Application of Theories andPhilosophy to Teaching Practice By: Harold E. B. John, March, 2015.
Abstract
The foundation of education commenced from the
beginning of the world with the story of Adam and Eve interacting
with the Tree of Knowledge. It continues in the earliest
prehistory times, as adults trained the young in the knowledge
and skills deemed necessary in their society. Whether by
traditional or conventional method, education is a form of
learning to obtain knowledge, skills, beliefs, habits, and
values. It is transferred through teaching, training, research or
by stories telling. Educators have always been flooded with
innovative ideas about learning and teaching. Teachers seek new
ways to be effective practitioners and are bombarded with
suggestions for reform. Educators are usually required to try new
curricula, innovative teaching strategies, and new assessments.
Education affects everyone. The process of teaching and
learning is personal and lies at the very heart of education. As
the process becomes known in greater depth, the better an
individual will be able to influence his/her growth and
direction. The attempt to better understand the teaching and
learning process has traditionally been dominated by behaviorist
and positivist research paradigms. It is possible to increase
advances previously made by examining how those who are
principally and directly involved in the process of teaching and
learning (teachers and students) utilize their consciousness in
grasping information and contents and also the way by which they
behave.
Teachers have a teaching role. A teaching role is a set of
behavioral patterns that emerge in response to the learning
environment. This includes students and the learning task
demands. Each teaching role engages students to learn in a unique
manner, using one mode of grasping experience and one mode of
transforming experience. The educator must closely monitor the
quality of student performance toward the standards they set, and
provide consistent feedback. These are the standard setting and
evaluation role to help student apply knowledge toward
performance goals. Hunt (1987) suggested that a learning spiral
is shared between individuals through interaction. To one
another, people relate. They relate in a pattern of alternating
reading and flexing the true representation of the learning
process. A skilled educator through specific strategy can
activate learning modes in students based on their pattern of
learning style.
This learning style is usually developed from the educators
personal and professional experiences. In a sense, it commences
with understanding both the classroom and non-classroom settings
with the composition such as, age, gender and learning styles,
previous exposure to course content and previous work experience.
It is believed that learning in adulthood is distinguished
from learning in childhood. This belief is generated by the way
some aspects of the learning process and the way the context
intermingle in adulthood. With adults, the education they seek is
transformative as they are seeking to extend, refine, and
rejuvenate beliefs and knowledge they already possess. Some
adults need repeated practice of a concept or skill. So with
questions and answers, experimenting and researching, finding and
solving, their consciousness open with a mature thought process
that allow the mind to be retentive. Education is an ongoing
process. One never stops learning. Every day is a new day with a
new agenda. Therefore mankind should always seek to reform
knowledge and gain more useful and relevant agenda.
INTEGRATING LEARNING THEORIES WITH PERSONAL 5
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.Introduction……………………………………………………….5
2.Purpose of Study………………………………………………….6
3.Learning Theories and Principles………………………………...7
-The ways the brain learns………………………………………..7
-How learning occurs……………………………………………..7
-Multiple intelligences and learning styles……………………….8
-Perspective of multiple intelligences…………………………….9
-Multicultural ways of knowing and learning…………………...10
-Non-western ways of knowing……………………….13
-Theories surrounding adults learning…………………………...16
-Postmodernism and adult learning……………………………....21
-Feminist learning theories……………………………………….23
4. Teaching Based on Specific Part of the Brain……………………...26
5. Implications for Teaching and Teachers……………………………27
6. Personal Teaching Philosophy……………………………………...28
7. Importance of Respectful Interactions Among teachers And Students………………………………………………………..31
8. Summary……………………………………………………………33
9. Conclusion………………………………………………………….34
10. References………………………………………………………….35
Introduction
The art of teaching adults effectively requires an
understanding of various principles or theories of how adults
learn, and requires exerting great effort in applying some of the
known principles to practice. In applying these theories to
writing instruction for adult learners, the suggested methods are
as follow: Incorporate more writing in more contexts in the adult
education setting to promote self-reflection and articulation of
learning; to get learners to be involved in online activities
with communities as contributors, readers, and peers, to foster
their self-directed learning, and perseverance; and deepen
critical thinking by providing feedback that challenges the
assumptions of the learners.
Learning doesn’t happen in isolation. It relates to
the society and the society is affected by it. What an individual
intends to learn, what is available, what is offered, what is
financially feasible, and the manner by which an individual
learns are resolved mainly at any particular time by the essence
of the society. It is known for centuries that adults learn
differently than younger students. With this knowledge, several
literatures have been documented in support of the idea. In
educational research, models of education exhibit distinct lines
of inquiry into the aspects of adults learning. These distinct
lines of inquiry are andragogy (six assumptions about the adult
learner), self-directed learning, experiential learning,
transformational learning, and postmodern learning theories.
