NOTICE: this is the author’s version of a work that was accepted for publication in Child Abuse

& Neglect on October 2nd

, 2013. Changes resulting from the publishing process, such as editing,

corrections, structural formatting, and other quality control mechanisms may not be reflected in

this document.

Correlates of Emotional Congruence with Children in Sexual Offenders against Children: A Test

of Theoretical Models in an Incarcerated Sample

Ian V. McPhail1

Chantal A. Hermann2

Yolanda M. Fernandez3

1Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Forensic Service, 1001 Queen Street West, Toronto,

Ontario, Canada, M6J 1H4. E-mail: Ian.Mcphail@camh.ca

2Carleton University, Department of Psychology, A403 Loeb, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa,

Ontario, Canada, K1S 5B6. E-mail: ChantalHermann@cmail.carleton.ca

3Correctional Service of Canada, Kingston Penitentiary, 560 King Street West, Kingston,

Ontario, Canada, K7L 4V7. E-mail: Yolanda.Fernandez@csc-scc.gc.ca

Author Note

We would like to thank R. Karl Hanson and Leslie Helmus for their invaluable input on

earlier drafts of this manuscript.

The views expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the Correctional

Service of Canada.

Please address correspondence to Ian McPhail, Forensic Services, Complex Mental

Illness Program, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 1001 Queen Street West, Toronto,

Ontario, Canada, M6J 1H4. E-mail: Ian.Mcphail@camh.ca, 1-416-535-8501 ext. 32520

Abstract

Emotional congruence with children is a psychological construct theoretically involved in

the etiology and maintenance of sexual offending against children. Research conducted to date

has not examined the relationship between emotional congruence with children and other

psychologically meaningful risk factors for sexual offending against children. The current study

derived potential correlates of emotional congruence with children from the published literature

and proposed three models of emotional congruence with children that contain relatively unique

sets of correlates: the blockage, sexual deviance, and psychological immaturity models. Using

Area under the Curve analysis, we assessed the relationship between emotional congruence with

children and offence characteristics, victim demographics, and psychologically meaningful risk

factors in a sample of incarcerated sexual offenders against children (n = 221). The sexual

deviance model received the most support: emotional congruence with children was significantly

associated with deviant sexual interests, sexual self-regulation problems, and cognition that

condones and supports child molestation. The blockage model received partial support, while

the immaturity model received the least support. Based on the results, we propose a set of

further predictions regarding the relationships between emotional congruence with children and

other psychologically meaningful risk factors to be examined in future research.

Keywords: emotional congruence with children, sexual offenders against children,

psychologically meaningful risk factors, sexual deviance, blockage

Correlates of Emotional Congruence with Children in Sexual Offenders against Children: A Test

of Theoretical Models in an Incarcerated Sample

In the general forensic psychology and sexual offender treatment literature it is clear that

in order to provide effective intervention and prevention strategies to reduce sexual violence

against children we need to identify and understand risk factors for sexual aggression (Andrews

& Bonta, 2010; Hanson, Bourgon, Helmus, & Hodgson, 2009). One such risk factor is emotional

congruence with children. Emotional congruence with children is generally defined as an

exaggerated cognitive and emotional affiliation with childhood and children (Finkelhor, 1984;

Mann, Hanson, & Thornton, 2010; Wilson, 1999). The construct describes individuals whose

emotional attachment and dependency needs are more likely met by interacting with children.

Sexual offenders against children who exhibit high levels of emotional congruence with children

may seek child-oriented employment (Knight, 1988), report having children as friends

(Fernandez, Harris, Hanson, & Sparks, 2012), or report being in love with their child victims (Li,

1990). Meta-analytic research has found high levels of emotional congruence with children is

often reported by extrafamilial offenders with male victims, that treatment can significantly

reduce levels of emotional congruence with children for extrafamilial offenders (d = 0.41, 95%

CI [0.33, 0.49], k = 5; McPhail, Hermann, & Nunes, 2013), and that emotional congruence with

children is associated with sexual recidivism (d = 0.39, 95% CI [.21, .57], k = 8; McPhail et al.,

2013). Consequently, emotional congruence with children is an important target for research and

applied work in child sexual abuse prevention, sex offender risk assessment, and treatment

programs aimed at reducing sexual recidivism.

