys claimed it is hard to get into a relationship

with a girl without the use of money, and that it can be bitter to find out that a girl will choose

a sugar daddy over them because of money (Nyanzi et al., 2001).

School Type and Students’ Sexual Behaviour

School type terms to play a prominent role in the life of the secondary school students.

This is because the type of school they attends have influence in their opportunities to learn

and also their behaviour. The fact remains that majority of the student are still mis-informed

about their sexual behaviour, therefore most of their questions about sex is been giving by

their peers. Awolo [1998] he stressed that sex before marriage represent an effort to submit

to peer group pressures. Secondary school student who are involved in sexual exploits have

their peer groups as their source of information.[Esen 1974]. He stated that if a student

happens to tell their friends in school about how sex is fun, he/she will like to praticalized it.

Consequently, the type of school a student attends influence their sexual behaviour,

hence the present study intends to investigate the relationship between school type and

students’ sexual behaviour. Argument has been going on between single school and mixed

school and their sexual behviour. Ajuwon, Olaleye Faromoju and Ladipo [2006] worked on

sexual behaviour among secondary school students in three states in North Eastern Nigeria.

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They stressed that male sex student were likely to be involved in sexual intercourse 18 percent

those from mixed school 14% and female school 2% . In their findings, It was revealed that

sexual activities were attributed more on school type, location of the school, sex and age based

on this findings, it was observed that sexual behaviour were more influential among student

who are in mixed school living in urban areas. They also investigated that sexual coercion

among the students are common issues. About 5.1% of the secondary school students have

being raped.

Their report on sexual attitude also shows that, female students in mixed school are

always faced with forced sex or sexual harassment even in the United States. Also in his

findings on forced sex, about 17 magazines in (2008) confirmed that 39% of over 2000

respondents had faced unwanted touch. The American association of university women and

polls (1993) investigated that one high school girl in four experienced forced kissing, another

15% had their clothes pulled off. 2.3% of the girls admitted that sexual harassment always

take place. Consequently, in Nigeria Alika (2007) stressed that about 10% of girls droped out

of school because of the bullying by the male students.

On the other hand, Sadker and Sadker (1994) opined that girls in single sex schools are free

from sexual harassment that affects 90% of girls in mixed sex schools. It is good to say that

single girl’s school is free from sexual embarrassment from their opposite sex. Trickett and

Trickett et al (1982) in comparing students at private single sex school in the United States,

with their counterpart at private mixed school, found that students in the single sex school had

a far more positive attitude towards their academic than students in mixed schools. This

finding shows that single sex schools are more focused in their development of organizational

skills and classroom activities. They also emphases that at majority of the mixed schools what

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was really important was “ who like who”, who ‘s going out with who ,and s’ not’’ Ekanem

(2008) in his findings he stressed that in investigating the effect of school type on treatment,

he noted that the mean difference between the two single sex school was not statistically

significant. He also investigated that the type of school a student attends determines how

successful a student sexual behaviour can be modified, and that mixed schools is superior

compare to the single schools. The present study attempts to investigate the influence of

school type on students’ sexual behaviour.

Appraisal of Literature Review

So far, in this study, literatures on the concept of sexual behaviour of students as a

dependent variable and the independent variables of sexuality education peer influence, and

mass media. Through the review it was found out that the adolescence stage of life occupies

a unique stage in every person's life, a period of turmoil for students at the secondary school.

At this stage of development review pointed out that there are several factors which influences

the students’ developmental and reproductive health. Although their degree of influence may

vary at different points, they all shape how the students experiences the transition from

childhood to adulthood. The identified factors are biological, emotions, cognition, identity,

family, sexuality, society, ethics and morality. Sexual desires and arousal, sexual

experimentation, and the formation of a sexual identity are more pronounced in adolescence

than at any stage.

Literatures on the concept of sexuality were reviewed. Through the review it was seen

that sexual behaviour of students which are increased “feelings of arousal” or “desire”

manifest themselves in a variety of non-coital (kissing, hugging, petting and so on) and coital

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(intercourse) thoughts and behaviours. The review further pointed out that sexuality education

is an intervention programme to help students delay sex, and as well as help students prevent

sexually transmitted diseases, early pregnancy and other risky sexual behaviour. It is primarily

seen as the information provided to students to help them make realistic and responsible

decisions about sexual behaviours. The study further highlighted on the relationship between

sexuality education and students’ sexual behaviour. The review under this section showed

conflicting views on the impact of sexuality behaviour. Some authors had the view that

sexuality education lead students to experiment to sex earlier than they should have done

while other studies disagreed with this view. Instead, the proponents of sexuality education

proposed that sexuality education helps students make information choices on the dangers of

their sexual behaviour. Hence, this present study intends to proffer solution to this conflict or

add to it. Furthermore, the review concentrated on the effect of peer group influence on the

sexual behaviour of students. There is no doubting the fact that “no man is an island”.

This is certainly true when it comes to the influence we all have on one another, for

we are all influenced negatively or positively by our peers. The society of children or students

with its face-to-face contacts has been known to exert a great deal of influence on the

behaviour of students. Hence, the review under section this showed that students are heavily

influenced by their peers when it comes to their sexual behaviour. Review was also conducted

on the relationship between gender, location and class of students. The review showed that

gender and location is a good predictor of sexual behaviour among students in secondary

schools with female students in urban schools predisposed to risky sexual behaviour than their

female counterparts in rural schools. From the review of related literature, the research

observed that little or no research has looked at the Sexuality education, Peer influence, Mass

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media as correlate of students sexual behaviour. This, in essence is the gap that this study

filled.

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CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHOD AND PROCEDURE

This chapter describes the method and procedure employed in carrying out the

investigation of this study. The following sub-headings have been discussed in the following

order.

Research design

Population of the study

Sample and sampling techniques

Research instrument

Validity of the instrument

Reliability of the instrument

Method of data collection

Method of data analysis

Research Design

This study adopted correlational research design. These were considered appropriate

as it examined the survey of sexuality education, peer influence on sexual behaviour of

students in Delta and Edo State. Also the socio-demographic data of students which include,

gender, location, class, as well as mass media were also included in the survey so as to

determine their influence on sexual behaviour among the students in the study. This study

also helped to find out the level of contribution each independent variables accounted to

dependent variable.

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Population of the Study

The population of this study consisted of all junior and senior secondary school

students in Delta and Edo States of Nigeria. The two states have a total of 975 public

secondary schools. The current student’s population of the both states as at 2014/2015

academic session was estimated to be 98,213. The two states have six senatorial districts, three

from Delta State and three from Edo State. (Source: Department of Research and statistics

Delta and Edo States).

Sample and Sampling Technique

A sample of size of 4,416 were drawn from Delta and Edo States. In Delta state, a total sample

of 2400 respondents were randomly selected (consisting of junior and senior secondary

school students from Urban and Rural schools).While in Edo State, a total sample of 2016

respondents were randomly selected (consisting of junior and senior secondary school

students from Urban and Rural schools). In all, 4,416 students were sampled from the study

area, representing 32.6% of the population of secondary school students in the study area.

Multi Stage Sample Technique: multi stage sampling techniques were employed to obtained

a sample size of 4,416 respondents from Delta and Edo State. The procedures are as follows.

Stage 1: A sample of 2 Local Government Areas from each of the senatorial zone.

Stage II: Random sampling of 2 schools from each of the 2 Local Government Areas selected

in stage I and the school both junior and senior were from rural and urban schools.

Stage III: Stratified random sampling of 4,416 students from both states. In Delta, out of the

2400 sampled, 1300 were selected from female junior/senior students from urban and rural

areas and 1,100 male junior and senior students were sampled from urban and rural areas in

Delta State. Same is applicable to Edo State; out of 2016, 900 male, junior and senior

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secondary school students were sample while 1,116 female junior/senior students from urban

and rural areas were also sampled (i.e) 2016 from Edo State.

Research Instrument

The study used an instrument known as “Correlates of Students Sexual Behaviour

Scale” (CSSBS) that was constructed by the researcher.

Section A: Sought for demographic data: class, school. From the items boxes are provided

for respondents to tick (√) as applies to item.

Section B: This section measures sexuality education which was an independent variable. It

contains 12 items respectively. Using the four point rating scales: Strongly Disagreed (SD)

Disagree (D) Agree (A) and strongly agree (SA), Respondents would be asked to tick ( ) under

the rating that represents the degree of their attitude to such item. The data solicited by the

instrument is relevant to prestige and sureness/economic and non-economic. This scale

initially had 30 items was reduced to 12 through item section.

Section C: Measure sexual behaviour which is the dependent variable in the study. This

section contains 14 items.

Section D: Measure peer influence which is also independent variable. This instrument

consist of 12 items. Varimax with Kaiser Normalization rotation method was used for the

components.

Section E: Measures mass media influence which is also independent variable in the study.

This instrument consist of 11 items.

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Validity of the Instrument

In order to ascertain the degree to which the instrument measured what it is supposed

to measure, it was evaluated with the assistance of the supervisors and two other experts in

the field of measurement and evaluation in the faculty of education Delta State University,

Abraka. The instrument was screened for face validity, construct validity and content validity

and it was considered adequate by expert judgment. The principal component analysis was

used to estimate the content validity. Using the extraction method, the total cumulative

variance was obtained.

The sexual behaviour scale with initial 30 items was now reduced to 14 items with an

interclass correlation coefficient =. 805 and a 95% confidence interval between .744 and .857.

