ECOTOURISM - A NEW CHALLENGE FOR PROTECTED RAINFOREST AREAS
IN CHILE
Mirko Vera Campos
Noel Scott
Noreen Breakey
The University of Queensland, St Lucia, 4072, Queensland,
Australia
Introduction
Rainforests have an important role in the climatic cycle on
the earth and the long-term survival of humanity. However,
over the past few centuries rainforests have been
systematically destroyed in the name of the progress, and
changes in the climate over recent decades has affected the
natural rhythm of fragile ecosystems throughout the world.
For many years international movements and non-governmental
organizations have been encouraging governments to preserve
rainforest environments. As a consequence the number of
protected areas in developed and developing nations has
increased.
Temperate rainforests such as found in the south of Chile and
Argentina have an ecosystem that is also found only in parts
of North America and in the west coasts of New Zealand,
Tasmania. Chile has the largest temperate rainforest area in
South America and more than half of the total area of the
temperate rainforest in the Southern Hemisphere. The Chilean
temperate rainforest has a high level of endemism and an
unusual diversity of species such as epiphytes, vines, mosses
and lichen (Woda, Huber & Dohrenbusch, 2006).
For these reasons, there is international interest in the
preservation of the Chilean rainforests, and important
international environmental organizations have set up in
Chile, including the World Wildlife Foundation (WWF), Red
Latinoamericana de Bosques (RLB), and the International Union
for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)). These organizations have
conducted surveys that have substantially increased knowledge
of the Chilean rainforest, as well as encouraged the
government to preserve the natural environment. Although the
first rainforest preservation efforts in Chile date back over
a hundred years, only in the last few decades has Chile
enforced measures to protect its natural resources. An
example is the creation of the National Public System of
Protected Areas (SNASPE). This programme has under its
control nearly 15 million hectares in national parks, natural
reserves and natural monuments throughout the country
(Gaymer, Donoso and García, 2005).
Despite these achievements, Chilean rainforests and protected
areas have suffered significant environmental impacts in the
last decades. One reasons for this is the substitution of
local rainforest with non-native species for forestry
industry logging. This activity has been promoted by the
Chilean government since 1974 through Decree-Law 701, which
provides an allowance for up to 75% of the expenses related
to forestry industry investment. This has resulted in the
establishment of large-scale plantations in areas of the
native forest (Toro and Gessel, 1999). Forest fires are
another cause of the Chilean´s native forest devastation, and
each year on average there are over 6,000 forest fires
damaging about 52,000 hectares. Humans are the major cause of
these fires: 48% of them are considered accidents while 27%
are intentionally lit (Nadia and Cáceres, 2011). A third
reason for Chilean forest degradation is firewood
consumption, which is a widespread issue (Callieri, 1996).
Additional impacts are encroachment of agricultural and
livestock activities, as well as global problems such as the
effects of climate change.
There remains a firm conviction in the Chilean society that
conservation of natural resources is very important in the
development of the country. The rainforest plays an important
role in the Chilean economy and, according to IUCN in Chile,
about 40 tree species are under threat. As a result, a number
of programmes have been implemented to make sustainable use
of rainforests and protected areas. In the 2005 report
Ecotourism Development Policy in Protected Areas (CONAF, 2005), the
Chilean government resolved to use protected areas for
tourism activities, specifically ecotourism.
In 2005, national government policies were implemented for
ecotourism development within protected areas. While
ecotourism may be an appropriate way to use protected areas
and rainforest in Chile, there are currently a number of
issues to be addressed. These include a lack of tourism
infrastructure, a limited supply of recreational activities,
a lack of detailed planning by ecotourism businesses
operating within Chilean protected areas. and even more
importantly, no knowledge about whether the Chilean
rainforests have the ability to cope with a significant
increase in the number of visitors. This article discusses
the development and evolution of Chilean policies related to
protected rainforest areas and identifies a number of current
challenges due to their use by tourism.
