NOTICE: this is the author’s version of a work that was accepted for publication in Child Abuse
& Neglect on October 2nd
, 2013. Changes resulting from the publishing process, such as editing,
corrections, structural formatting, and other quality control mechanisms may not be reflected in
this document.
Correlates of Emotional Congruence with Children in Sexual Offenders against Children: A Test
of Theoretical Models in an Incarcerated Sample
Ian V. McPhail1
Chantal A. Hermann2
Yolanda M. Fernandez3
1Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Forensic Service, 1001 Queen Street West, Toronto,
Ontario, Canada, M6J 1H4. E-mail: [email protected]
2Carleton University, Department of Psychology, A403 Loeb, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa,
Ontario, Canada, K1S 5B6. E-mail: [email protected]
3Correctional Service of Canada, Kingston Penitentiary, 560 King Street West, Kingston,
Ontario, Canada, K7L 4V7. E-mail: [email protected]
Author Note
We would like to thank R. Karl Hanson and Leslie Helmus for their invaluable input on
earlier drafts of this manuscript.
The views expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the Correctional
Service of Canada.
Please address correspondence to Ian McPhail, Forensic Services, Complex Mental
Illness Program, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 1001 Queen Street West, Toronto,
Ontario, Canada, M6J 1H4. E-mail: [email protected], 1-416-535-8501 ext. 32520
Abstract
Emotional congruence with children is a psychological construct theoretically involved in
the etiology and maintenance of sexual offending against children. Research conducted to date
has not examined the relationship between emotional congruence with children and other
psychologically meaningful risk factors for sexual offending against children. The current study
derived potential correlates of emotional congruence with children from the published literature
and proposed three models of emotional congruence with children that contain relatively unique
sets of correlates: the blockage, sexual deviance, and psychological immaturity models. Using
Area under the Curve analysis, we assessed the relationship between emotional congruence with
children and offence characteristics, victim demographics, and psychologically meaningful risk
factors in a sample of incarcerated sexual offenders against children (n = 221). The sexual
deviance model received the most support: emotional congruence with children was significantly
associated with deviant sexual interests, sexual self-regulation problems, and cognition that
condones and supports child molestation. The blockage model received partial support, while
the immaturity model received the least support. Based on the results, we propose a set of
further predictions regarding the relationships between emotional congruence with children and
other psychologically meaningful risk factors to be examined in future research.
Keywords: emotional congruence with children, sexual offenders against children,
psychologically meaningful risk factors, sexual deviance, blockage
Correlates of Emotional Congruence with Children in Sexual Offenders against Children: A Test
of Theoretical Models in an Incarcerated Sample
In the general forensic psychology and sexual offender treatment literature it is clear that
in order to provide effective intervention and prevention strategies to reduce sexual violence
against children we need to identify and understand risk factors for sexual aggression (Andrews
& Bonta, 2010; Hanson, Bourgon, Helmus, & Hodgson, 2009). One such risk factor is emotional
congruence with children. Emotional congruence with children is generally defined as an
exaggerated cognitive and emotional affiliation with childhood and children (Finkelhor, 1984;
Mann, Hanson, & Thornton, 2010; Wilson, 1999). The construct describes individuals whose
emotional attachment and dependency needs are more likely met by interacting with children.
Sexual offenders against children who exhibit high levels of emotional congruence with children
may seek child-oriented employment (Knight, 1988), report having children as friends
(Fernandez, Harris, Hanson, & Sparks, 2012), or report being in love with their child victims (Li,
1990). Meta-analytic research has found high levels of emotional congruence with children is
often reported by extrafamilial offenders with male victims, that treatment can significantly
reduce levels of emotional congruence with children for extrafamilial offenders (d = 0.41, 95%
CI [0.33, 0.49], k = 5; McPhail, Hermann, & Nunes, 2013), and that emotional congruence with
children is associated with sexual recidivism (d = 0.39, 95% CI [.21, .57], k = 8; McPhail et al.,
2013). Consequently, emotional congruence with children is an important target for research and
applied work in child sexual abuse prevention, sex offender risk assessment, and treatment
programs aimed at reducing sexual recidivism.
Theorists contend that multiple risk factors are likely necessary to motivate an individual
to sexually abuse a child (Beech & Ward, 2004); likely due to the modest influence single risk
factors have on offending behavior (Agnew, 2013). Most research on emotional congruence
with children has examined this construct in isolation, mainly in attempts to establish its
predictive or discriminative validity (McPhail et al., 2013; Wilson, 1999). As a result, there is a
lack of empirical research examining the offence-related and psychological risk factors that are
associated with emotional congruence with children. The current paper identifies three models
in the existent literature that suggest emotional congruence with children is associated with a
variety of correlates relevant to sexual offending. In this exploratory research, we assess the
strength of the associations between emotional congruence with children and possible correlates
derived from the existent literature. We have used the term model loosely below to denote a
relatively unique set of bivariate relationships between emotional congruence with children and
other risk factors arising from our understanding of the relevant theoretical and empirical
literature.
Models of Emotional Congruence with Children
Theories of sexual offending against children, clinical research, and typologies examining
sexual offenders’ motivations for offending often describe the nature of the relationship between
child victims and offenders, specific offender behaviors, and offenders’ psychological
motivations that are consistent with the conceptualization of emotional congruence with children
noted above. A striking feature of the clinical, theoretical, and typological literature is that
emotional congruence with children is not often described in isolation from other risk factors
relevant to sexual offending against children. These descriptions include assumptions regarding
the interrelationships between psychological constructs contributing to sexual offending (Knight
& King, 2012), with certain theorists and researchers emphasizing different, yet sometimes
overlapping sets of risk factors being associated with emotional congruence with children. Using
a deductive strategy, we have reviewed this literature and identified a set of risk factors that may
be associated with emotional congruence with children and have constructed three models of
emotional congruence with children, the blockage, sexual deviance, and psychological
immaturity models.