This accounted for 64.35% of variance. (See appendix). Sexuality Education scale with initial

items of 29 was now reduced to 12 items with an interclass correlation coefficient=.634 and

95% confidence interval between 519 and .732. This account for 71.82% of variable. See

appendix

Peer influence scale with initial items of 30 was reduced to 14 items with an infraclass

correlation coefficient = .627 and 95% of confidence interval between .627 and 95% of

confidence interval between .509 and .726. The plotted score out of the initial 30 items 13

items were validated to be extracted. Mass media influence scale with initial items of 20 was

reduced to 11 items with an interclass correlation coefficient = 0. 802 and 95% of confidence

interval between 0.739 and 0.855. The score plot shows that out of initial 20 items 11 items

were validated to be extracted.

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Reliability of the Instrument

To determine the reliability of the research instrument, It was initially administered to

a convenience sample of 100 respondents from junior and senior secondary school students

who were not to be part of the study. The reliability of the instrument was established by using

Cronbach Alpha for estimating the internal consistency of the instrument . The result of the

factor analysis showed that Cronbach alpha correlation for more than. 78 (see appendix). For

sexually Education scale, the Cronbach alpha coefficient was 0.634 with each of them

registering more than 0.58 reliability coefficient. For mass media influence scale the

Cronbach alpha coefficient value = 0.802 with each items registering a reliability coefficient

of more than 0.76. For Peer influence scale the Cronbach alpha coefficient reliability value

was 0.63. With each of the 13 extracted items registered more than 0.56. Coefficient reliability

(see appendix). Based on the above analysis the instrument are adequately reliable and

suitable for data collection in the proposed study.

Method of Data Collection

The researcher administered the questionnaire personally to the respondents, she

travelled to the two states, Delta and Edo to administer the questionnaire to the students in

their respective schools. The researcher employed the assistance of the classroom teachers in

administering the questionnaire and retrieving them the same day.

Method of Data Analysis

Descriptive Statistics, Simple and multiple regression models were used to analyze

the data. The hierarchical multiple regression model, SPSS 22 was used. Dummy variables

were used to measure discrete variables of location, gender, and class and school type. The

significance level was set at P<0.05 in testing the hypothesis.

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CHAPTER FOUR

PRESENTATION OF RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Chapter four presents the results of the study followed by their discussion. The results

are presented according to the research questions and their respective hypotheses, firstly, for

each of the states and then for both states jointly. It should be noted that each research question

is addressed by its respective hypotheses.

Research Question 1

What is the relationship between sexuality education and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta

and Edo states?

Table 4.1 below presents the results of the relationship between of sexuality education and

students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo state.

Table 4.1: Mean, standard deviation and relationship between sexuality education,

student sexual behaviour of secondary school students in Delta and Edo state.

State No Variable Mean SD r r2 r2(adj)

Delta

2015 Sexuality

education

Sexual

behaviour

34.578

35.079

6.652

9.895

.454 0.215 0.215

Edo

1960 Sexuality

education

Sexual

behaviour

30.842

29.382

5.576

8.865

0.245 0.060 0.59

Combined

Delta and

Edo

3975 Sexuality

education

Sexual

behaviour

32.736

32.29

6.422

9.82

0.424 0.180 0.179

The table 4.1 above shows that for Delta state, mean for sexuality education �̅� = 34.58, SD =

6.65, r = 0.454, r2 = 0.215. This shows that there is positive and moderate relationship between

sexuality education and student sexual behaviour in Delta state. For Edo state mean for

sexuality education is �̅� = 30.84, SD = 5.58, r = 0.245, r2 = 0.060, r2(adj) = 0.59. With r =

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0.245, this shows that the relationship between sexuality education and students’ sexual

behaviour in Edo state is positive but low.

For Delta and Edo state combined, the mean for sexuality education �̅� = 32.736, SD = 6.422,

with r = 0.424, r2 = 0.180, r2(adj) = 0.179. This shows that there is a positive and moderate

relationship between sexuality and students’ sexual behaviour in the combined state.

Research Question 2

What is the relationship between sexuality education, peer influence and student sexual

behaviour in Delta and Edo States?

Table 4.2 below presents the results of the relationship between of sexuality education, peer

influence and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo state.


influence and student sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo state.


Delta

2015 SE

PIF

SSB

34.58

29.51

35.08

6.65

7.27

9.89

0.583 0.340 0.339

Edo

1960 SE

PIF

SSB

30.84

27.35

29.38

5.58

5.89

8.89

0.404 0.164 0.163

Combined

Delta and

Edo

3975 SE

PIF

SSB

32.74

28.45

32.27

6.42

6.71

9.82

0.545 0.278 0.2971

Note: Where: SE-Sexuality Education, PIF-Peer Influence, SSB– Students’ Sexual Behaviour

Table 4.2 above shows that for Delta state mean for sexuality education �̅� = 34.58, SD = 6.65

with r = 0.583, r2 = 0.340, r2(adj) = 0.339. For peer influence, �̅� = 29.51, SD = 7.27 with r =

0.583. This shows that there is a positive and moderate relationship between sexuality

education, peer influence and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta.

For Edo state, �̅� =30.84, SD = 5.58, r = 0.404, r2 = 0.164, r2(adj) = 0.163 with the r = 0.404,

this shows that there is a positive and moderate relationship between sexuality education, peer

influence and students’ sexual behaviour in Edo state.

For Delta and Edo state combined, mean for sexuality education is �̅� = 32.74, SD = 6.42, r=

0.545, r2 = 0.278, r2(adj) = 0.2971 with r = 0.545. This shows that there is a positive and

101

moderate significant relationship between, sexuality education, peer influence and students’

sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo state.

Research Question 3

What is the relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass media and student

sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo state?


influence and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo state.


influence, mass media and student sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo state.


Delta

2015 SE

PIF

MM

SSB

34.58

29.51

27.64

35.08

6.652

7.271

6.797

9.894

.613 .376 0.375

Edo

1960 SE

PIF

MM

SSB

30.84

27.35

25.67

29.38

5.576

5.886

6.214

8.865

.428 0.183 0.181

Delta

and Edo

3975 SE

PIF

MM

SSB

32.74

28.45

26.67

32.27

6.422

6.711

6.589

9.822

.571 .326 0.326

Note: SE-Sexuality Education, PIF- Peer Inference, MM- Mass media, SSB-Students’ Sexual

Behaviour.

Table 4.3 above shows that in Delta state, the mean for sexuality education is �̅� = 34.58,

SD = 6.652, r = 0.613, r2 = 0.376, r2(adj) = 0.375 with r = 0.613 shows that is a positive and

moderate relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass media and students’

sexual behaviour in Delta state. For Edo state, sexuality education is �̅� = 30.84, SD = 5.576,

r = 0.428, r2 = 0.183, r2(adj) = 0.375 with r = 0.428. This shows that is a positive and moderate

relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass media and students’ sexual

behaviour in Edo state.

Consequently, Delta and Edo combined for sexuality education, �̅� = 32.74, SD = 6.422, r =

0.571, r2 = 0.326, r2(adj) = 0.326. For peer influence the mean �̅� = 28.45, SD = 6.711, for

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mass media the mean �̅� = 26.67, SD = 6.589. With r = 0.571 there is a positive and moderate

relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass media and students’ sexual

behaviour in Delta and Edo state.

Research Question 4

What is the relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass media, location

and student sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo state?


influence, mass media, location and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo state.


influence, mass media, location and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo state.


Delta

2015 SE

PIF

MM

LOC

SSB

34.58

29.51

27.64

0.635

35.08

6.652

7.271

6.797

0.482

9.845

.627 0.393 0.392

Edo

1960 SE

PIF

MM

LOC

SSB

30.84

27.35

25.67

0.040

29.38

5.576

5.886

6.214

0.491

8.865

.430 0.1847 0.1830

Delta

and

Edo

3975 SE

PIF

MM

LOC

SSB

32.74

28.45

26.67

0.520

32.27

6.422

6.712

6.589

0.490

9.822

.573 0.327 0.328

Note: SE- Sexuality Education, PIF- Peer Influence, MM-mass Media, LOC-Location, SSB- Students’ Sexual

Behaviour.

Table 4.4 above shows that in Delta state the mean for sexuality education is �̅� = 34.58, SD =

6.652, r = 6.627, r2 = 0.393, r2(adj) = 0.392. For the peer influence the �̅� = 29.51, SD = 7.271;

for mass media �̅� = 27.64, SD = 6.797; for location �̅� = 6.635, SD = 0.482. With r2 = 0.627,

this shows that there is a positive and moderate relationship between sexuality education, peer

influence, mass media, location and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta state.

For Edo state, the mean for sexuality education is �̅� = 30.84, SD = 5.576, r = 0.430, r2 =

0.1847, r2(adj) = 0.1830. For peer influence �̅� = 27.35, SD = 5.886; for mass media �̅� = 25.67,

103

SD = 6.214; for location �̅� = 0.040, SD = 0.491. With r = 0.430 this shows that there is a

positive relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass media, location and

students’ sexual in behaviour Edo state.

For Delta and Edo state combined, for sexuality education the �̅� = 32.74, SD = 6.422, r =

0.573, r 2 = 0.327, r2(adj) = 0.328. For peer influence �̅� = 28.45, SD = 6.712; for mass media

�̅� = 26.67, SD = 6.589; for location �̅� = 0.520, SD = 0.490. This shows that there is a

significant positive and moderate relationship between sexuality education, peer influence,

mass media, location and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo state combined.

Research Question 5

What is the relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass media, location,

gender and student sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo state.


influence, mass media, location, gender and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo state.

Table 4.5: Mean, standard deviation, relationship between sexuality education, peer

influence, mass media, location, gender and student sexual behaviour.


