ECOTOURISM - A NEW CHALLENGE FOR PROTECTED RAINFOREST AREAS

IN CHILE

Mirko Vera Campos

Noel Scott

Noreen Breakey

The University of Queensland, St Lucia, 4072, Queensland,

Australia

Introduction

Rainforests have an important role in the climatic cycle on

the earth and the long-term survival of humanity. However,

over the past few centuries rainforests have been

systematically destroyed in the name of the progress, and

changes in the climate over recent decades has affected the

natural rhythm of fragile ecosystems throughout the world.

For many years international movements and non-governmental

organizations have been encouraging governments to preserve

rainforest environments. As a consequence the number of

protected areas in developed and developing nations has

increased.

Temperate rainforests such as found in the south of Chile and

Argentina have an ecosystem that is also found only in parts

of North America and in the west coasts of New Zealand,

Tasmania. Chile has the largest temperate rainforest area in

South America and more than half of the total area of the

temperate rainforest in the Southern Hemisphere. The Chilean

temperate rainforest has a high level of endemism and an

unusual diversity of species such as epiphytes, vines, mosses

and lichen (Woda, Huber & Dohrenbusch, 2006).

For these reasons, there is international interest in the

preservation of the Chilean rainforests, and important

international environmental organizations have set up in

Chile, including the World Wildlife Foundation (WWF), Red

Latinoamericana de Bosques (RLB), and the International Union

for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)). These organizations have

conducted surveys that have substantially increased knowledge

of the Chilean rainforest, as well as encouraged the

government to preserve the natural environment. Although the

first rainforest preservation efforts in Chile date back over

a hundred years, only in the last few decades has Chile

enforced measures to protect its natural resources. An

example is the creation of the National Public System of

Protected Areas (SNASPE). This programme has under its

control nearly 15 million hectares in national parks, natural

reserves and natural monuments throughout the country

(Gaymer, Donoso and García, 2005).

Despite these achievements, Chilean rainforests and protected

areas have suffered significant environmental impacts in the

last decades. One reasons for this is the substitution of

local rainforest with non-native species for forestry

industry logging. This activity has been promoted by the

Chilean government since 1974 through Decree-Law 701, which

provides an allowance for up to 75% of the expenses related

to forestry industry investment. This has resulted in the

establishment of large-scale plantations in areas of the

native forest (Toro and Gessel, 1999). Forest fires are

another cause of the Chilean´s native forest devastation, and

each year on average there are over 6,000 forest fires

damaging about 52,000 hectares. Humans are the major cause of

these fires: 48% of them are considered accidents while 27%

are intentionally lit (Nadia and Cáceres, 2011). A third

reason for Chilean forest degradation is firewood

consumption, which is a widespread issue (Callieri, 1996).

Additional impacts are encroachment of agricultural and

livestock activities, as well as global problems such as the

effects of climate change.

There remains a firm conviction in the Chilean society that

conservation of natural resources is very important in the

development of the country. The rainforest plays an important

role in the Chilean economy and, according to IUCN in Chile,

about 40 tree species are under threat. As a result, a number

of programmes have been implemented to make sustainable use

of rainforests and protected areas. In the 2005 report

Ecotourism Development Policy in Protected Areas (CONAF, 2005), the

Chilean government resolved to use protected areas for

tourism activities, specifically ecotourism.

In 2005, national government policies were implemented for

ecotourism development within protected areas. While

ecotourism may be an appropriate way to use protected areas

and rainforest in Chile, there are currently a number of

issues to be addressed. These include a lack of tourism

infrastructure, a limited supply of recreational activities,

a lack of detailed planning by ecotourism businesses

operating within Chilean protected areas. and even more

importantly, no knowledge about whether the Chilean

rainforests have the ability to cope with a significant

increase in the number of visitors. This article discusses

the development and evolution of Chilean policies related to

protected rainforest areas and identifies a number of current

challenges due to their use by tourism.