The influence that shape teachers’ live is implanted
in within. The things that move teachers’ actions can be hardly
found in research studies (Brookfield, 1995, p. 49). Brookfield
recognized this as genuine that our style, techniques or format
of teaching is generated from our own autobiographies throughout
our lives, from the early period of our development, going
through the period of life from puberty to maturity, and as
adults (p. 50). Brookfield further suggested that our learning
process should continue through professional advancement that
includes, graduate education, post-graduate education, seminars
and conferences, career and professional workshops (p. 51). My
life experiences (both personal and professional) contribute
greatly to the development of an autobiographical learning
experience and personal teaching philosophy.
According to Brookfield (1995), in the classroom he
was always intimidated and the fear affected him greatly. Later
in his education, he was comforted by a professor who assured him
that they are team members and working together. The intimidation
felt in the classroom during childhood and adult education and
the action of the professor helped him to design strategies that
would help his student feel comfortable with good understanding
and with the absence of intimidation feeling. This study will
evaluate adult learning theories with the lens of current
research theories in the field of adult education and how they
align with my personal teaching philosophy.
Purpose of Study
The purpose of this study is the demonstration of the
necessity in establishing appropriate tools to be available for
measurable data on adults learning theories. This study intends
to explore areas integrating learning theories with personal
philosophy in the following manner: (a) Learning theories and
principles, (b) teaching based on specific part of the brain (c)
implications for teaching and teachers, (d) personal teaching
philosophy, (e) and importance of respectful interactions among
teachers and students. By reviewing, evaluating, examining these
five fields, a cornerstone will be established for the creation
of tools to stipulate measurable factual information on adult
learning theories.
Learning Theories and Principles:
The ways the adult brain learns.
The brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves are team
members united and integrated as an information processing
center, which is controlled by the central nervous system. This
central processing unit governs both conscious and unconscious
facets of human’s life. The brain predominantly renders an idea
of how adult learning is process internally. “It involves
something happening inside the head” (Bruer, 1997). These mental
processes involve the way people “receive, store, retrieve,
transform, and transmit information” (Taylor, 1996, p. 301).
The brain grants us the capability of acquiring and
applying all sorts of skills and behaviors as needed for
surviving effectively in this sophisticated and dangerous world.
The brain is structured in an architectural way for absorbing and
interacting through language understanding. The learning is
automatic. Just as we may have to go to school to learn, read and
write; as well as listening and speaking effectively. These
functions are carried in an unconscious manner through
repetition.
How learning occurs?
To do things we go to work and the way we earn our
living is the work we do. The main objective of going to work is
to perform assigned task at the same time we learn new things
while performing our duties. At work, must of us work at a
reflective level whereby problems are analyzed and solutions are
grouped, make decisions, and interact with co-workers. Sometimes
in the process of doing so, we adapt and evolve in our behaviors
without conscious effort on our part. Through trials and errors
we learn. We make mistakes. We correct the mistakes. The mistakes
become experiences and corrective measures. The corrective
measures become preventive measures for future action. So we
learn by our observations of the successes and failures of others
(Shepherd, (2007). It can be stated that if the job is valued and
the career is encompassed with risk, the same experience will
repeat itself over and over again.
One of the main learning systems is encompassed with
networking. The network includes experts, coaches, mentors, on-
job instructors, instructors, professional colleagues, and peers.
Access is gained to reference materials, prepared contents,
learning at the point of need and just-in-time learning. To all
learning materials, access is gained and development of knowledge
and skills commence to venture future challenges. As learners
develop more relationship “with teachers, trainers, facilitators
and co-learners, they have the opportunity to formalize the
learning outcomes through educational and training courses” (p.
27). In all, the interaction of people and content generate
multi-useful functions.
Multiple intelligences and learning styles.
The theory of multiple intelligences indicates that
individuals are born with the innate capacity to succeed in a
particular domain, and one way to aid in identifying and
developing student’s innate capacities is by education. The idea
of learning styles predicts that each student possesses a unique
and particular way of learning that can generate and extract the
best out of them such as, visualization or through hands-on
activities; therefore, teachers are obligated to make sure that
students are able to learn in conformity with the best style
suitable to their preferred way.
In dealing with multiple intelligences (IQ),
several types of theories have been developed beyond the
traditional academic IQ. One of the well-known theorists is
Gardner (1983). He systematically indicated eight intelligences
that encompassed variety of areas such as, mathematics, musical,
interpersonal, intrapersonal, linguistic, spatial, naturalistic,
and kinesthetic. According to Materna, (2007) every individual
possess the potential for utilizing inherent intelligence with
variety of degrees and among individuals are differences. To
other theorists like Knowles, multiple intelligences are
considered talent and not intelligence (Knowles et al. (2011).