Development of the Chile´s Conservation Programmes
The development of Chile has been associated with its natural
resources and rainforests. In the last half of the 1800s, in
concert with the colonization process in the south of Chile,
there was increasing concern regarding the need to preserve
the rainforest and natural areas. As a consequence, in 1872,
the legislature enacted a law restricting logging (known as
the First Forest Law), and in 1879 the government issued a decree
allowing the protection of rainforest reserves. In September
1907 the “Reserva Fiscal de Malleco”, the oldest nature
reserve in South America, was created with 600,000 hectares
of nature reserve between Tirua and Puerto Montt (Pauchard
and Villarroel, 2002).
Map of Chile: (Source: The World Factbook.
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/g
eos/ci.html)
More recently, conservation efforts in Chile during the 1960s
resulted in the establishment of 26 national parks covering
11.5 million hectares. In the 1980s Chile introduced a number
of important environmental laws and agreements. The most
important law provided the basis for the creation of the
National Public System of Protected Areas, known as SNASPE
(Sistema Nacional de Áreas Silvestres Protegidas del Estado,
Law 18,362). This was an attempt to maintain and preserve the
ecosystem representativeness of natural areas of Chile
(Pauchard and Villarreal, 2002).
In the 1990s the principal focus of rainforest policy was to
study and catalogue the rainforest resources. Consequently,
in 1994 Chile ratified the Convention on Biological
Diversity, a key outcome of the 1992 Rio Earth Summit.
Between 1994 and 1997 Chile carried out an evaluation
project: “Mapping and Rating of the National Vegetation
Resources” which was funded by the World Bank. Its main
conclusion was that 21% of Chilean territory is covered by
rainforest with 86% of the native rainforest classified as
evergreen rainforest and consisting of native species such as
Lenga, Coigue de Magallanes, Roble, Rauli and Coigue (CONAF,
1999).
Chile´s Natural Area Management
The purpose of SNASPE is to protect and manage Chilean
ecosystems through an integrated system of national parks,
national reserves and natural monuments (Oltremari, 2002). In
2005 SNASPE became a member of the Global Environment
Facility (GEF), whose main objective is to support the
institutional and financial management of protected areas
(GEF, 2012). The control of all the protected rainforest
areas is the responsibility of the National Forest Agency
(CONAF), under the supervision of the Agricultural Minister
of Chile. In addition, people, as well as non-government
organizations, may also take part in the administration of
natural areas through “Private Wildlife Areas”. This
opportunity was created by Law 19,300, General Bases of the
Environment, which establishes that the Chilean government will
support privately owned protected areas, through the control
and supervision of SNASPE. As a result, there are 1.5 million
hectares of private protected areas throughout Chile. Today,
Chile has nearly 90 protected areas with almost 14.6 million
hectares of land, representing approximately 19% of the
territory of Chile (CONAF, 1999). This is one of the highest
rates of protection throughout the world.
The Chilean Native Rainforest
Chile has a vast rainforest territory and some 72% of this
rainforest is concentrated in the south of Chile. Of the
total Chilean rainforest, 13,430,602 hectares are native
rainforest (86%), 2,119,004 hectares (14%) are industrial
forest plantations mainly belonging to Forest Industry, and
87,625 hectares (0.5%) are mixed rainforests. A significant
proportion of the Chilean native rainforest (44%) is an old
growth rainforest. Evergreen rainforest is the most important
type corresponding to 31% of the native rainforest (CONAF,
1999).
Consumption and trade of firewood and charcoal are key
factors that affect the Chilean rainforest. This translates
to approximately 10 million cubic meters of trees being
felled each year, of which 61% are native species (Callieri,
1996). Cutting of firewood impacts considerably on Chile´s
native rainforest although the real impact is unknown as
there is little information available (Catalán and Ramos,
2001).
In addition to the use of forests for firewood, local
communities and the indigenous people continue to use the
rainforest territory for agriculture and livestock farming
activities. Their traditional livestock farming system
introduces livestock into the rainforest, which cause
significant damage, such as soil compaction and hence the
failure of natural regeneration (Catalán, et al, 2006). This
phenomenon is common in the central-southern zone of Chile
between parallels 36° and 48°, where national parks coexist
with farming activities. This region has over 30 protected
areas and there is little awareness about the conservation of
them. Rainforest conservation and management for
sustainability is only possible with the cooperation of the
local people that are using it. There are isolated efforts to
work with local people in conservation plans, but Chile does
not have systematic or regular programs for conservation
awareness or implementation.
