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Pisgah Ceramic Production in the Southern Appalachians
Ashley Schubert (University of Michigan) 71st Annual Meeting of the Southeastern Archaeological Conference
Greenville, South Carolina, November 2014 Abstract: The Pisgah culture of Western North Carolina (AD 1000-1500) has historically been characterized as a Mississippian phenomenon in part due to the addition of new decorative rim treatments on the ceramics, along with coeval changes in the built environment and subsistence practices. While certain aspects of ceramic production reflect continuity with earlier Woodland groups, the shift in decorative treatments points to extra-local interaction and influence. By considering intersite differences between assemblages recovered from the Cane River site (31Yc91), the Garden Creek site (31Hw1), and the Warren Wilson site (31Bn39), regional variation in participation with Mississippian social political relationships is better defined. Introduction to Pisgah
The process of Mississippianization across prehistoric communities in the Midwest and
Southeast has a long history of being defined through trait-list approaches. Initially, the
Mississippian expansion was defined as a configuration of specific and co-occurring features
such as wall-trench houses, substructure platform mounds, and shell-tempered pottery (Griffin
1985; Blitz 2010; Cobb 2003; Smith 1990). Although this political-economic shift started with a
rapid series of changes in the American Bottom ca. A.D. 1050 (Kelly 2000; Pauketat 1994), the
overall tempo and extent of Mississippianization across the Southeast is now regarded as a
heterogeneous transformation in which varied Mississippian cultural practices were integrated
within local social structures (Smith 1990; Ward and Davis 1999; Woodall 1999; Meyers 2002;
Cobb; Griffin 1992; Griffin 1943; Beck and Moore 2002). Similarly, for the Mississippian phase
of the prehistoric Cherokee occupation in the Appalachian Summit of North Carolina, called the
Pisgah phase (AD 1000-1600), some new behavioral traits emerge and transform the landscape
from the previously smaller, more generalized site settlement pattern of the Woodland period.
How Mississippian practices were selected and incorporated into local traditions across
the Appalachian Summit is still largely unknown. In order to better understand the variation in
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Mississippianization, my research considers the material correlates of household and community
practices across three major Pisgah sites during the later end of the Pisgah period (AD 1200-
1600) – Garden Creek, Warren Wilson, and Cane River, all located in central Appalachian of
North Carolina (Figure 1).
The Warren Wilson, Garden Creek & Cane River sites
Research in the 1960s, with the Cherokee Archaeological Project, initially defined the
Woodland and Mississippian periods in the Appalachian Summit based off two sites with long
occupational histories: the Garden Creek site and the Warren Wilson site (Ward and Davis 1999;
Dickens 1976; Keel 1976). The Pisgah period was categorized as South Appalachian
Mississippian based on the presence of the “diagnostic duo,” – platform mounds and rectilinear
complicated stamped pottery- traits that co-occur together for the first time during the Pisgah
phase (Keel 1975:14). (More specifically, at the Garden Creek site). Another diagnostic feature
of the Pisgah culture is the collared, or thickened, rims (and their associated decorations), which
have no antecedent in the Appalachian Summit, leading researchers to suggest it was introduced
“along a broad frontier of expanding Mississippian culture” (Dickens 1976:200).
Garden Creek. The large mound and village site of Garden Creek (31Hw1) is located on
the floodplain of the Pigeon River in Haywood County. There are three mounds and several
village middens spanning over a 12 acre area (Dickens 1976; Wright 2014). The Pisgah
component of the Garden Creek occupation covers about 5 acres and consists of at least one
mound with an associated village area and midden (Dickens 1976). The Pisgah mound (Hw1) is
the largest at Garden Creek and consists of at least two construction stages and floors (Dickens
1976; Cobb). The mound served as a ceremonial substructure and consisted of two paired earth
lodges covered by a rock mantle surface, and subsequently more floor surfaces that were the base
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for later ceremonial buildings and a log palisade. This initial capping of important public
buildings with earthen mantles, which in turn became the foundations of successive episodes of
alternating layers of structures and soil, is a widespread Mississippian earthwork building
practice adopted across multiple South Appalachian Mississippian groups (Cobb). Beneath and
adjacent to the mound was a village surface containing a palisade with a bastion, a village
midden, and two probable house patterns (Dickens 1976). The Garden Creek Mound No. 1 and
its associated village component provide a comparative sample of ceremonial and domestic
activity areas with clear evidence of Mississippian cultural practices.