Development of the Chile´s Conservation Programmes

The development of Chile has been associated with its natural

resources and rainforests. In the last half of the 1800s, in

concert with the colonization process in the south of Chile,

there was increasing concern regarding the need to preserve

the rainforest and natural areas. As a consequence, in 1872,

the legislature enacted a law restricting logging (known as

the First Forest Law), and in 1879 the government issued a decree

allowing the protection of rainforest reserves. In September

1907 the “Reserva Fiscal de Malleco”, the oldest nature

reserve in South America, was created with 600,000 hectares

of nature reserve between Tirua and Puerto Montt (Pauchard

and Villarroel, 2002).

Map of Chile: (Source: The World Factbook.

https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/g

eos/ci.html)

More recently, conservation efforts in Chile during the 1960s

resulted in the establishment of 26 national parks covering

11.5 million hectares. In the 1980s Chile introduced a number

of important environmental laws and agreements. The most

important law provided the basis for the creation of the

National Public System of Protected Areas, known as SNASPE

(Sistema Nacional de Áreas Silvestres Protegidas del Estado,

Law 18,362). This was an attempt to maintain and preserve the

ecosystem representativeness of natural areas of Chile

(Pauchard and Villarreal, 2002).

In the 1990s the principal focus of rainforest policy was to

study and catalogue the rainforest resources. Consequently,

in 1994 Chile ratified the Convention on Biological

Diversity, a key outcome of the 1992 Rio Earth Summit.

Between 1994 and 1997 Chile carried out an evaluation

project: “Mapping and Rating of the National Vegetation

Resources” which was funded by the World Bank. Its main

conclusion was that 21% of Chilean territory is covered by

rainforest with 86% of the native rainforest classified as

evergreen rainforest and consisting of native species such as

Lenga, Coigue de Magallanes, Roble, Rauli and Coigue (CONAF,

1999).

Chile´s Natural Area Management

The purpose of SNASPE is to protect and manage Chilean

ecosystems through an integrated system of national parks,

national reserves and natural monuments (Oltremari, 2002). In

2005 SNASPE became a member of the Global Environment

Facility (GEF), whose main objective is to support the

institutional and financial management of protected areas

(GEF, 2012). The control of all the protected rainforest

areas is the responsibility of the National Forest Agency

(CONAF), under the supervision of the Agricultural Minister

of Chile. In addition, people, as well as non-government

organizations, may also take part in the administration of

natural areas through “Private Wildlife Areas”. This

opportunity was created by Law 19,300, General Bases of the

Environment, which establishes that the Chilean government will

support privately owned protected areas, through the control

and supervision of SNASPE. As a result, there are 1.5 million

hectares of private protected areas throughout Chile. Today,

Chile has nearly 90 protected areas with almost 14.6 million

hectares of land, representing approximately 19% of the

territory of Chile (CONAF, 1999). This is one of the highest

rates of protection throughout the world.

The Chilean Native Rainforest

Chile has a vast rainforest territory and some 72% of this

rainforest is concentrated in the south of Chile. Of the

total Chilean rainforest, 13,430,602 hectares are native

rainforest (86%), 2,119,004 hectares (14%) are industrial

forest plantations mainly belonging to Forest Industry, and

87,625 hectares (0.5%) are mixed rainforests. A significant

proportion of the Chilean native rainforest (44%) is an old

growth rainforest. Evergreen rainforest is the most important

type corresponding to 31% of the native rainforest (CONAF,

1999).

Consumption and trade of firewood and charcoal are key

factors that affect the Chilean rainforest. This translates

to approximately 10 million cubic meters of trees being

felled each year, of which 61% are native species (Callieri,

1996). Cutting of firewood impacts considerably on Chile´s

native rainforest although the real impact is unknown as

there is little information available (Catalán and Ramos,

2001).

In addition to the use of forests for firewood, local

communities and the indigenous people continue to use the

rainforest territory for agriculture and livestock farming

activities. Their traditional livestock farming system

introduces livestock into the rainforest, which cause

significant damage, such as soil compaction and hence the

failure of natural regeneration (Catalán, et al, 2006). This

phenomenon is common in the central-southern zone of Chile

between parallels 36° and 48°, where national parks coexist

with farming activities. This region has over 30 protected

areas and there is little awareness about the conservation of

them. Rainforest conservation and management for

sustainability is only possible with the cooperation of the

local people that are using it. There are isolated efforts to

work with local people in conservation plans, but Chile does

not have systematic or regular programs for conservation

awareness or implementation.