The Blockage Model of Emotional Congruence with Children
Finkelhor (1984) suggests that for certain sex offenders, being blocked from satisfying
intimate relationships with adults is associated with finding children less threatening, easier to
spend time with relative to adults, and more attractive as sexual partners. It is also suggested that
blockage from adult relationships is the product of a fear of these relationships and a lack of
social skills or interpersonal competence (Araji & Finkelhor, 1985; Fisher, 1969; Mohr, Turner,
& Jerry, 1964). Sexual offenders against children may perceive adults as domineering, cold, and
dangerous authority figures, whereas children are perceived as welcoming, warm, and
affectionate (Finkelhor, 1984; Howells, 1979). In addition, Howells (1994) suggests that the
blockage factor overlaps conceptually with the emotional congruence factor in Finkelhor’s
Preconditions Model. Based on these authors’ work, emotional congruence with children may
be expected to co-occur with difficulties in establishing and maintaining intimate relationships
and friendships with same-aged peers.
A lack of social and intimate relationships likely begins in adolescence and may result in
emotional loneliness and social isolation (Finkelhor & Araji, 1986; Fisher & Howells, 1993;
Hammer & Glueck, 1957; Marshall, 1989; 1993). Due to the lack of adult relationships, these
individuals may spend much of their social life engaged in activities with children (Mohr et al.,
1964). In support of this notion, Pacht and Cowden (1974) provide evidence that those with
immature, child victims were rated as less socially assertive when compared to rapists. These
authors speculate that an inability to form adult relationships is associated with establishing
positive relationships with child victims. Other research has shown extrafamilial sexual
offenders against children who score high in emotional congruence with children also report low
self-esteem, experience social isolation, and have a history of intimacy failures in adult
relationships (Beckett, Beech, Fisher, & Fordham, 1994).
Consistent with this model, certain theoretical work indicates that poor childhood
attachments may contribute to emotional loneliness and chronic blockage from peer and intimate
relationships. Marshall and colleagues (1993; Ward, Hudson, Marshall, & Seigert, 1995)
suggests that poor quality attachments in childhood leave a male ill-equipped, throughout his
life, to develop relationships with his peers and relate easily to others, alienating him from
others, and leaving intimacy needs unmet by adult peers even though the male desires intimacy.
Persistent intimacy deficits, chronic loneliness, and the desire to achieve intimacy contribute to
seeking a partner that is approving and can be controlled to minimize rejection (Marshall, 1989,
1993; Ward et al., 1995). The case study described by Marshall (1993, p. 79) highlights the
potential relationship between poor childhood attachment, chronic emotional loneliness, and
emotional congruence with children. Thus in the blockage model, emotional congruence with
children is associated with poor childhood attachment, failure to establish satisfactory intimate
relationships, social isolation, emotional loneliness, and low self-esteem (see Table 1).
The Sexual Deviance Model of Emotional Congruence with Children
In the sexual deviance model, we suggest that sexual interest in children is the main
correlate of emotional congruence with children (see Table 1). Groth and colleagues (Groth,
1979; Groth, Hobson, & Gary, 1982) argue that for certain sexual offenders against children (i.e.,
fixated offenders), sexual interest in children is the primary risk factor motivating their offending
against children. Fixated sexual offenders against children are also characterized by behaviors
and emotions consistent with our conceptualization of emotional congruence with children. For
example, fixated sexual offenders against children perceive their victims as warm, affectionate,
broadminded, perceptive, innocent, clean, loving, and report being more comfortable and secure
around children (Finkelhor, 1984; Howells, 1979; Li, 1990) and these offenders identify closely
with their child victim (Groth et al., 1982). Of note, Finkelhor and Araji (1986) suggest that
most of theories of emotional congruence make the implicit assumption that emotional
congruence with children likely accounts for an individual’s sexual interest in children; however,
these authors conclude that emotional congruence with children and sexual interest in children
are likely distinct but associated constructs.
Research on the association between emotional congruence with children and sexual
interest in children has provided conflicting evidence. An examination of the relationship
between fixation (i.e., pedophilic sexual interests) and high amount of contact (i.e., elevated
emotional congruence with children) types of sexual offenders against children in the
Massachusetts Treatment Center Child Molester Typology 3 (MTC: CM3; Knight & Prentky,
1990) indicate that most offenders classified as having a high amount of contact with children
also show a high level of fixation (Knight, 1989). While this finding suggests that sexual
offenders against children likely to be high in emotional congruence with children (i.e., those
classified as high amount of contact offenders) demonstrate sexual interest in children, the
classification criteria for high fixation and high amount of contact have conceptual overlap. The
degree of overlap limits the ability to draw firm conclusions regarding the strength of the
observed association between fixation and emotional congruence with children. Seto and
Fernandez (2011) found that certain clusters of sexual offenders will display elevated levels of
emotional congruence with children and constructs relevant to sexual deviance. In contrast,
other research suggests that sexual offenders against children high in emotional congruence with
children do not exhibit significantly higher levels of sexual deviance on age preference
phallometric testing when compared to other offenders displaying low levels of emotional
congruence with children (Looman, Gauthier, & Boer, 2001). The contrasting evidence suggests
the relationship between emotional congruence with children and sexual interests in children
remains underexplored and a direct examination of the relationship is warranted.
Johnston and Johnston (1997) suggest that for some sexual offenders against children,
offending against children is due to a combination of identification with children, sexual interest
in children, and a distorted view of sexuality and the impact sexual abuse has on the child. In
addition, qualitative research with sexual offenders against children who report strong sexual
interest in children and display emotional congruence with children-type offending behavior
suggests that these individuals hold beliefs that sex with a child is normal, legitimate,
educational, and not harmful to the victims (Li, 1990). Furthermore research has supported a
potential link between emotional congruence with children and distorted beliefs and attitudes
about sex with children (i.e., cognitive distortions; Beckett et al., 1994). Looman and colleagues
(2001) have also hypothesized that cognitive distortions may co-occur with emotional
congruence with children. From these findings, we expect emotional congruence with children
to be associated with both sexual interest in children and cognitions that condone and support
child molestation.