Theorists contend that multiple risk factors are likely necessary to motivate an individual

to sexually abuse a child (Beech & Ward, 2004); likely due to the modest influence single risk

factors have on offending behavior (Agnew, 2013). Most research on emotional congruence

with children has examined this construct in isolation, mainly in attempts to establish its

predictive or discriminative validity (McPhail et al., 2013; Wilson, 1999). As a result, there is a

lack of empirical research examining the offence-related and psychological risk factors that are

associated with emotional congruence with children. The current paper identifies three models

in the existent literature that suggest emotional congruence with children is associated with a

variety of correlates relevant to sexual offending. In this exploratory research, we assess the

strength of the associations between emotional congruence with children and possible correlates

derived from the existent literature. We have used the term model loosely below to denote a

relatively unique set of bivariate relationships between emotional congruence with children and

other risk factors arising from our understanding of the relevant theoretical and empirical

literature.

Models of Emotional Congruence with Children

Theories of sexual offending against children, clinical research, and typologies examining

sexual offenders’ motivations for offending often describe the nature of the relationship between

child victims and offenders, specific offender behaviors, and offenders’ psychological

motivations that are consistent with the conceptualization of emotional congruence with children

noted above. A striking feature of the clinical, theoretical, and typological literature is that

emotional congruence with children is not often described in isolation from other risk factors

relevant to sexual offending against children. These descriptions include assumptions regarding

the interrelationships between psychological constructs contributing to sexual offending (Knight

& King, 2012), with certain theorists and researchers emphasizing different, yet sometimes

overlapping sets of risk factors being associated with emotional congruence with children. Using

a deductive strategy, we have reviewed this literature and identified a set of risk factors that may

be associated with emotional congruence with children and have constructed three models of

emotional congruence with children, the blockage, sexual deviance, and psychological

immaturity models.

The Blockage Model of Emotional Congruence with Children

Finkelhor (1984) suggests that for certain sex offenders, being blocked from satisfying

intimate relationships with adults is associated with finding children less threatening, easier to

spend time with relative to adults, and more attractive as sexual partners. It is also suggested that

blockage from adult relationships is the product of a fear of these relationships and a lack of

social skills or interpersonal competence (Araji & Finkelhor, 1985; Fisher, 1969; Mohr, Turner,

& Jerry, 1964). Sexual offenders against children may perceive adults as domineering, cold, and

dangerous authority figures, whereas children are perceived as welcoming, warm, and

affectionate (Finkelhor, 1984; Howells, 1979). In addition, Howells (1994) suggests that the

blockage factor overlaps conceptually with the emotional congruence factor in Finkelhor’s

Preconditions Model. Based on these authors’ work, emotional congruence with children may

be expected to co-occur with difficulties in establishing and maintaining intimate relationships

and friendships with same-aged peers.

A lack of social and intimate relationships likely begins in adolescence and may result in

emotional loneliness and social isolation (Finkelhor & Araji, 1986; Fisher & Howells, 1993;

Hammer & Glueck, 1957; Marshall, 1989; 1993). Due to the lack of adult relationships, these

individuals may spend much of their social life engaged in activities with children (Mohr et al.,

1964). In support of this notion, Pacht and Cowden (1974) provide evidence that those with

immature, child victims were rated as less socially assertive when compared to rapists. These

authors speculate that an inability to form adult relationships is associated with establishing

positive relationships with child victims. Other research has shown extrafamilial sexual

offenders against children who score high in emotional congruence with children also report low

self-esteem, experience social isolation, and have a history of intimacy failures in adult

relationships (Beckett, Beech, Fisher, & Fordham, 1994).

Consistent with this model, certain theoretical work indicates that poor childhood

attachments may contribute to emotional loneliness and chronic blockage from peer and intimate

relationships. Marshall and colleagues (1993; Ward, Hudson, Marshall, & Seigert, 1995)

suggests that poor quality attachments in childhood leave a male ill-equipped, throughout his

life, to develop relationships with his peers and relate easily to others, alienating him from

others, and leaving intimacy needs unmet by adult peers even though the male desires intimacy.

Persistent intimacy deficits, chronic loneliness, and the desire to achieve intimacy contribute to

seeking a partner that is approving and can be controlled to minimize rejection (Marshall, 1989,

1993; Ward et al., 1995). The case study described by Marshall (1993, p. 79) highlights the

potential relationship between poor childhood attachment, chronic emotional loneliness, and

emotional congruence with children. Thus in the blockage model, emotional congruence with

children is associated with poor childhood attachment, failure to establish satisfactory intimate

relationships, social isolation, emotional loneliness, and low self-esteem (see Table 1).