Warren Wilson. The Warren Wilson site (31Bn29), in Buncombe County, North
Carolina, was defined by Dickens (1976:18) as “characteristic of a medium-sized Pisgah village”
that contains solely domestic aspects of the Pisgah culture. Located on an alluvial terrace of the
upper Swannanoa River, cultural debris covers approximately 3 acres; the Pisgah component
consists of multiple palisade lines surrounding a circular village with a central plaza (Dickens
1976; Moore 2002). In total, at least seventeen domestic structures and seven palisade lines have
been identified, along with associated burials and features, in a relatively stable village layout
similar to that of other Mississippian hamlets and farmsteads (Moore 2002). Warren Wilson
represents one of the best understood (and published on) Pisgah villages in terms of its site
structure and assemblages (Moore 1981; Moore 2002; Dickens 1976; Ferguson et al. 1986;
Yarnell 1976; Simpkins 1984; Wing 1976). Unlike Garden Creek, Warren Wilson has no
discernible public or ceremonial structures and represents a smaller Pisgah site, thus providing a
richer data set for understanding the variability of Pisgah communities.
Cane River. The Cane River site (31Yc91), located on a rise above a tributary of the
Nolichucky River, is about 4-5 acres in extent based on palisade orientation. Limited salvage
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excavations in 1989 and 1990 revealed one domestic structure, portions of several palisade lines,
and a wide array of features (Figure 2). Recent excavations in 2013-2014, guided by magnetic
gradiometer and ground-penetrating radar survey, has identified other portions of the palisade
lines, and uncovered additional feature and architectural assemblages across the site.
Additionally, two recent radiocarbon dates reveal that the site was occupied between ca. AD
1290 and 1610, making it contemporaneous with mound construction at Garden Creek (ca. AD
1423) and likely contemporaneous with the Warren Wilson village site (roughly dated to
between the twelfth and fifteenth centuries AD based on its ceramic assemblage). Cane River’s
intermediate village size and unusual upland location outside of a larger river valley provide a
unique perspective on Pisgah lifeways during this later sub-phase.
Utilizing the ceramic collections from Garden Creek and Cane River that I have recently
analyzed, compared to the published analyses of Warren Wilson, I hope to evaluate the nature
and extent of structural persistence or transformation associated with Mississippianization. This
paper will go over some of these preliminary findings with a sample of the data collected so far.
Previous Pisgah Ceramic Research
Former studies of Pisgah ceramics have discussed the diachronic shifts in ceramic
attributes within the Pisgah phase, subdivided into Early from ca. A.D. 1000 – 1250 and Late
from ca. A.D. 1250-1450 (Dickens 1976). Dickens was the first to note “ceramic changes from
Early to Late Pisgah are subtle. Rectilinear motifs are bolder, some curvilinear stamping is now
present, and check stamping (usually bolder) continues as a strong minority finish” (Dickens
1979:16). Later analysis by Dave Moore (1981) compared an earlier upland single-house
occupation (the Brunk site) to the later village occupation at Warren Wilson. This work
highlighted additional possible trends in temporal stylistic shifts between Early and Late Pisgah,
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such as changes in collar shape (become larger), surface decoration (more narrow forms of
Rectilinear Design A in earlier, more curvilinear surface finishes in the later), and rim orientation
(more inslanted rims in the later phase). These trends possibly indicate temporal shifts in passive
ceramic construction or an intentional change indicating broader social mechanisms. It is also
possible these changes may be attributed to site or feature context, and the exact practices those
ceramics were associated with at the household or village level. That is why these broader
comparisons across multiple contemporaneous sites not participating in the same “local” Pisgah
system should be utilized and can further our understanding of the Pisgah phase social dynamics
within a broader settlement system.