Within the sexual deviance model, additional expectations are possible. Knight, Carter,
and Prentky (1989) suggest that the interpersonal sexual offenders against children (i.e.,
offenders who exhibit significant emotional congruence with children) will rarely offend
impulsively, which suggests that the absence of impulsive offending may be associated with
emotional congruence with children (Groth & Birnbaum, 1978; Knight & King, 2012).
Importantly, researchers also note that “sexual thoughts and fantasies about children (…)
preoccupy the [fixated] offender, and interest in them often reaches the level of obsession”
(Groth, 1978, p. 7), indicating that sexual pre-occupation or poor sexual self-regulation may also
co-occur with emotional congruence with children. Finally, a history of child sexual abuse might
play a role in producing both deviant sexual interests and emotional congruence with children
(Howells, 1981). Currently, although these authors suggest a link between the two constructs,
we are unable to specify the direction of the relationship between emotional congruence with
children and sexual interest in children or whether this relationship is causal in nature.
The Psychological Immaturity Model of Emotional Congruence with Children
A third model (see Table 1) includes psychological and emotional immaturity as
correlates of emotional congruence with children (Araji & Finkelhor, 1986; Finkelhor, 1984;
Fitch, 1962). In this model, the desire to relate to children is due to the offender having childish
emotional needs and a delayed psychological development (Fitch, 1962). This model focuses on
a failure to advance emotionally and cognitively to a stage that is congruent to the offender’s
chronological age. This failure makes children more compatible with the offender’s emotional
and affiliation needs. Within this model, sexual offenders against children are expected to lack
certain cognitive abilities, such as abstract thinking or problem-solving, and there is some
support for this contention (Blanchard, Kolla, Cantor, Klassen, Dickey, Kuban, & Blak, 2007;
Cantor, Blanchard, Robichaud, & Christensen, 2005; Hammer & Glueck, 1957). Compared to
the other two models, the psychological immaturity model has more limited theoretical and
empirical literature to draw from.
Current Study
The present study is an exploratory analysis of the correlates of emotional congruence
with children; we have used deductively-derived models to guide our expectations. We aimed to
assess the strength of the associations between emotional congruence with children and a set of
offence characteristics and psychological risk factors in a sample of incarcerated sexual
offenders against children. Our goals in this study were as follows: (a) to identify empirical
relationships between emotional congruence with children and other psychologically risk factors
and offence characteristics; and (b) assess the level of support for the models presented above.
We did not make a priori predictions regarding the pattern of support for the models of emotional
congruence with children, but have summarized the predictions based upon the models and have
presented this below.
Predictions for Correlates of Emotional Congruence with Children
Based on literature relevant to the blockage model, we predicted emotional congruence
with children will be associated with a sense of loneliness or social rejection, a lack of stable
intimate relationships with adult women, compliance with authority figures, and a general lack of
sexual deviance, such as a higher likelihood of offending against female children: as female child
victims are not indicative of higher levels of deviant sexual interests (Seto & Lalumière, 2001).
Based on literature relevant to the sexual deviance model, we predicted emotional
congruence with children will be associated with low general sexual regulation, higher levels of
deviant sexual interests and paraphilias, a lack of impulsivity, endorsing attitudes that condone
and support child molestation, and offence characteristics associated with sexual interest in
children (i.e., young or male victims, having more prior sexual offence victims, having unrelated
victims; see Seto & Lalumière, 2001).
Based on literature relevant to the psychological immaturity model, we predicted
emotional congruence with children will be associated with being younger, poor cognitive
problem-solving ability, low social competence, more female victims due to a lack of sexual
deviance, and higher impulsivity.
Method
Participants
Participants were drawn from an archival dataset of 419 adult male sexual offenders who
had been assessed upon entry to the Canadian federal penitentiary system in Ontario, Canada
between 2000 and 2007 (see Seto & Fernandez, 2011, for a full description of this sample).
Participants were included in the current study if they had at least one victim younger than 14
years old and were 18 years or older at the time of assessment. The final sample consisted of 221
federally incarcerated adult male sexual offenders against children. The clinical assessment
process included a file review and, for offenders who provided informed consent, a semi-
structured interview and phallometric assessment. On average, participants were 35.3 years old
(SD = 10.2) at the time of their index offence and were low to medium risk for sexual recidivism
(Static-99 M = 2.6; SD = 2.2). The median number of victims was 2 (M = 2.8, SD = 5.6). Of the
221 participants, 40.7% were married or in common-law relationships (n = 90), 38.5% were
single (n = 85), and 20.8% were divorced, separated, or widowed (n = 46).
Measures
Static-99. Static-99 (Hanson & Thornton, 2000) is an actuarial measure of sexual
recidivism risk. The measure consists of 10 static items (e.g., any male victims, any stranger
victims, age at release) scored using the information commonly available in offenders’
institutional files. Most items on Static-99 are score 0 or 1, while one item (prior sex offences) is
scored 0, 1, 2, or 3. The total score can range from 0-12; individuals with scores of 0-1 are
considered low risk for sexual recidivism, individuals with scores of 2-3 are considered low to
medium risk for sexual recidivism, individuals with scores of 4-5 are considered medium to high
risk for sexual recidivism, and individuals who score 6 and above are considered high risk for
sexual recidivism. A recent meta-analysis found that Static-99 had moderate predictive accuracy
(mean AUC = .68, k = 63, N = 20,010; Hanson & Morton-Bourgon, 2009). Items from Static-99
were used as proxies for the offence characteristic and psychological risk factor correlates
indicated in the models of emotional congruence with children.
STABLE-2000. STABLE-2000 (Hanson, Harris, Scott, & Helmus, 2007) is a measure
designed to assess dynamic sexual recidivism risk. The measure assesses 16 risk factors that are
scored as “0 – no problem”, “1 – some concern”, and “2 – present/definite concern” using file-
and interview- based information. The risk factors are grouped into six domains: (a) significant
social influences, (b) intimacy deficits, (c) sexual self-regulation, (d) attitudes supportive of
sexual assault, (e) cooperation with supervision, and (f) general self-regulation. Hanson et al.