The Sexual Deviance Model of Emotional Congruence with Children

In the sexual deviance model, we suggest that sexual interest in children is the main

correlate of emotional congruence with children (see Table 1). Groth and colleagues (Groth,

1979; Groth, Hobson, & Gary, 1982) argue that for certain sexual offenders against children (i.e.,

fixated offenders), sexual interest in children is the primary risk factor motivating their offending

against children. Fixated sexual offenders against children are also characterized by behaviors

and emotions consistent with our conceptualization of emotional congruence with children. For

example, fixated sexual offenders against children perceive their victims as warm, affectionate,

broadminded, perceptive, innocent, clean, loving, and report being more comfortable and secure

around children (Finkelhor, 1984; Howells, 1979; Li, 1990) and these offenders identify closely

with their child victim (Groth et al., 1982). Of note, Finkelhor and Araji (1986) suggest that

most of theories of emotional congruence make the implicit assumption that emotional

congruence with children likely accounts for an individual’s sexual interest in children; however,

these authors conclude that emotional congruence with children and sexual interest in children

are likely distinct but associated constructs.

Research on the association between emotional congruence with children and sexual

interest in children has provided conflicting evidence. An examination of the relationship

between fixation (i.e., pedophilic sexual interests) and high amount of contact (i.e., elevated

emotional congruence with children) types of sexual offenders against children in the

Massachusetts Treatment Center Child Molester Typology 3 (MTC: CM3; Knight & Prentky,

1990) indicate that most offenders classified as having a high amount of contact with children

also show a high level of fixation (Knight, 1989). While this finding suggests that sexual

offenders against children likely to be high in emotional congruence with children (i.e., those

classified as high amount of contact offenders) demonstrate sexual interest in children, the

classification criteria for high fixation and high amount of contact have conceptual overlap. The

degree of overlap limits the ability to draw firm conclusions regarding the strength of the

observed association between fixation and emotional congruence with children. Seto and

Fernandez (2011) found that certain clusters of sexual offenders will display elevated levels of

emotional congruence with children and constructs relevant to sexual deviance. In contrast,

other research suggests that sexual offenders against children high in emotional congruence with

children do not exhibit significantly higher levels of sexual deviance on age preference

phallometric testing when compared to other offenders displaying low levels of emotional

congruence with children (Looman, Gauthier, & Boer, 2001). The contrasting evidence suggests

the relationship between emotional congruence with children and sexual interests in children

remains underexplored and a direct examination of the relationship is warranted.

Johnston and Johnston (1997) suggest that for some sexual offenders against children,

offending against children is due to a combination of identification with children, sexual interest

in children, and a distorted view of sexuality and the impact sexual abuse has on the child. In

addition, qualitative research with sexual offenders against children who report strong sexual

interest in children and display emotional congruence with children-type offending behavior

suggests that these individuals hold beliefs that sex with a child is normal, legitimate,

educational, and not harmful to the victims (Li, 1990). Furthermore research has supported a

potential link between emotional congruence with children and distorted beliefs and attitudes

about sex with children (i.e., cognitive distortions; Beckett et al., 1994). Looman and colleagues

(2001) have also hypothesized that cognitive distortions may co-occur with emotional

congruence with children. From these findings, we expect emotional congruence with children

to be associated with both sexual interest in children and cognitions that condone and support

child molestation.

Within the sexual deviance model, additional expectations are possible. Knight, Carter,

and Prentky (1989) suggest that the interpersonal sexual offenders against children (i.e.,

offenders who exhibit significant emotional congruence with children) will rarely offend

impulsively, which suggests that the absence of impulsive offending may be associated with

emotional congruence with children (Groth & Birnbaum, 1978; Knight & King, 2012).

Importantly, researchers also note that “sexual thoughts and fantasies about children (…)

preoccupy the [fixated] offender, and interest in them often reaches the level of obsession”

(Groth, 1978, p. 7), indicating that sexual pre-occupation or poor sexual self-regulation may also

co-occur with emotional congruence with children. Finally, a history of child sexual abuse might

play a role in producing both deviant sexual interests and emotional congruence with children

(Howells, 1981). Currently, although these authors suggest a link between the two constructs,

we are unable to specify the direction of the relationship between emotional congruence with

children and sexual interest in children or whether this relationship is causal in nature.