Most educators have had the experience of not being
able to reach a challenging student until trying a completely
different approach. Perhaps it was a student who struggled with
writing until the teacher provided the option by creating a story
in a graphic manner, with narrative that sparkles with beauty and
complexity. Or maybe it was a student who just couldn't seem to
grasp fractions, until he created them by separating oranges into
slices. Because of these kinds of experiences, the idea of
learning styles and the theory of multiple intelligences resonate
with many educators. These theories support what we all know to
be true: A one-size-fits-all approach to education will
invariably leave some students behind. People are different and
learn differently. This is due to the personal and professional
experience, memories, cultures, beliefs, and attitudes, and
attributes brought to the learning environment (Materna, 2007).
Adults learning may be different from children as the
unique structure of adults’ personality impacts the manner by
which materials are processed through sensory of modality that is
stronger in processing information (Materna, 2007). Gardner
(1983) displayed that the sustainability of a broad variety of
adults’ mental capabilities are due to cross cultural influence.
However, culture conducts a great function in the mental
capacities of individuals, both children and adults. With this
in mind, intelligence can be characterized as the capacity to
solve problems or to fashion products that are valued in several
cultural settings as significant segment in the development of
intelligence (Materna, 2007, p. 57).
Perspectives of multiple intelligences.
The development of multiple intelligences concept has
done much to broaden people's understanding and definition of what
intelligence encompasses. Although there’s an absence of scientific
evidence, these ideas can be useful in executing teaching techniques
and practices; the essential point requiring resolution is the manner
by which information is used. Most critically, students should not be
classified as being specific types of learners; they cannot be
sectioned as having an innate or type of intelligence that are fixed.
For example, if the “Edutopia Learning Styles Quiz” maps is taken
into consideration to analyze Howard Gardner's multiple
intelligences; a fun way it will be to learn about how some of our
tastes and interests can influence how we take in information.
However, its results are not intended as a way to label people as
"naturalistic learners," "musical learners," etc.
With labeling, limits are created. When limits are created,
contingent problems are waiting to be manifested as boundaries are
the last things we need when it comes to learning. Someone who grew
up in a different cultural environment will only partly agree with
Gardner’s position that mental capabilities are due to cross cultural
influence. Individuals possess multi-faceted qualities of
intellectual abilities. These abilities are developed from multiple
segments. For several up-bringing, cultural influences is the core of
most personalities, their learning styles, and techniques. There is
one problem with Garner’s theory: this is the all-inclusiveness of
intelligence theory because aspects of intelligence such as
reflective and experiential and emotion is part of the composition of
human’s intelligence. As our quenchless desire to know more about
learning process continues, scholarly studies and scientific
research may emerge to support or dispute multiple intelligences,
learning styles, or any another developed theory.
Multicultural ways of knowing and learning.
To know something reflects degree of involvement with
knowledge with variation from the indefinite number of external
cognizant to the indefinite number of observation of our inner
most self. Knowing is based on experiencing something. Once
something is known, there is no more thinking or speculation
about it. We perceive it so deeply within ourselves as the truth
that is no need to discuss it. It is our reality and cannot be
altered. It is simple; we can say it is only experience. In that
regards, it cannot be approved or disapproved. Experience is
built in within us. By staying inside of us it resides deep
within us in privacy. It can be stated that to experience
something is to know about it. For example, when there is
sunrise, there is sun shines; our skin feels the warmth of the
sun. This feeling is personal and individualistic. Therefore,
because the feeling is personal, we sometimes forget to be aware
that we know something, such as the warmth of the sun. There are
lots of things we can realize that others cannot see or feel;
just as the sun we know them to be true with strong conviction.
That is the decoration of knowledge. Knowing something can change
our interaction and relationship to every occurrence in our life
because of the transformation of our inner most self with the
greatest sense of who we believe we are.
As an ordained pastor, I commenced the way of knowing
with the Scripture: “God revealed these things to us by his
spirit; for his spirit searches everything and show us God’s deep
secrets. For no one can know a person’s thoughts except that
person’s own spirit; and no one can know God’s thoughts except
God’s own spirit. And we have received God’s spirit; so that we
can know the wonderful things God has freely given us” (New
Application Bible).
As an auditor, I have experienced ways of knowing as
an ongoing process. Auditors know by observation; understanding
of others point of views; and comprehension of others thoughts.
