CLEOPATRA

C l e o p a t r a V I I was t h e daughter of Ptolemy X I I A u l e t e s and p o s s i b l y o f h i s s i s t e r / w i f e , C l e o p a t r a Tryphaena. Such b r o t h e r - s i s t e r m a r r i a g e s were common among t h e members of t h e E g y p t i a n r u l i n g house. I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t C l e o p a t r a had t h r e e s i s t e r s , two o l d e r and one younger, and two younger b r o t h e r s . Her r e p r e s e n t a t i o n w i t h Negro id f i g u r e s by M i c h e l a n g e l o and h e r d e p i c t i o n as an E g y p t i a n i n c u l t p a i n t i n g s c o n c e a l h e r Macedonian a n c e s t r y ; he r f a m i l y t r a c e d i t s l i n e a g e back t o t h e Macedonian house of t h e L a g i d P t o l e m i e s , which had succeeded t o t h e E g y p t i a n t h r o n e a f t e r t h e u n t i m e l y d e a t h o f A l e x a n d e r t h e G r e a t i n t h e e a r l y f o u r t h c e n t u r y BC. The P t o l e m a i c r u l e o f Egypt was c e n t e r e d i n A l e x a n d r i a , t h e b e a u t i f u l and populous c i t y A l e x a n d e r had founded t o t h e wes t o f t h e d e l t a o f t h e N i l e when he invaded Egypt i n 332.

C l e o p a t r a was r e a r e d i n a c o u r t b e s e t by v i o l e n c e , murder, and c o r r u p t i o n and dominated by t h e r e a l i t y o f Roman m i l i t a r y m i g h t — a l l o f which had p l a y e d an impor tan t r o l e i n he r f a t h e r ' s a c c e s s i o n t o t h e t h r o n e . I n 80, upon t h e dea th of Ptolemy S o t e r I I , t h e o n l y l e g i t i m a t e male P t o l e m a i c h e i r came t o t h e t h r o n e as Ptolemy A l e x a n d e r I I . He was con f i rmed i n power by t h e Romans but a f t e r murder ing h i s w i f e , B e r n i c e I I I , was h i m s e l f murdered. Two i l l e g i t i m a t e sons o f Ptolemy S o t e r I I were now c l a i m a n t s t o t h e k i n g s h i p .

The Romans pu t one b r o t h e r i n c o n t r o l o f Cyprus . The o t h e r , C l e o p a t r a ' s f a t h e r , Ptolemy Theos P h i l o p a t o r P h i l a d e l p h o s Neos Dionysos o r , as he was known t o A l e x a n d r i a n s , Ptolemy X I I A u l e t e s (The F l u t e P l a y e r ) , succeeded t o t h e t h r o n e of Egypt . H i s r e l a t i o n s w i t h h i s s u b j e c t s were d i f f i c u l t , i n p a r t because he r e c o g n i z e d , u n l i k e them, t h e growing power o f Rome throughout the M e d i t e r r a n e a n and r e a l i z e d t h a t t h e o n l y way t o s e c u r e h i s p o s i t i o n was t o m a i n t a i n c l o s e c o n t a c t w i t h t h e r u l e r s o f t h e w o r l d . D u r i n g a v i s i t t o Rome, when he was hoping by means o f m a s s i v e b r i b e s t o s e c u r e t h e a i d o f t h e Roman army, h i s daughter , B e r e n i c e , i n a l l i a n c e w i t h A r c h i l a u s , son of M i t h r i d a t e s , s e i z e d t h e t h r o n e , o n l y t o be put t o dea th by h e r f a t h e r upon h i s r e t u r n .

When Ptolemy X I I A u l e t e s d i e d i n 51 BC, n e a r l y t h i r t y s tormy y e a r s i n o f f i c e , he w i l l e d t h e kingdom o f Egypt t o h i s s e v e n t e e n y e a r o l d daugh te r and h i s t e n y e a r o l d son, who r u l e d j o i n t l y a s C l e o p a t r a V I I and Ptolemy X I I I P h i l o p a t e r . The young Ptolemy, however, soon f e l l under t h e i n f l u e n c e o f h i s a d v i s e r s — P o t h i n u s , a eunuch; Theodotus, a r h e t o r i c i a n ; and A c h i l l a s t h e army commander—who must have found t h e boy k i n g f a r more m a n i p u l a b l e t han h i s o l d e r s i s t e r , t h e i n t e l l i g e n t , h e a d s t r o n g , e n e r g e t i c C l e o p a t r a . As a r e s u l t , C l e o p a t r a was d r i v e n from A l e x a n d r i a . When J u l i u s Caesar-a r r i v e d i n Egyp t , i n p u r s u i t o f Pompey, a f t e r t h e B a t t l e o f

P h a r s a l u s i n 48, C l e o p a t r a was i n Pe lus ium, on t h e e a s t e r n f r o n t i e r o f Egyp t , w i t h h e r newly a c q u i r e d army p r e p a r i n g t o a t t a c k h e r b r o t h e r and h i s a s s o c i a t e s .

C a e s a r , a s Rome's o f f i c i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , was i n a p o s i t i o n t o a r b i t r a t e between t h e s i b l i n g s , and h i s p l a n t o r e c o n c i l e C l e o p a t r a and Ptolemy might have worked had not Ptolemy's a d v i s e r s d e c i d e d t h a t power s h o u l d remain i n t h e i r own g r a s p . I n t h e r e s u l t i n g showdown, known as t h e A l e x a n d r i a n War, C a e s a r was v i c t o r i o u s — b u t not w i t h o u t a s t r u g g l e . P o t h i n u s , A c h i l l a s , and Ptolemy were a l l k i l l e d , and C l e o p a t r a was r e s t o r e d by C a e s a r t o t h e t h r o n e , t h i s t ime w i t h Ptolemy XIV, h e r younger b r o t h e r , as c o n s o r t . By 48 BC, C l e o p a t r a was i n c o n t r o l o f Egyp t .

From t h i s p o i n t onward, C l e o p a t r a ' s f u t u r e i s i n e x o r a b l y i n t e r t w i n e d w i t h t h a t o f Rome and her l e a d e r s . I n t h e i r w r i t i n g s , P l u t a r c h and S u e t o n i u s d w e l l on t h e l o v e a f f a i r t h a t deve loped between J u l i u s C a e s a r , then i n h i s f i f t i e s , and t h e twenty-one y e a r o l d C l e o p a t r a . I n s p i t e o f t h e arguments t o t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e c h i l d born t o C l e o p a t r a s h o r t l y a f t e r C a e s a r l e f t Egypt on h i s e a s t e r n campaign was p r o b a b l y C a e s a r ' s son. At any r a t e , C l e o p a t r a , by naming t h e c h i l d C a e s a r i o n , was c l a i m i n g t h a t h e r son was i n d e e d t h e son o f t h e Roman conqueror . Moreover, young O c t a v i a n , C a e s a r ' s h e i r , who had most t o f e a r i f J u l i u s C a e s a r had a genuine son, had C a e s a r i o n put t o d e a t h i n 30, immedia te ly a f t e r t h e d e a t h o f C l e o p a t r a .