The Psychological Immaturity Model of Emotional Congruence with Children

A third model (see Table 1) includes psychological and emotional immaturity as

correlates of emotional congruence with children (Araji & Finkelhor, 1986; Finkelhor, 1984;

Fitch, 1962). In this model, the desire to relate to children is due to the offender having childish

emotional needs and a delayed psychological development (Fitch, 1962). This model focuses on

a failure to advance emotionally and cognitively to a stage that is congruent to the offender’s

chronological age. This failure makes children more compatible with the offender’s emotional

and affiliation needs. Within this model, sexual offenders against children are expected to lack

certain cognitive abilities, such as abstract thinking or problem-solving, and there is some

support for this contention (Blanchard, Kolla, Cantor, Klassen, Dickey, Kuban, & Blak, 2007;

Cantor, Blanchard, Robichaud, & Christensen, 2005; Hammer & Glueck, 1957). Compared to

the other two models, the psychological immaturity model has more limited theoretical and

empirical literature to draw from.

Current Study

The present study is an exploratory analysis of the correlates of emotional congruence

with children; we have used deductively-derived models to guide our expectations. We aimed to

assess the strength of the associations between emotional congruence with children and a set of

offence characteristics and psychological risk factors in a sample of incarcerated sexual

offenders against children. Our goals in this study were as follows: (a) to identify empirical

relationships between emotional congruence with children and other psychologically risk factors

and offence characteristics; and (b) assess the level of support for the models presented above.

We did not make a priori predictions regarding the pattern of support for the models of emotional

congruence with children, but have summarized the predictions based upon the models and have

presented this below.

Predictions for Correlates of Emotional Congruence with Children

Based on literature relevant to the blockage model, we predicted emotional congruence

with children will be associated with a sense of loneliness or social rejection, a lack of stable

intimate relationships with adult women, compliance with authority figures, and a general lack of

sexual deviance, such as a higher likelihood of offending against female children: as female child

victims are not indicative of higher levels of deviant sexual interests (Seto & Lalumière, 2001).

Based on literature relevant to the sexual deviance model, we predicted emotional

congruence with children will be associated with low general sexual regulation, higher levels of

deviant sexual interests and paraphilias, a lack of impulsivity, endorsing attitudes that condone

and support child molestation, and offence characteristics associated with sexual interest in

children (i.e., young or male victims, having more prior sexual offence victims, having unrelated

victims; see Seto & Lalumière, 2001).

Based on literature relevant to the psychological immaturity model, we predicted

emotional congruence with children will be associated with being younger, poor cognitive

problem-solving ability, low social competence, more female victims due to a lack of sexual

deviance, and higher impulsivity.

Method

Participants

Participants were drawn from an archival dataset of 419 adult male sexual offenders who

had been assessed upon entry to the Canadian federal penitentiary system in Ontario, Canada

between 2000 and 2007 (see Seto & Fernandez, 2011, for a full description of this sample).

Participants were included in the current study if they had at least one victim younger than 14

years old and were 18 years or older at the time of assessment. The final sample consisted of 221

federally incarcerated adult male sexual offenders against children. The clinical assessment

process included a file review and, for offenders who provided informed consent, a semi-

structured interview and phallometric assessment. On average, participants were 35.3 years old

(SD = 10.2) at the time of their index offence and were low to medium risk for sexual recidivism

(Static-99 M = 2.6; SD = 2.2). The median number of victims was 2 (M = 2.8, SD = 5.6). Of the

221 participants, 40.7% were married or in common-law relationships (n = 90), 38.5% were

single (n = 85), and 20.8% were divorced, separated, or widowed (n = 46).

Measures

Static-99. Static-99 (Hanson & Thornton, 2000) is an actuarial measure of sexual

recidivism risk. The measure consists of 10 static items (e.g., any male victims, any stranger

victims, age at release) scored using the information commonly available in offenders’

institutional files. Most items on Static-99 are score 0 or 1, while one item (prior sex offences) is

scored 0, 1, 2, or 3. The total score can range from 0-12; individuals with scores of 0-1 are

considered low risk for sexual recidivism, individuals with scores of 2-3 are considered low to

medium risk for sexual recidivism, individuals with scores of 4-5 are considered medium to high

risk for sexual recidivism, and individuals who score 6 and above are considered high risk for

sexual recidivism. A recent meta-analysis found that Static-99 had moderate predictive accuracy

(mean AUC = .68, k = 63, N = 20,010; Hanson & Morton-Bourgon, 2009). Items from Static-99

were used as proxies for the offence characteristic and psychological risk factor correlates

indicated in the models of emotional congruence with children.