The primary responsibility of an auditor is ensuring that an
audit is effective in serving its intended purpose. Management
can establish the scope of an audit, and the auditee can
cooperate in making his program and facility ready and available
for inspection, but it is the auditor himself who will determine
the success or failure of the audit. In order to be a good
auditor one should always try to identify both strengths and
weaknesses in a positive manner that will be beneficial to the
auditee and his management. Ways of knowing should be sought by
review procedures and review performance data. Moreover to gain
in-depth knowledge, the auditor conducts review of internal
reports, conduct phone interviews, conduct surveys, and conduct a
self-qualification check, interviews, inspections, and records
reviews. In addition, he or she must take continued education
courses and attend seminars to maintain an ongoing way of
learning. It is of essence to ways of learning that these
situations are valid as they are required for the auditor to
effective, efficient, and competent at all times.
According to the Theory of Knowledge (TOK) there
are eight ways of knowing (WOK). These are: language, sense of
perception, emotion, reason, imagination, faith, intuition, and
memory. They are penetrated through an exploration and
interpretation of the world. They operate in coordinated fashion
through human’s sensory.
-Language is the mental ability that enables people to learn and
utilize communication systems and it is significant in
communicating knowledge.
-Perception is external so it is made up of five senses: sight,
touch, smell, taste, and hearing. The basis for human’s knowledge
is collective of the five senses.
-Emotion includes the situation or experience, the
interpretation, the perception, and the response or feeling
related to the experience of a particular situation. The emotion
is the source of social, ethical, and political knowledge by
generating an understanding of the world. Emotions control your
thinking, behavior and actions. Emotions affect your physical
bodies as much as your body affects your feelings and thinking.
-Reason is aligned with logic. Therefore, it allows us to process
statement with valid conclusions. It is the motive or action,
decision, or conviction. Logically and persuasively, we talk or
argue.
-Imagination is the ability to form mental images of things that
are not present to the senses or not considered to be real.
-Faith is the substance of things hoped for and that those things
will actually happen. Faith acknowledges the things unseen, and
acts as if they are visible. It gives us assurance about things
we cannot see. The verb of Faith is doing what God told us to do.
Faith makes us listen to instructions and commands from the
spiritual world. Listening brings obedience and with obedience,
we execute the action which is the accomplishment of God’s
purposes.
-Intuition is the immediate cognition or knowledge suffixing an
inference, evidence or justification,
direct perception of truth, fact, etc. It is
independent of any reasoning process;
And immediate apprehension is needed.
-Memory is the means by which we draw on our past experiences in
order to use the information in the present’ (Sternberg, 1999).
Non-Western Ways of Knowing:
To gain diverse knowledge, concentration should be
focused on the thoughts, cultures, and beliefs of non-Western
values and ways of knowing. As Merriam points out, “lack of
understanding multiple perspectives can result in marginalization
of other ways of knowing (Merriam et al. 2007). In order to grasp
an understanding of other WOK, this study discusses WOK of Native
Americans, Confucianism, Hinduism, Islam, Maori, and African. By
so doing, indigenous knowledge will be gained on other WOK to
generate a better holistic understanding of adult learning.
Native Americans: According to the Native Americans,
life is a circle. Each person has a place in the circle because
the beginning and end of life are near each other on the circle,
just spring is to summer. So because life is viewed as a circle,
respect is given to every living thing. Emotion is the foundation
for developing a relationship between what you learn and why you
are learning it. So the love for people and one’s land is the
primary reason for learning (Cajete, 2005).
Knowledge is obtained through observation and through
oral tradition. People learn by observing others. They will
observe until confidence is gained that enough learning and skill
have been obtained. Then new skills will be tried individually.
According to the Native Americans, learning is viewed as holistic
and not segmented. Oral tradition is another segment of the
learning process. The elders use stories to deliver meaning to
specific dilemma. The stories are used to record tribe’s
achievements and their way of life. By these stories
significantly transmit and maintain significant knowledge,
beliefs, traditions, and valuable way of living. So by listening
to story tellers, children learn the importance of harmony and
balance within the circle of life and also of obligations.
Confucianism-China, Korea, Taiwan: They view learning
as a never-ending process toward becoming fully human. According
to their philosophy, a person who does not know how to act in a
situation must follow and learn from one who does. They believe
that adults learn from life’s experience. The Confucianism
assumes that students need to receive knowledge from teachers.
They must not criticize but only memorize the knowledge.
Criticizing a teacher’s opinion or expressing different opinions
is considered disrespectful and destroying the harmonious social
order. Therefore, learners obey their teachers and the teachers
are well respected.