Other important problems are associated with Chile´s Economic

Model, the “Export Model”, which has created a “mono crop

system”, principally fast growing species of fruit trees and

exotic forest timber for export. Expansion of Chile´s exports

has increased the pressure on natural resources and in

particular on native rainforest, because it has led to

substitution of native rainforest by commercial forest

plantations.

Chilean Rainforest and Global Warming

There are other potential environmental issues for the

Chilean rainforest, related to global warming. According to

Convention on Climate Change, another outcome of the 1992

Earth Summit, Chile could be significantly affected by the

climate change. Although scientists predict that climate

changes will affect all Chile´s ecosystems, there is little

reliable scientific evidence at the present to determine the

potential consequences of global warming on the Chilean

rainforest. In the international context, Chile subscribed in

1992 to The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate

Change which was ratified 1994. It had a similar posture in

1997 when it subscribed to the Kyoto Protocol and which was

ratified by Chile in 2002. As a result, Chile has released

polices and new laws in order to preserve its natural

resources and increase the hectares of protected areas. Even

more importantly, Chile has created a National Environmental

Commission, which is responsible for the Chilean National Climate

Change Action Plan.

Global warming is predicted to cause many different impacts

on Chile´s natural resources through higher temperature,

increases in sea levels, and drastic decreases in Chilean

glacier and water reserves (Liberona, 2007). Such conditions

will have a direct impact on the Chilean rainforest.

According to Chile´s Ministry of the Environment, recent

research shows that Chile has experienced a warming from 0.2

to 1.1 C°, changes in average temperature which could have

many effects on the Chilean rainforest and its ecosystems,

because of the increase in forest fires, changes to

precipitation, and temperature variations (Ministry of the

Environment, 2008). Consequently, the Chilean Government has

implemented measures aimed at protecting the natural

environment, especially the native rainforest. Some of these

measures are: protection, management and conservation of the

native vegetation encouraging forestation and reforestation

with native species, and implementation of an active policy

of allowing recuperation of degraded land.

Chilean Natural Areas and Tourism

Chile has significant potential for development of tourism

associated with its rainforest. Chilean protected areas offer

a diverse and interesting experience for tourists and

ecotourism activities as they contain a large proportion of

the forests, glaciers, lakes, and wildlife with high

recreational and scenic value (Pauchard and Villarroel,

2002). These tourism resources have developed ecotourism

activities in national parks from Araucaria (Region IX) south

through to the Chilean Patagonia and the Magellanes (Region

XII).

Nature reserves and protected areas are a keystone of Chile´s

tourism and biological conservation plans (CONAF, 2012a).

However, SNASPE has several difficulties that jeopardize its

capacity to conserve Chilean biodiversity: insufficient

ecosystem representation, inadequate coverage of biodiversity

hotspots, a low budget, and boundary definition issues. On

the other hand, the growth of ecotourism may help SNASPE and

private reserve initiatives (Rudzewicz and Lanzar, 2008).

Ecotourism in SNASPE protected areas presents challenges

similar to those faced by protected areas in other parts of

the world. These challenges include the risk of overuse that

must be addressed with management plans and appropriate

infrastructure in the natural areas. For this reason CONAF

has promoted private investment for tourism within protected

areas, with an emphasis on ecotourism, although one impact of

the construction of these new facilities will be to increase

the number of visitors (Sepúlveda, 2004).

Private investors have been allowed to create new touristic

services around and inside natural areas to provide a direct

benefit to local communities. Small handicraft stores and

guiding services are some of the activities run by the local

people. Other significant private investments have been made

inside national parks. In order to address this goal the

Chilean government has introduced a Procurement and Concessions

Program in 12 national parks across the country (CONAF,

2012b). CONAF has control and management of all actions

inside of the natural areas. In this control process CONAF

has four fundamental principles: increase public awareness of

the protected areas, improve the quality of tourism services

in the natural areas, integrate the local communities within

the natural areas, and collection of entry fees from

concessionaires and other services to use for park

management. The financing and budget of the wild protected

areas are managed by CONAF and it has four main sources: the

national budget, international support, entry fees, and

concessions.