Other important problems are associated with Chile´s Economic
Model, the “Export Model”, which has created a “mono crop
system”, principally fast growing species of fruit trees and
exotic forest timber for export. Expansion of Chile´s exports
has increased the pressure on natural resources and in
particular on native rainforest, because it has led to
substitution of native rainforest by commercial forest
plantations.
Chilean Rainforest and Global Warming
There are other potential environmental issues for the
Chilean rainforest, related to global warming. According to
Convention on Climate Change, another outcome of the 1992
Earth Summit, Chile could be significantly affected by the
climate change. Although scientists predict that climate
changes will affect all Chile´s ecosystems, there is little
reliable scientific evidence at the present to determine the
potential consequences of global warming on the Chilean
rainforest. In the international context, Chile subscribed in
1992 to The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change which was ratified 1994. It had a similar posture in
1997 when it subscribed to the Kyoto Protocol and which was
ratified by Chile in 2002. As a result, Chile has released
polices and new laws in order to preserve its natural
resources and increase the hectares of protected areas. Even
more importantly, Chile has created a National Environmental
Commission, which is responsible for the Chilean National Climate
Change Action Plan.
Global warming is predicted to cause many different impacts
on Chile´s natural resources through higher temperature,
increases in sea levels, and drastic decreases in Chilean
glacier and water reserves (Liberona, 2007). Such conditions
will have a direct impact on the Chilean rainforest.
According to Chile´s Ministry of the Environment, recent
research shows that Chile has experienced a warming from 0.2
to 1.1 C°, changes in average temperature which could have
many effects on the Chilean rainforest and its ecosystems,
because of the increase in forest fires, changes to
precipitation, and temperature variations (Ministry of the
Environment, 2008). Consequently, the Chilean Government has
implemented measures aimed at protecting the natural
environment, especially the native rainforest. Some of these
measures are: protection, management and conservation of the
native vegetation encouraging forestation and reforestation
with native species, and implementation of an active policy
of allowing recuperation of degraded land.
Chilean Natural Areas and Tourism
Chile has significant potential for development of tourism
associated with its rainforest. Chilean protected areas offer
a diverse and interesting experience for tourists and
ecotourism activities as they contain a large proportion of
the forests, glaciers, lakes, and wildlife with high
recreational and scenic value (Pauchard and Villarroel,
2002). These tourism resources have developed ecotourism
activities in national parks from Araucaria (Region IX) south
through to the Chilean Patagonia and the Magellanes (Region
XII).
Nature reserves and protected areas are a keystone of Chile´s
tourism and biological conservation plans (CONAF, 2012a).
However, SNASPE has several difficulties that jeopardize its
capacity to conserve Chilean biodiversity: insufficient
ecosystem representation, inadequate coverage of biodiversity
hotspots, a low budget, and boundary definition issues. On
the other hand, the growth of ecotourism may help SNASPE and
private reserve initiatives (Rudzewicz and Lanzar, 2008).
Ecotourism in SNASPE protected areas presents challenges
similar to those faced by protected areas in other parts of
the world. These challenges include the risk of overuse that
must be addressed with management plans and appropriate
infrastructure in the natural areas. For this reason CONAF
has promoted private investment for tourism within protected
areas, with an emphasis on ecotourism, although one impact of
the construction of these new facilities will be to increase
the number of visitors (Sepúlveda, 2004).
Private investors have been allowed to create new touristic
services around and inside natural areas to provide a direct
benefit to local communities. Small handicraft stores and
guiding services are some of the activities run by the local
people. Other significant private investments have been made
inside national parks. In order to address this goal the
Chilean government has introduced a Procurement and Concessions
Program in 12 national parks across the country (CONAF,
2012b). CONAF has control and management of all actions
inside of the natural areas. In this control process CONAF
has four fundamental principles: increase public awareness of
the protected areas, improve the quality of tourism services
in the natural areas, integrate the local communities within
the natural areas, and collection of entry fees from
concessionaires and other services to use for park
management. The financing and budget of the wild protected
areas are managed by CONAF and it has four main sources: the
national budget, international support, entry fees, and
concessions.