Hindu: The Hindu’s WOK is based on the religious
philosophy of Mysticism. This is based on experience: the state
of realization that is knowable and communicable; whereby, people
are taught how to reach it. Also, it has as its goal the release
of the spirit-substance of the individual from its prison in
matter, whether matter is considered real or illusory. In
addition, there is a necessity control the mind and body as a
means of realization through spiritual growth. This is in the
form of meditation that generates the cultivation of mind and
body in order that energies may be properly channeled. Finally,
at the core of Hindu mystical thought is the functional principle
that knowing is being. Thus, knowledge is something more than
analytical categorizing: it is total understanding. This
understanding can be purely intellectual, and some schools of
thoughts equate the final goal with omniscience. So with
Hinduism, life is not about the acquisition of knowledge but
rather about the development of wisdom by understanding oneself
in a holistic manner.
Islam-Arab nations: In the Islamic world, learning is
sacred and obligatory. It is embedded in the community. “The
purpose of education is to bring humans closer to God and his
creation, and to integrate the rational, spiritual, and social
dimensions of a person” (Merriam et. al., 2007). For example, if
there is no engineer to serve a community, then the community is
obligated to send one or more of its members for engineering
training. Failure to do so is considered a community sin that is
shared by each of its members. People are obligated to share what
is learned. The Muslims believe that learning is a lifelong
journey. Since God’s knowledge is infinite. “It is like a drop of
water in the sea; one can never complete acquiring it” (Kami and
Muhammad, 2007, pp. 34-35).
Maori- New Zealand: The Maoris believe that learning
is a lifelong process. Learning and teaching are the same word in
Maori. Their concept of learning and knowing begins by describing
the history of New Zealand and the power relations between the
Pakeha and Maori groups with a comparison of the educational
interests of both groups. They believe that knowledge is always a
collective entity. The core of the Maori learning process is
based on culture, reciprocal learning, collective philosophy,
mediation, and extended families.
African: With Africans oneness is the belief. This is in
with the meaning that to learn is to live happily with one’s
family, community, society, and ancestors’ spirits. The deceased
are considered still alive in spiritual form, protecting families
and relatives. It is a collective method. Learning is conducted
through ceremonies, rituals, recreations, storytelling, poetry,
and spiritual work. People also learn by oral tradition; whereby
the elders will give stories and narratives of significant
experiences and incidents. There is no restriction of who can be
a teacher or learner. It all depends on the person’s ability.
Which one can be integrated into your personal
educational philosophy?
Knowing something change my relationship to
everything in my life, because it changes me in the deepest sense
of which I feel I am; this includes a change in my educational
philosophy. The Hindu way of knowing fits into my philosophy
because of their understanding is based on a larger picture of
viewing things. I meditate to clear my mind and to gain knowledge
and I am spiritual in nature. In my file, I need to incorporate
students’ and my life experience to transform my teaching
technique for effective learning process. I believe that life is
a circle and respect should be given to every living thing just
like the Native Americans. Also, that my emotion is the
foundation of developing relationship between myself and what I
am learning. As a pastor, I put myself in the frame of mind of
the other person so that I can “meet their minds”. Therefore,
emotion plays a great role in what I do.
Theories surrounding adults learning.
This study analyzes self-directed and experiential
learning as established through andragogy as theorists are
pursuing adult learning to make it more conducive to the targeted
population. Since the late 1960s Knowles expanded the Andragogy
as an art and science of helping adults learn. Knowles uses six
assumptions to solidify his theory. These assumptions are as
follows: 1- Adults want to know the justification for learning;
2- Adults use their personal and professional experiences to help
in their learning process; 3- For decisions on education, adults
are required to be responsible for their participation, planning,
and evaluation of their direction; 4- The readiness and
assumption of adults roles are intertwined; 5- Adults are eager
to apply new knowledge gained immediately to develop required
skills for professional ventures or career enhancement; and 6-
Adults possess internal reasons for the motivation to learn.
These assumptions are interlocking with the thoughts and theories
of other theorists.
In the early 1970s self-directed learning (SDL) has
dominated the mind of researchers and writers. Many educational
institutions are utilizing the concept in addressing significant
goals to enable students to become lifelong self-directed
learners. The study of SDL has been developed as one of the main
interpolate of adult education research for over thirty years.
SDL is an educational position with respect to conditions and
circumstances of a learning process in which an initiative is
grasped by the learner in diagnosing his or her own learning
needs. In addition, it is a process in formulating and locating
needed resources in fulfillment of set objectives as indicated in
a learning plan. This is combined with the self-evaluation of
learner’s learning experiences to determine if the execution of
the plan is moving toward achieving set objectives and goals.
Within the category of SDL as a process, it is encompassed by
three types of models: linear, interactive, and instructional.
