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David Martinez
NOV 312
Dr. Greg Carmer
24 November 2012
Opportunity to Access Education Based on Location
Socioeconomic status is the key limiting factor to students’
opportunity to receive a quality education in the United States.
Research shows a link between poverty and one’s success
academically. Those who reside in impoverished areas have less
opportunity to attend high performing schools with experienced
teachers, and less access to resources. Not only do the issues
involving urban education affect students, they also affect the
community in which the students reside and the allowance of
social mobility, which in turn impacts the future work force of
the United States.
Karen Marshall, a program manager for the Educator Mentor
Corps at Wheelock College whose prior social work experience
makes her acquainted with community issues, researches poverty
and its relation to education. She illustrates education as a
“gas tank” (Marshall). According to the analogy, to be under the
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umbrella of poverty is like putting water in a gas tank. The car
cannot function with poverty as the fuel, and so a student cannot
move forward under environment of poverty without great
assistance. Similarly, Jonathan Kozol, a former teacher, now an
author and advocate for urban education, speaks on the need to
alleviate the achievement gap between white, and Black and Latino
students in urban school districts. At a lecture he gave at
Harvard this past August, he spoke fervently about the desperate
inequality in urban areas and how there needs to be more funding
for early childhood education (Kozol). Kozol purports that this
is the vital component in providing a good education for inner
city children, because he understands that it is the major
limiting factor.
Brief History of Urban Education
Despite the court ruling of Brown vs. Board in 1954,
segregation within schools still exists today (cf. Epps 220). A
concentrated number of African Americans and Latinos reside
within the centers of metropolitan areas, while a greater number
of whites reside in affluent suburbs, having “greater ability of
suburban districts to fund public schools adequately” (Epps 220).
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School districts across the country are being released from this
order to desegregate, causing them to be disinterested in
continuing to integrate their schools. White affluent suburbs and
predominantly black and Latino inner city school districts are
divided racially. As of 1990, the desire for integration has been
“waning as a public goal” (Rossell 2005). Efforts to continue to
integrate schools are dwindling, and the achievement gap between
white students and black and Latino students is widening.
The decline in urban education began with the “decreased
economic resources in the late 1920s and early 1930s” which left
cities such as Detroit, in regard to infrastructure, in a place
of decay (Vesely and Crampton 168). Schools receive funds at the
federal, state, and local level. Because of differences in the
property value of homes, suburban schools receive more funds than
urban schools, increasing property taxes and funds allocated to
schooling. Cities like Detroit have found themselves in great
difficulty trying to receive funding from predominantly white
school zones in which a “degree of racial and economic
segregation”—which was evident in the 1960s—still appears to be
evident today (Vesely and Crampton 168). Schools with less
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funding are likely to suffer more academically, making access to
resources crucial to a student’s success. Although funding is
vital, heaving more money at a school will not solve the problem.
There are other factors that must be taken into account as well.
Factors Surrounding Urban Education
Psychologist Michelle Fine (The Graduate Center, CUNY)
believes that the current educational system does not take into
account the intent and vision of Brown v. Board, but is
“reinforcing the stereotype of the African American deficit”
(Fine 508). The system currently in place disallows the
integration of black and white students, further perpetuating the
lack of equality within education due to racial and economic
divides. There is a “distribution of power and its expression in
structures, ideologies, and practices as various institutional
and individual levels are significantly racialized in our
society” (Omi 244). Although poverty is the key factor, its
correlation with race cannot be neglected. It would be ignorant
to believe that one could speak about poverty without first
recognizing the reason as to why particular individuals or ethnic
groups reside in locations with high rates of poverty.
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Regarding inequalities in schools, one cannot deny that the
“quality of education available to children is based on the
relative power, prestige, and wealth of their families” (Omi
244). A child’s opportunity to attain a higher quality education
is largely determined by where one resides. Within urban school
districts, there is not enough compensation from the state and
federal government to make up for the lack of funds at the local
level from “low property wealth” (Vesely et al, 165). Lower
property wealth in a school means that a school is underfunded
and likely underperforming. When a school lacks in performance,
it prevents social mobility between competing subordinate and
dominant groups in society (Fine).
Within urban areas, school districts are expected to improve
their history of poor performance. These students who reside in
low-wealth school districts have a tendency to score more poorly
on standardized tests than students in high-wealth school
districts (Okpala, 2002). Poor performance academically
determines the level of education that one receives, which will
in turn impact the types of employment one might ascertain.
Consequently, limited education creates an environment where job
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access is limited, which eventually leads to unemployment and
other issues that plague impoverished areas.
