Martinez 1

David Martinez

NOV 312

Dr. Greg Carmer

24 November 2012

Opportunity to Access Education Based on Location

Socioeconomic status is the key limiting factor to students’

opportunity to receive a quality education in the United States.

Research shows a link between poverty and one’s success

academically. Those who reside in impoverished areas have less

opportunity to attend high performing schools with experienced

teachers, and less access to resources. Not only do the issues

involving urban education affect students, they also affect the

community in which the students reside and the allowance of

social mobility, which in turn impacts the future work force of

the United States.

Karen Marshall, a program manager for the Educator Mentor

Corps at Wheelock College whose prior social work experience

makes her acquainted with community issues, researches poverty

and its relation to education. She illustrates education as a

“gas tank” (Marshall). According to the analogy, to be under the

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umbrella of poverty is like putting water in a gas tank. The car

cannot function with poverty as the fuel, and so a student cannot

move forward under environment of poverty without great

assistance. Similarly, Jonathan Kozol, a former teacher, now an

author and advocate for urban education, speaks on the need to

alleviate the achievement gap between white, and Black and Latino

students in urban school districts. At a lecture he gave at

Harvard this past August, he spoke fervently about the desperate

inequality in urban areas and how there needs to be more funding

for early childhood education (Kozol). Kozol purports that this

is the vital component in providing a good education for inner

city children, because he understands that it is the major

limiting factor.

Brief History of Urban Education

Despite the court ruling of Brown vs. Board in 1954,

segregation within schools still exists today (cf. Epps 220). A

concentrated number of African Americans and Latinos reside

within the centers of metropolitan areas, while a greater number

of whites reside in affluent suburbs, having “greater ability of

suburban districts to fund public schools adequately” (Epps 220).

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School districts across the country are being released from this

order to desegregate, causing them to be disinterested in

continuing to integrate their schools. White affluent suburbs and

predominantly black and Latino inner city school districts are

divided racially. As of 1990, the desire for integration has been

“waning as a public goal” (Rossell 2005). Efforts to continue to

integrate schools are dwindling, and the achievement gap between

white students and black and Latino students is widening.

The decline in urban education began with the “decreased

economic resources in the late 1920s and early 1930s” which left

cities such as Detroit, in regard to infrastructure, in a place

of decay (Vesely and Crampton 168). Schools receive funds at the

federal, state, and local level. Because of differences in the

property value of homes, suburban schools receive more funds than

urban schools, increasing property taxes and funds allocated to

schooling. Cities like Detroit have found themselves in great

difficulty trying to receive funding from predominantly white

school zones in which a “degree of racial and economic

segregation”—which was evident in the 1960s—still appears to be

evident today (Vesely and Crampton 168). Schools with less

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funding are likely to suffer more academically, making access to

resources crucial to a student’s success. Although funding is

vital, heaving more money at a school will not solve the problem.

There are other factors that must be taken into account as well.

Factors Surrounding Urban Education

Psychologist Michelle Fine (The Graduate Center, CUNY)

believes that the current educational system does not take into

account the intent and vision of Brown v. Board, but is

“reinforcing the stereotype of the African American deficit”

(Fine 508). The system currently in place disallows the

integration of black and white students, further perpetuating the

lack of equality within education due to racial and economic

divides. There is a “distribution of power and its expression in

structures, ideologies, and practices as various institutional

and individual levels are significantly racialized in our

society” (Omi 244). Although poverty is the key factor, its

correlation with race cannot be neglected. It would be ignorant

to believe that one could speak about poverty without first

recognizing the reason as to why particular individuals or ethnic

groups reside in locations with high rates of poverty.

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Regarding inequalities in schools, one cannot deny that the

“quality of education available to children is based on the

relative power, prestige, and wealth of their families” (Omi

244). A child’s opportunity to attain a higher quality education

is largely determined by where one resides. Within urban school

districts, there is not enough compensation from the state and

federal government to make up for the lack of funds at the local

level from “low property wealth” (Vesely et al, 165). Lower

property wealth in a school means that a school is underfunded

and likely underperforming. When a school lacks in performance,

it prevents social mobility between competing subordinate and

dominant groups in society (Fine).

Within urban areas, school districts are expected to improve

their history of poor performance. These students who reside in

low-wealth school districts have a tendency to score more poorly

on standardized tests than students in high-wealth school

districts (Okpala, 2002). Poor performance academically

determines the level of education that one receives, which will

in turn impact the types of employment one might ascertain.

Consequently, limited education creates an environment where job

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access is limited, which eventually leads to unemployment and

other issues that plague impoverished areas.