A l though C l e o p a t r a i s o f t e n imagined as a r a v i s h i n g beau t y b e c a u s e o f t h e e a s e w i t h which she seduced e x p e r i e n c e d and mature s o l d i e r s such a s C a e s a r and Antony, a few c o i n s s u r v i v e d e p i c t i n g h e r as l a r g e - n o s e d , sharped c h i n n e d , and de t e rmined . She was a l s o r u t h l e s s . A f t e r t h e A l e x a n d r i a n War, C a e s a r thought i t s u f f i c i e n t t o e x p e l C l e o p a t r a ' s s i s t e r , A r s i n o e , f o r h e r p a r t i n t h e u p r i s i n g ; C l e o p a t r a l a t e r had h e r put t o d e a t h .

L i t t l e i s known about C l e o p a t r a ' s r u l e o f Egyp t , a l t h o u g h t h e r e i s e v i d e n c e t h a t she t r i e d t o win t h e f a v o r o f t h e f a r m e r s by r e d u c i n g t h e i r t a x e s . From 46, she was l i v i n g i n Rome w i t h C a e s a r i o n and Ptolemy XIV. The r e a s o n s t a t e d f o r h e r v i s i t was t h a t she had come t o a s k t h e Sena te f o r c o n f i r m a t i o n o f h e r f a t h e r ' s t r e a t y o f f r i e n d s h i p ; y e t she was lodged by C a e s a r , a l o n g w i t h C a e s a r i o n and Ptolemy XIV, i n h i s v i l l a i n T r a s t e v e r e , where she at tempted t o c u l t i v a t e good r e l a t i o n s w i t h as many i n f l u e n t i a l Romans as p o s s i b l e . C a e s a r a l s o pu t a go lden s t a t u e o f C l e o p a t r a i n t h e temple o f Venus G e n e t r i x a t Rome, t h u s a s s o c i a t i n g he r w i t h t h e goddess who was i n l e g e n d t h e mother of Aeneas and thus o f t h e J u l i a n l i n e . He may have p l a n n e d t o g a i n s p e c i a l p e r m i s s i o n from t h e Roman peop le t o c o n t r a c t a l e g a l m a r r i a g e w i t h h e r , s i n c e h i s Roman w i f e was c h i l d l e s s . The p l a n s were f r u s t r a t e d by C a e s a r ' s a s s a s s i n a t i o n i n 44 BC, and C l e o p a t r a p r o b a b l y l e f t

Rome s h o r t l y a f t e r w a r d . Egyp t ' s w e a l t h d i d not p a s s u n n o t i c e d by t h e Romans, so

i t i s not s u r p r i s i n g t h a t d u r i n g Marc Antony's e a s t e r n campaign a f t e r t h e B a t t l e o f P h i l i p p i i n 42 he saw t h e chance of s u b s i d i z i n g h i s wars by t a x i n g C l e o p a t r a ' s s u b j e c t s . C l e o p a t r a was shrewd enough t o r e a l i z e t h a t he r p e r s o n a l charms would be f a r more e f f e c t i v e i n p r e s e r v i n g h e r kingdom than would open c o n f r o n t a t i o n . P l u t a r c h ' s accoun t o f t h e mee t ing between Antony and C l e o p a t r a b r i l l i a n t l y d e s c r i b e s both t h e f a b u l o u s w e a l t h o f t h e monarch and h e r g r a c e . J u s t as C l e o p a t r a had c a p t i v a t e d J u l i u s C a e s a r i n h e r " s a l a d days" when she was "green i n judgment", she now i n h e r m a t u r i t y s e t out t o win t h e h e a r t o f Antony.

A f t e r t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e second t r i u m v i r a t e between Antony, O c t a v i a n and L e p i d u s , which was s e a l e d by Antony's m a r r i a g e t o O c t a v i a n ' s h a l f s i s t e r , O c t a v i a , C l e o p a t r a was l e f t t o r u l e Egyp t . I n 37, however, Antony's march e a s t w a r d l e d t o renewed f r i e n d s h i p and an u n d e r s t a n d i n g between t h e two, which made a v a i l a b l e t o Antony t h e r e s o u r c e s o f Egypt . From t h i s t ime onward, C l e o p a t r a ' s i n f l u e n c e o v e r Antony grew. She a l s o now assumed E g y p t i a n d r e s s t h a t r e p r e s e n t e d the goddess I s i s and i s r e p o r t e d t o have adopted t h e f o l l o w i n g o a t h ; "As s u r e l y as I s h a l l one day d i s p e n s e judgment i n t h e Roman c a p i t a l . " When Antony a r r a n g e d f o r C a e s a r i o n and h i s own t h r e e c h i l d r e n by C l e o p a t r a t o s h a r e i n r u l i n g both Egypt and Roman p r o v i n c e s i n A s i a Minor and f o r m a l l y d i v o r c e d O c t a v i a , O c t a v i a n d e c l a r e d war not a g a i n s t h i s f e l l o w Roman Antony but a g a i n s t C l e o p a t r a . He must have r e a l i z e d t h a t Antony c o u l d not h e l p but j o i n C l e o p a t r a .

At t h e B a t t l e o f Act ium i n 31, C l e o p a t r a ' s E g y p t i a n f o r c e s , t o g e t h e r w i t h Antony's Roman f o r c e s , f a c e d O c t a v i a n ' s f l e e t , commanded by Marcus A g r i p p a . When C l e o p a t r a r e t r e a t e d , she was q u i c k l y f o l l o w e d by Antony, l e a v i n g h i s f o r c e s l e a d e r l e s s and q u i c k d e f e a t . C l e o p a t r a and Antony f l e d back t o Egypt and was c h a s e d down by O c t a v i a n ' s army. Antony and C l e o p a t r a u l t i m a t e l y committed s u i c i d e i n 30 AD, mark ing t h e end o f P t o l e m a i c r u l e o f Egypt and t h e b e g i n n i n g o f d i r e c t Roman r u l e i n what was now an i m p e r i a l p r o v i n c e .

Taken from G r e a t L i v e s i n H i s t o r y . M a g i l l

THE DESTRUCTION OF POMPEII

The c a t a s t r o p h e t h a t overwhelmed t h e c i t i e s o f Pompeii and Herculaneum t u r n e d out t o be of tremendous s i g n i f i c a n c e t o a r c h a e o l o g y .