STABLE-2000. STABLE-2000 (Hanson, Harris, Scott, & Helmus, 2007) is a measure

designed to assess dynamic sexual recidivism risk. The measure assesses 16 risk factors that are

scored as “0 – no problem”, “1 – some concern”, and “2 – present/definite concern” using file-

and interview- based information. The risk factors are grouped into six domains: (a) significant

social influences, (b) intimacy deficits, (c) sexual self-regulation, (d) attitudes supportive of

sexual assault, (e) cooperation with supervision, and (f) general self-regulation. Hanson et al.

(2007) report good internal consistency (α = .83) and good interrater reliability (ICC = .89) for

STABLE-2000. In addition, STABLE-2000 has moderate predictive validity for sexual

recidivism (AUC = .66, 95% CI [.59, .72] Hanson et al., 2007). Items from STABLE-2000 were

used as proxies for the psychological risk factor correlates indicated in the models of emotional

congruence with children.

Emotional Congruence with Children. Participants were classified as evidencing high

or low emotional congruence with children using the Emotional Identification with Children item

of STABLE-2000. The presence of emotional congruence with children is inferred from the

following indicators: the offender having immature relationships with adults and/or no adult

friends, viewing children as having unique qualities of understanding or communication, interest

in childlike activities, having children as friends, and generally feeling more comfortable with

children relative to adults (Fernandez et al., 2012). Scores on this item range from 0 to 2, with

higher scores indicating more emotional congruence with children. A score of 0 indicates age-

appropriate friendships, work, and leisure activities; a score of 1 indicates a noticeable interest in

relationships with children and immature relationships with adults with some attributions of adult

characteristics to children; and a score of 2 indicates a preference for spending time (e.g., child-

oriented leisure activities) and having relationships with children and perceiving children as

adults. Participants who received a score of 0 were classified as evidencing low emotional

congruence with children and participants who received a score of 1 or 2 were classified as

evidencing high emotional congruence with children. Those offenders scoring 1 or 2 on this

item were classified in this way because they exhibited the presence of emotional congruence

with children, but to varying degrees.

Generally the interrater reliability for Emotional Identification with Children item is

adequate. For the Dynamic Supervision Project (Hanson, Harris, Scott, & Helmus, 2007),

Emotional Identification with Children item scores were coded by trained community

supervision officers for offenders on their caseloads. To assess interrater reliability of the item, 4

expert trainers reviewed the files and scoring of 30 offenders with victims less than 14 years old.

The interrater reliability for the trichotomous scores was good (ICC = .75), and adequate for

dichotomous none/any classification (k = .70; 87% agreement; R. K. Hanson, personal

communication, April 23, 2012). Similarly, Fernandez (2008) found adequate interrater

reliability for trichotomous scoring of the Emotional Identification with Children item of

STABLE 2007 (ICC = .70). The Emotional Identification with Children item has also

demonstrated a small positive correlation with the Emotional Congruence scale of the Children

and Sex Questionnaire total score (CSQ, Beckett, 1987; r = .23, n = 12) and a moderate positive

significant relationship with the Child Identification Scale-Revised (CIS-R, Wilson, 1999; r =

.57, p < .05, n = 12) in past research, suggesting adequate convergent validity (McPhail, 2010).

Phallometric assessment. Sexual arousal was measured by mercury-in-rubber strain

gauge plethysmography. A mercury filled sylastic rubber tube of appropriate diameter for each

individual was fitted midway along the subject's penis. A plethysmograph monitored the

conductance of the mercury column, which decreased as the mercury was stretched by increases in

penile circumference. Output was monitored by a digital voltmeter and then collected, scored, and

stored electronically on a computer. The audiotaped stimuli were from the Quinsey Child Sexual

Violence assessment (Quinsey & Chaplin, 1988). The stimuli consisted of verbal descriptions of

sexual episodes between two consenting adults and between adults and children presented to

subjects via audio headphones. Stimuli descriptions varied the age of the sexual partner, the gender

of the sexual partner, and the level of coercion involved in the sexual activity, including consenting

sex between adults, nonsexual violence against an adult, coerced sexual activity with a child, and

sexual activity with a passive child. An index of deviant arousal (ratio score) was calculated by

dividing the average response to an inappropriate category (e.g., sex with a child) by the average

response to an appropriate category (e.g., adult consenting sex). A ratio of .80 was considered

the criteria for a profile to be considered deviant (Marshall & Eccles, 1991). In the present

study, 51.1% sexual offenders against children consented to the phallometric assessment (n =

113). Sexual offenders were asked to consent to the phallometric assessment separately from the

STABLE-2000 interview. We conducted a missing values analysis and Little’ MCAR test was

non-significant (χ 2 = 4.812, p = .568), suggesting data were missing at random. Furthermore,

participants who did not consent to phallometric assessment did not significantly differ from

participants who did consent to phallometric assessment in terms of age at offence, age at

assessment, or static risk as measured by STATIC-99. As a result, data were considered to be

missing at random and pairwise deletion was used for all of the analyses that included the

phallometric assessment data. Phallometric assessment was used as an index of the sexual

interest in children correlate of emotional congruence with children predicted by the sexual

deviance model outlined above.