(2007) report good internal consistency (α = .83) and good interrater reliability (ICC = .89) for
STABLE-2000. In addition, STABLE-2000 has moderate predictive validity for sexual
recidivism (AUC = .66, 95% CI [.59, .72] Hanson et al., 2007). Items from STABLE-2000 were
used as proxies for the psychological risk factor correlates indicated in the models of emotional
congruence with children.
Emotional Congruence with Children. Participants were classified as evidencing high
or low emotional congruence with children using the Emotional Identification with Children item
of STABLE-2000. The presence of emotional congruence with children is inferred from the
following indicators: the offender having immature relationships with adults and/or no adult
friends, viewing children as having unique qualities of understanding or communication, interest
in childlike activities, having children as friends, and generally feeling more comfortable with
children relative to adults (Fernandez et al., 2012). Scores on this item range from 0 to 2, with
higher scores indicating more emotional congruence with children. A score of 0 indicates age-
appropriate friendships, work, and leisure activities; a score of 1 indicates a noticeable interest in
relationships with children and immature relationships with adults with some attributions of adult
characteristics to children; and a score of 2 indicates a preference for spending time (e.g., child-
oriented leisure activities) and having relationships with children and perceiving children as
adults. Participants who received a score of 0 were classified as evidencing low emotional
congruence with children and participants who received a score of 1 or 2 were classified as
evidencing high emotional congruence with children. Those offenders scoring 1 or 2 on this
item were classified in this way because they exhibited the presence of emotional congruence
with children, but to varying degrees.
Generally the interrater reliability for Emotional Identification with Children item is
adequate. For the Dynamic Supervision Project (Hanson, Harris, Scott, & Helmus, 2007),
Emotional Identification with Children item scores were coded by trained community
supervision officers for offenders on their caseloads. To assess interrater reliability of the item, 4
expert trainers reviewed the files and scoring of 30 offenders with victims less than 14 years old.
The interrater reliability for the trichotomous scores was good (ICC = .75), and adequate for
dichotomous none/any classification (k = .70; 87% agreement; R. K. Hanson, personal
communication, April 23, 2012). Similarly, Fernandez (2008) found adequate interrater
reliability for trichotomous scoring of the Emotional Identification with Children item of
STABLE 2007 (ICC = .70). The Emotional Identification with Children item has also
demonstrated a small positive correlation with the Emotional Congruence scale of the Children
and Sex Questionnaire total score (CSQ, Beckett, 1987; r = .23, n = 12) and a moderate positive
significant relationship with the Child Identification Scale-Revised (CIS-R, Wilson, 1999; r =
.57, p < .05, n = 12) in past research, suggesting adequate convergent validity (McPhail, 2010).
Phallometric assessment. Sexual arousal was measured by mercury-in-rubber strain
gauge plethysmography. A mercury filled sylastic rubber tube of appropriate diameter for each
individual was fitted midway along the subject's penis. A plethysmograph monitored the
conductance of the mercury column, which decreased as the mercury was stretched by increases in
penile circumference. Output was monitored by a digital voltmeter and then collected, scored, and
stored electronically on a computer. The audiotaped stimuli were from the Quinsey Child Sexual
Violence assessment (Quinsey & Chaplin, 1988). The stimuli consisted of verbal descriptions of
sexual episodes between two consenting adults and between adults and children presented to
subjects via audio headphones. Stimuli descriptions varied the age of the sexual partner, the gender
of the sexual partner, and the level of coercion involved in the sexual activity, including consenting
sex between adults, nonsexual violence against an adult, coerced sexual activity with a child, and
sexual activity with a passive child. An index of deviant arousal (ratio score) was calculated by
dividing the average response to an inappropriate category (e.g., sex with a child) by the average
response to an appropriate category (e.g., adult consenting sex). A ratio of .80 was considered
the criteria for a profile to be considered deviant (Marshall & Eccles, 1991). In the present
study, 51.1% sexual offenders against children consented to the phallometric assessment (n =
113). Sexual offenders were asked to consent to the phallometric assessment separately from the
STABLE-2000 interview. We conducted a missing values analysis and Little’ MCAR test was
non-significant (χ 2 = 4.812, p = .568), suggesting data were missing at random. Furthermore,
participants who did not consent to phallometric assessment did not significantly differ from
participants who did consent to phallometric assessment in terms of age at offence, age at
assessment, or static risk as measured by STATIC-99. As a result, data were considered to be
missing at random and pairwise deletion was used for all of the analyses that included the
phallometric assessment data. Phallometric assessment was used as an index of the sexual
interest in children correlate of emotional congruence with children predicted by the sexual
deviance model outlined above.
Statistical Analyses
The Area Under the Receiver Operating Characteristic Curve (AUC) was used to
examine correlates of emotional congruence with children. AUCs were preferred over odds
ratios because odds ratio magnitude is not comparable across continuous and dichotomous
predictors. AUC is a nonparametric effect size statistic that can be used to examine the
probability that a randomly selected sexual offender against children high in emotional
congruence with children will be more deviant on the risk factor (e.g., will have male victims,
will endorse more cognitions that condone and support child molestation) than a randomly
selected sexual offender against children low in emotional congruence with children (Hanley &
McNeil, 1982; Swets, Dawes, & Monahan, 2000). AUC was considered preferable over
correlation as the size of a correlation is artificially reduced the further the base rate of the
dichotomous variable deviates from a perfect 50/50 split (see Rice & Harris, 2005 for an
overview). Given that the base rate of emotional identification was 26%, correlations would be a
biased effect size indicator. An AUC of .50 indicates no difference between the high and low
emotional congruence with children groups on a risk factor. An AUC is statistically significant if
the 95% confidence interval does not include .50. For the variables examined in this study,
AUCs greater than .50 represent sexual offenders against children high in emotional congruence
with children evidencing higher levels of the risk factor relative to sexual offenders against
children low in emotional congruence with children. AUCs less than .50 represent offenders low
in emotional congruence with children evidencing higher levels of the risk factor relative to
offenders high in emotional congruence with children. As an interpretive heuristic, an AUC of
.56 corresponds to a small effect size, while .64 reflects a moderate effect, and .71 reflects a large
effect size, as these values correspond to Cohen’s ds of .2, .5, and .8, when certain assumptions
are satisfied (Rice & Harris, 2005). Conversely, AUC values of .44, .36, and .29 would represent
small, moderate, and large effects in the other direction.