Merriam and Caffarella (1999) discuss in detail self-
directed learning, experiential learning, and transformational
learning. With the linear model, learners pass in a certain
direction with steps in a continuous motion to reach certain
learning goals in a self-directed manner. The resulting
frameworks of linear model in the learning process include
several elements of the traditional teaching process (Tough,
1971). The interactive model is not well-planned or linear in
nature. It is based on opportunities people discover in their
environments; the attributes and personalities of the learners;
the conscious intellectual activities of the learner; and the
setting or environment of learning. In an amalgamated and unified
manner, these factors interact to establish episodes of SDL
(Merriam & Caffarella, 1999). The instructional model represents
an instructor’s framework in formal settings that can be used to
blend into a functional unit of self-directed methods of learning
into their programs and activities.
Experiential learning is a process whereby knowledge
is generated through changes of experience (Kolb, 1984, p. 38).
So it is method of educating through first-hand experience,
skills, knowledge and experience that are acquired outside of the
traditional academic classroom setting. These experiences can be
generated from internships, Studies overseas, field research and
trips, and special learning projects. The concept of experiential
learning was initiated by John Dewey and Jean Piaget. David A.
Kolb brought it into life as it became popular with a four-stage
learning cycle. This model of learning is a process whereby
“knowledge is created through transformation of experience” (as
quoted by Simply Psychology.org). The four-stage cyclical models
of learning are: concrete experience (CE), reflective observation
(RO), abstract conceptualization (AC), and active experimentation
(AE).
CE is a stage where an activity is actively
experienced by the learner. Lab session or field assignment is
appropriate example for CE. RO is the conscious reflection on
specific experience. It focuses on helping learners make
judgments based on experience related to primarily complex and
heavily dimmed problems. AC is where the learner’s observation in
an attempts to conceptually interpret a `theory or image. AE is
where the learner is trying to plan how to evaluate a theory or
plan for a perceived experience. According to Kolb, these stages
are aligned with four learning styles that highlight conditions
by which learner learn better. These styles are: Assimilators: in
which the learner learns better when given theories of logical
sound to consider. Convergers: is a situation where learners are
given concepts of practical application to work with and they
learn better. Accommodators: this is a hands-on experience
provided to the learner with a consequential better learning
experience. Divergers: this is a style whereby learners learn
better when given the opportunity to observe and collect
comprehensive information in a different direction.
Inwardly, transformative learning is a well-extended
structure that shifts in basic presupposition of conceptions,
responsive awareness, and deeds (Transformative Learning Centre,
2004). In a sense, it is a process whereby learners are enabled
to change prior inherent characteristics of thinking (Cranton,
1994a). Transformational learning influences change deeper than
any other learning theory; it molds the learner in a specific
manner by producing “significant impact or paradigm shift” which
stays within the experiences of the learners (Clark, 1993).
Experience, critical reflection and development are three major
points to transformational learning. The experience is the
ability to be creative, retentive, and transfer knowledge.
Critical reflection is part of andragogy’s self-directed
learning. In order to generate effective learning experience for
adults, they need to reflect and think (Garvin, 1993).
Development is aligned with andragogy’s third assumption. This is
based on the assumption that for the establishment of effective
learning opportunity adults must take into consideration personal
development.
Early development of transformative learning was by
Mezirow in 1978 when he introduced a comprehensive, ideal
characteristic to his study transformation of U.S. women
returning to the educational arena to continue their education or
to start a new one. Mezirow, 1981 developed the concepts of
“meaning Perspectives, one’s overall world-view, and meaning
schemes, smaller components which contain specific knowledge,
values, and beliefs about one’s experiences”. Learning involves a
total transformation. Teamwork of many meaning schemes to produce
specific meaning perspective. Positive transformation experienced
during pre-adulthood, procreates meaning perspectives. These
perspective are life changing experiences and they often involved
unexpected crisis such as death, divorce, accidents, illness,
financial problems, etc…
Numerous authors have conducted study on
transformational learning; in collectiveness and amalgamation,
their work has sprung-up to epithelize transformational learning
in adult learners. With the religious sect, especially the Bible,
transformation means change or renewal from a life that no longer
conforms to the ways of the world to one that pleases God (Romans
12:2). This is accomplished by the renewing of our minds, an
inward spiritual transformation that will manifest itself in
outward actions. The Bible presents the transformed life in
Christ as demonstrated through our “bearing fruit in every good
work [and] growing in the knowledge of God” (Colossians 1:10).
Transformation involves those who were once far from God being
“drawn near” to him through the blood of Christ (Ephesians 2:13).