For the purposes of comparing my analysis of the ceramics from Cane River and Garden
Creek, feature assemblages from both Dr. Dickens and Dr. Moore’s analysis of the Warren
Wilson ceramics were utilized. For the Garden Creek and Cane River assemblages, all sherds
were coded according to vessel portion, thickness, and diameter; technological attributes related
to production such as temper material, size, sorting, and presence/absence of mica; as well as
stylistic attributes such as exterior and interior surface treatments, presence/absence of usewear
and color. Additionally, all rims were coded for profile, rim form, lip form, decoration,
thickness, and vessel diameter. In this paper I will discuss the technological attributes and
stylistic attributes but will leave attribute analysis of the rims for another time. There are several
issues worth mentioning regarding differences in sampling and analytical methods. Dickens’
reported data (1970) included every recovered sherd from excavations, while Moore’s reported
data (1981) only includes those sherds larger than 1” for analysis. This can provide quite a
difference in identification of rectilinear complicated stamped varieties (Moore 1981:49),
potentially inflating the abundance of Rectilinear Design A compared to Rectilinear Design B.
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For my sampling strategy at Garden Creek and Cane River, only ceramics larger than 25 mm
were analyzed, thus aligning my methods with Dr. Moore’s procedure. Another issue in data
collection was the variety of identified exterior surface treatment types. Dickens only identified
8 categories of exterior surface treatment, in addition to “unidentifiable”, while Moore separated
out his decorative types into 19 categories. For my own personal analysis I had 20 categories.
Therefore many of the broader comparisons between site assemblages will involve collapsing the
stylistic categories from Moore’s work and my own to facilitate comparisons with the larger
dataset collected by Dickens.
The Ceramic Patterns at the Warren Wilson Site
Roy Dickens was the first to provide detailed and comprehensive descriptions of the
Warren Wilson site Pisgah ceramics, sampling 30,144 sherds from excavations across plowzone,
feature and burial contexts (1976:172). For comparisons to new data collected from other Pisgah
sites, I utilized Dickens’ ceramic analysis of 2,204 sherds from 24 features at Warren Wilson.
Later analysis by David Moore (1981) sampled 2,850 sherds from two features at Warren
Wilson. After combining the results from these two samples from Warren Wilson (n=8,034),
from across 26 different feature contexts, the body surface treatments show 55.9% are rectilinear
complicated stamped, 0.9% are curvilinear comp stamped, 6.9% are check stamped, 1.7% are
plain, 1.2% other and 33.4% unidentifiable (Figure 2). For the complicated stamped that could
be assigned a specific variety in the two features analyzed by Dr. Moore (1981:46), 21.4% were
the broad form of Rectilinear Complicated Design A, 1.2% were the narrow form of Rectilinear
Complicated Design A, with 29.8% of the 1st variety of Rectilinear Complicate Design B making
up the largest proportion, 3.2% the 3rd variety, and 4.2% were Rectilinear Complicated Design C
(Figure 3).
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The Ceramic Patterns at the Garden Creek site
Mound 1 at Garden Creek served as a ceremonial substructure and consisted of two
paired earth lodges and subsequently two more floor surfaces that were the base for later
ceremonial buildings and a log palisade. Rim sherds were analyzed from both Earthlodge 1 & 2
(n=64) and from Floor 1 (n=199) and Floor 2 (n=17) of the mound. One previous radiocarbon
date from an adjacent feature, assumed to be a borrow pit for clay fill utilized in building either
Floor 1 or Floor 2, yielded a date of A.D. 1435 +/_ 70 years (Dickens 1970:78). However that
remains the only radiocarbon date from the Pisgah occupation at Garden Creek, so the duration
of mound construction or chronology of other adjacent off-mound features is unclear.
In total, when comparing body surface treatment across all recently analyzed Garden
Creek rim sherds from mound contexts (n=280), 16.7% are rectilinear complicated stamped,
0.7% are curvilinear complicated stamped, 1% are check stamped, 37.4% are plain, 37.7% are
other and 6.4% are unidentifiable (Figure 4, Figure 5). Condensing the Floor ceramic
assemblages together and Earthlodge sherds together demonstrates that the earlier levels of the
mound (i.e. the Earthlodges) have different ratios of Rectilinear Complicated stamped designs
compared to the later Floor levels, with Rec. Com. Design A being more prevalent. The Floor
assemblages had a few Curvilinear Complicated Designs and a higher ratio of Rectilinear Design
B to Design A (Figure 6).