Delta

2015 SE

PIF

MM

LOC

GD

SSB

34.58

29.51

27.64

0.635

0.548

35.08

6.652

7.271

6.777

0.482

0.498

6.562

.639 .408 .407

Edo

1960 SE

PIF

MM

LOC

GD

SSB

30.84

27.35

25.67

0.0406

0.456

29.38

5.578

5.886

6.214

0.491

0.498

8.865

.438 .192 0.189

Delta

and Edo

3975 SE

PIF

MM

LOC

GD

SSB

32.74

28.45

26.67

0.520

0.501

32.27

6.422

9.822

0.589

0.490

0.500

9.822

.579 0.336 0.335

Note: SE- Sexuality Education, PIF- Peer Influence, MM-mass Media, LOC-Location, GD-Gender, SSB-

Students’ Sexual Behaviour.

104


6.652, r = 0.639, r 2 = 0.408, r 2(adj) = 0.407. For peer influence �̅� = 29.51, SD = 7.271; for

mass media �̅� = 27.64, SD = 6.777; for location �̅� = 0.635, SD = 0.482; for gender �̅� = 0.548,

SD = 0.498. With r = 0.438 there is a direct and moderate relationship between sexuality

education, peer influence, mass media, location, gender and students sexual behaviour in

Delta state.

Furthermore, in Edo state, the mean for sexuality education �̅� = 30.84, SD = 5.578, r

= 0.438, r 2 = 0.192, r 2(adj) = 0.189. For peer influence �̅� = 27.35, SD = 5.886; for mass media

�̅� = 25.67, SD = 6.214; for location �̅� = 0.0406, SD = 0.491; for gender �̅� = 0.456, SD = 0.498.

This shows that there is a direct and moderate relationship between sexuality education, peer

influence, mass media, location, gender and students sexual behaviour in Edo state.

For Delta and Edo state combined, the mean for sexuality education is �̅� = 32.74, SD

= 6.422, r = 0.579, r 2 = 0.336, r 2(adj) = 0.335. For peer influence �̅� = 28.45, SD = 9.822; for


SD = 0.500. With r = 0.579 there is a direct and moderate relationship between sexuality

education, peer influence, mass media, location, gender and students’ sexual behaviour in

Delta and Edo state combined.

Research Question 6


gender, class and student sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo state.


influence, mass media, location, gender, class and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and

Edo state.

105


influence, mass media, location, gender, class and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta

and Edo state.


Delta

2015 SE

PIF

MM

LOC

GD

CL

SSB

34.56

29.51

27.64

0.635

0.548

0.531

35.08

6.652

7.271

6.797

0.482

0.498

0.504

9.895

.640 .410 .408

Edo

1960 SE

PIF

MM

LOC

GD

CL

SSB

30.84

27.35

25.67

0.406

0.456

0.533

29.38

5.578

5.886

6.214

0.491

8.865

0.499

8.865

.444 0.197 0.195

Delta

and Edo

3975 SE

PIF

MM

LOC

GD

CL

SSB

32.74

28.45

26.67

0.522

0.501

0.532

32.27

6.422

6.712

6.589

0.490

0.500

0.502

9.822

.580 0.336 0.335

Note: SE- Sexuality Education, PIF- Peer Influence, MM-mass Media, LOC-Location, GD-Gender, CL- Class,

SSB- Students’ Sexual Behaviour.




SD = 0.498; for class �̅� = 0.531, SD = 0.504. With r = 0.640 there is a direct and moderate

relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass media, location, gender, class

and students sexual behaviour in Delta state.

Furthermore, in Edo state, the mean for sexuality education �̅� = 30.84, SD = 5.578, R = 0.444,

r 2 = 0.197, r 2(adj) = 0.195. For peer influence �̅� = 27.35, SD = 5.886; for mass media �̅� =

106

25.67, SD = 6.214; for location �̅� = 0.406, SD = 0.491; for gender �̅� = 0.456, SD = -0.498;

for class �̅� = 0.533, SD = 0.499. This shows that there is a direct and moderate relationship

between sexuality education, peer influence, mass media, location, gender, class and students

sexual behaviour in Edo state.

For Delta and Edo state combined, the mean for sexuality education is �̅� = 32.74, SD = 6.422,

r = 0.580, r 2 = 0.336, r2(adj) = 0.335. For peer influence �̅� = 28.45, SD = 6.712; for mass

media �̅� = 26.67, SD = 6.589; for location �̅� = 0.522, SD = 0.490; for gender �̅� = 0.501, SD

= 0.500; class �̅� = 0.532, SD = 0.502. With r = 0.580 there is a direct and moderate

relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass media, location, gender, class

and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo state combined.

Research Question 7


gender, class, school type and students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo state?


influence, mass media, location, gender, class, school type and students’ sexual behaviour in

Delta and Edo state.

107


influence, mass media, location, gender, class, school type and students’ sexual

behaviour in Delta and Edo state?


Delta

2015 SE

PIF

MM

LOC

GD

CL

ST

SSB

34.58

29.51

27.64

0.635

0.5484

0.5310

0.3350

35.08

6.652

7.271

6.797

0.482

0.504

0.5904

0.482

9.894

.641 .412 .409

Edo

1960 SE

PIF

MM

LOC

GD

CL

ST

SSB

30.84

27.35

25.67

0.406

0.452

0.533

0.635

29.38

5.578

5.886

6.214

0.491

0.498

0.499

0.482

8.865

.444 .198 .195

Delta

and Edo

3975 SE

PIF

MM

LOC

GD

CL

ST

SSB

32.74

28.45

26.65

0.522

0.501

0.532

0.483

32.27

9.822

6.712

6.589

0.499

0.500

0.506

0.499

9.822

.580 .336 .335

Note: SE- Sexuality Education, PIF- Peer Influence, MM-mass Media, LOC-Location, GD-Gender, ST-school

type, SSB- Students’ Sexual Behaviour.




SD = 0.504; for class �̅� = 0.5310, SD = 0.5904; for school type �̅� = 0.3350, SD = 0.482. With

r = 0.641 there is a direct and moderate relationship between sexuality education, peer

influence, mass media, location, gender, class, school type and students sexual behaviour in

Delta state.

108

Furthermore, in Edo state, the mean for sexuality education �̅� = 30.84, SD = 5.578, r = 0.444,

r 2 = 0.198, r 2(adj) = 0.195. For peer influence �̅� = 27.35, SD = 5.886; for mass media �̅� =

25.67, SD = 6.214; for location �̅� = 0.406, SD = 0.491; for gender �̅� = 0.452, SD = -0.498;

for class �̅� = 0.533, SD = 0.499, for school type �̅� = 0.635, SD = 0.482. This shows that there

is a direct and moderate relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass media,

location, gender, class, school type and students sexual behaviour in Edo state.

For Delta and Edo state combined, the mean for sexuality education is �̅� = 32.74, SD = 9.822,

r = 0.580, r2 = 0.336, r2(adj) = 0.335. For peer influence �̅� = 28.45, SD = 6.712; for mass

media �̅� = 26.65, SD = 6.589; for location �̅� = 0.522, SD = +++

0.490; for gender �̅� = 0.501, SD = 0.500; class �̅� = 0.532, SD = 0.506; for school type �̅� =

0.483, SD = 0.499. With r = 0.580 there is a direct and moderate relationship between

sexuality education, peer influence, mass media, location, gender, class and students’ sexual

behaviour in Delta and Edo state combined.

Hypothesis 1

HO1: There is no significant relationship between sexuality education and students sexual

behaviour

The results presented in table 4.8 below

Predictor

Variables Coefficient Std Error t P

Constant 11.0205 0.73293 15.04 0.0000

Sexuality Education 0.64913 0.02197 29.545 0.0000

R-Squared 0.1801 Resid. Mean Square (MSE) 79.1181

Adjusted R-Squared 0.1799 Standard Deviation 8.89484

Source DF SS MS F P

Regression 1 69064 69063.5 872.92 0.0000

Residual 3973 314336 79.1

Total 3974 383400

Predictor: Sexuality Education

Dependent Variable: Sexual Behaviour

109

From Table 4.8 r2 = .18, r 2(adj) = .18, F = 872.92 P = 0.000. With F = 872.92 and P = 0.000,

the relationship between sexuality education and students’ sexual behaviour is significant.

The hypotheses, HO1 which states that there is no significant relationship between sexuality

education and students’ sexual behaviour is hereby rejected. With r2 = .18, sexuality education

accounted for 18% variation of sexual behaviour

Hypothesis 2

HO2: There is no significant relationship between sexuality education, peer influence and

students sexual behaviour.


Predictor

Variables Coefficient Std Error t P VIF

Constant 2.47348 0.75534 3.27 0.0011

Sexuality education 0.44170 0.02188 20.19 0.0000 1.2

Peer influence 0.53918 0.02093 25.76 0.0000 1.2



Source DF SS MS F P

Regression 2 114052 57026.0 840.95 0.0036

Residual 3972 269348 67.8

Total 3974 383400

Predictor: Sexuality Education, Peer influence

Dependent Variable: Sexual behaviour.

From Table 4.9, r 2 = .30, r2(adj) = .30, p = 840.95, p = 0036, the relationship between sexuality

education, peer influence and sexual behaviour of students is significant. With T = 20.19, P =

0.000 for sexuality education and also peer influence with t = 25.76 P = 0.000 is also

significant with the above computation. The hypothesis which states that there is no

significant relationship between sexuality education, peer influence and students’ sexual

behaviour is rejected. This indicates that there is a significant relationship between sexuality

education, peer influence and students’ sexual behaviour. The analysis of variance showed

that sexuality education with t = 20.19, P = 0.000 and peer influence with t = 25.76, P = 0.000

110

are significant. The two variables accounted for 30% variation, peer influence with T = 25.76

accounted for more of the variation.