Results
Of the 221 sexual offenders against children assessed, 164 (74.2%) were classified as
evidencing low emotional congruence with children and 57 (25.8%) were classified as
evidencing high emotional congruence with children. Of the 57 sexual offenders against children
who were classified as evidencing high emotional congruence with children, 42 (73.7 %) had a
score of 1 and 15 (26.3%) had a score of 2 on the Emotional Identification with Children item of
STABLE-2000.
Blockage. The blockage model received partial support in this sample (see Table 2). The
sexual offenders against children classified as high emotional congruence with children were
significantly more likely to have higher levels of social rejection and loneliness (AUC = .66).
Additionally, the prediction that sexual offenders against children high in emotional congruence
with children will display lower levels of impulsivity was supported (AUC = .38). However,
sexual offenders against children high in emotional congruence with children did not display a
lack of significant adult social influences (AUC = .53) and intimate partners (AUC = .54), higher
levels of hostility towards women (AUC = .51), higher non-compliance with supervision (AUC
= .52), or the absence of male victims (AUCStatic-99: Any male victims = .54). The blockage model also
predicts a general lack of sexual deviance for high emotional congruence with children
offenders, however as seen below, this prediction was not supported.
Sexual deviance. The sexual deviance model received the most support in this sample.
High emotional congruence with children was associated with higher levels of problems with
sexual pre-occupation and high sex drive (AUC = .60), using sex as a means of coping with
negative emotional states (AUC = .62), deviant sexual interests (AUC = .74), and arousal to male
children as assessed by circumferential phallometry (passive male child AUC = .65; coerced
male child AUC = .61). Additionally, high emotional congruence with children was associated
with higher levels of attitudes that condone and support child molestation (AUC = .73). Counter
to predictions for this model, sexual offenders against children high in emotional congruence
with children were not more likely to have a greater numbers of prior sexual offences (AUC =
.46), more victims (AUC = .49), fewer stranger victims (AUC = .45), more male, unrelated
victims (AUC = .52), or lower likelihood of being in a stable relationship as measured by
STABLE-2000 (AUC = .54) as compared to sexual offenders against children low in emotional
congruence with children.
Psychological immaturity. The psychological immaturity model received the least
support in the sample. The only support for the model’s predictions was higher social
rejection/loneliness as a measure of low social competence (AUC = .66). Counter to predictions
for this model, sexual offenders against children high and low in emotional congruence with
children were equally as likely to be young at time of offence (AUC = .42), exhibit problems in
cognitive problem solving (AUC = .51), and have female victims (AUCStatic-99: Any male victims =
.54). Additionally, in contrast to the model’s predictions, sexual offenders against children high
in emotional congruence with children evidenced lower levels of impulsivity (AUC = .38).
Discussion
This exploratory study examined the correlates of emotional congruence with children in
an incarcerated sample of sexual offenders against children within the framework of three
deductively-derived models of emotional congruence with children. The results were most
consistent with the sexual deviance model. High emotional congruence with children was most
strongly associated with sexual pre-occupation, using sex as a means to cope with negative
emotions, deviant sexual interests, cognitions that condone and support child molestation, and
phallometrically assessed arousal to sexual activity with passive and coerced prepubescent
males. The results were moderately consistent with the blockage model. More specifically, the
results were consistent with a main prediction of this model, that sexual offenders against
children high in emotional congruence with children will have more problems with social
rejection and loneliness. However, there were no group differences in other domains relevant to
problems in social relationships. For instance, sexual offenders against children high in
emotional congruence with children did not display lower rates of significant social influences or
an absence of long term intimate relationships. Finally, the results were least consistent with the
psychological immaturity model. The predictions that sexual offenders against children high in
emotional congruence with children would show difficulty in cognitive problem-solving ability
and adult intimate relationships were not supported. Additionally, the predictions that these
offenders would be younger and more impulsive were not supported.
A number of authors have suggested that those offenders who display emotional
congruence with children-type behavior will also display a lack of interpersonal skills and will
only be comfortable around children (Araji & Finkelhor, 1985; Cohen, Seghorn, & Calmas,
1969; Finkelhor, 1984; Finkelhor & Araji, 1986; Groth, 1978, 1979). Markers of general
interpersonal skills, such as the number of significant social influences and ability to maintain
intimate relationships, used in the current research did not support this hypothesized lack of
ability to initiate friendships and maintain relationships for those rated as having a high level of
emotional congruence with children. Our findings are consistent with prior research that has
found emotional congruence with children is generally unrelated to markers of impaired
interpersonal competence (such as marriage; Knight, 1989; Prentky et al., 1989). Given the
available evidence, we would suggest that markers of impaired interpersonal competence, such
as the presence of marriage or intimate relationships, long-term employment, or number of
friendships may not be useful in helping to understand emotional congruence with children.
An important distinction to make, given previous and the current findings, is that while
high emotional congruence with children offenders may not display markedly poor interpersonal
relationships predicted by previous authors, these offenders may find these relationships to be
unsatisfying, feel that others do not care about them, and as a result experience a pervasive sense
of loneliness and rejection. The findings of this research provide support for the importance of
considering the experience of loneliness and rejection in understanding why certain offenders
approach children to satisfy emotional needs. This interpretation is consistent with Cohen and
colleagues’ (1969) understanding of their similar results and theoretical work by Marshall and
colleagues (1989, 1993; Ward et al., 1995).
Our findings are consistent with past research and clinical observations of the relationship
between sexual deviance and emotional congruence with children and extend these findings in
important ways. Groth and colleagues observed that offenders that have a preference for sexual
contact also identify with children (Groth, 1978, 1979; Groth, Hobson, & Gary, 1982).