According to these principles, CONAF has defined different

areas of use inside the national parks (Lazo, 2002). Each

area is controlled by a management plan that takes into

account the natural features of each area. These plans have

five fundamental goals:

Conservation, protection and preservation of the natural

areas

Research on the natural environment

Ecotourism and recreation

Environmental education

Sustainable use of natural resources

The different environmental zones in national parks are based

on criteria such as location, dimension, ecosystem types,

weather conditions, rainforest condition and other technical

specifications. The environmental zone systems have as its

main purpose the sustainable use and development of the

natural areas (CONAF, 2010a). The main zones in Chilean

national parks are:

Intangible zone: A natural area with minimum human

alteration. It has unique and fragile ecosystems or

flora and fauna species. The main objective of

management is to preserve the natural environment. It

can only be used for scientific purposes. An important

example is the Chilean Patagonia, which has a vast area

of protected wilderness areas, some of them inscribed as

UNESCO Biosphere Reserves.

Primitive zone: A natural area with low human intervention.

It contains significant ecosystems and permits moderate

public use. These areas are used for scientific

research, educational programmes and recreational

activities in basic ways, without infrastructure or

facilities.

Extensive use zone: Natural areas in the national parks with

some human intervention in the past. It has topographic

features that permit small scale development. It is

considered a cushion zone between no access zones and

high traffic areas. Development of recreational

activities and educational programmes are permitted.

Intensive use zone: Natural areas with some alteration. It

has a significant natural landscape and its topographic

features permit the development of support

infrastructure for recreational activities. These areas

have been used principally for environmental education

and intensive recreation activities. In these areas

elements not associated with the natural environment are

permitted.

Special use zone: Small areas used for the administration of

the park, general services and other activities. These

areas would not cause significant environmental impacts

in the park. The construction has to be integrated with

the surrounding environment.

Recuperation zone: There are recuperation zones in all

national parks in Chile and these are temporary. This

area is implemented when some zone of the park has been

seriously damaged and requires a recuperation period.

The ultimate goal is to stop environmental degradation.

When the zone has recuperated it is rezoned to another

type.

The Chilean macroeconomic indicators show that the tourism

sector contributes about 4.6% to the gross national product

on average (SERNATUR, 2010). In addition, there has been a

large increase in the recreational use of natural areas,

principally for special interest tourism. This situation is

reflected in a substantial increase in the number of tourists

who visit a national park, natural reserve or natural

monument. In 1999 there were 914,182 visitors, with the

number of visitors doubling over the decade, reaching

2,056,218 in 2009 (CONAF, 2010b).

In Chile, tourism in natural areas represents a significant

opportunity for economic development for regional areas of

the country. In particular its natural environment is

increasing in popularity with international tourists. Roman

(2009) highlighted that Chile has been promoting its tourism

activities as having minimal impact on the environment. This

growing interest of the people to enjoy the outdoor

activities has generated a new trend in tourism based on

natural areas. In Chile new international tourism is

principally based on special interest tourism, rural tourism,

adventure tourism, and ecotourism. The Chilean offering in

these sectors is extremely interesting, as Chile is one of

the five countries in the world with ecosystems at extreme

southern latitudes (together with New Zealand, Australia,

South Africa and Argentina) and has the most southerly

temperate rainforest along with large ice fields.

The most important natural area zone for tourism activity is

the intensive use zone. This holds the principal facilities

and services for recreation and educational programmes. The

amount and quality of recreational facilities varies

according to different factors, such as location and

accessibility, visitors’ length of stay, visitor frequency,

social and economic characteristics of the visitor, types of

activities, and SNASPE´s budget. In the design and

distribution of the recreational facilities SNASPE has

utilised models from developed countries, principally from

the USA and Canada, as well as Latin American experiences.

Human resources, such as Forest Rangers, have an important

role in the protected areas. There were about 424 Forest

Rangers throughout the country in 2011 (Lazo, 2011). They are

employed by SNASPE and have the responsibility for managing

nearly 15 million hectares, equivalent to one Forest Ranger

for each 37 thousand hectares (in Latin America the average

is 30 thousand hectares). The principal functions of the

Forest Rangers are: conservation, protection of the

rainforest, control, inspection, and environmental education.