Statistical Analyses

The Area Under the Receiver Operating Characteristic Curve (AUC) was used to

examine correlates of emotional congruence with children. AUCs were preferred over odds

ratios because odds ratio magnitude is not comparable across continuous and dichotomous

predictors. AUC is a nonparametric effect size statistic that can be used to examine the

probability that a randomly selected sexual offender against children high in emotional

congruence with children will be more deviant on the risk factor (e.g., will have male victims,

will endorse more cognitions that condone and support child molestation) than a randomly

selected sexual offender against children low in emotional congruence with children (Hanley &

McNeil, 1982; Swets, Dawes, & Monahan, 2000). AUC was considered preferable over

correlation as the size of a correlation is artificially reduced the further the base rate of the

dichotomous variable deviates from a perfect 50/50 split (see Rice & Harris, 2005 for an

overview). Given that the base rate of emotional identification was 26%, correlations would be a

biased effect size indicator. An AUC of .50 indicates no difference between the high and low

emotional congruence with children groups on a risk factor. An AUC is statistically significant if

the 95% confidence interval does not include .50. For the variables examined in this study,

AUCs greater than .50 represent sexual offenders against children high in emotional congruence

with children evidencing higher levels of the risk factor relative to sexual offenders against

children low in emotional congruence with children. AUCs less than .50 represent offenders low

in emotional congruence with children evidencing higher levels of the risk factor relative to

offenders high in emotional congruence with children. As an interpretive heuristic, an AUC of

.56 corresponds to a small effect size, while .64 reflects a moderate effect, and .71 reflects a large

effect size, as these values correspond to Cohen’s ds of .2, .5, and .8, when certain assumptions

are satisfied (Rice & Harris, 2005). Conversely, AUC values of .44, .36, and .29 would represent

small, moderate, and large effects in the other direction.

Results

Of the 221 sexual offenders against children assessed, 164 (74.2%) were classified as

evidencing low emotional congruence with children and 57 (25.8%) were classified as

evidencing high emotional congruence with children. Of the 57 sexual offenders against children

who were classified as evidencing high emotional congruence with children, 42 (73.7 %) had a

score of 1 and 15 (26.3%) had a score of 2 on the Emotional Identification with Children item of

STABLE-2000.

Blockage. The blockage model received partial support in this sample (see Table 2). The

sexual offenders against children classified as high emotional congruence with children were

significantly more likely to have higher levels of social rejection and loneliness (AUC = .66).

Additionally, the prediction that sexual offenders against children high in emotional congruence

with children will display lower levels of impulsivity was supported (AUC = .38). However,

sexual offenders against children high in emotional congruence with children did not display a

lack of significant adult social influences (AUC = .53) and intimate partners (AUC = .54), higher

levels of hostility towards women (AUC = .51), higher non-compliance with supervision (AUC

= .52), or the absence of male victims (AUCStatic-99: Any male victims = .54). The blockage model also

predicts a general lack of sexual deviance for high emotional congruence with children

offenders, however as seen below, this prediction was not supported.

Sexual deviance. The sexual deviance model received the most support in this sample.

High emotional congruence with children was associated with higher levels of problems with

sexual pre-occupation and high sex drive (AUC = .60), using sex as a means of coping with

negative emotional states (AUC = .62), deviant sexual interests (AUC = .74), and arousal to male

children as assessed by circumferential phallometry (passive male child AUC = .65; coerced

male child AUC = .61). Additionally, high emotional congruence with children was associated

with higher levels of attitudes that condone and support child molestation (AUC = .73). Counter

to predictions for this model, sexual offenders against children high in emotional congruence

with children were not more likely to have a greater numbers of prior sexual offences (AUC =

.46), more victims (AUC = .49), fewer stranger victims (AUC = .45), more male, unrelated

victims (AUC = .52), or lower likelihood of being in a stable relationship as measured by

STABLE-2000 (AUC = .54) as compared to sexual offenders against children low in emotional

congruence with children.