William Hayes is the principal of a K-8 school in Cleveland,

Ohio that is 99% black, low income, underperforming, and labeled

an Academic Emergency school. He says, “improvement requires an

improvement in not only schools but in the communities in which

these schools reside” (Hayes). Ones’ socioeconomic background

plays a major role in regard to “learning and school dropout

rates (Rumberger and Palardy 2005). This research confirms

evidence found in the “Coleman Survey” in 1966, which concluded

that “school resources such as teacher quality, pupil/teacher

ratio, and the like had relatively small effects on student

learning” (Epps 222). Although this was found to be true in this

particular study, other research has shown that the quality of

teacher is a major factor. However, one’s socioeconomic

background tends to be a more accurate determiner of success

(Rothstein).

Income, housing, race, and segregation all serve as

variables that must be considered in assessing one’s ability to

be educated and to attain social mobility. The last factor

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affecting ones’ educational opportunity is “redlining” (Schott

Foundation v). The term redlining “might seem strong given that

it implies a deliberate attempt to deny certain communities

access to educational opportunities,” but is a term used to

describe the inequality, in regard to opportunity, based upon

ones location in New York City and elsewhere (Schott Foundation

v). The research by the Schott foundation found that there were

major disparities and separation in New York in regard to how

cities are divided and the access that students have to quality

education.

Importance: Why does this issue matter?

This issue matters because it is a human rights issue. It is

not just that some students are given a better educational

opportunity because of their context and socioeconomic status.

There must be means by which to bring equality between city

schooling and suburban schooling. If we desire the advancement of

our economy, all of our citizens must be educated in order to be

prepared to excel in the work force. If Black and Latino students

continue to fail to receive adequate education, not only will

there be little access to higher paying jobs within urban

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communities, there will be a continuance of crime and violence.

Quality schooling is the means by which social mobility can

occur, ergo allowing the possibility of an “American Dream” for

all.

Furthermore, this issue is critical because the majority

population of American students in the future will be of color.

Making sure these students excel academically is crucial to the

United States’ success. According to the U.S. Census Bureau in

2011, for the first time in history, the majority of babies born

in the U.S. are babies of color. Thus, in the not too distant

future, the viability of our country’s communities, labor force,

and democracy will be largely shaped by and predicated on the

opportunities we provide for those children (Black Boys Report

6).

State of the Question

There appears to be a consensus about the correlation

between one’s socioeconomic status and educational performance in

the classroom. While there appears to be a consensus that schools

are failing, there is disagreement regarding which factors are

causing this failure. There are many varying opinions about how

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to best combat low performance within urban schools across the

country. Many agree that the lack of quality teachers appears to

be a concerning contributing factor, although for some it is not

the main reason for a lack of success academically.

Along with segregation’s contribution, some believe that

whites are critical to the furthering of equality between urban

and suburban schools because of white privilege. They argue that

whites may desire to help in theory, yet only when it does not

affect their privilege. Schuman and Krysan, in a report in 1999

titled “A Historical Note on Whites’ Beliefs About Racial

Inequality,’ [note that] a majority of white Americans reject

most proposals to eliminate unequal access to high quality

education” (Epps 219). One observation that was made alluded to

the ideal that whites are in favor of equality within education,

but not at the expense of “foregoing white privileges” (Epps

219). When one takes into account how it will affect one’s

community, children, jobs, and power in the political arena, it

is difficult to succumb to the practicality of foregoing

privilege, according to Killian, even though one could

acknowledge the inequality in theory (219). The inability to

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forego privilege has perpetuated a disconnect in terms of

opportunity and social mobility between white communities with

Latinos and blacks, who receive a subpar education.

Some would argue that the “publication of A Nation at Risk (1983)

during the Reagan years,” which addressed concerns in regard to

the education system in the United States has been “misguided”

(Ladd 1). Today, the United States’ test scores and graduation

rates are “middling” in comparison to other countries. In

response to A Nation at Risk there has been “school accountability in

the form of the federal No Child Left Behind Act, test-based

approaches to evaluate teachers, and promotion of expanded

parental choice, charter schools, and competition” (Ladd 1).

Many would argue that these responses to education have been more

detrimental than helpful, causing teachers to teach to a test as

opposed to fostering an excitement for learning among students

(Marshall).