Hypothesis 3

HO3: There is no significant relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass

media and students’ sexual behaviour.

Table 4:10 presents the regression analysis of sexuality education, peer influence, mass

media and students’ sexual behaviour.

Predictor

Variables Coefficient Std Error T P VIF

Constant -0.56468 0.77546 -0.73 0.4665


Peer influence 0.40938 0.02278 17.97 0.0000 1.4

Mass media 0.29313 0.02245 13.06 0.0000 1.3



Source DF SS MS F P

Regression 3 125139 41712.9 641.37 0.0053

Residual 3971 258261 65.0

Total 3974 383400

Predictor: Sexuality education, peer influence, mass media, sexual behaviour

The regression output in table 4.10 reveals that sexuality education, peer influence and

mass media affects students sexual behaviour, r 2 = 33, r 2(adj) = 33, F=641.37, P=0.00036.

The relationship between sexuality education, peer influence mass media and student’s sexual

behaviour are significant. The analysis of variance of the regression function shows that

sexuality education with t=18.941, and p=0.000, peer influence with t=17097, p=0.000 and

mass media with t= 13.06, P=0.000 as significant. The analysis of variance showed that

sexuality education with t = 18.94, P = 0.000; peer influence t = 17.97, P = 0.000 and mass

media with T = 13.06, P = 0.000 are significant. The three variables accounted for 33%

variation, sexuality education with T = 18.94 accounted for more of the variation.

111

Hypothesis 4

There is no significant relationship between sexuality education, and students’ sexual

behaviour.


Predictor


Constant 0.07747 0.79260 0.10 0.9221


Peer influence 0.40399 0.02279 17.73 0.0000 1.4

Mass media 0.28519 0.02251 12.67 0.0000 1.3

Location -0.97719 0.25862 -3.78 0.0002 1.0



Source DF SS MS F P

Regression 4 126064 31516.1 486.21 0.0052

Residual 3970 257336 64.8

Total 3974 383400

Predictors: Sexuality education, peer influence, and mass media location

Dependent variable: Sexual behaviour

The regression output in table in Table 4.11, reveals that there is significant

relationship between sexuality education, mass media location and students’ sexual

behaviour. r = 0.33, r2 = 0.33, F= 486.21, P=0.0052. The relationship between sexuality

education, mass media location and students’ sexual behaviour is significant. The null

hypothesis. Consequently, the null hypothesis of no significant relationship between sexuality

education, mass media location and students’ sexual behaviour is rejected. This means that

there is a significant relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass media,

location and students’ sexual behaviour. The analysis of variance showed that sexuality

education with t = 19.22, P = 0.000; peer influence with t = 17.73, P = 0.000, mass media with

t = 12.67, P = 0.000 and location with t = -3.78, P = 0.0002 are significant. The four variables

accounted for 33% variation, sexuality education with t = 19.22 accounted for more of the

variation and location accounted for the lowest variation with t = -3.78.

112

Hypothesis 5


media, location, gender and students’ sexual behaviour.


Predictor


Constant 1.12409 0.80560 1.40 0.1630


Peer influence 0.40551 0.02268 17.88 0.0000 1.4

Mass media 0.28440 0.02240 12.70 0.0000 1.3

Location -0.46501 0.26960 -1.72 0.0846 1.1

Gender -1.22734 0.25730 -0.88 0.3770 1.0



Source DF SS MS F P

Regression 5 128670 25734.0 400.97 0.0057

Residual 3969 254730 64.2

Total 3974 383400

Predictor: sexuality education, mass media, location, gender.

Dependent variable: sexual behaviour.

Table 4.12 above shows that the regression function with F = 400.97, P = 0.0057 is significant.

Therefore the relationship between sexuality education, peer influence, mass media, location,

gender and students sexual behaviour is significant. However, an examination of the analysis

of variance shows that location with t = -1.72, P = 0.084 and gender with t = -0.88, P = 0.3770

are not significant. The variables which were significant are sexuality education with T =

18.48, P = 0.000; peer influence with t = 17.88, P = 0.000 and mass media with t = 12.70, P

= 0.000 are significant. These variables; sexuality education, peer influence and mass media

accounted for 33% variation.

113

Hypothesis 6


media, location, gender, class and students’ sexual behaviour.


Predictor


Constant 1.20771 0.79830 0.26 0.7947


Peer influence 0.40823 0.02306 17.70 0.0000 1.5

Mass media 0.28662 0.02254 12.72 0.0000 1.4

Location -0.95391 0.26016 -3.67 0.0002 1.0

Gender -0.22734 0.25730 -0.88 0.3770 1.0

class -0.27321 0.25926 -1.05 0.2920 1.0



Source DF SS MS F P

Regression 6 126189 21031.5 324.45 0.0056

Residual 3968 257211 64.8

Total 3974 383400

Predictors: Sexuality education, Peer influence, Mass media, Location, Gender, Class.

Dependent variable: Sexual behaviour



gender, class and students sexual behaviour is significant. However, an examination of the

analysis of variance shows that location with t = -3.67, P = 0.0002; gender with t = -0.88, P =

0.3770 and class with t = -1.05, P = 0.2920 are not significant. The variables which were

significant are sexuality education with t = 19.13, P = 0.000; peer influence with t = 17.70, P

= 0.000 and mass media with t = 12.72, P = 0.000 are significant. These variables; sexuality

education, peer influence and mass media accounted for 33% variation.

Hypothesis 7


media, location, gender, class, school type and students’ sexual behaviour.

114


Predictor


Constant 1.25902 0.81117 1.55 0.1207


Peer influence 0.41043 0.02295 17.89 0.0000 1.5

Mass media 0.28586 0.02242 12.75 0.0000 1.4

Location -0.44529 0.27082 -1.64 0.1002 1.1

Gender -1.17919 0.25613 -0.70 0.4842 1.0

Class -0.33253 0.25813 -1.29 0.1977 1.0

School type -0.71501 0.26835 -6.39 0.0000 1.1



Source DF SS MS F P

Regression 7 128810 18401.5 286.73 0.0058

Residual 3967 254589 64.2

Total 3974 383400

Predictor: sexuality education, peer influence, mass media, location, gender, class, school

type student’s sexual behaviour.

Dependent variable: student’s sexual behaviour



gender, class, school type and students sexual behaviour is significant. However, an

examination of the analysis of variance shows that location with t = -1.64, P = 0.1002; gender

with t = -0.70, P = 0.4842 and class with t = -1.29, P = 0.1977 are not significant. The variables

which were significant are sexuality education with t = 18.36, P = 0.0000; peer influence with

t = 17.89, P = 0.0000 mass media with t = 12.75, P = 0.0000 and school type with t = -6.39,

P = 0.0000 are significant. When all the variables are in the regression function; sexuality

education, peer influence, mass media and school type accounted are significant and

contributed 34% variation. The variables location, gender and class are not significant and

therefore do not account for any variation.

115

Discussion of Findings

The study examined sexuality education, peer influence, Mass media as correlates of

students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo State. The findings are discussed below:

Sexuality Education and Sexual Behaviour

+ The study showed that there is a significant relationship between sexuality education

and students sexual behaviour. This positive relationship suggests that the more sexuality

education is expose to students, the better their sexual behaviour. Another reason is that

sexuality education helps to improve sexual behaviour; hence, students who receive sex

education are most likely to have better orientation towards sex than those without sexual

education. There is need therefore to educate the adolescent at the early stage in life

concerning their sexual life as this will help them to develop positive attitude towards their

reproductive health knowledge. This finding agrees with the observation of Adegboyega and

Fabiji (1994) who explained that sex education provides opportunities for young people to

develop skills, which in turn helps them develop a better attitude towards sex.

The result also corroborates the view of Awake (2001) who noted that sexuality

education helps young people to prepare to meet the problems of life that are centered on sex

instincts which are inevitable, thereby agreeing with the findings of the present study. Also,

the finding is in line with Momodu (1988) who opined that sexuality education is important

to students because it promotes understanding and tolerance towards others and their ways of

life. The findings also corroborates the view of Mueller (2008), who noted that sexuality

education imparted through schools can prove to be a significant and effective method of

bettering youngsters’ sex-related knowledge, attitude and behaviour. This is in line with the

outcome of this study. The outcome of this study agrees with the findings of who Adegoke

116

(2003) and Kulkarni (2008), which claimed that teaching them about sex will give them

information concerning the risk involved in engaging in premarital sex.

The finding of this study concur with the views of UNESCO (2009), contented that

primary goal of sexuality education is to equip children and young people with the knowledge,

skills and values to make responsible choices about their sexual and social relationships in a

world affected by HIV. In addition to learning about the risks of pregnancy and sexually

transmitted infections (including HIV), children and young people also need to learn about

the risk of sexual exploitation and abuse in order to recognize these when they occur, to

protect themselves as far as possible and to identify and access available sources of support.

Sensitizing children, parents, teachers, police and local communities to the nature and extent

of sexual violence, and giving permission to discuss it, are essential steps in tackling it.

Sexuality education can provide an appropriate framework and context for educating students

about sexual abuse.

The present study did not collaborate with the findings of Wanyonyi (2014) which

suggests that the bumpy road that the Government of Kenya has travelled in seeking to

introduce Sexuality Education is presented with the indication that in spite of all controversies

and challenges, the Government of Kenya has made attempts to implement aspects of

Sexuality Education in secondary schools. These aspects have been integrated into various

curricula. For example, an AIDS education curriculum has been integrated in various subjects

in secondary schools. The most notable and holistic integration of the aspects of Sexuality

Education is in the Christian Religious Knowledge (C.R.S) curriculum where these aspects

are taught in the form four C.R.E syllabus content. This is because, according to the findings

of this study, the technological development of mass media have played down the role of

117

sexuality education. Therefore, sexuality education cannot be seen as the only source of

information about human sexuality. Although, mass media has positive and negative influence

on sexual behaviour of students.