In the accounting field, self-directed learning,
experiential learning processes and transformative learning play
major role in the development of competency and efficiency. In
the accounting/auditing environment, the personality attributes
of learners, cognitive process, and the context of learning, are
cores in maintaining a continuous updates of strategies of
internal and external controls in organizations. For
accountants/auditors, experiential learning is part of their
development. It operates on the premise that individuals learn
best by practical means. The process involves setting goals,
thinking, planning, experimenting, decision making,
recommendations rendering, implying corrective measures; all done
through observation, reviews, detection, and reflection.
Self-directed learning is a multifaceted concept. It
encompasses goals of self-directed learning, self-directed
learning as a process, and self-direction as a personal attribute
of learners. Experiential learning of adults has always been
viewed as critical components of learning in adulthood. Although
exploring the role of experience in learning possesses a long
history. It is a continuous process to discover more about the
connections between learning and experience and how to assist
adults in formal and non-formal learning settings.
In recent years, through transformational learning,
significant change occurred in many entities in their
organizational designs, competitiveness, environments, and
information technologies. The business environments have been
exhibiting variety of structures and processes, including
advances in information technology. All these factors have driven
innovation and change in aggregating, measuring, analyzing and
information communicating internally and externally in the
organization’s environments. Included in such change is resource
planning systems, e-commerce, the internet, electronic data
interchange and electronic meetings. Because these entities are
changing, managerial accounting is also undergoing
transformation. These are proactive change and adaptation of
strategies for preventive, detective, and corrective measures,
and development. These are transformations that include strategic
plans for effective internal control.
Post-modernism and Adult learning
In the 18th century, the age of wisdom began and was
accompanied by the concepts of mind's dominance and modernism
with the outline of things to be considered, bringing forth the
consideration of ages as part of the agenda. In defining
modernism, the main concepts generated the following principles:
rationalism, 1ogic, universal scientific rights, algorithmic
systematic way of thinking, positivism, universality, etc…
Postmodernism is the philosophical belief of the non-existence of
truth. When truth is the subject, it only relates to culture.
Postmodernism is prevalently a form of questioning and
perspective than a set of ideas. It is widely debated whether
adult education is embedded in postmodernism.
There is a push for Adult educators to be involved
with the issues raised by postmodernism of culture in the
following manner: In what way the social relations are organized
and what are the desirable social visions? One should be
identified by recognizing their own and others' beliefs,
contexts, and frameworks; there should be intensive focus on
understanding power structures and foster development of
alternative forms of knowledge; and in order to engage in maximum
efficiency, one should consider themselves as cultural workers
rather than technocians. Postmodern education is based on the
assumption of what people think to be knowledge really consisting
of just constructs, not truth. In trying to understand postmodern
education, constructivism shed light on comprehension.
Constructivism is the main underlying learning theory in
postmodern education, it is the understanding that it is in the
mind of humans that knowledge is invented or constructed (Quist,
2005).
“Post-postmodernism salvages the enlightenment
educational project of increasing human knowledge and
understanding while yet endorsing the idea of a multiplicity of
valid perspectives” (Leichester, 1989); shifting boundaries and
conceptual change it encourages. Respect for diversity for adult
education is not offered by postmodernism. Usher, Bryant, &
Johnston (as cited by Merriam, et al., 2007) spell-out groups
that are relegated to an unimportant or powerless position within
the society as women, homosexuals, blacks, and other ethnic
minorities were unable to advocate actively until recently in
critical theory. Their primary focus is based on rational,
economics, class, and power. These are directly linked to the
identification of a specific system of power and oppression that
is transparent material by analysis of key components of society
is conducted through critical theory (Merriam et al., 2007).
Other theorist like Donovan Plumb (1995) deals with adult
education from a modern world perspective. Also, Clark and Drikx
(2000) are other theorists with postmodern perspective. Their
perspective self-awareness allows the generation of
understanding, honoring, and fostering diversity within the lives
of our adult learners (Merriam et al., 2007). Finally, Kildore
(2204) study analyzes the nature of postmodernism of knowing with
the notion of multiple truths. Jean Lyotard (1984), depends post-
modern trends in philosophy in his book: “The Post-modern
Condition”. According to Lyotard, post-modernism denotes the
dissolution of what meta-narrative.
Feminist learning Theory The development of feminist theory has been in three
swings. Suffrage and political right is the first swing; the
second swing is social inequality between the genders; and the
third, emphasizes the conception of globalization, post
colonialism, post-structuralism, and postmodernism. Feminism is
the endeavor by feminists for equality of women and men. At the
inception of the feminist movements, there was a strong belief
that the society is patriarchy. This belief led to more
aggressive for the following: working to increase equality,
expanding human choice, eliminating gender stratification, ending
sexual violence, and promoting sexual freedom. The core of
feminist theory is the focus of feminism on the experiences from
oppression especially, in the education sector (Merriam and
Caffarella, 1999, p. 359). In pursuing these beliefs, they
utilized the following approaches: Liberal feminism,
social/maxism feminism, multicultural/women-of-color feminism,
and radical feminism. It is the belief of feminists that the
society is patriarchy.