Areas of Response to Issues in Urban Education

If it is the case that “students from disadvantaged

households on average perform less well in school than those from

more advantaged families,” then how could we best work to

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counteract this norm and aid students to perform better in the

classroom (Ladd 8)? In order to combat this disadvantage and to

enhance achievement, we must find a “broader way” (Ladd 8). Three

ways in which the issues surrounding the education of students in

poverty can be addressed is by finding ways to combat poverty

itself, poor quality of teachers, and access to high performing

schools for all students.

In order to combat the correlation between poverty and

education, systems must be set in place that help offset the

adverse affects of poverty. A study done in New York City by the

Schott Foundation found that “New York City’s middle school

inequities become high school inequities. A Black or Hispanic

student, or a student of any race or ethnicity from a low-income

household, is most likely to be enrolled in one of the city’s

poorest performing high schools” (15). This is true of others

cities as well. Research found that a “student’s opportunity to

learn in the New York City public schools is largely determined

by where he or she lives” (7). Living in an impoverished area

greatly determines a student’s access to attend higher performing

schools, which in turn affect ones’ outcome academically. From a

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policy standpoint, it is vital to create measures by which one

who resides in a poor performing school district can attend a

better-performing school. This solution in and of itself does not

solve the problem, but is a stride in the right direction.

Poverty is the ultimate problem that must be undertaken in

order to better education in the short term. It is a well-known

fact that teachers do not want to teach in an inner-city setting

for a number of reasons, and those who do, do not last very long.

“Many teachers with strong credentials tend to be reluctant to

teach in schools with large concentrations of disadvantaged

students” (Jackson, 2009 and Clotfelter, Ladd and Vigdor, 2011).

On top of confronting social and emotional issues in the

classroom, teachers are faced with the pressures of new

evaluations (to measure effectiveness through test scores), their

own ideals of desiring to change the world, and their

frustrations with finding their efforts allocated to teaching to

a test. Added to all this are the difficulties of overcrowded

classrooms, cultural differences, diverse learning styles, and

language barriers. About 47 percent of teachers leave within the

first three years (Marshall). Could it be that our teachers are

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asked to do too much too early on? And if this is the case, how

can we have any hope with urban students who not only face a

failing school system but a failing community with others issues

such as violence and lack of choice and resources to compensate

for lack of quality education?

What should be done?

Because Education in an urban area is multifaceted and

multi-layered, any proper reform or criticism must take into

account “political, economic, accountability, financial,

demographics, and staffing terrains” (Vesely and Crampton 170).

The various individuals that I interviewed hinted toward the many

complications associated with the issues surrounding education.

Principle William Hayes mentioned issues around unions and

funding for schools. Dr. Reverend Gregory Groover, head of the

Board of Education in Boston, mentioned the need for better

testing of teachers, and accountability of teachers from parents.

Groover, Hayes, and Karen Marshall all showed concern for urban

education and the role of the community in which one is educated

as an indicator of success or failure.

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Some would argue that, instead of trying to look at simply

individual schools or systems, that we should “‘stop arguing

whether schools prepare students for the future and launch a full

scale attack on poverty,’ said panelist Peter Edelman of the

Center on Poverty, Inequality, and Public Policy” (McNeely). Yet,

this proposition does not seem entirely plausible, although it

can provide a proper end goal to have in mind when attempting to

tackle issues involving urban education, amongst those in

poverty.

Dr. Reverend Gregory Groover says that one must make changes

in the way teachers are treated, how teachers are compensated,

and how parent-teacher relations are dealt with. One cannot

expect that teachers or teachers alone have all the answers. In

interviewing Dr. Groover, I learned that there must be

unification between teachers and parents and others in order to

truly improve education. Because of that, I think it is vital to

create ways to facilitate conversation with parents, faculty, and

students to better engage the community. In concurrence with

Groover, Karen Marshall portrays the need for the community to

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help play a role within the lives of a young ones’ education.

Yet, more can be done.

Other ways of compensating for the lack of equity in

education are longer days, participation of parents with school,

summer programs, and “early childhood and pre-school programs

(Ladd). In his speech at Harvard entitled “Fire in the Ashes:

Public Schools Under Siege,” Kozol spoke very intently and one-

sidedly about the need for all funds in education to be put

toward the early developmental years. This could potentially be a

route taken in regard to funding schools and programs that help

to facilitate learning during the early years. With that being

said, more of an impetus must be placed on the early years of

education, but without the neglect of the latter years of one’s

educational endeavor.