William Hayes is the principal of a K-8 school in Cleveland,
Ohio that is 99% black, low income, underperforming, and labeled
an Academic Emergency school. He says, “improvement requires an
improvement in not only schools but in the communities in which
these schools reside” (Hayes). Ones’ socioeconomic background
plays a major role in regard to “learning and school dropout
rates (Rumberger and Palardy 2005). This research confirms
evidence found in the “Coleman Survey” in 1966, which concluded
that “school resources such as teacher quality, pupil/teacher
ratio, and the like had relatively small effects on student
learning” (Epps 222). Although this was found to be true in this
particular study, other research has shown that the quality of
teacher is a major factor. However, one’s socioeconomic
background tends to be a more accurate determiner of success
(Rothstein).
Income, housing, race, and segregation all serve as
variables that must be considered in assessing one’s ability to
be educated and to attain social mobility. The last factor
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affecting ones’ educational opportunity is “redlining” (Schott
Foundation v). The term redlining “might seem strong given that
it implies a deliberate attempt to deny certain communities
access to educational opportunities,” but is a term used to
describe the inequality, in regard to opportunity, based upon
ones location in New York City and elsewhere (Schott Foundation
v). The research by the Schott foundation found that there were
major disparities and separation in New York in regard to how
cities are divided and the access that students have to quality
education.
Importance: Why does this issue matter?
This issue matters because it is a human rights issue. It is
not just that some students are given a better educational
opportunity because of their context and socioeconomic status.
There must be means by which to bring equality between city
schooling and suburban schooling. If we desire the advancement of
our economy, all of our citizens must be educated in order to be
prepared to excel in the work force. If Black and Latino students
continue to fail to receive adequate education, not only will
there be little access to higher paying jobs within urban
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communities, there will be a continuance of crime and violence.
Quality schooling is the means by which social mobility can
occur, ergo allowing the possibility of an “American Dream” for
all.
Furthermore, this issue is critical because the majority
population of American students in the future will be of color.
Making sure these students excel academically is crucial to the
United States’ success. According to the U.S. Census Bureau in
2011, for the first time in history, the majority of babies born
in the U.S. are babies of color. Thus, in the not too distant
future, the viability of our country’s communities, labor force,
and democracy will be largely shaped by and predicated on the
opportunities we provide for those children (Black Boys Report
6).
State of the Question
There appears to be a consensus about the correlation
between one’s socioeconomic status and educational performance in
the classroom. While there appears to be a consensus that schools
are failing, there is disagreement regarding which factors are
causing this failure. There are many varying opinions about how
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to best combat low performance within urban schools across the
country. Many agree that the lack of quality teachers appears to
be a concerning contributing factor, although for some it is not
the main reason for a lack of success academically.
Along with segregation’s contribution, some believe that
whites are critical to the furthering of equality between urban
and suburban schools because of white privilege. They argue that
whites may desire to help in theory, yet only when it does not
affect their privilege. Schuman and Krysan, in a report in 1999
titled “A Historical Note on Whites’ Beliefs About Racial
Inequality,’ [note that] a majority of white Americans reject
most proposals to eliminate unequal access to high quality
education” (Epps 219). One observation that was made alluded to
the ideal that whites are in favor of equality within education,
but not at the expense of “foregoing white privileges” (Epps
219). When one takes into account how it will affect one’s
community, children, jobs, and power in the political arena, it
is difficult to succumb to the practicality of foregoing
privilege, according to Killian, even though one could
acknowledge the inequality in theory (219). The inability to
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forego privilege has perpetuated a disconnect in terms of
opportunity and social mobility between white communities with
Latinos and blacks, who receive a subpar education.
Some would argue that the “publication of A Nation at Risk (1983)
during the Reagan years,” which addressed concerns in regard to
the education system in the United States has been “misguided”
(Ladd 1). Today, the United States’ test scores and graduation
rates are “middling” in comparison to other countries. In
response to A Nation at Risk there has been “school accountability in
the form of the federal No Child Left Behind Act, test-based
approaches to evaluate teachers, and promotion of expanded
parental choice, charter schools, and competition” (Ladd 1).
Many would argue that these responses to education have been more
detrimental than helpful, causing teachers to teach to a test as
opposed to fostering an excitement for learning among students
(Marshall).
Areas of Response to Issues in Urban Education
If it is the case that “students from disadvantaged
households on average perform less well in school than those from
more advantaged families,” then how could we best work to
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counteract this norm and aid students to perform better in the
classroom (Ladd 8)? In order to combat this disadvantage and to
enhance achievement, we must find a “broader way” (Ladd 8). Three
ways in which the issues surrounding the education of students in
poverty can be addressed is by finding ways to combat poverty
itself, poor quality of teachers, and access to high performing
schools for all students.