I n t h e midd le of August, 79 AD, t h e r e were s i g n s t h a t Mt. V e s u v i u s was a g a i n about t o e r u p t , but s i n c e V e s u v i u s was o f t e n a c t i v e , a t f i r s t t h e r e was no a l a r m . On t h e forenoon of t h e 24 th , however, i t became c l e a r t h a t a d i s a s t e r o f unpara ­l l e l e d d imens ions was i n t h e making. The top of t h e mountain s p l i t a p a r t w i t h a thunderous e x p l o s i o n . Smoke mush-roomed i n t o t h e sky , d a r k e n i n g t h e sun. A r a i n o f v o l c a n i c c i n d e r and a s h e s began t o s i f t down, amid t e r r i f i c c r a s h e s and t e r r i f y i n g f l a s h e s o f l i g h t . B i r d s tumbled dead out o f t h e a i r , p eop l e r a n about s c reaming , a n i m a l s s l u n k i n t o h i d i n g . Meanwhile t o r r e n t s o f wa te r r u s h e d through t h e s t r e e t s , and no one c o u l d t e l l whether t h e y came from t h e sky o r out o f t h e e a r t h .

T h i s v i o l e n c e descended on t h e two c i t i e s o f Pompeii and Herculaneum d u r i n g t h e busy, sunny hours of e a r l y morning and worked t h e i r t o t a l d e s t r u c t i o n i n two d i f f e r e n t ways. An a v a ­l a n c h e of mud—a m i x t u r e o f v o l c a n i c a sh , r a i n and l a v a — poured m a s s i v e l y o v e r Herculaneum, f o r c i n g i t s way i n t o s t r e e t s and a l l e y s , r i s i n g h i g h e r and h i g h e r , and a lways i n ­c r e a s i n g i n p r e s s u r e . The f l o w c o v e r e d r o o f s , r a n i n through doors and windows, and e v e n t u a l l y f i l l e d Herculaneum as w a t e r f i l l s t h e i n t e r s t i c e s o f a sponge. E v e r y t h i n g and everyone not immedia te lY e v a c u a t e d were b u r i e d deep.

At Pompeii i t was d i f f e r e n t . Here t h e r e was no f l o o d of muck; d i s a s t e r began w i t h a l i g h t f a l l o f a sh , so l i g h t t h a t p e o p l e were a b l e t o b r u s h t h e powdery d u s t o f f t h e i r s h o u l d e r s . Soon, however, l a p i l l i began t o come down, then o c c a s i o n a l bombs o f pumice w e i g h i n g many pounds. The e x t e n t o f t h e danger was o n l y g r a d u a l l y r e v e a l e d , and o n l y when i t was too l a t e . C louds of s u l p h u r fumes s e t t l e d down on t h e c i t y , t h e y seeped through t h e c r a c k s and c r e v i c e s and b i l l o w ­ed up under t h e c l o t h s t h a t t h e s u f f o c a t i n g t o w n s f o l k h e l d up t o t h e i r f a c e s . I f t h e y r a n outdoors s e e k i n g a i r and freedom, t h e y were met by a t h i c k h a i l o f l a p i l l i t h a t drove them back i n t e r r o r t o t h e s h e l t e r o f t h e i r homes. Roofs caved i n , whole f a m i l i e s were b u r i e d . O t h e r s were s p a r e d f o r a t i m e . F o r a h a l f hour o r so t h e y c rouched i n f e a r and t r e m b l i n g under s t a i r s and a r c h e d door s . The fumes r e a c h e d them, and t h e y choked t o d e a t h .

The sun came out f o r t y - e i g h t hours l a t e r , but by t h i s t ime Pompeii and Herculaneum had c e a s e d t o e x i s t . F o r a d i s t a n c e o f e l e v e n m i l e s around, t h e l a n d s c a p e had been d e s t r o y e d . C louds o f a s h were borne by a i r c u r r e n t s a s f a r as A f r i c a , S y r i a , and Egypt . Y e t now n o t h i n g but a t h i n column o f smoke i s s u e d from V e s u v i u s , smudging t h e l o v e l y b l u e dome o f s k y .

Almost s e v e n t e e n hundred y e a r s p a s s e d . New g e n e r a t i o n s , w i t h o t h e r customs and new forms o f knowledge, s t r u c k spades-i n t o t h e e a r t h and brought f o r t h t h e dead c i t i e s from

sr

o b l i v i o n . I t was a l m o s t l i k e a r e s u r r e c t i o n , a m i r a c l e . The a r c h a e o l o g i s t , i n f a t u a t e d w i t h h i s work t o t h e

e x c l u s i o n o f t h e u s u a l p i e t i e s , i s q u i t e c a p a b l e o f p r a i s i n g t h i s s o r t o f c a t a s t r o p h e as a s t r o k e o f l u c k . Even Goethe, t h e a u t h o r o f immorta l t r a g e d i e s , i n h i s c a p a c i t y a s a s c i e n t i s t s a i d o f Pompeii " I h a r d l y know of a n y t h i n g more i n t e r e s t i n g . . ." and d i d not r e a l i z e he was b e i n g c a l l o u s . I t i s -indeed h a r d t o imagine a b e t t e r way of p r e s e r v i n g a whole c i t y f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f p o s t e r i t y , o f c a t c h i n g i t f a i r l y i n t h e m i d s t o f i t s everyday a c t i v i t y , t han by s e a l i n g i t beneath a g r e a t b l a n k e t o f a s h . Pompeii was q u i t e d i f f e r ­e n t from t h e r u i n s o f a c i t y which had d i e d a n a t u r a l dea th by a p r o c e s s o f w i t h e r i n g away. The l i v i n g community was touched w i t h a magic wand, and t h e laws o f t ime , o f becoming and o f f a d i n g l o s t t h e i r v a l i d i t y .

B e f o r e t h e f i r s t e x c a v a t i o n n o t h i n g but t h e b a r e memory of t h e two c i t i e s ' entombment remained. But once d i g g i n g began, l i t t l e by l i t t l e t h e whole d r a m a t i c even t took shape i n men's minds, and i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e c a t a s t r o p h e l e f t by t h e a u t h o r s o f a n t i q u i t y came t o l i f e . The f u l l f r i g h t f u l n e s s o f t h e d i s a s t e r was r e a l i z e d . The d a i l y round had been c u t o f f so a b r u p t l y t h a t t h e s u c k l i n g p i g was found where i t had been l e f t t o r o a s t i n t h e oven and b r e a d d i s c o v e r e d h a l f done on t h e b a k e r ' s p e e l .

What a s t o r y o f dea th i n d e b a c l e t h e s e poor bones c o u l d t e l l , bones s t i l l w e a r i n g t h e f e t t e r s of t h e s l a v e ! The s i f t i n g , s e e p i n g f l o w oa a s h and l a p i l l i had s t e a d i l y r i s e n h i g h e r and h i g h e r , l i f t i n g a c h a i n e d dog w i t h i t . And a t l a s t , when i t f i l l e d t h e room, he had p e r i s h e d , s t i l l f a s t e n ­ed t o h i s l e a s h , n e x t t o t h e c e i l i n g .