At the same time, they provide information about their

natural area to tourists. All Chilean Forest Rangers also

have to work with the local communities (Lazo, 2002).

Today the most important national parks in the world have

interpretative personnel. Chilean national parks have not

reached this level due to the limited development and

resourcing, although CONAF has implemented some training

programmes for the Forest Rangers in the past few years.

According to Tiffin, Torres and Neira (2008) a key problem in

Chile is that there are limitations in the planning and

coordination for appropriate development of tourism in the

protected areas. To date, government policies have

concentrated their attention on the promotion of Chilean

tourism, but provided little specific information about the

recreational activities. Although, CONAF has specified some

protected areas for tourism activities since 2004, it has not

developed recreational programmes associated with the natural

areas. As a consequence, most visitors can decide by

themselves what to do and where to do it.

In reality, there are two types of tourism activities in the

Chilean national parks. Firstly there is organized tourism,

which is carried out by local and international tour

operators. Their offer is focused on international

travellers, who in short excursions can do different sports

and adventure activities such as hiking, canopy cable rides,

rafting, and trekking, as well as environmental education

activities, principally forest species recognition and

birdwatching, or they can simply enjoy nature and the

landscape. The most popular parks for these activities are

Coguillio National Park, Villarica National Park and Vicente

Perez Rosales National Park.

The second type of tourism is independent tourism. This

includes diverse types of visitors, but are principally local

people interested in nature. It is not easy to identify the

activities these visitors usually do, because there is little

official information available. It is realistic to expect

that most people visit the national parks for excursions,

camping and relaxation. With respect to the visitors’

distribution, the most popular national park destinations in

Chile are the “Región de los Ríos” and the “Region de Los

Lagos” in the south of Chile between parallels 39º and 44º

south. These areas receive 43% of total national park

visitors. The “Vicente Perez Rosales” National Park is the

most visited with 25% of all visits to the protected areas in

Chile (CONAF 2010).

Developing recreational programmes requires knowledge of the

main features of visitor demand. Although CONAF has

statistics about the number of people that have visited the

protected areas, it has no data on the composition and

behaviour of tourists in national parks. This information is

essential to make appropriate decisions about the

implementation of recreational programmes and where to

concentrate the investment.

The principal role of services in national parks is to

improve the quality of the tourist´s experience (Bahadur,

2007). However, nowadays Chilean protected areas have few

facilities and many existing facilities require significant

investment. The Chilean national parks have 2,056 kilometres

of paths, 924 camping sites, 83 available cabins, and 22

refuges to maintain (Cerda, López and Miquel, 2004).

Visitor numbers in the Chilean protected areas have been

climbing rapidly over the last ten years, reaching almost 70%

according to CONAF´s figures. However investment in

infrastructure has remained static, which is increasing

pressure on the limited facilities and leading to

deterioration. In addition, visitors are expecting more

variety and quality in the tourism services in the national

parks.

One of the challenges is that SNASPE basically has no

economic resources to improve the infrastructure in the

protected areas. Indeed only 15% of the CONAF´s budget is

used in the rainforest system administration (SNASPE) and, at

the same time, CONAF is 85% funded by the Chilean government

(Gaymer et al, 2005).

Of the funds assigned to SNASPE 63% was allocated to human

resources. Administration and operation of the Chilean

rainforest system were 25% and 11% respectively (Gaymer et

al, 2005). Only a small proportion is used for investment;

around 1% of the total budget. This is clearly insufficient

and is a cause of the poor maintenance of the installations

in the protected areas as well as of the low quality of

service.

Consequently, since 2004, the Chilean government has opened

the protected areas to private investment. This strategy

seeks to develop equilibrium between the nation´s interest

and that of the wider society. At the same time, it strives

to improve the quality of the service in an efficient way. A

number of means of associative relationships exist, including

strategic alliances in the design, construction,

implementation and operation of ecotourism projects inside of

protected areas along with the sustainable development of the

local communities.

Local Communities and Tourism Benefits

Tourism activities in protected areas can contribute to the

sustainable development of local indigenous communities.

These communities can be important allies for SNASPE in

matters such as protection, conservation and preservation of

the rainforest. Furthermore they are able to receive real

benefits from tourism activities.