According to these principles, CONAF has defined different
areas of use inside the national parks (Lazo, 2002). Each
area is controlled by a management plan that takes into
account the natural features of each area. These plans have
five fundamental goals:
Conservation, protection and preservation of the natural
areas
Research on the natural environment
Ecotourism and recreation
Environmental education
Sustainable use of natural resources
The different environmental zones in national parks are based
on criteria such as location, dimension, ecosystem types,
weather conditions, rainforest condition and other technical
specifications. The environmental zone systems have as its
main purpose the sustainable use and development of the
natural areas (CONAF, 2010a). The main zones in Chilean
national parks are:
Intangible zone: A natural area with minimum human
alteration. It has unique and fragile ecosystems or
flora and fauna species. The main objective of
management is to preserve the natural environment. It
can only be used for scientific purposes. An important
example is the Chilean Patagonia, which has a vast area
of protected wilderness areas, some of them inscribed as
UNESCO Biosphere Reserves.
Primitive zone: A natural area with low human intervention.
It contains significant ecosystems and permits moderate
public use. These areas are used for scientific
research, educational programmes and recreational
activities in basic ways, without infrastructure or
facilities.
Extensive use zone: Natural areas in the national parks with
some human intervention in the past. It has topographic
features that permit small scale development. It is
considered a cushion zone between no access zones and
high traffic areas. Development of recreational
activities and educational programmes are permitted.
Intensive use zone: Natural areas with some alteration. It
has a significant natural landscape and its topographic
features permit the development of support
infrastructure for recreational activities. These areas
have been used principally for environmental education
and intensive recreation activities. In these areas
elements not associated with the natural environment are
permitted.
Special use zone: Small areas used for the administration of
the park, general services and other activities. These
areas would not cause significant environmental impacts
in the park. The construction has to be integrated with
the surrounding environment.
Recuperation zone: There are recuperation zones in all
national parks in Chile and these are temporary. This
area is implemented when some zone of the park has been
seriously damaged and requires a recuperation period.
The ultimate goal is to stop environmental degradation.
When the zone has recuperated it is rezoned to another
type.
The Chilean macroeconomic indicators show that the tourism
sector contributes about 4.6% to the gross national product
on average (SERNATUR, 2010). In addition, there has been a
large increase in the recreational use of natural areas,
principally for special interest tourism. This situation is
reflected in a substantial increase in the number of tourists
who visit a national park, natural reserve or natural
monument. In 1999 there were 914,182 visitors, with the
number of visitors doubling over the decade, reaching
2,056,218 in 2009 (CONAF, 2010b).
In Chile, tourism in natural areas represents a significant
opportunity for economic development for regional areas of
the country. In particular its natural environment is
increasing in popularity with international tourists. Roman
(2009) highlighted that Chile has been promoting its tourism
activities as having minimal impact on the environment. This
growing interest of the people to enjoy the outdoor
activities has generated a new trend in tourism based on
natural areas. In Chile new international tourism is
principally based on special interest tourism, rural tourism,
adventure tourism, and ecotourism. The Chilean offering in
these sectors is extremely interesting, as Chile is one of
the five countries in the world with ecosystems at extreme
southern latitudes (together with New Zealand, Australia,
South Africa and Argentina) and has the most southerly
temperate rainforest along with large ice fields.
The most important natural area zone for tourism activity is
the intensive use zone. This holds the principal facilities
and services for recreation and educational programmes. The
amount and quality of recreational facilities varies
according to different factors, such as location and
accessibility, visitors’ length of stay, visitor frequency,
social and economic characteristics of the visitor, types of
activities, and SNASPE´s budget. In the design and
distribution of the recreational facilities SNASPE has
utilised models from developed countries, principally from
the USA and Canada, as well as Latin American experiences.