When considering the mound contexts again as a whole, within the rectilinear
complicated stamped that could be identified by variety, the broad form of Rec. Comp. Design A
was the most common (at ~18%) with the 1st variety of Rec. Comp B (~16%) and narrow form
of Rec. Comp. Design A (~14%) also being very prevalent (Figure 7). Given that the ratios of
Design B to Design A switch between earlier and later mound contexts, with the narrow and
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broad forms of Design A being approximately equal in representation – this three-way split in
exterior surface decoration across all mound levels is to be expected.
In total, comparing body surface treatment across Garden Creek rim sherds from 91
feature contexts (n=778), 16.3% are rectilinear complicated stamped, 2.6% are curvilinear
complicated stamped, 0.8% are check stamped, 31.6% are plain, with 15.2% as “other” and
33.5% as unidentifiable (Figure 8, Figure 9). Within both feature and mound contexts, “other”
surface decorations included incised surface motifs such as those on cazuela bowls, cord-marked
surfaces (which made up 20% of the surface treatments sampled from the mound contexts), net-
impressed, burnished and indeterminate stamped exteriors. This accounts for some of the
observed patterns in exterior surface treatment and the large proportion of “other” types at
Garden Creek, which tends to stand out when we compare these three sites side-by-side. Within
the complicated stamped that could be identified by variety within the feature assemblages, the
broad form of Rec. Comp. Design A was by far the most prevalent type (~29%). The narrow
form of Rec. Comp. Design A was the second most common (~13%) followed by the Rec.
Comp. Design B and C varieties (Figure 10).
The Ceramic Patterns at the Cane River site
In total, when comparing body surface treatment across recently analyzed Cane River
sherds from 35 feature contexts (n=4,683), 43.7% were rectilinear complicated stamped, 0.1%
were curvilinear complicate stamped, 0.6% were check stamped, 20.9% were plain, 7%
unidentified, and 27.6% “other” (Figure 11, Figure 12). Of the rectilinear complicated stamped
that could be identified by variety, the broad form of Rec. Comp. Design A was the most
common, with the narrow form being the second most common. Rectilinear complicated
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stamped C was rare, while the B varieties were equally represented (1st, 2nd and 3rd varieties)
around 1% each (Figure 13).
Inter-site Comparisons/ Results
When considering all three assemblages together, aspects of technological production do
not show many differences. Although, when noting characteristics of the temper, I also noted
whether mica was present in the paste for each sherd at Garden Creek and Cane River.
Unfortunately this data wasn’t collected for the Warren Wilson ceramic assemblage. There is a
slightly higher amount of mica temper present in Garden Creek’s feature contexts (48.7%) and
Cane River’s feature contexts (30.9%) compared to the mound sample at Garden Creek, which
has mica recorded in the temper in only 24% of the assemblage (Figure 14). It is interesting to
note that the Garden Creek and Cane River feature contexts also tend to have thicker vessel walls
on average (by 1mm, comparing averages to mound contexts). Therefore the difference in
proportion of mica temper utilized might be a functional aspect of production for larger, thicker
vessels deposited more often in off-mound areas, as opposed to differences in clay sourcing.
However this correlation is weak given the sample size and lack of data for Warren Wilson.
Variation in internal surface treatment is noticed within the Cane River feature
assemblage, which has the majority of vessel interiors burnished (78%), although this was also
the common practice at Warren Wilson. Moore noted that in his sample from features at Warren
Wilson, 45% had smoothed interiors and 55% were burnished (1981:52). Cane River also had
37% of the interiors smoothed and 15% that were rough (Figure 15). How this may correlate to
exterior surface treatment has yet to be considered, but it is worth noting that burnishing at
Warren Wilson was noted to be especially common on shallow bowls (Moore 1981:52). At
Garden Creek the mound contexts had more smoothed interior surfaces (38.9%) and rough
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interior surfaces (42.5%) than burnished, while the feature assemblage was pre-dominantly
smoothed (44.7%) and burnished (36.4%) interiors.