Peer Group Influence and Sexual Behaviour

The study demonstrated that there is a significant relationship between peer influence

and students’ sexual behaviour. This means that as peer groups influence increase, sexual

behaviour also increases, since peer group influence or peer pressure is described as the

instances where an individual feels indirectly pressured into changing his/her behaviour to

match that of his/ her peers. The probable reason for this finding is that matured persons and

children alike are influenced by their peers. But the younger ones are more vulnerable to

negative influence because they are still in the process of development. Another reason is that

the influence of peers may have contributed to make the students more engulfed in the

activities of sexual intercourse, because they believe that whatever their peers do is the best

for them rather than receiving instructions from their parents. It therefore implies that peer

influence could be negative or positive. This may therefore mean that a student that finds

himself in the right peer group will develop a good behaviour towards sex, while the one who

finds himself in the wrong peer group may develop a wrong behaviour or attitude towards

sex. The findings of this study also concur with the work of Billy and Udry (1985) who

stressed that best friend’s sexual experience was strongly associated with the initiation of

intercourse for white females, although no information was given for blacks of both genders.

Also the outcone of this study concur with the work of DiClemente (1991; 1992) which

claimed- that students who believe their peers are using condoms are also more than twice

likely to use condoms compared with teens who do not believe their peers use condom. In

118

this study it has been demonstrated that peer influence has a significant role to play in the life

of the students. This is in support with the work of Bersamin et al., (2006) and Romer et al.,

(2004) which stressed that there is a strong association between students’ self-reported sexual

initiation and their perceptions of the sexual activities of their close friends.

It was a clear issue that peer group is important for boys to gain information and

knowledge concerning human sexuality. The present research collaborated with the

viewpoints of (Ochieng, Kakai and Abok (2011) which stressed that for student girls, the peer

group is also important, and that both boys and girls rely heavily upon school and peers, and

the media to a lesser extent, to develop their knowledge about sexual activity and relations.

Peers provide students with models, support and identity. The factors that predispose students

to engage in sex behaviours have been identified as: having peers who are sexually active and

who pressurize others to engage in sex.

The present research disagreed with the viewpoint of Miller and Major (2011) who

stressed that sexual behaviour of students’ may be controlled by the influence of home

background of the students. They believe that since the home is the first agent of socialization,

it will play an important role in amending the sexual behaviour of the adolescent. The probable

reason for this finding is that peer influence has a great influence in the behaviour and attitude

of their peers. Hence, a child that has positive influence towards his/her peer, it can make that

students to change for good.

The present work did not collaborate with the work of Tabitha & Habil (1995) who

noticed the low percentage of adolescents who reported being pressured by peers seem to

contradict the view that adolescents are under great pressure from their peers to engage in

sexual intercourse.

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Mass Media and Sexual Behaviour

The study showed that there is significant relationship between mass media and

students’ sexual behaviour. The influence of mass media on sexual behaviour of students

could be due to the fact that sexuality education may be embedded in mass media which is a

form of informal education. The probable reason for this finding is that the access to electronic

media, such as television, video, satellite and internet bring about permissive attitude of the

students. Another reason is that mass media have influence on students’ sexual behaviour

because they are living day and night with information from the media which embedded on

issues relating to sex. They believe that mass media will provide them with the knowledge

needed to adjust with, concerning their sexual life. The current research collaborated with the

findings of American Academy of Pediatrics (2003) on the media habit of United States

children. The study mentioned that almost 70% of children under two years spend average of

two hours every day watching television shows or videos. With this electronic media the

reasons for the media to influence the sexual behaviour of the student is eminent.

This implies that the more frequently mass media is accessed, the more sexual

behaviour is exhibited by students. Certainly, students are the vigorous users of the

information broadcast in the media. Werner-Wilson et al.,.(2004) observed that many studies

have shown that mass media negatively influences sexual behaviour among teens. Stern &

Handel (2001); Wakefield et al. (2010) also agrees with this observation, and this is in line

with the findings of this study. Hald (2013) found that the frequency of internet sexually


paid for sex. This also agrees with the findings of this study,

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The present research disagreed with the study of Moscovitch (2007) who observed

that mass media has a positive influence among the students, she went further to portray that

mass media is a useful source of information and entertainment as well as helping the family

to stay in contact with greater ease. The probable reason is that, it was generally believe that

mass media has great negative influence on students behaviour. The study claimed that there

are more negative influence mass media usage.

Location and Sexual Behaviour

The study demonstrated that there is no significant relationship between location and

students’ sexual behaviour. The reason is that sexual behaviour is more or less the same for

students in rural and urban areas. This is because, the use of internet have opened the eyes of

rural girls and boys. Another reason is that students in rural areas are behaving the same way

with those in urban areas, because the popularity of media, for instance, hand-set have

changed their mentality unlike before when there is nothing like social media, so location

have no significant influence on students sexual behaviour as the study revealed. This means

that both male and female students in urban and rural secondary schools are all sexually active.

The finding in this study disagrees with the work of Nyanzi et al., (2005), which stressed that

difference in living location (urban or rural areas) can lead to different sexual behaviour

patterns among students. For instance, young men and women in the ages 15- 24years in urban

settlements are more likely to have comprehensive knowledge of sexual behaviour. He also

claimed that female students in urban areas with higher education have lower chances of

having sex in earlier ages than their counterparts in rural settlements.

Another reasons for this significant relationship is not farfetched because, the students

in rural areas only depends on their cultural norms and values in determining their level of

121

sexual behaviour. In some rural environment, their culture permit a student with age of 15 to

have boyfriend. And so they have sexual intercourse without knowing the measure to control

their sexual behave thereby involving themselves in an unwanted pregnancy and contract of

sexually transmitted disease. Unlike their counterpart in urban settlement, who have gathered

tremendous knowledge concerning their sexual behaviour. They are aware of different types

of contraceptives and so the urban dwellers have a lower chance of been influence present

study did not support the view of the above claim because the use of handset have changed

their sexual behaviour they no longer fall victim of unwanted pregnancy or sexually

transmitted diseases.

Gender and Sexual Behaviour

The finding of this study has revealed that there is no significant correlation between

gender and sexual behaviour. It is obvious that both male and female students are sexually

active or they engage in sex, the reason for this is that sexual behaviour among students may

not be impulsive as it is influenced by a host of factors such as; sexuality education, peer

influence and mass media in varying degrees. The observation of this present study did not

collaborate with Wang’eri, and Otanga (2013) who stressed that more males than females

reported having pressurized by peers to engage in the sexual behaviours investigated but

contrary to expectation those reporting to have been pressurized to engage in sexual

intercourse were few. Most students manage to avoid intense problems as they receive

adequate support from the family and friends. Only a small number of students experienced

acute depression due to stress from their peers. The findings claim that there was no significant

relationship between gender and sexual behaviour of students. The probable reason is that,

male and female students have equal access to the internet.

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Class and Sexual Behaviour

The finding of this study has shown that there was no significant relationship between

class and sexual behaviour of students. This means that sexual behaviour is the same, among

junior and senior secondary school students. Both junior and senior secondary students are

sexually active. If this be the case their sexual activities may have started in early adolescence.

This may be the result of media influence. The present study did not support the viewpoint of

the Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (2002), they investigated on sexual attitude and

behaviour of high school male students, and they claimed that sexual behaviour increases by

age. This means that as student moves from one class to another their age also increases. In

the same vein their sexual urge also increases with age.

School Type and Students Sexual Behaviour

The finding of this study has indicated that there is significant correlation between

school type and students sexual behaviour. This means that the type of school students attend,

plays a dominant role in their skill development as well as their academic activities. It also

means that the mixed schools are more involved in sexual behaviour as a result of their

opposite sex. The present study concurred with the work of Ajuwon, Faromoju, and Ladipo

(2006), they stressed that male sex school were more likely to be involved in sexual

intercourse than the female sex schools.

The result of this study is in consonance with the viewpoint of like Alika (2007) who

argued that about 10% of girls’ dropped out of school, because of bulling by the male students.

Also the finding were in consonance with the findings of Ajala (1998), though did not use life

skills as treatment, found significant difference between sexual behaviour of those exposed to

sex education, and those who had no treatment. This also confirms the findings of Isiugo-

123

Abanihe and Offrey (2003) and Fola-Anoemuah (2004) who found significant effects in the

knowledge and attitude indicators of sexuality education influence. This study agree with the

present study, that school type can influence sexual behaviour.

The present study is not in consonance with the work of Ekanem (2008) who confirms

that mixed school is superior to single school. He also noted that the mean difference between

the two, single-sex school was not statistically significant.

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CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

This chapter focuses on the concluding aspect of the study under the following sub-heading:

Summary of Study

Conclusion

Implication for Counselling

Recommendations

Contributions to Knowledge

Suggestion for further Study

Summary

The study examined the correlation among sexuality education, peer influence, mass

media, and sexual behaviour among students in junior and senior secondary schools students. In

Delta and Edo State. Seven (7) research questions and seven (7) hypotheses was formulated. The

first research question focused on the extent of relationship between sexuality education and

location among students, while the null hypothesis focused on the relationship between these

variables. Subsequently, the other research questions focused on the extent of relationship among

the variables in a stepwise manner, while the null hypotheses focused on the relationship among

independent, mediating variables and the dependent variable in the same order.