Human resources, such as Forest Rangers, have an important
role in the protected areas. There were about 424 Forest
Rangers throughout the country in 2011 (Lazo, 2011). They are
employed by SNASPE and have the responsibility for managing
nearly 15 million hectares, equivalent to one Forest Ranger
for each 37 thousand hectares (in Latin America the average
is 30 thousand hectares). The principal functions of the
Forest Rangers are: conservation, protection of the
rainforest, control, inspection, and environmental education.
At the same time, they provide information about their
natural area to tourists. All Chilean Forest Rangers also
have to work with the local communities (Lazo, 2002).
Today the most important national parks in the world have
interpretative personnel. Chilean national parks have not
reached this level due to the limited development and
resourcing, although CONAF has implemented some training
programmes for the Forest Rangers in the past few years.
According to Tiffin, Torres and Neira (2008) a key problem in
Chile is that there are limitations in the planning and
coordination for appropriate development of tourism in the
protected areas. To date, government policies have
concentrated their attention on the promotion of Chilean
tourism, but provided little specific information about the
recreational activities. Although, CONAF has specified some
protected areas for tourism activities since 2004, it has not
developed recreational programmes associated with the natural
areas. As a consequence, most visitors can decide by
themselves what to do and where to do it.
In reality, there are two types of tourism activities in the
Chilean national parks. Firstly there is organized tourism,
which is carried out by local and international tour
operators. Their offer is focused on international
travellers, who in short excursions can do different sports
and adventure activities such as hiking, canopy cable rides,
rafting, and trekking, as well as environmental education
activities, principally forest species recognition and
birdwatching, or they can simply enjoy nature and the
landscape. The most popular parks for these activities are
Coguillio National Park, Villarica National Park and Vicente
Perez Rosales National Park.
The second type of tourism is independent tourism. This
includes diverse types of visitors, but are principally local
people interested in nature. It is not easy to identify the
activities these visitors usually do, because there is little
official information available. It is realistic to expect
that most people visit the national parks for excursions,
camping and relaxation. With respect to the visitors’
distribution, the most popular national park destinations in
Chile are the “Región de los Ríos” and the “Region de Los
Lagos” in the south of Chile between parallels 39º and 44º
south. These areas receive 43% of total national park
visitors. The “Vicente Perez Rosales” National Park is the
most visited with 25% of all visits to the protected areas in
Chile (CONAF 2010).
Developing recreational programmes requires knowledge of the
main features of visitor demand. Although CONAF has
statistics about the number of people that have visited the
protected areas, it has no data on the composition and
behaviour of tourists in national parks. This information is
essential to make appropriate decisions about the
implementation of recreational programmes and where to
concentrate the investment.
The principal role of services in national parks is to
improve the quality of the tourist´s experience (Bahadur,
2007). However, nowadays Chilean protected areas have few
facilities and many existing facilities require significant
investment. The Chilean national parks have 2,056 kilometres
of paths, 924 camping sites, 83 available cabins, and 22
refuges to maintain (Cerda, López and Miquel, 2004).
Visitor numbers in the Chilean protected areas have been
climbing rapidly over the last ten years, reaching almost 70%
according to CONAF´s figures. However investment in
infrastructure has remained static, which is increasing
pressure on the limited facilities and leading to
deterioration. In addition, visitors are expecting more
variety and quality in the tourism services in the national
parks.
One of the challenges is that SNASPE basically has no
economic resources to improve the infrastructure in the
protected areas. Indeed only 15% of the CONAF´s budget is
used in the rainforest system administration (SNASPE) and, at
the same time, CONAF is 85% funded by the Chilean government
(Gaymer et al, 2005).
Of the funds assigned to SNASPE 63% was allocated to human
resources. Administration and operation of the Chilean
rainforest system were 25% and 11% respectively (Gaymer et
al, 2005). Only a small proportion is used for investment;
around 1% of the total budget. This is clearly insufficient
and is a cause of the poor maintenance of the installations
in the protected areas as well as of the low quality of
service.