Overall differences between exterior surface treatment in these assemblages, broken
down into the mound and off-mound assemblages at Garden Creek, the feature contexts at
Warren Wilson, and the feature contexts at Cane River, show the dominant form of body surface
decoration at Warren Wilson and Cane River is rectilinear complicated stamping. While this is
also present at Garden Creek, the plain and “other” designs make up larger percentages than the
complicated stamped designs. This may be due to the fact that no body sherds were included in
the sample from Garden Creek-- I limited my analysis to rim sherds, which allowed me to get a
large data set on rim attributes as well as exterior surface treatment. However often the sherd
would be broken off below the rim, at the shoulder, making “indeterminate stamping” one of the
most commonly assigned decorative treatments. I collapsed/condensed “indeterminate stamping”
into the “other” category for this inter-community comparison, and it is highly probable that
“indeterminate stamping” encompasses both complicated stamped varieties, as well as simple
stamped surface treatment.
When considering the identified varieties of rectilinear complicated stamped and
curvilinear complicated stamped designs, the Garden Creek Mound contexts had by far more
diverse representation compared to the Garden Creek and Cane River Feature contexts that had
Rectilinear Complicated Design A varieties being the clearly preferred surface treatment. Earlier
assemblages in the mound (those associated with Earthlodge 1 and 2) had Rectilinear Design A
as the predominant variety, while later contexts (Floors 1 and 2) preferred Rectilinear Design B.
While we have a feature dated to AD 1435 that may have been used to construct Floor 1 or 2, the
length of time for mound construction and how it relates to these off-mound occupation areas
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isn’t really clear. However it is quite possible that the within-mound shifts of rectilinear
complicated stamped varieties indicate temporal trends in ceramic production over time within
this later Pisgah sub-phase.
Discussion and Future plans/questions: Mississippian socio-political relationships
Future directions for analysis of these assemblages will include rim attribute analysis, as
well as considerations of feature context and composition at each site. This would allow for
greater interpretations of intra-site variability and how that variation may affect the inter-site
comparisons discussed here. Additionally, I have plans to radiocarbon date more features at
Cane River - as well as samples from Warren Wilson and different mound levels and off-mound
features at Garden Creek. This will really help to corroborate these possible inter-phase
temporal trends. Also, by dating some of these features and fine tuning a ceramic seriation, it
will be easier to determine what aspects of community variation is due to contemporaneous
social practices or diachronic change. Lastly, the assemblages excavated from Cane River in
2013 and 2014 were not included in this analysis as data collection is still ongoing.
Acknowledgements: Funding was provided by the University of Michigan’s Museum of Anthropological Archaeology Radiocarbon Years Before Present Fund, the Griffin Scholarship, and the Griffin Endowment. Many thanks go to Roy Dickens and Dave Moore for their work on the Pisgah culture. Also a big thank you to Brett Riggs, Stephen Davis, Vin Steponaitis and the Research Laboratories of Archaeology at UNC Chapel Hill for giving me lab space and access to the Garden Creek collections this past summer. It was a joy to be a part of your community, albeit for a brief time! I would also like to thank Rob Beck, Scott Ashcraft, Elaine Dellinger and the Yancey History Association, and the Michigan friends and colleagues for all their help and encouragement.
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Figure 1. Pisgah communities in the Appalachian Summit of North Carolina that are discussed within this paper.