The e x c a v a t o r s ' s h o v e l s r e v e a l e d a l l manner o f f a m i l y t r a g e d i e s , s c e n e s o f mothers , f a t h e r s and c h i l d r e n caught i n a b s o l u t e e x t r e m i t y . Mothers were found s t i l l h o l d i n g t h e i r c h i l d r e n i n t h e i r arms, p r o t e c t i n g them w i t h t h e l a s t b i t o f v e i l as t h e y bo th s u f f o c a t e d . Men and women were dug up who had g a t h e r e d t h e i r v a l u a b l e s t o g e t h e r , got as f a r as t h e c i t y g a t e , and t h e r e c o l l a p s e d under t h e s t o n y h a i l , s t i l l c l i n g i n g t o t h e i r g o l d and p r e c i o u s t h i n g s . "Cave canem," r e a d s a s i g n i n mosa ic a t t h e g a t e o f t h e house i n which B u l w e r - L y t t o n lodged h i s G laucus i n t h e The L a s t Days o f Pompei i . A t t h e t h r e s h o l d o f one house two young women were found who had h e s i t a t e d u n t i l i t was too l a t e , i n t e n d i n g t o go back i n t o t h e house and s a l v a g e some of t h e i r t r e a s u r e s .

Body a f t e r body was found a t t h e Gate o f H e r c u l e s , b o d i e s a l l heaped t o g e t h e r , and s t i l l encumbered w i t h t h e househo ld g e a r t h a t had grown too heavy t o d r a g any f a r t h e r . I n a s e a l e d room t h e s k e l e t o n s o f a woman and a dog were uncovered . C l o s e e x a m i n a t i o n r e v e a l e d a g r i s l y i n c i d e n t . Whereas t h e s k e l e t o n o f t h e dog had remained i n t a c t , t h e woman's bones were s c a t t e r d about t h e f l o o r . A p p a r e n t l y c r a z e d by hunger, t h e dog's w o l f i s h n a t u r e had come t o t h e f o r e and he had f a l l e n on t h e dead m i s t r e s s and e a t e n h e r . Not f a r from t h i s house was a n o t h e r i n which f u n e r a l r i t e s -had been i n p r o g r e s s when c a t a c l y s m f e l l . There t h e y were.

t h e f u n e r a l g u e s t s , a f t e r s e v e n t e e n hundred y e a r s s t i l l s p r a w l e d on t h e i r benches about t h e t a b l e b e a r i n g t h e f u n e r a l f e a s t , mourners a t t h e i r own o b s e q u i e s .

I n an a d j a c e n t b u i l d i n g seven c h i l d r e n had been s u r p r i s ­ed by d e a t h w h i l e i n n o c e n t l y p l a y i n g i n a room. I n s t i l l a n o t h e r s t r u c t u r e t h i r t y - f o u r b o d i e s were found, w i t h them t h e remains o f a goat t h a t , i n h i s f r i g h t , had r u s h e d i n d o o r s t o f i n d s a f e t y among humankind. N e i t h e r courage nor a c o o l head nor b r u t e s t r e n g t h h e l p e d t h o s e who d e l a y e d t h e i r f l i g h t too l o n g . The remains o f a t r u l y g i g a n t i c man were uncovered . I n v a i n he had t r i e d t o p r o t e c t h i s w i f e and t h e i r f o u r t e e n -y e a r - o l d c h i l d , who were h a s t e n i n g a l o n g ahead of him. A p p a r e n t l y w i t h a l a s t , d e s p a i r i n g surge o f s t e n g t h he had t r i e d t o p i c k them up, but j u s t t hen t h e f lames had s t u p e ­f i e d him, and s l o w l y he crumpled, r o l l e d o v e r on h i s back, and s t r e t c h e d ou t , i n which p o s i t i o n ashes b u r i e d him and p r e s e r v e d h i s tremendous form. The e x c a v a t o r s poured p l a s t e r o f P a r i s i n t o t h e d e p r e s s i o n where he had l a i n , and i n t h i s way s e c u r e d t h e p r o p o r t i o n s o f t h e dead Pompeian.

The rows o f house, t h e Temple of I s i s , t h e a m p h i t h e a t r e — a l l were t h e r e e x a c t l y as t h e y had looked on t h e f a t e f u l August day. The wax t a b l e t s s t i l l l a y on t h e s t u r d y t a b l e , t h e papyrus r o l l s were s t i l l i n t h e l i b r a r y , t h e t o o l s i n t h e work-sheds , t h e s c r u b b i n g b r u s h e s s t i l l i n t h e b a t h s . V e s s e l s and d i s h e s were found on i n n t a b l e s , l i k e w i s e t h e money l e f t by d e p a r t i n g g u e s t s who had h u r r i e d l y p a i d t h e i r a c c o u n t s t o p r o p r i e t o r s who had a l r e a d y l e f t . On t a v e r n w a l l s v e r s e s were found, s c u r r i l o u s o r s e n t i m e n t a l , w r i t t e n by l o v e r s , and b e a u t i f u l f r e s c o e s on v i l l a w a l l s .

From Gods. G r a v e s and S c h o l a r s . C.W. Ceram, A l f r e d A Knopf, .. New York

THE L I F E OF NERO SUETONIUS

Not much i s known about Suetonius except he was born about AD 69 and died i n AD 140. He was a p r o l i f i c writer and p o l i t i c i a n who served under the emperor Hadrian. He i s noted for several works, most of which survive only i n pieces but i t i s his Twelve Caesars which paints a fascinating and colorful, i f somewhat "gossipy" portrait of the J u l i o -Claudian emperors and t h e i r immediate successors. Much of what we know about the Roman emperors we know from Suetonius. The following i s excerpts from his " L i f e of Nero".

"Nero was born a t Antium on 15 December, AD 37, n i n e months a f t e r T i b e r i u s ' d e a t h . The sun was r i s i n g and i t s ' e a r l i e s t r a y s t ouched t h e newly born boy a lmos t b e f o r e he c o u l d be l a i d on t h e ground. Nero's horoscope a t once o c c a s ­i o n e d many ominous p r e d i c t i o n s ; and a s i g n i f i c a n t comment was made by h i s f a t h e r i n r e p l y t o t h e c o n g r a t u l a t i o n s o f h i s f r i e n d s ; namely t h a t any c h i l d born t o h i m s e l f and A g r i p p i n a was bound t o have a d e t e s t a b l e n a t u r e and become a p u b l i c danger.