Psychological immaturity. The psychological immaturity model received the least

support in the sample. The only support for the model’s predictions was higher social

rejection/loneliness as a measure of low social competence (AUC = .66). Counter to predictions

for this model, sexual offenders against children high and low in emotional congruence with

children were equally as likely to be young at time of offence (AUC = .42), exhibit problems in

cognitive problem solving (AUC = .51), and have female victims (AUCStatic-99: Any male victims =

.54). Additionally, in contrast to the model’s predictions, sexual offenders against children high

in emotional congruence with children evidenced lower levels of impulsivity (AUC = .38).

Discussion

This exploratory study examined the correlates of emotional congruence with children in

an incarcerated sample of sexual offenders against children within the framework of three

deductively-derived models of emotional congruence with children. The results were most

consistent with the sexual deviance model. High emotional congruence with children was most

strongly associated with sexual pre-occupation, using sex as a means to cope with negative

emotions, deviant sexual interests, cognitions that condone and support child molestation, and

phallometrically assessed arousal to sexual activity with passive and coerced prepubescent

males. The results were moderately consistent with the blockage model. More specifically, the

results were consistent with a main prediction of this model, that sexual offenders against

children high in emotional congruence with children will have more problems with social

rejection and loneliness. However, there were no group differences in other domains relevant to

problems in social relationships. For instance, sexual offenders against children high in

emotional congruence with children did not display lower rates of significant social influences or

an absence of long term intimate relationships. Finally, the results were least consistent with the

psychological immaturity model. The predictions that sexual offenders against children high in

emotional congruence with children would show difficulty in cognitive problem-solving ability

and adult intimate relationships were not supported. Additionally, the predictions that these

offenders would be younger and more impulsive were not supported.

A number of authors have suggested that those offenders who display emotional

congruence with children-type behavior will also display a lack of interpersonal skills and will

only be comfortable around children (Araji & Finkelhor, 1985; Cohen, Seghorn, & Calmas,

1969; Finkelhor, 1984; Finkelhor & Araji, 1986; Groth, 1978, 1979). Markers of general

interpersonal skills, such as the number of significant social influences and ability to maintain

intimate relationships, used in the current research did not support this hypothesized lack of

ability to initiate friendships and maintain relationships for those rated as having a high level of

emotional congruence with children. Our findings are consistent with prior research that has

found emotional congruence with children is generally unrelated to markers of impaired

interpersonal competence (such as marriage; Knight, 1989; Prentky et al., 1989). Given the

available evidence, we would suggest that markers of impaired interpersonal competence, such

as the presence of marriage or intimate relationships, long-term employment, or number of

friendships may not be useful in helping to understand emotional congruence with children.

An important distinction to make, given previous and the current findings, is that while

high emotional congruence with children offenders may not display markedly poor interpersonal

relationships predicted by previous authors, these offenders may find these relationships to be

unsatisfying, feel that others do not care about them, and as a result experience a pervasive sense

of loneliness and rejection. The findings of this research provide support for the importance of

considering the experience of loneliness and rejection in understanding why certain offenders

approach children to satisfy emotional needs. This interpretation is consistent with Cohen and

colleagues’ (1969) understanding of their similar results and theoretical work by Marshall and

colleagues (1989, 1993; Ward et al., 1995).

Our findings are consistent with past research and clinical observations of the relationship

between sexual deviance and emotional congruence with children and extend these findings in

important ways. Groth and colleagues observed that offenders that have a preference for sexual

contact also identify with children (Groth, 1978, 1979; Groth, Hobson, & Gary, 1982).

Taxonomic research also supports this relationship, as the high fixation type of the MTC-CM3

has been found to be correlated with offenders who have a high level of interpersonal contact

with children (Knight, 1989). The results of the current research provide additional support for

these findings. Importantly, this research is the first to provide direct evidence of an association

between emotional congruence with children and phallometrically assessed arousal to sexual

activity with prepubescent males. Emotional congruence with children was also associated with

problems in sexual self-regulation, which supports theoretical work suggesting a possible link

between the two constructs (Ward et al., 1995). In addition, Looman and colleagues’ (2001)

hypothesis that cognitive distortions likely co-occur with emotional congruence with children-

type offending behavior was also supported.