13
Figure 2. Exterior surface treatment percentages across all Warren Wilson feature contexts (Dickens 1976, Moore 1981)
Figure 3. Complicated stamped type (rectilinear or curvilinear) and variety across two features at Warren Wilson (Moore 1981)
55.9%
0.9% 6.9%
1.7%
33.4%
0.1%
Warren Wilson Feature Contexts (n=8034)
Rec Comp
Curv Comp
Check
Plain
Unident
Other
1.2%
21.4%
29.8%
0.7%
3.2% 4.2% 0.25% 0.7% 0.5%
Warren Wilson Complicated Stamped (n=812)
Rec Comp A Narrow
Rec Comp A Broad
Rec Comp B 1
Rec Comp B 2
Rec Comp B 3
Rec Comp C 1
Rec Comp C 2
Curv Comp A
Curv Comp B
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Figure 4. Exterior surface treatment percentages across all Garden Creek mound contexts [note the rectilinear complicated stamped varieties are separated out into Design A (RCA), Design B
(RCB) and Design C (RCC)]
Figure 5. Exterior surface treatment percentages across all Garden Creek mound contexts [the rectilinear complicated stamped varieties are not delineated here]
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
Garden Creek Mound Contexts (n=280)
Exterior Surface %
16.7% 0.7%
1%
37.4%
6.4%
37.7%
Garden Creek Mound Contexts (n=280)
Rec Comp
Curv Comp
Check
Plain
Unident
Other
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Figure 6. Exterior surface treatment percentages of the Garden Creek mound contexts broken down by earlier (Earthlodge 1 & 2) and later (Floors 1 and 2) structural fill zones
Figure 7. Complicated stamped type (rectilinear or curvilinear) and variety across all Garden Creek Mound 1 contexts [note: no curvilinear complicated stamped varieties could be specified]
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
Floors 1 & 2 (n=116)
Earthlodges (n=64)
14.2%
18.4%
16.3%
8.2%
6.1%
6.1%
Garden Creek Mound Complicated Stamp (n=49)
Rec Comp A Narrow
Rec Comp A Broad
Rec Comp B 1
Rec Comp B 2
Rec Comp B 3
Rec Comp C 1
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Figure 8. Exterior surface treatment percentages across all Garden Creek feature contexts [note the rectilinear complicated stamped varieties are separated out into Design A (RCA), Design B
(RCB) and Design C (RCC)]
Figure 9. Exterior surface treatment percentages across all Garden Creek feature contexts [the rectilinear complicated stamped varieties are not delineated here]
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
Garden Creek Feature Contexts (n=778)
Exterior Surface %
16.3% 2.6%
0.8%
31.6% 33.5%
15.2%
Garden Creek Feature Contexts (n=778)
Rec Comp
Curv Comp
Check
Plain
Unident
Other
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Figure 10. Complicated stamped type (rectilinear or curvilinear) and variety across all Garden Creek feature contexts
Figure 11. Exterior surface treatment percentages across Cane River feature contexts [note the rectilinear complicated stamped varieties are separated out into Design A (RCA), Design B
(RCB) and Design C (RCC)]
12.9%
29.5%
4%
1.4% 4%
5.4%
2.4% 2.7%
Garden Creek Feature Complicated Stamp (n=147)
Rec Comp A Narrow
Rec Comp A Broad
Rec Comp B 1
Rec Comp B 2
Rec Comp B 3
Rec Comp C 1
Curv Comp A
Curv Comp B
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
Cane River Feature Contexts (n=4683)
Exterior Surface %
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Figure 12. Exterior surface treatment percentages across Cane River feature contexts [the rectilinear complicated stamped varieties are not delineated here]
Figure 13. Complicated stamped type (rectilinear or curvilinear) and variety across all Cane River feature contexts
43.7%
0.1% 0.6%
20.9%
7%
27.6%
Cane River Feature Contexts (n=4683)
Rec Comp
Curv Comp
Check
Plain
Unident
Other
10.3%
25.3%
0.9% 1.5%
1.1% 0.8%
Cane River Complicated Stamped (n=2041)
Rec Comp A Narrow
Rec Comp A Broad
Rec Comp B 1
Rec Comp B 2
Rec Comp B 3
Rec Comp C 1
Rec Comp C 2
Curv Comp A
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Figure 14. The percentage of the assemblages at Cane River and Garden Creek (mound and off-mound) that had mica within the temper (% present and % absent)
Figure 15. Interior surface treatment percentages across Cane River, Warren Wilson and Garden Creek (mound and off-mound) contexts
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
% Mica Present % Mica Absent
GC Feature Contexts
GC Mound Contexts
Cane River Feature Contexts
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Rough Plain Smooth Plain Burnished Eroded
CR Fea Interior Surface Treatment
GC Fea Interior Surface Treatment
GC Mound Interior Surface Treatment
WW Fea Interior Surface Treatment
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Figure 16. Exterior surface treatment percentages across Cane River, Warren Wilson, and Garden Creek (mound and off-mound) contexts
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
Garden Creek Feature Contexts (n=778)
Garden Creek Mound Contexts (n=281)
Warren Wilson Feature Contexts (n=8034)
Cane River Feature Contexts (n=4683)
21
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