The study was a correlation study that employed questionnaire type of instrument titled:

correlate of students’ sexual behaviour scale (CSSBS). The research instrument consists of five

sections (A to E). The data collected from 4,416 respondents were analyzed with the linear and

multiple correlation and regression analysis, and the results presented in Tables 4.1 to 4.21. The

findings listed below were arrived at from the analysis of the data.

125

The following are the findings in this study:

i. There was a direct and moderate relationship between sexuality education and sexual

behaviour of students in Delta and Edo States.

ii. There was a moderate and direct relationship between peer influence and students’ sexual

behaviour in Delta and Edo States.

iii. There was a significant relationship between mass media and students’ sexual behaviour

in Delta and Edo States.

iv. There was a relationship between school type and students sexual behaviour in Delta and

Edo States.

v. There was no significant relationship between Location and students sexual behaviour in

Delta and Edo States.

vi. It was also investigated that there was no significant relationship between Class and

students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo States.

vii. Lastly, it was investigated that there was an inverse relationship between Gender and

students’ sexual behaviour in Delta and Edo States.

Conclusion

Sexual behaviour in adolescence is inevitable as it is a developmental task. Its

orientation includes physiological, psychological and sociological influences. Research has

reported different findings. In this investigation, it is demonstrated that students engage in sex

and that their sexual behaviour is influenced by peer pressure, sexuality education and mass

media, in diverse degrees. In view of this, this study concludes that since sexual behaviour is

practiced by adolescents, measures should be taken to minimize its negative effects because

to stop it altogether may not be feasible.

126

Implication for Counselling

Counsellors could offer to organize group counselling programme to address

the issue of unpleasant sexual behaviour among secondary school students.

Secondly, the professional school counsellor should work hand in hand with the school

personnel to give public enlightenment programmes in the school premises against

negative influence of mass media and how the student should try as much as possible

not to be influenced negatively by their peers.

Lastly, as the session begins the counselling centre is to organize an orientation

programmes for all new and old students, the purpose or objective of the orientation is

to spelt out the ills and consequences of students involving themselves in an unpleasant

sexual behaviour as well as adopting to negative peer influence so as to caution them

not to be involved.

Recommendations

Based on the conclusion reached on the study, the following recommendation where

made.

i. The Federal and State Ministries of Education as well as the Local Education board

should create an enlightenment campaign programme that concerns sexuality

education. This programme will include students, teachers and parents. The campaign

will address cautious sex amongst youths and to change their beliefs, perception,

attitude and behaviour in accordance with relevant facts and concepts towards human

sexuality.

ii. The directors on film and media matters like senate committee on media should

exclude sexually suggestive part of reality show. The media can also use student to

127

model good sexual behaviour such as popular “Binta and Friends” programme on

television.

iii. Group counselling should on sexuality education should be made compulsory by the

department of counselling through the ministry of education. Teachers and counsellor

should teach or counsel on the issues relating to sexual behaviour without

embarrassment.

Contributions to Knowledge

The study provides following contribution to knowledge:

i. There is no gender difference in students sexual behaviour i.e both male and female

students engage in sex.

ii. That sexual behaviour may not be impulsive as it is influenced by host of factors such

as sexuality education, peer influence and mass media in varying degrees.

iii. It may not be feasible to eliminate sex in secondary schools.

iv. That sexual behaviour is more in mixed schools than single schools.

Suggestion for Further Study

There is need for further research to cover the variables that had influence on sexual

behaviour among older students such as those in tertiary institutions so as to evaluate the

strength of these variables in generally influencing sexual behaviour, and as such ascertain

that no other variable is responsible for the influence they had.

128

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147

DEPARTMENT OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELING

DELTA STATE UNIVERSITY, ABRAKA

CORRELATE OF STUDENTS’ SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR SCALE (CSSBS)

Information

This questionnaire is designed to elicit information from junior and senior secondary

school students. It will be used for the purpose of carrying out a research investigation only.

Please kindly and honestly respond to this items, and your answers will be kept in strict

confidence.

RESPONDENTS BIODATA

Instruction:

Fill the blank space and tick (√) where appropriate.

1. Location of school: Urban ( ) Rural ( )

2. Nature of school: Mixed ( ) Single ( )

3. Gender of respondent: Male ( ) Female ( )

4. Class: JSS 1 ( ) SS I ( )

SECTION B

Sexuality education scale (SSES)

Rank extent to which you agree or disagree with the following statement.

Note that:

SA – strongly agree, A – Agree, D – Disagree, SD – Strongly Disagree

S/N ITEM SA A D SD

1 sexuality education delay first sexual involvement

2 Most of the secondary school student are sexually

active.

3 Ejaculation ability in male is an indication of

manhood.

4 Monthly menstruation in female indicate attainment

of womanhood.

5 Sex with the opposite partner can lead to pregnancy.

6 Most unwanted pregnancies are terminated legally

through abortion

7 Ejaculation ability in male are indication of the

attainment of manhood and subsequent procreation

ability

8 Attainment of womanhood leads to procreation

ability.

9 Contraceptive use is important among the students

10 Participating in an unprotected sex can lead to

infections.

148

11 Complete abstinence from sexual intercourse is

effective for the prevention of sexually transmitted

diseases.

12 I know that sexuality education is advantageous to me.

SECTION C

Sexual Behaviour Scale (SBC)

Introduction:

Rank the occurrence of the following behaviour relating to your sexual behaviour.

Note that: A-Always, OF- Often, OC- Occasionally, R-Rarely/Seldom

S/N ITEMS A OF OC R

13 I do engage myself in oral sex

14 kissing my opposite sex

15 I hold hands when strolling with my friends

16 I engaging myself in anal sex

17 I have a quiet time with the opposite sex for the purpose of

discussing love issues

18 I watch blue film with the opposite sex

19 I have experience oral sex before

20 I believed that students are getting exposed to highly sexual

active society.

21 I have Sex with the opposite sex

22 I receive reward from sex partner

23 I expose erotic part of my body to the opposite sex

24 I am turned on when I am with my opposite sex

25 I enjoy self-sexual stimulation (masturbation).

26 I hug my opposite sex.

149

SECTION D

Peer Influence Scale (SSIS)

Rank extent to which you agree or disagree with the following statement.

Note that; SA- strongly Agree, A- Agree, D- Disagree, SD- Strongly Disagree

S/N ITEMS SA A D SD

27 I feel comfortable while discussing sex with my

friends

28 I like looking sexy because all my friends are

always looking sexy

29 I will want to have sex because my friends say is

enjoyable

30 My friends intimidate me because I don’t have a

boyfriend

31 I make friends with peers that have more than one

sex partner

32 I go along with my friends .

33 I follow my friends out for night club

34 I hang out with sugar daddy because my friend do

35 I look sexy because all my friends are always

looking sexy.

36 I feel comfortable when discussing sex matters with

my friends

38 I go along with friends just to keep them happy

39 I am good at making friends

SECTION E

Mass Media Influence Scale (MMIS)

Rate the extent to which you agree or disagree with the following statement.

Note that; SA- Strongly Agree, A- Agree, D- Disagree, SD- Strongly Disagree

S/N ITEMS SA A D SD

40 My sexual urge increases after enjoying sex scenes

in movies

41 I believe that everyone is sexual according to what I

watch in television.

42 I am motivated to think about sex after watching

internet sex.

43 I believe that sex scene in movies are part of human

life

44 I Watch Pornographic Movies from the television.

45 I am influenced by internet dating

46 I admire the manner they kiss each other when

acting.

47 I believe that television has more sex scenes than

print media e.g. Newspaper

150

48 I believe that sex scene in movies are good examples

in parting good sexual behaviour to the students.

49 I like most entertainment on mass media because

they make a big deal out of sex.

50 I love reading novels that have sex content.

CONTENT VALIDITY ESTIMATE OF LOADED ITEMS IN FIVE STRUCTURE

OF PEER INFLUENCE SCALE (PIS)

FACTOR NO OF ITEM COMPONENT EXPLAINED

1 86, 84 and 74 Engaging in romantic relationship 15.25%

2 68, 66 and 83 Hooking up 12.13%

3 72 and 85 Playmate 11.07%

4 87 and 65 Clubbing 13.05%

5 61 and 59 Gangsters 9.09%

Explained cumulative variance 60.59%

unexplained variance 39.41%


OF MASS MEDIA INFLUENCE SCALE

FACTOR NO OF ITEM COMPONENT EXPLAINED

1 98,97 and 94 Watching pornographic movies 9.31%

2 100 and 90 Novels with sex content 10.02%

3 92 and 96 Watching internet sexual movies 13.80%

4 101 and 106 Enjoying blue films 15 10%

5 108 and 104 Enjoying movies on television with

sex content

12.11%

Explained cumulative variance 63.34%

Unexplained variance 36.66%

11 Items

151

CONTENT VALIDITY ESTIMATE OF LOADED ITEMS IN FOUR STRUCTURE

OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR

FACTORS NO. OF ITEMS COMPONENT

VARIABLE

EXPLAINED

VARIANCE

1 40, 42 and 38 Masturbation 17.05%

2 52, 58, 54 and 50 Exposing erotic part of

the body.

11.09%

3 34, 48 and 46 Uncontrolled sexual

desire.