In order to combat the correlation between poverty and
education, systems must be set in place that help offset the
adverse affects of poverty. A study done in New York City by the
Schott Foundation found that “New York City’s middle school
inequities become high school inequities. A Black or Hispanic
student, or a student of any race or ethnicity from a low-income
household, is most likely to be enrolled in one of the city’s
poorest performing high schools” (15). This is true of others
cities as well. Research found that a “student’s opportunity to
learn in the New York City public schools is largely determined
by where he or she lives” (7). Living in an impoverished area
greatly determines a student’s access to attend higher performing
schools, which in turn affect ones’ outcome academically. From a
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policy standpoint, it is vital to create measures by which one
who resides in a poor performing school district can attend a
better-performing school. This solution in and of itself does not
solve the problem, but is a stride in the right direction.
Poverty is the ultimate problem that must be undertaken in
order to better education in the short term. It is a well-known
fact that teachers do not want to teach in an inner-city setting
for a number of reasons, and those who do, do not last very long.
“Many teachers with strong credentials tend to be reluctant to
teach in schools with large concentrations of disadvantaged
students” (Jackson, 2009 and Clotfelter, Ladd and Vigdor, 2011).
On top of confronting social and emotional issues in the
classroom, teachers are faced with the pressures of new
evaluations (to measure effectiveness through test scores), their
own ideals of desiring to change the world, and their
frustrations with finding their efforts allocated to teaching to
a test. Added to all this are the difficulties of overcrowded
classrooms, cultural differences, diverse learning styles, and
language barriers. About 47 percent of teachers leave within the
first three years (Marshall). Could it be that our teachers are
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asked to do too much too early on? And if this is the case, how
can we have any hope with urban students who not only face a
failing school system but a failing community with others issues
such as violence and lack of choice and resources to compensate
for lack of quality education?
What should be done?
Because Education in an urban area is multifaceted and
multi-layered, any proper reform or criticism must take into
account “political, economic, accountability, financial,
demographics, and staffing terrains” (Vesely and Crampton 170).
The various individuals that I interviewed hinted toward the many
complications associated with the issues surrounding education.
Principle William Hayes mentioned issues around unions and
funding for schools. Dr. Reverend Gregory Groover, head of the
Board of Education in Boston, mentioned the need for better
testing of teachers, and accountability of teachers from parents.
Groover, Hayes, and Karen Marshall all showed concern for urban
education and the role of the community in which one is educated
as an indicator of success or failure.
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Some would argue that, instead of trying to look at simply
individual schools or systems, that we should “‘stop arguing
whether schools prepare students for the future and launch a full
scale attack on poverty,’ said panelist Peter Edelman of the
Center on Poverty, Inequality, and Public Policy” (McNeely). Yet,
this proposition does not seem entirely plausible, although it
can provide a proper end goal to have in mind when attempting to
tackle issues involving urban education, amongst those in
poverty.
Dr. Reverend Gregory Groover says that one must make changes
in the way teachers are treated, how teachers are compensated,
and how parent-teacher relations are dealt with. One cannot
expect that teachers or teachers alone have all the answers. In
interviewing Dr. Groover, I learned that there must be
unification between teachers and parents and others in order to
truly improve education. Because of that, I think it is vital to
create ways to facilitate conversation with parents, faculty, and
students to better engage the community. In concurrence with
Groover, Karen Marshall portrays the need for the community to
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help play a role within the lives of a young ones’ education.
Yet, more can be done.
Other ways of compensating for the lack of equity in
education are longer days, participation of parents with school,
summer programs, and “early childhood and pre-school programs
(Ladd). In his speech at Harvard entitled “Fire in the Ashes:
Public Schools Under Siege,” Kozol spoke very intently and one-
sidedly about the need for all funds in education to be put
toward the early developmental years. This could potentially be a
route taken in regard to funding schools and programs that help
to facilitate learning during the early years. With that being
said, more of an impetus must be placed on the early years of
education, but without the neglect of the latter years of one’s
educational endeavor.
Good Ideas being Employed
One area that has gained a lot of traction in terms of its
popularity, and in some places, its success has been the
Knowledge is Power Program (KIPP) schools. Although there have
been successes academically with KIPP schools, this does not mean
that it will be true everywhere (Ladd). The documentary “Waiting
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for Superman,” speaks of the success story of a KIPP school in
Harlem as an example of a successful charter school. But that is
not always the case. Other factors, such as the type of students
attending a local school come in to play as well. A consultant
and coach for educators in the Lynn named Frank DeVito spoke to
me about the need for the education system to look at each piece
of the puzzle as a means of solving the problem. It requires that
we look at education in a way that takes into account the best
that is being done in order to enhance the education of students
in poverty (Devito).