Taxonomic research also supports this relationship, as the high fixation type of the MTC-CM3
has been found to be correlated with offenders who have a high level of interpersonal contact
with children (Knight, 1989). The results of the current research provide additional support for
these findings. Importantly, this research is the first to provide direct evidence of an association
between emotional congruence with children and phallometrically assessed arousal to sexual
activity with prepubescent males. Emotional congruence with children was also associated with
problems in sexual self-regulation, which supports theoretical work suggesting a possible link
between the two constructs (Ward et al., 1995). In addition, Looman and colleagues’ (2001)
hypothesis that cognitive distortions likely co-occur with emotional congruence with children-
type offending behavior was also supported.
There are at least two explanations for this observed pattern of results supporting the
sexual deviance model. First, it is possible that the observed associations are caused by deviant
sexual interests (i.e., pedophilia). Emotional congruence with children could be a courtship
display or intimacy style that facilitates an emotional connection between the offender and his
child victim. Conceptualized in this way, emotional congruence with children is the result of
pedophilia, a means of facilitating offending, or improving success with the offender’s preferred
partner group, children. While an explanation linking pedophilia and emotional congruence
with children is parsimonious, some recent literature associates pedophilia with factors
associated with disturbed sexual urges and behavioral disinhibition, factors such as head injury in
childhood resulting in unconsciousness (Blanchard et al., 2002, 2003), IQ (Cantor et al., 2004,
2005), grade failure and special education placement (Cantor et al., 2006), frontal lobe
dysfunction (Cohen et al., 2002; Graber, Hartman, Coffman, Heuy, & Golden, 1982). An
alternate explanation of the current findings is that deviant sexual interest (i.e., pedophilia) is
associated with emotional congruence with children and poor sexual self-regulation. For
offenders who display emotional congruence with children, problems with sexual self-regulation
could lead individuals to sexualize the emotional relationships they have with children. In this
way, sexual interest in children is prompted by sexual pre-occupation and using sex as a method
of coping with stress or negative emotions co-occurring with pre-existing emotional relationships
an offender has with children. Consistent with this, Ward and colleagues (1995) suggest that
some sexual offenders against children may sexualize a pre-existing relationship with a child.
Our findings provide an extension of this hypothesis by positing poor sexual self-regulation as
the mechanism through which these pre-existing relationships may become sexualized. This
second explanation suggests that the existence of high emotional congruence with children and
sexual self-regulation problems may predict deviant sexual interests in children. Given that
neither explanation can be ruled out using the current research, future research should further
explore these hypotheses.
Implications for Treatment
The findings suggest that for sexual offenders against children with high emotional
congruence with children, interventions relevant to deviant sexual interest and sexual self-
regulation may be an important part of treatment. Treatment providers should consider that for
some sexual offenders, their sexual interest in children may reduce their investment in pursuing
adult relationships, resulting in increased loneliness and feelings of rejection as well as higher
emotional congruence with children. In addition to addressing issues of social rejection,
loneliness, offence supportive cognitions, and improving motivation and investment in adult
social interactions, treatment providers may incorporate interventions specific to promoting
healthy sexuality with appropriate aged partners and managing sexual deviance. Failure to
consider all of these problems as related and salient for the sexual offender who exhibits high
emotional congruence with children may limit the efficacy of treatment to reduce the impact of
these important risk factors.
Limitations and Future Directions
This study was exploratory in nature and given the nature of the data, the direction of the
relationships between emotional congruence with children and its correlates cannot be inferred.
In addition the data were archival; as such we were limited in terms of the breadth of variables
available, reducing our ability to test some hypotheses arising from the three models and
resulting in the reliance on a single measure of emotional congruence with children. As a result,
the current research provided the least robust test of the psychological immaturity model’s
predictions compared to the other models. While this study indicates a lack of support for the
psychological immaturity model, the evidence is not so overwhelming as to eliminate this model
as a potential framework for understanding the correlates of emotional congruence with children.
In addition, attachment styles associated with high and low emotional congruence with children
could not be tested in the current study. As outlined in the introduction, theory also suggests a
potential link between anxious/ambivalent attachment styles, long-term emotional loneliness,
and having emotional and sexual relationships with children (Marshall, 1993; Ward et al., 1995)
and this may be another fruitful avenue for future research.
This research relied on a single method of measuring emotional congruence with
children, which may limit our confidence in the findings. While past research does not nominate
a specific measure of emotional congruence with children as the “gold standard” (McPhail et al.,
2013), replication of these results using multiple methods of assessing emotional congruence
with children will bolster our confidence in the findings and will likely expand our understanding
of the relationships between these constructs. Finally, the relatively small sample size may have
obscured important associations predicted by the three models.
Conclusions
Emotional congruence with children is associated with higher levels of deviant sexual
interests, sexual self-regulation problems, cognitions that condone and support child molestation,
and social rejection and loneliness. Importantly, our findings support previous theoretical work
and extend past empirical work by highlighting the importance of considering the experience of
loneliness and offence supportive cognitions for sexual offenders who display high levels of
emotional congruence with children. From these results, it is apparent that multiple risk factors
co-occur to influence sexual abuse of children in high emotional congruence with children
offenders. Follow-up research to confirm these relationships and to examine the predictive
relationships between emotional congruence with children, poor sexual self-regulation, and
deviant sexual interests is needed. In addition, future theoretical work may wish to integrate
these findings in developing an etiological framework describing the development of emotional
congruence with children in sexual offenders against children.
References
Agnew, R. (2013). When criminal coping is likely: An extension of general strain theory.
Deviant Behavior, 34, 653-670. doi: 10.1080/01639625.2013.766529
Andrews, D. A., & Bonta, J. (2010). The psychology of criminal conduct (5th
ed.). New
Providence, New Jersey: Anderson Publishing.
Araji, S., & Finkelhor, D. (1985). Explanations of pedophilia: Review of empirical research.
Bulletin of the American Academy of Psychiatry and Law, 13, 17-37.