Good Ideas being Employed

One area that has gained a lot of traction in terms of its

popularity, and in some places, its success has been the

Knowledge is Power Program (KIPP) schools. Although there have

been successes academically with KIPP schools, this does not mean

that it will be true everywhere (Ladd). The documentary “Waiting

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for Superman,” speaks of the success story of a KIPP school in

Harlem as an example of a successful charter school. But that is

not always the case. Other factors, such as the type of students

attending a local school come in to play as well. A consultant

and coach for educators in the Lynn named Frank DeVito spoke to

me about the need for the education system to look at each piece

of the puzzle as a means of solving the problem. It requires that

we look at education in a way that takes into account the best

that is being done in order to enhance the education of students

in poverty (Devito).

Along with the aforementioned facets, Teach for America

(TFA) appears to be promoting a competitive program to attain

quality teachers from various fields to education. TFA is an

organization that desires to eradicate the low expectation among

impoverished youth. They believe that, “although 16 million

American children face the extra challenges of poverty, an

increasing body of evidence shows they can achieve at the highest

levels” (TFA Website). In the midst of poverty, TFA knows that

teachers can and will make a difference. However, one of the

downfalls of the program is that it is only for a total of two

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years, and although there is the possibility of a two-year

extension, it does not promote longevity.

Community Service Society (CSS) is an organization in New

York City, as of 1939, that is combatting poverty to help

individuals who are on the margins of society to attain social

mobility through work. CSS focuses on issues of healthcare, work,

reentry after incarceration, “disconnected youth,” and providing

“economic security” (CSS Website). The hope and aim of CSS is to

provide individuals in poverty to with resources in order that

they may better their own future and that of their families. They

believe that work is the means by which individuals can supersede

poverty.

Urban Teaching Corps is an apprenticeship program aimed at

creating passionate long-term teachers in urban areas to close

the achievement gap. They do so by providing training, mentoring,

and giving participants opportunities to teach with the support

of an experienced professor. This organization understands that

teaching is difficult and has a high “turnover rate” (UTC

Website). Because of that, Urban Teaching Corps aims to equip

teachers so that they will teach for an extended period of time.

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Connections

Poverty affects education, which in turn impacts one’s

community and continues to perpetuate poverty in low-wealth

areas. This strong correlation affects a growing population of

inner city people who are multiplying and remaining in poverty,

which is creating a larger number of people who are at a

disadvantage. If nothing is done to disrupt this cycle, it will

have effects for years to come. Because it affects the types of

jobs people can get and therefore the economic progress of the

United States, this affects the national economy and ultimately

the global economy.

Questions

Some of the questions that I have pertaining to this topic

relate to why there is not more of an outrage over such issues?

Why is there not more being done about the issue? What is the

role of the church in regard to education? How might one change

zoning in order to best serve the students? Is sending students

to private or charter schools the best way to meet the need

temporarily to give some of the black and Latinos in higher

quartiles a chance? What can be done to further the relationship

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between families, teachers, and communities in order to better

education?

Resources

There are some groups that are doing work with empowering

youth within education:

Examples of groups that are helping to supplement school

education are 2Reveolutions who “ draw on deep industry

expertise, an online KnowledgeBase and our Talent Cloud™ to

collaborate with a range of partners who are actively building

the Future of Learning” (2revolutions.net). There are also ways

for teachers to communicate and brainstorm over these issues and

ways of teaching via websites such as http://rightquestion.org/.

Also, programs like “the City School” help to promote leadership

and empower young urban students.

For sources: “Education and Poverty: Confronting the Evidence” by

Hellen F. Ladd. 21st Century: Research, Issues, and Perspectives.

Ed. Festus E. Obiakor and Floyd D. Beachum, Literacy as a civil

right: Reclaiming social justice in literacy teaching and

learning by Peter Liang, and “Rotting Apple,” research done by

the Schott Foundation.

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Next Steps

Practical ways in which I can use my strengths to help be a

solution to this problem is to remember the need in this field

for developers who are positive and restorative, and to add to

these qualities by joining with someone who is gifted at

strategizing. I must use the ability to problem-solve when

thinking about what kinds of policies can be put in place in

order to improve the education system along with looking for

innovative ways of combatting poverty.

Talking with others within the Elijah Project will be

helpful as well. In order to devise a plan to combat such major

issues I know it will be vital to have individuals who will help

to think strategically about the issue of poverty and how it can

be addressed. Along with those who will help to not neglect those

such as parents, teachers, and students throughout the process.

Along with that, it will take achievers to make sure that the set

tasks are completed in order to attain the set goal. Ultimately,

all of us are needed in this process. We have to learn to work

together to better education and to bring about redemption in the

world.

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Waiting for 'Superman' Dir. David Guggenheim. Perf. Geoffrey Canada. 2010. DVD.

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