Consequently, since 2004, the Chilean government has opened
the protected areas to private investment. This strategy
seeks to develop equilibrium between the nation´s interest
and that of the wider society. At the same time, it strives
to improve the quality of the service in an efficient way. A
number of means of associative relationships exist, including
strategic alliances in the design, construction,
implementation and operation of ecotourism projects inside of
protected areas along with the sustainable development of the
local communities.
Local Communities and Tourism Benefits
Tourism activities in protected areas can contribute to the
sustainable development of local indigenous communities.
These communities can be important allies for SNASPE in
matters such as protection, conservation and preservation of
the rainforest. Furthermore they are able to receive real
benefits from tourism activities.
In fact, 18% of protected areas are directly linked with
indigenous communities. At present there are 28 indigenous
communities in protected areas (CONAF, 2005), mainly in the
regions of Araucania and Los Rios and Los Lagos between
parallels 30° and 42°. The Mapuches indigenous people are the
largest indigenous group in the country and in South-America.
They could make a crucial contribution to ecotourism
development due to their values, ancestral experiences and
spiritual vision of the world. At the same time they can
increase the recreational experience of the visitors, who
demands more authentic experiences of higher quality in
protected areas.
There are also substantial benefits to the indigenous
communities if they are involved in ecotourism in the
protected areas. Beyond economic profits they can strengthen
their cultural identity as well as preserve their traditions
and customs. Indigenous communities can also use tourism as a
means of transmitting their culture, values and beliefs, and
their ways of relating to the world to visitors; in fact
“Indigenous Tourism” is the most important type of tourism in
the Araucaria area in Chile. According to the Policy for the
Ecotourism Development in Protected Areas in Chile (CONAF,
2005), ecotourism development offers local people
opportunities to improve their quality of life and wellbeing.
However, important challenges remain; the most significant
are to work with the local people in the design of the
ecotourism projects, save local traditions in order to avoid
the transcultural process, and preserve the Chilean natural
environment.
Conclusions
This paper has examined the development of tourism in the
rainforest and protected areas in Chile and highlighted a
number of issues and opportunities related to ecotourism.
Chile has been a leader in South America in developing
protected areas and has legislation and government bodies in
place. Despite these achievements, implementation and funding
are limiting the management of the development in these
protected areas. Chile is also using its natural resources as
a marketing resource for tourism promotion. However, Chile is
still grappling with the sustainable development of tourism
in these areas to ensure a balance of conservation, social
and economic outcomes.
Over the last few decades there has been an increase in the
Chilean rainforest preservation programs. However, the
Chilean Government has also changed its rainforest policy
which has affected national park borders. There are multiple
reasons for this change in approach, including population
pressure, social interest and geopolitical strategies. At the
same time, new land has been incorporated as protected areas.
There is insufficient interaction between the governmental
organizations to improve recreational programmes in the
protected areas. As a result, the Chilean government has
introduced a new law for the tourism industries. This law
aims to broaden the role of the National Tourism Service and
provide more resources to improve tourism quality.
There appears strong synergy between natural area protection
and indigenous economic and social development and this
provides a suggested way forward for balancing these diverse
outcomes. It is recommended that further research and
consultation is undertaken with communities located in and
around protected areas as to how they may be more involved in
tourism and environmental protection.
If the Chilean government intends to use protected areas for
ecotourism development, CONAF needs to improve the National
Public System of Protected Areas (SNASPE). It is important to
protect the Chilean natural ecosystems against likely impacts
of ecotourism activities. In this case, local universities as
well as local communities have an important role and they
could collaborate appropriately by sustainably using the
Chilean rainforest and its protected areas, especially in
areas like the Chilean Patagonia, which contains the most
important water reserves of the world as well as unexplored
rainforest.
Finally, Chile has exploited its natural resources in the
past and native rainforests have been the main victim. Today,
the increase in demand for ecotourism provides new
possibilities for environmental conservation of the Chilean
protected areas. However, Chile does not have an integrated
ecotourism development plan for its protected areas; a
failure that could lead to the destruction of a significant
proportion of our planet’s temperate rainforest.
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