At t h e age o f t h r e e Nero l o s t h i s f a t h e r and i n h e r i t e d o n e - t h i r d of t h e e s t a t e ; but G a i u s , who was a l s o named i n t h e w i l l , not o n l y took e v e r y t h i n g , but b a n i s h e d A g r i p p i n a . Nero t h e r e f o r e grew up i n v e r y poor c i r c u m s t a n c e s under t h e c a r e o f h i s Aunt D o m i t i a L e p i d a , who chose a dancer and a b a r b e r t o be h i s t u t o r s . However when C l a u d i u s became Emperor, Nero had h i s i n h e r i t a n c e r e s t o r e d t o him, and a l e g a c y from h i s U n c l e by m a r r i a g e , P a s s i e n u s C r i s p u s , l e f t him w e l l o f f .

Whi le s t i l l a h a l f - g r o w n boy, he gave an e x c e p t i o n a l l y good per formance i n t h e Troy game a t t h e C i r c u s and e a r n e d loud a p p l a u s e . When he r e a c h e d t h e age of t e n , C l a u d i u s adopted him and a p p o i n t e d Seneca, who was a l r e a d y a S e n a t o r , as h i s t u t o r . On t h e f o l l o w i n g n i g h t , t h e s t o r y goes, Seneca dreamed t h a t h i s p u p i l was r e a l l y G a i u s ; and indeed , Nero soon made s e n s e o f t h e dream by g i v i n g s i g n s o f a n a t u r a l l y c r u e l h e a r t .

He had r e a c h e d t h e age of s e v e n t e e n when C l a u d i u s ' d e a t h o c c u r r e d , and p r e s e n t e d h i m s e l f t o t h e P a l a c e Guard t h a t day i n t h e l a t e a f t e r n o o n — u g l y omens throughout t h e day h a v i n g r u l e d ou t an e a r l i e r appearance . A f t e r b e i n g a c c l a i m e d Emperor on t h e P a l a c e s t e p s , he was t a k e n i n a l i t t e r t o t h e Guards camp, where he b r i e f l y a d d r e s s e d t h e t r o o p s . He was t hen t a k e n t o t h e Sena te house, where he remained u n t i l n i g h t f a l l , r e f u s i n g o n l y and of t h e many h i g h honors v o t e d him, namely t h e t i t l e o f " F a t h e r o f our Country" , and t h i s because o f h i s y o u t h .

As a g u a r a n t e e o f h i s v i r t u o u s i n t e n t i o n s , he promised t o model h i s r u l e on t h e p r i n c i p l e s l a i d down by Augustus , and n e v e r m i s s e d an o p p o r t u n i t y o f b e i n g generous o r m e r c i f u l , o r o f showing how a f f a b l e he was. He lowered , i f he c o u l d not a b o l i s h , some o f t h e h e a v i e r t a x e s ; Moreover he p r e s e n t e d t h e commons w i t h f o r t y g o l d p i e c e s each; s e t t l e d

a n n u a l s a l a r i e s on d i s t i n g u i s h e d but i m p o v e r i s h e d s e n a t o r s and g r a n t e d t h e Guards c o h o r t s a f r e e monthly i s s u e of g r a i n .

Music formed p a r t o f h i s c h i l d h o o d c u r r i c u l u m , and he e a r l y deve loped a t a s t e f o r i t . Soon a f t e r h i s a c c e s s i o n , he summoned t h e g r e a t e s t l y r e p l a y e r of t h e day, t o s i n g t o him when d i n n e r had ended, f o r s e v e r a l n i g h t s i n s u c c e s s i o n , u n t i l v e r y l a t e . Then l i t t l e by l i t t l e he began t o s tudy and p r a c t i s e h i m s e l f , and c o n s c i e n t i o u s l y undertook a l l t h e u s u a l e x e r c i s e s f o r s t e n g t h e n i n g and d e v e l o p i n g h i s v o i c e . He would l i e on h i s back w i t h a s l a b of l e a d on h i s c h e s t , u se enemas and e m e t i c s t o keep down h i s we igh t , and r e f r a i n from e a t i n g a p p l e s and e v e r y o t h e r food c o n s i d e r e d d e l e t e r i o u s t o t h e v o c a l c h o r d s .

Horses had been Nero's main i n t e r e s t s i n c e c h i l d h o o d ; d e s p i t e a l l e f f o r t s t o t h e c o n t r a r y , h i s c h a t t e r about t h e h o r s e r a c e s a t t h e C i r c u s c o u l d not be s topped. . . Very soon Nero s e t h i s h e a r t on d r i v i n g a c h a r i o t h i m s e l f , and t o d i s p l a y h i m s e l f more f r e q u e n t l y , and a f t e r a p r e l i m i n a r y t r i a l i n t h e P a l a c e gardens b e f o r e an a u d i e n c e of s l a v e s and l o u n g e r s , made a p u b l i c appearance a t t h e C i r c u s .

However t h e s e i n c u r s i o n s i n t o t h e a r t s a t Rome d i d not s a t i s f y him and he headed f o r Greece . H i s main r e a s o n was t h a t t h e c i t i e s wh ich r e g u l a r l y sponsored m u s i c a l c o n t e s t s had adopted t h e p r a c t i s e o f s e n d i n g him e v e r y a v a i l a b l e p r i z e f o r l y r e - p l a y i n g and he a lways a c c e p t e d t h e s e w i t h g r e a t p l e a s u r e .

D u r i n g h i s r e c i t a l s i n Greece no one was a l l o w e d t o l e a v e t h e t h e a t e r , however p r e s s i n g t h e r e a s o n . We r e a d o f women i n t h e a u d i e n c e g i v i n g b i r t h , and of men b e i n g so bored w i t h l i s t e n i n g and a p p l a u d i n g t h a t t h e y f u r t i v e l y dropped down from t h e w a l l a t t h e r e a r , s i n c e t h e g a t e s were kept b a r r e d or p l a y e d dead and were c a r r i e d away f o r b u r i a l .

R e t u r n i n g t o I t a l y , Nero made h i s debut a t N e a p o l i s and r e p e a t e d t h e per formance a l l o v e r t h e c o u n t r y u n t i l he r e a c h e d Rome.

I t might have been p o s s i b l e t o excuse h i s i n s o l e n t , l u s t f u l , e x t r a v a g a n t , greedy o r c r u e l e a r l y p r a c t i c e s by s a y i n g t h a t boys w i l l be boys; y e t a t t h e same t i m e , t h i s was c l e a r l y t h e t r u e Nero, not m e r e l y Nero i n h i s a d o l e s c e n c e . As soon as n i g h t f e l l he would s n a t c h a cap o r a w i g and make a round of t h e t a v e r n s , o r prowl t h e s t r e e t s i n s e a r c h o f m i s c h i e f — a n d not a l w a y s i n n o c e n t m i s c h i e f e i t h e r , because one o f h i s games was t o a t t a c k men on t h e i r way home from d i n n e r , s t a b them i f t h e y o f f e r e d r e s i s t a n c e , and then drop t h e i r b o d i e s down i n t o t h e s e w e r s . He would a l s o b r e a k i n t o shops and rob them, a f t e r w a r d s opening a market a t t h e p a l a c e w i t h t h e s t o l e n goods, d i v i d i n g them up i n t o l o t s , a u c t i o n i n g them h i m s e l f and s q u a n d e r i n g t h e p r o c e e d s .