Along with the aforementioned facets, Teach for America
(TFA) appears to be promoting a competitive program to attain
quality teachers from various fields to education. TFA is an
organization that desires to eradicate the low expectation among
impoverished youth. They believe that, “although 16 million
American children face the extra challenges of poverty, an
increasing body of evidence shows they can achieve at the highest
levels” (TFA Website). In the midst of poverty, TFA knows that
teachers can and will make a difference. However, one of the
downfalls of the program is that it is only for a total of two
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years, and although there is the possibility of a two-year
extension, it does not promote longevity.
Community Service Society (CSS) is an organization in New
York City, as of 1939, that is combatting poverty to help
individuals who are on the margins of society to attain social
mobility through work. CSS focuses on issues of healthcare, work,
reentry after incarceration, “disconnected youth,” and providing
“economic security” (CSS Website). The hope and aim of CSS is to
provide individuals in poverty to with resources in order that
they may better their own future and that of their families. They
believe that work is the means by which individuals can supersede
poverty.
Urban Teaching Corps is an apprenticeship program aimed at
creating passionate long-term teachers in urban areas to close
the achievement gap. They do so by providing training, mentoring,
and giving participants opportunities to teach with the support
of an experienced professor. This organization understands that
teaching is difficult and has a high “turnover rate” (UTC
Website). Because of that, Urban Teaching Corps aims to equip
teachers so that they will teach for an extended period of time.
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Connections
Poverty affects education, which in turn impacts one’s
community and continues to perpetuate poverty in low-wealth
areas. This strong correlation affects a growing population of
inner city people who are multiplying and remaining in poverty,
which is creating a larger number of people who are at a
disadvantage. If nothing is done to disrupt this cycle, it will
have effects for years to come. Because it affects the types of
jobs people can get and therefore the economic progress of the
United States, this affects the national economy and ultimately
the global economy.
Questions
Some of the questions that I have pertaining to this topic
relate to why there is not more of an outrage over such issues?
Why is there not more being done about the issue? What is the
role of the church in regard to education? How might one change
zoning in order to best serve the students? Is sending students
to private or charter schools the best way to meet the need
temporarily to give some of the black and Latinos in higher
quartiles a chance? What can be done to further the relationship
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between families, teachers, and communities in order to better
education?
Resources
There are some groups that are doing work with empowering
youth within education:
Examples of groups that are helping to supplement school
education are 2Reveolutions who “ draw on deep industry
expertise, an online KnowledgeBase and our Talent Cloud™ to
collaborate with a range of partners who are actively building
the Future of Learning” (2revolutions.net). There are also ways
for teachers to communicate and brainstorm over these issues and
ways of teaching via websites such as http://rightquestion.org/.
Also, programs like “the City School” help to promote leadership
and empower young urban students.
For sources: “Education and Poverty: Confronting the Evidence” by
Hellen F. Ladd. 21st Century: Research, Issues, and Perspectives.
Ed. Festus E. Obiakor and Floyd D. Beachum, Literacy as a civil
right: Reclaiming social justice in literacy teaching and
learning by Peter Liang, and “Rotting Apple,” research done by
the Schott Foundation.
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Next Steps
Practical ways in which I can use my strengths to help be a
solution to this problem is to remember the need in this field
for developers who are positive and restorative, and to add to
these qualities by joining with someone who is gifted at
strategizing. I must use the ability to problem-solve when
thinking about what kinds of policies can be put in place in
order to improve the education system along with looking for
innovative ways of combatting poverty.
Talking with others within the Elijah Project will be
helpful as well. In order to devise a plan to combat such major
issues I know it will be vital to have individuals who will help
to think strategically about the issue of poverty and how it can
be addressed. Along with those who will help to not neglect those
such as parents, teachers, and students throughout the process.
Along with that, it will take achievers to make sure that the set
tasks are completed in order to attain the set goal. Ultimately,
all of us are needed in this process. We have to learn to work
together to better education and to bring about redemption in the
world.
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"Community Service Society." Workforce & Poverty. Community Service Society, n.d. Web. 21 Nov. 2012. <http://www.cssny.org/issues/entry/workforce-and-poverty>.
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Waiting for 'Superman' Dir. David Guggenheim. Perf. Geoffrey Canada. 2010. DVD.
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