In fact, 18% of protected areas are directly linked with

indigenous communities. At present there are 28 indigenous

communities in protected areas (CONAF, 2005), mainly in the

regions of Araucania and Los Rios and Los Lagos between

parallels 30° and 42°. The Mapuches indigenous people are the

largest indigenous group in the country and in South-America.

They could make a crucial contribution to ecotourism

development due to their values, ancestral experiences and

spiritual vision of the world. At the same time they can

increase the recreational experience of the visitors, who

demands more authentic experiences of higher quality in

protected areas.

There are also substantial benefits to the indigenous

communities if they are involved in ecotourism in the

protected areas. Beyond economic profits they can strengthen

their cultural identity as well as preserve their traditions

and customs. Indigenous communities can also use tourism as a

means of transmitting their culture, values and beliefs, and

their ways of relating to the world to visitors; in fact

“Indigenous Tourism” is the most important type of tourism in

the Araucaria area in Chile. According to the Policy for the

Ecotourism Development in Protected Areas in Chile (CONAF,

2005), ecotourism development offers local people

opportunities to improve their quality of life and wellbeing.

However, important challenges remain; the most significant

are to work with the local people in the design of the

ecotourism projects, save local traditions in order to avoid

the transcultural process, and preserve the Chilean natural

environment.

Conclusions

This paper has examined the development of tourism in the

rainforest and protected areas in Chile and highlighted a

number of issues and opportunities related to ecotourism.

Chile has been a leader in South America in developing

protected areas and has legislation and government bodies in

place. Despite these achievements, implementation and funding

are limiting the management of the development in these

protected areas. Chile is also using its natural resources as

a marketing resource for tourism promotion. However, Chile is

still grappling with the sustainable development of tourism

in these areas to ensure a balance of conservation, social

and economic outcomes.

Over the last few decades there has been an increase in the

Chilean rainforest preservation programs. However, the

Chilean Government has also changed its rainforest policy

which has affected national park borders. There are multiple

reasons for this change in approach, including population

pressure, social interest and geopolitical strategies. At the

same time, new land has been incorporated as protected areas.

There is insufficient interaction between the governmental

organizations to improve recreational programmes in the

protected areas. As a result, the Chilean government has

introduced a new law for the tourism industries. This law

aims to broaden the role of the National Tourism Service and

provide more resources to improve tourism quality.

There appears strong synergy between natural area protection

and indigenous economic and social development and this

provides a suggested way forward for balancing these diverse

outcomes. It is recommended that further research and

consultation is undertaken with communities located in and

around protected areas as to how they may be more involved in

tourism and environmental protection.

If the Chilean government intends to use protected areas for

ecotourism development, CONAF needs to improve the National

Public System of Protected Areas (SNASPE). It is important to

protect the Chilean natural ecosystems against likely impacts

of ecotourism activities. In this case, local universities as

well as local communities have an important role and they

could collaborate appropriately by sustainably using the

Chilean rainforest and its protected areas, especially in

areas like the Chilean Patagonia, which contains the most

important water reserves of the world as well as unexplored

rainforest.

Finally, Chile has exploited its natural resources in the

past and native rainforests have been the main victim. Today,

the increase in demand for ecotourism provides new

possibilities for environmental conservation of the Chilean

protected areas. However, Chile does not have an integrated

ecotourism development plan for its protected areas; a

failure that could lead to the destruction of a significant

proportion of our planet’s temperate rainforest.

References

Bahadur, B. (2007) Role of interpretation in management: a case study of

the protected area system in Nepal, Banko Janakari, vol 17, pp42-43.

Catalán. R. and Ramos. R. (2001) Los bosques nativos del sur

de Chile y el pueblo mapuche, World Rainforest Movement, Boletin

Nº 45

http://www.wrm.org.uy/plantations/information/Catalan.html.

accessed 10 May 2010.

Catalán, R., Wilken, P., Kandzior, A., Tecklin, D. and

Burschel, H. (2006) Bosques y Comunidades del Sur de Chile, Santiago

Chile Editorial Universitaria, p31.

Cerda, I., López, A. and Miquel, C. (2004) Estudio de tendencias y

perspectivas del Sector Forestal en América Latina, ESFAL, N/3 – FAO,

Roma, p18.