G r a d u a l l y Nero's v i c e s g a i n e d t h e upper hand. He no l o n g e r t r i e d t o l a u g h them o f f , o r h i d e , o r deny them, but o p e n i n g l y broke i n t o more s e r i o u s c r i m e . Not s a t i s f i e d w i t h j u s t murder and r o b b e r y , he began t o s i n k i n t o moral v i c e s as w e l l . He seduced men and m a r r i e d women a l i k e , raped a v e s t a l v i r g i n and c o n t r i v e d t o marry a freewoman by t h e name of

A c t e , by p e r s u a d i n g some f r i e n d s o f c o n s u l a r rank t o swear t h a t she came o f r o y a l s t o c k . He t h e n t r i e d t o t u r n h i s f a v o r i t e boy, Sporus , i n t o a g i r l by c a s t r a t i n g him, and then went through a mock wedding ceremony w i t h h im—dowry, b r i d a l v e i l and a l l — t o o k him t o t h e p a l a c e w i t h a g r e a t crowd i n a t t e n d a n c e and t r e a t e d him as a w i f e .

The l e c h e r o u s p a s s i o n he f e l t f o r h i s mother, A g r i p p i n a , was n o t o r i o u s ; bu t h e r enemies would not l e t him consummate h i s l u s t f o r h e r , f e a r i n g t h a t she would become even more p o w e r f u l and r u t h l e s s t h a n she was.

Nero p r a c t i s e d a lmos t e v e r y k i n d o f o b s c e n i t y and a c c o r d i n g t o my i n f o r m a n t s he was c o n v i n c e d t h a t nobody s h o u l d remain pure and c h a s t e i n any p a r t of h i s body, but t h a t most p e o p l e c o n c e a l e d t h e i r s e c r e t v i c e s ; hence i f anyone c o n f e s s e d t o obscene p r a c t i s e s , Nero f o r g a v e them a l l o f t h e i r o t h e r c r i m e s .

H i s w a s t e f u l n e s s showed most o f a l l i n h i s a r c h i t e c t u r a l p r o j e c t s . He b u i l t a p a l a c e , s t r e t c h i n g from t h e P a l a t i n e t o t h e E s q u i l i n e , wh ich he r e p l a c e d when i t burned w i t h t h e "Golden P a l a c e " wh ich was m a g n i f i c e n t i n s i z e and s p l e n d o r . The e n t r a n c e - h a l l was l a r g e enough t o c o n t a i n a huge s t a t u e of h i m s e l f , 120 f e e t h i g h and t h e p i l l a r e d a r c a d e r a n f o r a whole m i l e . An enormous p o o l , l i k e a s e a , was surrounded by b u i l d i n g s made t o resemble c i t i e s , and by a l a n d s c a p e garden c o n s i s t i n g o f p loughed f i e l d s , v i n e y a r d s , p a s t u r e s and w o o d l a n d s — w h e r e e v e r y v a r i e t y o f domes t i c and w i l d a n i m a l roamed about . P a r t s o f t h e house were o v e r l a i d w i t h g o l d and s tudded w i t h p r e c i o u s s t o n e s and m o t h e r - o f - p e a r l . A l l t h e d i n i n g rooms had c e i l i n g s o f f r e t t e d i v o r y , t h e p a n e l s of wh ich c o u l d s l i d e back and l e t a r a i n of f l o w e r s , o r of perfume from h idden s p r i n k l e r s , shower upon h i s g u e s t s . The main d i n i n g room was c i r c u l a r and i t s r o o f r e v o l v e d , day and n i g h t , i n t ime w i t h t h e sky . Sea w a t e r was a lways on t a p i n t h e b a t h s . When t h e p a l a c e was d e d i c a t e d he was h e a r d t o remark "Good, now I can a t l a s t b e g i n t o l i v e l i k e a human b e i n g ! "

C l a u d i u s was t h e f i r s t v i c t i m o f h i s murderous c a r e e r ; because , though Nero may not have been a c t u a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e p o i s o n i n g o f h i s a d o p t i v e f a t h e r , he knew a l l about i t , a s he l a t e r a d m i t t e d by a p p r e c i a t i v e l y q u o t i n g a Greek p r o v e r b wh ich c a l l s mushrooms, by which C l a u d i u s met h i s d e a t h , t h e "food o f t h e gods" s i n c e i t made C l a u d i u s d i v i n e .

He t r i e d t o p o i s o n B r i t a n n i c u s , b e i n g not m e r e l y j e a l o u s o f h i s v o i c e , wh i ch was f a r more m u s i c a l t han h i s own, but a f r a i d t h a t t h e common p e o p l e might be l e s s a t t a c h e d t o C l a u d i u s ' adopted son t h a n t o h i s r e a l one.

The o v e r - w a t c h f u l , o v e r - c r i t i c a l eye t h a t A g r i p p i n a kep t on wha tever Nero s a i d o r d i d proved more than he c o u l d s t a n d . He embarrassed h e r i n f r o n t o f g u e s t s and e v e n t u a l l y e x p e l l e d h e r from h i s p a l a c e . I n t h e end h e r t h r e a t s and v i o l e n t b e h a v i o r t e r r i f i e d him i n t o d e c i d i n g t h a t she must d i e . He t r i e d t o p o i s o n h e r t h r e e t i m e s , but she had a lways t a k e n t h e a n t i d o t e m advance; so he r i g g e d up a machine i n t h e c e i l i n g -o f h e r bedroom wh ich c o u l d d i s l o d g e t h e p a n e l s and drop them

on h e r w h i l e she s l e p t but she s u r v i v e d t h i s i n c i d e n t . Then he had a c o l l a p s i b l e boat d e s i g n e d which would e i t h e r s i n k o r have i t s c a b i n f a l l i n on top of he r but she e s c a p e d by swim­ming t o s h o r e . I n d e s p e r a t i o n Nero o r d e r e d one of h i s men t o k i l l h e r by s t a b b i n g h e r t o d e a t h .

Having d i s p o s e d o f h i s mother, Nero proceeded t o murder h i s aunt who had r a i s e d him. He found he r c o n f i n e d t o a bed w i t h s e v e r e c o n s t i p a t i o n . The o l d l a d y s t o k e d h i s downy b e a r d a f f e c t i o n a t e l y murmuring "Whenever you c e l e b r a t e your coming-o f -age and p r e s e n t me w i t h t h i s , I s h a l l d i e happy." Nero t u r n e d t o h i s c o u r t i e r s and s a i d l a u g h i n g l y " I n t h a t c a s e I must shave a t once." He then o r d e r e d t h e d o c t o r s t o g i v e he r a l a x a t i v e o f f a t a l s t r e n g t h , s e i z e d h e r p r o p e r t y b e f o r e she was q u i t e dead, and t o r e up he r w i l l so t h a t n o t h i n g c o u l d e s c a p e him.