16.11%

4 30 and 32 Prolong hand shake 10.12%

36 and 34 Oral sex 12.09%

Explained cumulative

variance

66.46%

14 Items Unexplained variance 33.54%


OF SEXUALITY EDUCATIONAL SCALE

FACTORS NO. OF ITEMS COMPONENT

VARIABLE

EXPLAINED

VARIANCE

1 29, 29 and 26 Contraceptive use 16.63%

2 24 and 21 Fertility awareness 13.25%

3 10, 25 and 23 Complete abstained 13.07%

4 2.7 and 02 Monthly menstruation 11.19%

5 14 and 05 Procreation ability 9.97%

12 items Explained cumulative

variance

64.11%

Unexplained variance 35.89%

RELIABILITY STATISTIC OF INSTRUMENT

SECTIONS CRONBACHS

ALPHA

CRONBACHS ALPHA ON

STANDARDIZED ITEMS

NO OF

ITEMS

Sexual behaviour 81 80 15

Sexuality education 63 63 12

Peer influence 62 63 14

Mass media

influence

80 80 11

152

FACTORS LOADING ITEM SELECTION AND COMMUNALITIES

OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR SCALE

SERIAL NO ITEMS/VARIABLES F1 F2 F3 F4

1 40 Masturbation .74

2 36 Strolling .71

3 34 Kissing .66

4 42 Discussing love issues .62

5 38 Oral sex .48

6 52 Anal sex .76

7 58 Reward from sex partner .69

8 54 Exposing erotic part of the body .62

9 50 Watching blue film .58

10 43 Uncontrolled sexual desire .74

11 48 Vagina penetration .67

12 46 Prolong hugging .62

13 30 Prolong hand shake .81

14 32 Fondling .65

FACTOR LOADING ITEM SELECTION AND COMMUNALITIES OF

SEXUALITY EDUCATION SCALE

SERIAL NO. ITEM/VARIABLES F1 F2 F3 F4 F5

1 29 Contraceptive .73

2 28 Sexually transmitted diseases .68

3 26 Unwanted pregnancy .60

4 24 Fertility .53

5 01 Abortion 83

6 10 Unprotected sex .58

7 25 Complete abstained .89

8 23 Reproductive health Knowledge 73

9 27 Monthly menstruation .81

10 02 Ejaculation ability .79

11 14 Procreation ability .77

12 05 Legally terminated pregnancy .55

153

FACTOR LOADING ITEM SELECTION AND COMMUNALITIES OF MASS

MEDIA INFLUENCE SCALE

SERIAL NO ITEM/VARIABLES F1 F2 F3 F4 F5

1 98 Watching internet sex .69

2 94 Enjoying sex scenes in movies .69

3 104 Always thinking about sex after watching

sexy movies

.69

4 100 Watching pornographic movies 65

5 90 Internet dating .62

6 102 Pornographic magazines .61

7 92 Entertainment on sex matter .59

8 96 Novels with sex content .60

9 92 Text massages that contain sex matters .82

10 101 Dressing nude on television .62

11 108 Dancing naked .56

154

TABLE SHOWING SENATORIAL ZONES, LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREAS, SCHOOLS, NUMBER OF STUDENTS

GENDER AND LOCATION

Sampled Urban Senior Secondary Schools Urban Junior

Secondary Schools

Rural Senior Secondary

Schools

Rural Junior Secondary

Schools

Senatorial

zone

LGA Name of

Schools

Sampled

No of

Students

Sampled

Name of

Schools

Sampled

No of

Students

Sampled

Name of

Schools

Sampled

No of

Students

Sampled

Name of

Schools

Sampled

No of

Students

Sampled

Total

M F M F M F M F

Edo South Oredo Edo College

Benin city

42

42

Edo

College

Benin

city

42

42

Iyekogbe

Secondary

School

42

42

Iyekogbe

Secondary

School

42

42

336

Ikpoba

Okha

Western

boys high

school

42

42

Western

boys high

school

42

42

Obasuye

College

Abayanto

42

42

Obasuye

College

Abayanto

42

42

336

Edo Central Esan North Agba

Grammar

School

Uromi

42

42

Agba

Grammar

School

Uromi

42

42

Uzea

Secondary

School Uzea

42

42

Uzea

Secondary

School Uzea

42

42

336

Esan South

East

St.

Johnbosco

College

Ubiaja

42

42

St.

Johnbosc

o College

Ubiaja

42

42

Ewatto

Grammar

School Ewatto

42

42

Ewatto

Grammar

School

Ewatto

42

42

336

Edo North Akoko Edo Anglican

Grammar

School

42

42

Anglican

Grammar

School

42

42

Ojirame

Mixed

Secondary

School

Ojirame

42

42

Ojirame

Mixed

Secondary

School

Ojirame

42

42

336

Owan East St. James

Grammar

School

42

42

St. James

Grammar

School

42

42

Azama

College Otuo

42

42

Azama

College

Otuo

42

42

336

Total 252 252 252 252 252 252 252 252 2016

155

Sampled Urban Senior Secondary Schools Urban Junior Secondary

Schools

Rural Senior Secondary

Schools

Rural Junior Secondary

Schools

Senator

ial zone

LGA Name of

Schools

Sampled

No of

Students

Sampled

Name of

Schools

Sampled

No of

Students

Sampled

Name of

Schools

Sampled

No of

Students

Sampled

Name of

Schools

Sampled

No of

Students

Sampled

Total

M F M F M F M F

Delta

South

Isoko

North

Alaka

Grammar

School Ozoro

45

55

Alaka

Grammar

School Ozoro

55

45

Okete Mixed

Secondary

School Ofagbe

55

45

Okete

Mixed

Secondary

School

Ofagbe

55

45

400

Isoko

South

Emore

Grammar

School Oleh

55

45

Emore

Grammar

School Oleh

45

55

Uzere

Grammar

School

45

55

Uzere

Grammar

School

45

55

400

Delta

Central

Ethiope

East

Abraka

Grammar

School

45

55

Abraka

Grammar

School

45

55

Urhuoka

Secondary

School

55

45

Urhuoka

Secondary

School

55

55

400

Uvwie Army Day

Secondary

School

55

45

Army Day

Secondary

School

55

45

Alegbo

Secondary

School

45

55

Alegbo

Secondary

School

45

45

400

Delta

North

Oshimili

South

Western

Mixed

Secondary

School

50

55

Western Mixed

Secondary

School

55

45

Okwe

Secondary

School

45

55

Okwe

Secondary

School

45

55

400

Ika

South

Ogbemudien

Secondary

School Agbor

50

45

Ogbemudien

Secondary

School Agbor

45

55

Okpe Mixed

Secondary

School

55

45

Okpe Mixed

Secondary

School

55

45

400

Total 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 2,400

156

Statistix 8.0 Egbule / Edo, 5/4/2016, 1:09:33 AM

Descriptive Statistics

Variable N Mean SD Minimum Maximum

V001 1960 0.4056 0.4911 0.0000 1.0000

V002 1960 0.6352 0.4815 0.0000 1.0000

V003 1960 0.4515 0.4978 0.0000 1.0000

V005 1960 0.5332 0.4990 0.0000 1.0000

V006 1960 30.842 5.5762 0.0000 48.000

V007 1960 29.382 8.8652 0.0000 54.000

V008 1960 27.348 5.8863 10.000 42.000

V009 1960 25.667 6.2144 1.0000 43.000

-----------------------------------------------------------------------

------

Statistix 8.0 Egbule / Edo, 5/1/2016, 10:30:49 PM

Correlations (Pearson)

V006

V007 0.2448

Cases Included 1960 Missing Cases 0

Statistix 8.0 Egbule / Edo,

5/4/2016, 1:12:46 AM

Unweighted Least Squares Linear Regression of V007

Predictor

Variables Coefficient Std Error T P

Constant 17.3810 1.09183 15.92 0.0000

V006 0.38912 0.03484 11.17 0.0000



Source DF SS MS F P

Regression 1 9223 9223.11 124.77 0.0000

Residual 1958 144740 73.92

Total 1959 153963


-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

157



Predictor


Constant 7.39520 1.21338 6.09 0.0000

V006 0.27176 0.03372 8.06 0.0000 1.1

V008 0.49749 0.03194 15.57 0.0000 1.1



Source DF SS MS F P

Regression 2 25184 12591.8 191.35 0.0012

Residual 1957 128779 65.8

Total 1959 153963




Predictor


Constant 4.61191 1.26868 3.64 0.0003

V006 0.26256 0.03337 7.87 0.0000 1.1

V008 0.40746 0.03429 11.88 0.0000 1.2

V009 0.21542 0.03191 6.75 0.0000 1.2



Source DF SS MS F P

Regression 3 28115 9371.72 145.66 0.0012

Residual 1956 125848 64.34

Total 1959 153963


158

Statistix 8.0 Egbule / Edo, 5/1/2016, 10:38:24

PM


Predictor


Constant 5.24361 1.29910 4.04 0.0001

V006 0.26264 0.03334 7.88 0.0000 1.1

V008 0.40060 0.03439 11.65 0.0000 1.3

V009 0.21105 0.03194 6.61 0.0000 1.2

V001 -0.82471 0.37232 -2.22 0.0269 1.0



Source DF SS MS F P

Regression 4 28430 7107.55 110.69 0.0013

Residual 1955 125533 64.21

Total 1959 153963


Statistix 8.0 Egbule / Edo, 5/1/2016,

10:40:08 PM


Predictor


Constant 4.43590 1.30777 3.39 0.0007

V006 0.25832 0.03321 7.78 0.0000 1.1

V008 0.39424 0.03428 11.50 0.0000 1.3

V009 0.22241 0.03192 6.97 0.0000 1.2

V001 -1.49575 0.40361 -3.71 0.0002 1.2

V002 1.72486 0.41009 4.21 0.0000 1.2



Source DF SS MS F P

Regression 5 29557 5911.30 92.85 0.0013

Residual 1954 124406 63.67

Total 1959 153963


Statistix 8.0 clif edo, 5/4/2016,

6:54:14 AM

159


Predictor


Constant 6.05304 1.31226 4.61 0.0000

V006 0.25538 0.03332 7.66 0.0000 1.1

V008 0.40922 0.03435 11.91 0.0000 1.3

V009 0.21788 0.03192 6.83 0.0000 1.2

V001 -0.98056 0.37465 -2.62 0.0089 1.0

V003 -0.58287 0.36536 -1.60 0.1108 1.0

V005 -1.25687 0.36827 -3.41 0.0007 1.0



Source DF SS MS F P

Regression 6 29395 4899.12 76.81 0.0013

Residual 1953 124568 63.78

Total 1959 153963


-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------- Statistix 8.0 Egbule / Edo, 5/4/2016,