Beckett, R. C. (1987). Children and sex questionnaire. Oxford, UK: Oxford Forensic Services.
Beckett, R., Beech, A., Fisher, D., & Fordham, A. S. (1994). Community-based treatment for sex
offenders: An evaluation of seven treatment programmes. Home Office: London.
Beech, A. R., & Ward, T. (2004). The integration of etiology and risk in sexual offenders: A
theoretical framework. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 10, 31-63. doi:
10.1016/j.avb.2003.08.002
Blanchard, R., Christensen, B. K., Strong, S. M., Cantor, J. M., Kuban, M. E., Klassen, P., … Blak,
T. (2002). Retrospective self-reports of childhood accidents causing unconsciousness in
phallometrically diagnosed pedophiles. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 31, 511–526.
Blanchard, R., Kolla, N. J., Cantor, J. M., Klassan, P. E., Dickey, R., Kuban, M. E., & Blak, T.
(2007). IQ, handedness, and pedophilia in adult male patients stratified by referral source.
Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 19, 285-309. doi: 10.1007/s11194-007-
9049-0
Blanchard, R., Kuban, M. E., Klassen, P., Dickey, R., Christensen, B. K., Cantor, J. M., & Blak, T.
(2003). Self-reported head injuries before and after age 13 in pedophilic and non-pedophilic
men referred for clinical assessment. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 32, 573–581.
Cantor, J. M., Blanchard, R., Christensen, B. K., Dickey, R., Klassen, P. E., Beckstead, A. L., …
Kuban, M. E. (2004). Intelligence, memory, and handedness in pedophilia. Neuropsychology,
18, 3-14. doi: 10.1037/0894-4105.18.1.3
Cantor, J. M., Blanchard, R., Robichaud, L. K., & Christensen, B. K. (2005). Quantitative reanalysis
of aggregate data on IQ in sexual offenders. Psychological Bulletin, 131, 555-568. doi:
10.1037/0033-2909.131.4.555
Cantor, J. M., Kuban, M. E., Blak, T., Klassen, P. E., Dickey, R., Blanchard, R. (2006). Grade failure
and special education placement in sexual offenders’ educational histories. Archives of Sexual
Behavior, 35, 743–751. doi: 10.1007/s10508-006-9018-6
Cohen, L. J., Nikiforov, K., Gans, S., Poznansky, O., McGeoch, P., Weaver, C., …Galynker, I.
(2002). Heterosexual male perpetrators of childhood sexual abuse: A preliminary
neuropsychiatric model. Psychiatric Quarterly, 73, 313-336.
Cohen, M., Seghorn, T., & Calmas, W. (1969). Sociometric study of the sex offender. Journal of
Abnormal Psychology, 74, 249-255.
Fernandez, Y. M. (2008, October). An examination of the inter-rater reliability of the STATIC-99 and
STABLE-2007. Poster session at the 27th annual research and treatment conference of the
Association for the Treatment of Sexual Abusers, Atlanta, Georgia.
Fernandez, Y. M., Harris, A., Hanson, R. K., & Sparks, J. (2012). Stable-2007 coding manual
revised. Unpublished manuscript.
Finkelhor, D. (1984). Child sexual abuse: New theory and research. New York: Free Press.
Finkelhor, D., & Araji, S. (1986). Explanations of pedophilia: A four factor model. The Journal
of Sex Research, 22, 145-161. doi: 10.1080/00224498609551297
Fisher, D., & Howells, K. (1993). Social relationships in sexual offenders. Sexual and Martial
Therapy, 8, 123-136. doi: 10.1080/02674659308408188
Fisher, G. (1969). Psychological needs of heterosexual pedophiliacs. Diseases of the Nervous
System, 30, 419-421.
Fitch, J. H. (1962). Men convicted of sexual offences against children. British Journal of
Criminology, 3, 18-37.
Graber, B., Hartmann, K., Coffman, J. A., Huey, C. J., & Golden, C. J. (1982). Brain damage
among mentally disordered sex offenders. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 27, 125-134.
Groth, A. N. (1978). Patterns of sexual assault against children and adolescents. In A. W.
Burgess, A. N. Groth, L. L. Holmstrom, & S. M. Sgroi (Eds.), Sexual assault of children
and adolescents (pp. 3-24). Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books.
Groth, A. N. (1979). Men who rape: The psychology of the offender. New York: Plenum Press.
Groth, A. N., & Birnbaum, H. J. (1978). Adult sexual orientation and attraction to underage
persons. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 7, 175-181. doi: 10.1007/BF01542377
Groth, A. N., Hobson, W. F., & Gary, T. S. (1982). The child molester: Clinical observations. In
J. R. Conte & D. A. Shore (Eds.), Social work and child sexual abuse (pp. 129-144).
Haworth Press.
Hammer, E. F., & Glueck, B. C. (1957). Psychodynamic patterns in sex offenders: A four factor
theory. Psychiatric Quarterly, 31, 325-345. doi: 10.1007/BF01568731
Hanley, J. A., & McNeil, B. J. (1982). The meaning and use of the area under a receiver
operating characteristic (ROC) curve. Radiology, 143, 29-36.
Hanson, R. K., Bourgon, G., Helmus, L., & Hodgson, S. (2009). The principles of effective
correctional treatment also apply to sexual offenders: A meta-analysis. Criminal Justice
and Behavior, 36, 865-891. doi: 10.1177/0093854809338545
Hanson, R. K., Harris, A. J. R., Scott, T. L., & Helmus, L. (2007). Assessing the risk of sexual
offenders on community supervision: The Dynamic Supervision project. Ottawa, Ontario:
Public Safety Canada.
Hanson, R. K., & Morton-Bourgon, K. E. (2009). The accuracy of recidivism risk assessments
for sexual offenders: A meta-analysis of 118 prediction studies. Psychological Assessment,
21, 1-21. doi: 10.1037/a0014421
Hanson, R. K., & Thornton, D. (2000). Improving risk assessments for sex offenders: A
comparison of three actuarial scales. Law and Human Behavior, 24, 119-136. doi:
10.1023/A:1005482921333
Howells, K. (1979). Some meaning of children for pedophiles. In M. Cook & G. Wilson (Eds.),
Love and attraction: An international conference (pp. 519-526). New York: Pergamon
Press.