Nero showed no g r e a t e r mercy t o t h e common f o l k , o r t o t h e v e r y w a l l s o f Rome. P r e t e n d i n g t o be d i s g u s t e d w i t h t h e drab o l d b u i l d i n g s and narrow, w i n d i n g s t r e e t s o f Rome, he b r a z e n l y s e t f i r e t o t h e c i t y ; and though a group of ex-c o n s u l s caught h i s a t t e n d a n t s , armed w i t h tow and b l a z i n g t o r c h e s , t r e s p a s s i n g on t h e i r p r o p e r t y , t h e y d a r e d not i n t e r f e r e . T h i s t e r r o r l a s t e d f o r s i x days and seven n i g h t s c a u s i n g many p e o p l e t o t a k e s h e l t e r i n monuments and tombs. Nero watched t h e c o n f l a g r a t i o n from h i s p a l a c e , e n r a p t u r e d by what he c a l l e d t h e "beauty o f t h e f l a m e s " t h e n put on h i s t r a g e d i a n ' s costume and sang "The s a c k o f I l i u m " from t h e b e g i n n i n g t o end.

At l a s t a f t e r f o u r t e e n y e a r s o f Nero's m i s r u l e , t h e e a r t h r i d h e r s e l f o f him. A f t e r s e v e r a l army r e v o l t s , Nero, f l e d Rome and h i d i n a suburban v i l l a . F i n a l l y he was chased down by t h e l e g i o n s i n p u r s u i t o f him and, w i t h t h e h e l p o f a s l a v e , s t a b b e d h i m s e l f i n t h e t h r o a t and d i e d , m u t t e r i n g "Dead! and so g r e a t an a r t i s t ! "

Nero d i e d a t t h e age o f t h i r t y - o n e , on t h e a n n i v e r s a r y o f O c t a v i a ' s murder. I n t h e w i d e s p r e a d g e n e r a l r e j o i c i n g , c i t i z e n s r a n th rough t h e s t r e e t s w e a r i n g caps o f l i b e r t y . But t h e r e were p e o p l e who used t o l a y s p r i n g and summer f l o w e r s on h i s g r a v e f o r a l o n g t ime , and had s t a t u e s made of him, w e a r i n g h i s f r i n g e d toga , which t h e y put up on t h e R o s t r a ; t h e y even c o n t i n u e d t o c i r c u l a t e h i s e d i c t s , p r e t e n d i n g he was s t i l l a l i v e and would soon r e t u r n t o confound h i s enemies . I n f a c t , twen ty y e a r s l a t e r , when I was a young man, a m y s t e r i o u s i n d i v i d u a l came f o r w a r d c l a i m i n g t o be Nero; and so m a g i c a l was t h e sound of h i s name i n t h e some p e o p l e ' s e a r s t h a t t h e y s u p p o r t e d him t o t h e b e s t o f t h e i r a b i l i t y , and o n l y handed him o v e r w i t h g r e a t r e l u c t a n c e .

Taken from The Twelve C a e s a r s . S u e t o n i u s

f!

THE DEPRAVITY OF THE ROMAN SOCIETY

The rule of Augustus ushered i n a long period of peace and prosperity. There was now more opportunity than ever to concentrate on pleasures and luxuries. Depravity and debauch­ery infected every class, including the aristocracy. More than others perhaps, the freedmen-the freed slaves-some of whom had amassed great fortunes, indulged t h e i r whims and vices. One of the most vivid portraits of the vulgarity of the period i s the tale of the sumptuous dinner party of Trimalchio, a wealthy freedmen. The author i s Petronius, an aristocrat who was not immune to the pleasures of the senses. A close companion of Emperor Nero for some years, he f e l l from royal favor and committed suicide during the purge of 66 AD.

I cannot l i n g e r over d e t a i l s . We went i n t o t h e b a t h . We s t a y e d t i l l we r a n w i t h sweat, and then a t once p a s s e d through i n t o t h e c o l d w a t e r . T r i m a l c h i o was now a n o i n t e d a l l o v e r and rubbed down, not w i t h t o w e l s , but w i t h b l a n k e t s of t h e s o f t e s t wool . Three masseurs s a t t h e r e d r i n k i n g F a l e r m i a n wine under h i s e y e s . . . T r i m a l c h i o s a i d t h e y were d r i n k i n g h i s h e a l t h . Then he was r o l l e d up i n a s c a r l e t c o a t and put i n a l i t t e r . Four r u n n e r s decked w i t h medals went b e f o r e him . . . As he was b e i n g d r i v e n o f f , a m u s i c i a n w i t h a t i n y p a i r o f p i p e s a r r i v e d and p l a y e d t h e whole way as though he were w h i s p e r i n g s e c r e t s i n h i s e a r .

We f o l l o w e d , l o s t i n wonder, and came w i t h Agamemnon i n t h e door. A n o t i c e was f a s t e n e d on t h e doorpos t : "No s l a v e t o go out o f doors e x c e p t by t h e m a s t e r s o r d e r s . P e n a l t y , one hundred s t r i p e s . " J u s t a t t h e e n t r a n c e s tood a p o r t e r i n green c l o t h e s , w i t h a c h e r r y - c o l o r e d b e l t , s h e l l i n g peas i n a s i l v e r d i s h . A go lden cage hung i n t h e doorway and a s p o t t e d magpie i n i t g r e e t e d v i s i t o r s . I was g a z i n g a t a l l t h i s when I n e a r l y f e l l backwards and broke my l e g . F o r on t h e l e f t hand as you went i n , not f a r from t h e p o r t e r ' s o f f i c e , a g r e a t dog on a c h a i n was p a i n t e d on t h e w a l l , and o v e r him was w r i t t e n i n l a r g e l e t t e r s "Beware o f t h e Dog". My f r i e n d laughed a t me, bu t I p l u c k e d up courage and went on t o examine t h e whole w a l l . I t had a p i c t u r e of a s l a v e market on i t , w i t h t h e p e r s o n ' s names. T r i m a l c h i o was t h e r e w i t h l o n g h a i r , h o l d i n g a Mercury ' s s t a f f . Then t h e p a i n s t a k i n g a r t i s t had g i v e n a f a i t h f u l p i c t u r e of h i s whole c a r e e r w i t h e x p l a n ­a t i o n s : how he had l e a r n e d t o keep a c c o u n t s , and how a t l a s t he had been made s t e w a r d . At t h e p o i n t where t h e w a l l space gave o u t . Mercury had t a k e n him by t h e c h i n , and was w h i r l i n g him up t o h i s h i g h o f f i c i a l t h r o n e . I a l s o o b s e r v e d a company o f r u n n e r s p r a c t i c i n g i n t h e g a l l e r y under a t r a i n e r , and i n a c o r n e r I saw a l a r g e cupboard c o n t a i n i n g a t i n y s h r i n e w h e r e i n s i l v e r house gods, and a marble image o f Venus, and a l a r g e go lden box, where, t h e y t o l d me, T r i m a l c h i o ' s f i r s t b e a r d was l a i d up.