There are at least two explanations for this observed pattern of results supporting the

sexual deviance model. First, it is possible that the observed associations are caused by deviant

sexual interests (i.e., pedophilia). Emotional congruence with children could be a courtship

display or intimacy style that facilitates an emotional connection between the offender and his

child victim. Conceptualized in this way, emotional congruence with children is the result of

pedophilia, a means of facilitating offending, or improving success with the offender’s preferred

partner group, children. While an explanation linking pedophilia and emotional congruence

with children is parsimonious, some recent literature associates pedophilia with factors

associated with disturbed sexual urges and behavioral disinhibition, factors such as head injury in

childhood resulting in unconsciousness (Blanchard et al., 2002, 2003), IQ (Cantor et al., 2004,

2005), grade failure and special education placement (Cantor et al., 2006), frontal lobe

dysfunction (Cohen et al., 2002; Graber, Hartman, Coffman, Heuy, & Golden, 1982). An

alternate explanation of the current findings is that deviant sexual interest (i.e., pedophilia) is

associated with emotional congruence with children and poor sexual self-regulation. For

offenders who display emotional congruence with children, problems with sexual self-regulation

could lead individuals to sexualize the emotional relationships they have with children. In this

way, sexual interest in children is prompted by sexual pre-occupation and using sex as a method

of coping with stress or negative emotions co-occurring with pre-existing emotional relationships

an offender has with children. Consistent with this, Ward and colleagues (1995) suggest that

some sexual offenders against children may sexualize a pre-existing relationship with a child.

Our findings provide an extension of this hypothesis by positing poor sexual self-regulation as

the mechanism through which these pre-existing relationships may become sexualized. This

second explanation suggests that the existence of high emotional congruence with children and

sexual self-regulation problems may predict deviant sexual interests in children. Given that

neither explanation can be ruled out using the current research, future research should further

explore these hypotheses.

Implications for Treatment

The findings suggest that for sexual offenders against children with high emotional

congruence with children, interventions relevant to deviant sexual interest and sexual self-

regulation may be an important part of treatment. Treatment providers should consider that for

some sexual offenders, their sexual interest in children may reduce their investment in pursuing

adult relationships, resulting in increased loneliness and feelings of rejection as well as higher

emotional congruence with children. In addition to addressing issues of social rejection,

loneliness, offence supportive cognitions, and improving motivation and investment in adult

social interactions, treatment providers may incorporate interventions specific to promoting

healthy sexuality with appropriate aged partners and managing sexual deviance. Failure to

consider all of these problems as related and salient for the sexual offender who exhibits high

emotional congruence with children may limit the efficacy of treatment to reduce the impact of

these important risk factors.

Limitations and Future Directions

This study was exploratory in nature and given the nature of the data, the direction of the

relationships between emotional congruence with children and its correlates cannot be inferred.

In addition the data were archival; as such we were limited in terms of the breadth of variables

available, reducing our ability to test some hypotheses arising from the three models and

resulting in the reliance on a single measure of emotional congruence with children. As a result,

the current research provided the least robust test of the psychological immaturity model’s

predictions compared to the other models. While this study indicates a lack of support for the

psychological immaturity model, the evidence is not so overwhelming as to eliminate this model

as a potential framework for understanding the correlates of emotional congruence with children.

In addition, attachment styles associated with high and low emotional congruence with children

could not be tested in the current study. As outlined in the introduction, theory also suggests a

potential link between anxious/ambivalent attachment styles, long-term emotional loneliness,

and having emotional and sexual relationships with children (Marshall, 1993; Ward et al., 1995)

and this may be another fruitful avenue for future research.

This research relied on a single method of measuring emotional congruence with

children, which may limit our confidence in the findings. While past research does not nominate

a specific measure of emotional congruence with children as the “gold standard” (McPhail et al.,

2013), replication of these results using multiple methods of assessing emotional congruence

with children will bolster our confidence in the findings and will likely expand our understanding

of the relationships between these constructs. Finally, the relatively small sample size may have

obscured important associations predicted by the three models.

Conclusions

Emotional congruence with children is associated with higher levels of deviant sexual

interests, sexual self-regulation problems, cognitions that condone and support child molestation,

and social rejection and loneliness. Importantly, our findings support previous theoretical work

and extend past empirical work by highlighting the importance of considering the experience of

loneliness and offence supportive cognitions for sexual offenders who display high levels of

emotional congruence with children. From these results, it is apparent that multiple risk factors

co-occur to influence sexual abuse of children in high emotional congruence with children

offenders. Follow-up research to confirm these relationships and to examine the predictive

relationships between emotional congruence with children, poor sexual self-regulation, and

deviant sexual interests is needed. In addition, future theoretical work may wish to integrate

these findings in developing an etiological framework describing the development of emotional

congruence with children in sexual offenders against children.

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