CONAF - Corporación Nacional Forestal Chile (1999) Catastro y

Evaluación de los Recursos vegetacionales nativos de Chile. Informe Nacional

con Variables Ambientales, pp3-6.

CONAF - Corporación Nacional Forestal Chile, (2005) Política

para el Desarrollo del Ecoturismo en Áreas Silvestre Protegidas del Estado y su

Entorno. http://otros.conaf.cl/shop_image/cffcn/informes

%202008%20(2)/politica%20ecoturismo%20consensuada.pdf,

accessed 15 March 2010.

CONAF - Corporación Nacional Forestal Chile (2010a) Manual

Técnico N°23 de CONAF, http://www.conaf.cl/parques/seccion-

planes-de-manejo.html, accessed 15 March 2010.

CONAF - Corporación Nacional Forestal Chile (2010b) Estadísticas

de Visita, http://www.conaf.cl/parques/seccion-estadisticas-de-

visitacion.html, accessed 15 March 2010.

CONAF - Corporación Nacional Forestal Chile (2012a) Planes de

Manejo. http://www.conaf.cl/parques/seccion-planes-de-

manejo.html, accessed 5 May 2012.

CONAF - Corporación Nacional Forestal Chile (2012b)

Concesiones. http://www.conaf.cl/parques/seccion-concesiones-en-

asp.html, accessed 5 May 2012.

Gaymer, M., Donoso, G. and García, M. (2005) Informe Final

Programa: Sistema Nacional de Áreas Silvestres Protegidas por el Estado

(SNASPE). Ministerio de Agricultura Chile - Corporación

Nacional Forestal – Informe Técnico, pp3-5.

GEF - Global Environment Facility (2012) Descripción del

Proyecto. http://www.proyectogefareasprotegidas.cl/quienes-

somos/descripcion-del-proyecto/, accessed 5 May 2012.

Lazo, Á. (2011) Concesiones de turismo sustentable en el sistema nacional

de aéreas silvestres protegidas del estado. Corporación Nacional

Forestal, pp5-8.

Lazo, Á. (2002) Reflexiones Nacionales. Desarrollo del ecoturismo

en áreas silvestres protegidas en Chile – CEPAL Series, 17,

pp65-67.

Liberona, F. (2007) Calentamiento global y bosque nativo, Foro

Forestal Maderero, 11 July. http://www.ffm.cl/viewtopic.php?

f=5&t=3828&start=0, accessed 20 April 2010.

Nahuelhual, L., Donoso, P., Lara, A., Nuñez D., Oyarzun, C.

and Neira, E. (2007) Valuing ecosystem services of Chilean temperate

rainforests. Environment, Development and Sustainability, vol 9,

pp481-499.

Oltremari, J. (2002) Las áreas protegidas y la conservación

de la diversidad biológica. Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago,

Chile, pp11-13.

Pauchard, A. and Villarroel, P. (2002) Protected Areas in

Chile: History, Current Status, and Challenges, Natural Areas

Journal, vol 22, no 4, pp318-330.

Roman B. (2009) Áreas protegidas públicas y privadas en el

sur de Chile, Estudios y Perspectivas en Turismo, vol 18, pp491-492.

Rudzewicz, L. and Lanzar M. (2008) Ecoturismo y conservación

de los ecosistemas. Reservas Particulares de Patrimonio

Natural en Brasil. Estudios y Perspectivas en Turismo, vol 17, no 3,

p227.

Servicio Nacional de Turismo (2010) Análisis de la Industria del

Turismo, Comité de Ministros del Turismo, pp3-5.

Toro J. and Gessel, S. (1999) Radiata pine plantations in Chile. New

Forests, vol 18, pp33-44.

Urzúa N. and Cáceres, F. (2011) Forest fires: Major economic and

environmental consequences in Chile, Interamerican Journal of

Environment and Tourism, vol 7, no 1, pp18-24.

Woda, C., Huber, A. and Dohrenbusch, A. (2006) Epiphytic

Vegetation and Fog Precipitation in Temperate Rainforests of Southern Chile’s

Coastal Range Cordillera Pelada, BOSQUE, vol 27, no 3, pp231-240.