f t

We t r i e d t o g e t i n t o t h e d i n i n g room, when one of t h e s l a v e s , who was e n t r u s t e d t h i s duty , c r i e d , " R i g h t f o o t f i r s t ! " F o r a moment we were n a t u r a l l y nervous , f o r f e a r any o f us had broken a r u l e i n c r o s s i n g t h e t h r e s h o l d . But j u s t as we were a l l t a k i n g a s t e p w i t h t h e r i g h t f o o t t o g e t h e r , a s l a v e s t r i p p e d f o r f l o g g i n g f e l l a t our f e e t , and began t o i m p l o r e us t o s a v e him from punishment. I t was no g r e a t s i n which had put him i n such p e r i l ; he had l o s t t h e s t e w a r d ' s c l o t h e s i n t h e b a t h , and t h e whole l o t were s c a r c e l y worth t e n s e s t e r c e s . So we drew back our r i g h t f e e t and begged t h e s t e w a r d , who s a t c o u n t i n g g o l d p i e c e s i n t h e h a l l , t o l e t t h e s l a v e o f f . He l o o k e d up h a u g h t i l y , and s a i d , " I t i s not t h e l o s s I mind so much as t h e v i l l a i n ' s c a r e l e s s n e s s . He l o s t my d i n n e r d r e s s . W e l l , w e l l , I make you a p r e s e n t o f t h e f e l l o w " .

At l a s t t h e n we s a t down, and boys from A l e x a n d r i a poured wa te r c o o l e d w i t h snow o v e r our hands. O t h e r s f o l l o w e d and k n e l t down a t our f e e t and proceeded w i t h g r e a t s k i l l t o p a r e our h a n g n a i l s . Even t h i s u n p l e a s a n t duty d i d not s i l e n c e them, but t h e y k e p t s i n g i n g a t t h e i r work. I wanted t o f i n d out whether t h e whole househo ld c o u l d s i n g , so I a s k e d f o r a d r i n k . A r eady s l a v e r e p e a t e d my o r d e r i n a chan t not l e s s s h r i l l . They a l l d i d t h e same i f t h e y were a s k e d t o hand a n y t h i n g . I t was more l i k e an a c t o r ' s dance t h a n a gent lemen's d i n i n g room. But some r i c h and t a s t y m o r s e l s were brought on.

T r i m a l c h i o i n a l o u d v o i c e i n v i t e d any of us who w i shed t o t a k e a second g l a s s o f mead. Suddenly, t h e mus ic gave t h e s i g n and t h e l i g h t d i s h e s were swept away by a t r o o p o f s i n g i n g s e r v a n t s .

We complimented our h o s t on h i s arrangements . "Mars l o v e s a f a i r f i e l d , " he s a i d , "and so I gave o r d e r s t h a t everyone s h o u l d have a s e p a r a t e t a b l e . I n t h a t way t h e s e f i l t h y s l a v e s w i l l no t make us so hot by crowding p a s t u s . "

T r i m a l c h i o ground out a t une . We came t o such an e v i l e n t e r t a i n m e n t r a t h e r d e p r e s s e d . "Now," s a i d T r i m a l c h i o , " l e t us have d i n n e r . T h i s i s sauce f o r t h e d i n n e r . " As he spoke, f o u r d a n c e r s r a n up i n t ime w i t h t h e mus ic and took o f f t h e top p a r t o f t h e d i s h . Then we saw i n t h e w e l l o f i t f a t f o w l s and sows' b e l l i e s . Then t h e y l e t a s p i c e d sauce run from t h e i r w i n e s k i n s o v e r t h e f i s h e s . We a l l took up w i t h t h e c l a p p i n g o f hands which t h e s l a v e s s t a r t e d , and a t t a c k e d t h e s e d e l i c a c i e s w i t h h e a r t y l a u g h t e r . T r i m a l c h i o , d e l i g h t e d w i t h t h e t r i c k he had p l a y e d u s , and s a i d , "Now, c a r v e r . " The man came up a t once and, making f l o u r i s h e s i n t ime w i t h t h e mus ic , p u l l e d t h e d i s h t o p i e c e s ; you would have s a i d t h a t a g l a d i a t o r i n a c h a r i o t was f i g h t i n g t o t h e accompaniment o f a w a t e r organ.

Taken from The S a t y r i c o n , P e t r o n i u s

f}

GOURMETS OF ANTIQUITY

The Roman banquet i n c l u d e d e v e r y t h i n g from t h e raw f i s h and c r u s t a c e a n s shown i n mosa ic s o f t h e t ime , t o t h e e x o t i c s p e c i a l t i e s l i s t e d i n t h e menu below, t a k e n from t h e famous cookbook o f t h e Roman A p i c i u s . The a f f a i r u s u a l l y l a s t e d through t h e n i g h t , w i t h many c o u r s e s b e i n g consumed w i t h t r i p s t o t h e "vomitorium" common. E n t e r t a i n m e n t was p r o v i d e d by d a n c e r s , m u s i c i a n s , a c r o b a t s and p o e t s .

APPETIZERS

J e l l y f i s h and eggs Sow's udders s t u f f e d w i t h s a l t e d s e a u r c h i n s

P a t i n a o f b r a i n s cooked w i t h m i l k and eggs B o i l e d t r e e f u n g i w i t h peppered f i s h - f a t sauce

Sea u r c h i n s w i t h s p i c e , honey, o i l and egg sauce

MAIN COURSE

F a l l o w d e e r r o a s t e d w i t h on ion sauce , r u e , J e r i c h o d a t e s , r a i s i n s , o i l and honey

B o i l e d o s t r i c h w i t h sweet sauce T u r t l e dove b o i l e d i n i t s f e a t h e r s

R o a s t p a r r o t Dormice s t u f f e d w i t h pork and p i n e k e r n e l s

Ham b o i l e d w i t h f i g s and bay l e a v e s , rubbed w i t h honey, baked i n a p a s t r y c r u s t

F lamingo b o i l e d w i t h d a t e s

DESSERT

F r i c a s s e e o f r o s e s w i t h p a s t r y S toned d a t e s s t u f f e d w i t h n u t s and p i n e k e r n e l s ,

f r i e d i n honey Hot A f r i c a n sweet-wine c a k e s w i t h honey

Taken from The G r e a t Ages o f Man. I m p e r i a l Rome, T i m e - L i f e ' Books