Howells, K. (1981). Adult sexual interest in children: Considerations relevant to theories of
aetiology. In M. Cook & K. Howells (Eds.), Adult sexual interest in children (pp. 55-94).
London: The Academic Press.
Howells, K. (1994). Child sexual abuse: Finkelhor’s precondition model revisited. Psychology,
Crime & Law, 1, 201-214. doi: 10.1080/10683169508411956
Johnston, F. A., & Johnston, S. A. (1997). A cognitive approach to validation of the fixated-
regressed typology of child molesters. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 53, 361-368. doi:
10.1002/(SICI)1097-4679(199706)53:4<361::AID-JCLP9>3.0.CO;2-S
Knight, R. A. (1988). A taxonomic analysis of child molesters. In R. A. Prentky & V. Quinsey
(Eds.), Human sexual aggression: Current perspectives (Vol. 528, 2-20). New York: New
York Academy of Sciences.
Knight, R. A. (1989). An assessment of the concurrent validity of a child molester typology.
Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 4, 131-150. doi: 10.1177/088626089004002001
Knight, R. A., Carter, D. L., & Prentky, R. A. (1989). A system for the classification of child
molesters: Reliability and application. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 4, 3-23. doi:
10.1177/088626089004001001
Knight, R. A., & King, M. W. (2012). Typologies for child molesters: The generation of a new
structural model. In B. K. Schwartz (Ed.), The Sexual Offender (vol. 7). Kingston, NJ:
Civic Research Institute, Inc.
Knight, R. A., & Prentky, R. A. (1990). Classifying sexual offenders: The development and
corroboration of taxonomic models. In W. L. Marshall, D. R. Laws, & H. E. Barbaree
(Eds.), Handbook of sexual assault: Issues, theories, and treatment of the offender (pp. 23-
54). New York: Plenum Press.
Li, C. K. (1990). ‘The main thing is being wanted’: Some case studies on adult sexual
experiences with children. Journal of Homosexuality, 20, 129-143. doi:
10.1300/J082v20n01_09
Looman, J., Gauthier, C., & Boer, D. (2001). Replication of the Massachusetts treatment center
child molester typology in a Canadian sample. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 16, 753-
767. doi: 10.1177/088626001016008002
Mann, R. E., Hanson, R. K., & Thornton, D. (2010). Assessing risk for sexual recidivism: Some
proposals on the nature of psychologically meaningful risk factors. Sexual Abuse: A
Journal of Research and Treatment, 22, 191-217. doi: 10.1177/1079063210366039
Marshall, W. L. (1989). Intimacy, loneliness and sexual offenders. Behavior Research and
Therapy, 27, 491-504. doi: 10.1016/0005-7967(89)90083-1
Marshall, W. L. (1993). The role of attachments, intimacy, and loneliness in the etiology and
maintenance of sexual offending. Sexual and Marital Therapy, 8, 109-121. doi:
10.1080/02674659308408187
Marshall, W. L., & Eccles, A. (1991). Issues in clinical practice with sex offenders. Journal of
Interpersonal Violence, 6, 68– 93. doi: 10.1177/088626091006001006
Marshall, W. L., & Marshall, L. E. (2000). The origins of sexual offending. Trauma, Violence, &
Abuse: A Review Journal, 1, 250-263. doi: 10.1177/1524838000001003003
McPhail, I. V. (2010). Implicit and explicit emotional congruence with children in sexual
offenders against children: A multi-method examination and cumulative meta-analysis
(Unpublished master’s thesis). Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario.
McPhail, I. V., Hermann, C. A., & Nunes, K. L. (2013). Emotional congruence with children and
sexual offending against children: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Consulting and
Clinical Psychology, 81, 737-749. doi: 10.1037/a0033248.
Mohr, J. W., Turner, R. E., & Jerry, M. B. (1964). Pedophilia and Exhibitionism. Toronto, ON:
University of Toronto Press.
Pacht, A. R., & Cowden, J. E. (1974). An exploratory study of five hundred sex offenders.
Criminal Justice and Behavior, 1, 13-20. doi: 10.1177/009385487400100103
Prentky, R. A., Knight, R. A., Rosenberg, R., & Lee, A. (1989). A path analytic approach to the
validation of a taxonomic system for classifying child molesters. Journal of Quantitative
Criminology, 5, 231-257. doi: 10.1007/BF01062739
Quinsey, V. L., & Chaplin, T. C. (1988). Penile responses of child molesters and normals to
descriptions of encounters with children involving sex and violence. Journal of
Interpersonal Violence, 3, 259-274. doi: 10.1177/088626088003003001
Rice, M. E., & Harris, G. T. (2005). Comparing effect sizes in follow-up studies: ROC
area, Cohen’s d, and r. Law and Human Behavior, 29, 615-620. doi:10.1007/s10979-005-
6832-7
Seto, M. C., & Fernandez, Y. (2011). Dynamic risk groups among adult sexual offenders. Sexual
Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 23, 494-507. doi:
10.1177/1079063211403162
Seto, M. C., & Lalumière, M. L. (2001). A brief screening scale to identify pedophilic interests
among child molesters. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 13, 15-25.
doi: 10.1177/107906320101300103
Swets, J. A., Dawes, R. M., & Monahan, J. (2000). Psychological science can improve
diagnostic decisions. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 1, 1-26.
Ward, T., Hudson, S. M., Marshall, W. L., & Seigert, R. (1995). Attachment style and intimacy
deficits in sexual offenders: A theoretical framework. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research
and Treatment, 7, 317-335. doi: 10.1177/107906329500700407
Wilson, R. J. (1999). Emotional congruence in sexual offenders against children. Sexual Abuse:
A Journal of Research and Treatment, 11, 33-47. doi: 10.1177/107906329901100104
Top Related