6:56:56 AM


Predictor


Constant 5.24614 1.32143 3.97 0.0001

V006 0.25118 0.03320 7.57 0.0000 1.1

V008 0.40278 0.03424 11.76 0.0000 1.3

V009 0.22869 0.03190 7.17 0.0000 1.2

V001 -1.63654 0.40554 -4.04 0.0001 1.2

V003 -0.53912 0.36403 -1.48 0.1388 1.0

V005 -1.24089 0.36679 -3.38 0.0007 1.0

V002 1.68883 0.40899 4.13 0.0000 1.2



Source DF SS MS F P

Regression 7 30473 4353.34 68.81 0.0013

Residual 1952 123489 63.26

Total 1959 153963


160

Statistix 8.0 Egbule / Delta, 5/4/2016,

12:52:41 AM



V001 2015 0.6352 0.4815 0.0000 1.0000

V002 2015 0.3350 0.4721 0.0000 1.0000

V003 2015 0.5484 0.4978 0.0000 1.0000

V005 2015 0.5310 0.5041 0.0000 2.0000

V006 2015 34.578 6.6521 16.000 60.000

V007 2015 35.079 9.8949 13.000 64.000

V008 2015 29.514 7.2709 12.000 62.000

V009 2015 27.635 6.7971 11.000 52.000

-----------------------------------------------------------------------

-----


10:06:26 PM


V006

V007 0.4642



12:56:35 AM


Predictor


Constant 11.2016 1.03397 10.83 0.0000

V006 0.69055 0.02936 23.52 0.0000



Source DF SS MS F P

Regression 1 42498 42498.0 553.03 0.0000

Residual 2013 154689 76.8

Total 2014 197187


161


10:11:43 PM


Predictor


Constant 3.95460 1.01960 3.88 0.0001

V006 0.45005 0.02966 15.18 0.0000 1.2

V008 0.52731 0.02713 19.44 0.0000 1.2



Source DF SS MS F P

Regression 2 66949 33474.6 517.14 0.0017

Residual 2012 130238 64.7

Total 2014 197187



10:14:28 PM


Predictor


Constant 0.74721 1.03449 0.72 0.4702

V006 0.40374 0.02915 13.85 0.0000 1.2

V008 0.37888 0.02972 12.75 0.0000 1.5

V009 0.33252 0.03067 10.84 0.0000 1.4



Source DF SS MS F P

Regression 3 74142 24714.0 403.91 0.0029

Residual 2011 123045 61.2

Total 2014 197187


162


10:17:06 PM


Predictor


Constant 3.50066 1.08281 3.23 0.0012

V006 0.41490 0.02878 14.42 0.0000 1.2

V008 0.36684 0.02935 12.50 0.0000 1.5

V009 0.29555 0.03064 9.65 0.0000 1.5

V001 -2.77417 0.36550 -7.59 0.0000 1.0



Source DF SS MS F P

Regression 4 77570 19392.5 325.86 0.0027

Residual 2010 119617 59.5

Total 2014 197187



10:19:01 PM


Predictor


Constant 3.41723 1.06958 3.19 0.0014

V006 0.39670 0.02854 13.90 0.0000 1.3

V008 0.36938 0.02899 12.74 0.0000 1.5

V009 0.32641 0.03057 10.68 0.0000 1.5

V001 -1.62022 0.39535 -4.10 0.0000 1.3

V002 -2.83011 0.39523 -7.16 0.0000 1.2



Source DF SS MS F P

Regression 5 80547 16109.4 277.47 0.0037

Residual 2009 116640 58.1

Total 2014 197187


163

Statistix 8.0 Egbule / Delta,

5/4/2016, 6:46:44 AM


Predictor


Constant 3.52491 1.09296 3.23 0.0013

V006 0.41995 0.02880 14.58 0.0000 1.2

V008 0.34717 0.03008 11.54 0.0000 1.6

V009 0.29126 0.03062 9.51 0.0000 1.5

V001 -2.92973 0.37269 -7.86 0.0000 1.1

V003 0.08619 0.34943 0.25 0.8052 1.0

V005 1.03913 0.35612 2.92 0.0036 1.1



Source DF SS MS F P

Regression 6 78076 13012.7 219.37 0.0030

Residual 2008 119111 59.3

Total 2014 197187



6:50:24 AM


Predictor


Constant 3.25711 1.08054 3.01 0.0026

V006 0.40173 0.02857 14.06 0.0000 1.3

V008 0.35230 0.02973 11.85 0.0000 1.6

V009 0.32314 0.03059 10.56 0.0000 1.5

V001 -1.80841 0.40097 -4.51 0.0000 1.3

V003 0.46166 0.34931 1.32 0.1864 1.1

V005 0.84390 0.35294 2.39 0.0169 1.1

V002 -2.83218 0.40079 -7.07 0.0000 1.2



Source DF SS MS F P

Regression 7 80968 11566.8 199.75 0.0038

Residual 2007 116220 57.9

Total 2014 197187


-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

164

Statistix 8.0 Egbule / ALL data, 5/2/2016,

7:21:03 AM



V001 3975 0.5220 0.4996 0.0000 1.0000

V002 3975 0.4830 0.4998 0.0000 1.0000

V003 3975 0.5006 0.5001 0.0000 1.0000

V005 3975 0.5321 0.5015 0.0000 2.0000

V006 3975 32.736 6.4222 0.0000 60.000

V007 3975 32.270 9.8223 0.0000 64.000

V008 3975 28.446 6.7116 10.000 62.000

V009 3975 26.665 6.5894 1.0000 52.000


9:11:46 PM


V006

V007 0.4244


-------------------------------------------------------------------


12:23:44 AM


Predictor


Constant 11.0205 0.73293 15.04 0.0000

V006 0.64913 0.02197 29.55 0.0000



Source DF SS MS F P

Regression 1 69064 69063.5 872.92 0.0000

Residual 3973 314336 79.1

Total 3974 383400


-----------------------------------------------------------------------

165


Predictor


Constant 2.47348 0.75534 3.27 0.0011

V006 0.44170 0.02188 20.19 0.0000 1.2

V008 0.53918 0.02093 25.76 0.0000 1.2



Source DF SS MS F P

Regression 2 114052 57026.0 840.95 0.0036

Residual 3972 269348 67.8

Total 3974 383400



9:15:19 PM


Predictor


Constant -0.56468 0.77546 -0.73 0.4665

V006 0.40853 0.02157 18.94 0.0000 1.2

V008 0.40938 0.02278 17.97 0.0000 1.4

V009 0.29313 0.02245 13.06 0.0000 1.3



Source DF SS MS F P

Regression 3 125139 41712.9 641.37 0.0053

Residual 3971 258261 65.0

Total 3974 383400


166


9:52:32 PM


Predictor


Constant 0.07747 0.79260 0.10 0.9221

V006 0.41565 0.02162 19.22 0.0000 1.2

V008 0.40399 0.02279 17.73 0.0000 1.4

V009 0.28519 0.02251 12.67 0.0000 1.3

V001 -0.97719 0.25862 -3.78 0.0002 1.0



Source DF SS MS F P

Regression 4 126064 31516.1 486.21 0.0052

Residual 3970 257336 64.8

Total 3974 383400



9:49:06 PM


Predictor


Constant 1.12409 0.80560 1.40 0.1630

V006 0.40004 0.02165 18.48 0.0000 1.2

V008 0.40551 0.02268 17.88 0.0000 1.4

V009 0.28440 0.02240 12.70 0.0000 1.3

V001 -0.46501 0.26960 -1.72 0.0846 1.1

V002 -1.70817 0.26808 -6.37 0.0000 1.1



Source DF SS MS F P

Regression 5 128670 25734.0 400.97 0.0057

Residual 3969 254730 64.2

Total 3974 383400


-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

167

Statistix 8.0 Egbule ALL data, 5/4/2016,

6:39:27 AM


Predictor


Constant 0.20771 0.79830 0.26 0.7947

V006 0.41436 0.02166 19.13 0.0000 1.2

V008 0.40823 0.02306 17.70 0.0000 1.5

V009 0.28662 0.02254 12.72 0.0000 1.4

V001 -0.95391 0.26016 -3.67 0.0002 1.0

V003 -0.22734 0.25730 -0.88 0.3770 1.0

V005 -0.27321 0.25926 -1.05 0.2920 1.0



Source DF SS MS F P

Regression 6 126189 21031.5 324.45 0.0056

Residual 3968 257211 64.8

Total 3974 383400



6:44:20 AM


Predictor


Constant 1.25902 0.81117 1.55 0.1207

V006 0.39838 0.02170 18.36 0.0000 1.2

V008 0.41043 0.02295 17.89 0.0000 1.5

V009 0.28586 0.02242 12.75 0.0000 1.4

V001 -0.44529 0.27082 -1.64 0.1002 1.1

V003 -0.17919 0.25613 -0.70 0.4842 1.0

V005 -0.33253 0.25813 -1.29 0.1977 1.0

V002 -1.71501 0.26835 -6.39 0.0000 1.1



Source DF SS MS F P

Regression 7 128810 18401.5 286.73 0.0058

Residual 3967 254589 64.2

Total 3974 383400


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sexuality education, peer influence, mass - Delta State ...

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