The major source of gender socialization within schools is
the concealed curriculum as indicated by Lawson, Heaton, & Brown
(2010). According to their belief, text books are published to
depict modern family culture in a way to teach children at early
age that males are dominant within the family; various subjects
are aimed at a certain gender group, for example Food Technology
would be aimed at females, leading on to the typical role of
females doing housework and cooking; sport in schools are very
much male and female dominated within the education system, with
boys playing football and baseball while girls involved in
cheerleading and soft ball. It could be seen that the majority of
teachers are female, but that the senior management positions are
mainly male-dominated, although this is not the case in some
schools.
The basic assumption shared by feminists is that the gender
of divisions in society operates to the disadvantage of women.
The process of gender socialization usually encourages
traditional gender roles which reinforce and justify male
dominance. It is the philosophy of the feminists that he notion
of differences between men and women is a fallacy. According to
them, there is equilibrium between men and women and that women
are as capable to accomplish any just like men. In recent years,
the perceptions of women about marriage and children have
changed. The goal is career centered. In 1976, Sharpe in his
interview of few upper teenage females indicates that a job and
career were top of the list for girls with marriage and children
at the bottom.
Liberal feminism: These feminists believe that the
appropriate way to fight patriarchal systems is by establishing
legislation to fight discrimination such as, the right for some
women to vote in 1918 and finally all women to vote in 1928 were
liberal feminist approaches.
Socialist/Maxist: Social feminism has more diverse
theoretical origins ranging from social learning theory to
psychoanalysis (Fischer et al., 1993). Feminism is the belief
that women’s inequality is due to the gender division of labor.
According to historical records, men have historically been paid
more and obtain more managerial positions with significant roles.
On the other hand, the Marxist feminist believes that base on
gender and class inequalities, women are oppressed.
Multicultural/Women-of-Color Feminism: This is
basically a movement by women of color. These traditional
feminists excluded the fight of women of color inequality. Their
fight exclude women-of-color also suffer from oppression based on
racial inequalities. Therefore the school of thought known as
"womanism" (for African-American women; this group movements is
excluded from Latina feminists, Native American feminists, etc.)
was born.
Radical Feminism: The main core of this movement is
based on gender. The belief by some that married and straight
women cannot be feminist. It is the basic ideology that any
dependence on men is equivalent to oppression of women. The
school of thought of this group attracts a lot of lesbian
separatist groups. The other significant belief is that the end
of patriarchy will only be realized when women are freed from the
physical and emotional violence inflicted by men in all
environment.
In concluding, these assumptions shared by feminist
activists demonstrate that the division between genders in the
society is disadvantageous to women. Socialization is a process
that emboldened normally by reinforcement and justification of
male dominance in the gender role.
Teaching Based on specific part of the brain.
The brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves are team
members united and integrated as an information processing
center, which is controlled by the central nervous system. This
central processing unit governs both conscious and unconscious
facets of human’s life. The brain predominantly renders an idea
of how adult learning is process internally. “It involves
something happening inside the head” (Bruer, 1997). These mental
processes involve the way people “receive, store, retrieve,
transform, and transmit information” (Taylor, 1996, p. 301). The
brain grants us the capability of acquiring and applying all
sorts of skills and behaviors as needed for surviving effectively
in this sophisticated and dangerous world. The brain is
structured in an architectural way for absorbing and interacting
through language understanding. The learning is automatic. Just
as we may have to go to school to learn, read and write; as well
as listening and speaking effectively. These functions are
carried in an unconscious manner through repetition.
During the past decade, neurological and cognitive
sciences are bursting forth with discoveries about the brain as
being highly capable of being extended, altered, or shaped by
outside forces or influences. It was the perceptions that
paradigm may be genes or experience. Accordingly, researchers
have discovered that it can be a hybrid of both. It has also been
discovered that environment can activate genes to exhibit itself
in a manner that is hardly predictable. As there is an increased
recognition of the role of educators as consumers of this
discovered knowledge, there is also a movement to translate brain
research into classroom instruction. This has resurrected
challenges for the typical educational practitioner.
It is now known that there is an intricate interaction
between the emotional and cognitive brain systems. According to
research, the brain’s limbic system, located just above the brain
stem at the base of the brain, is the location for our emotional
responses. Neuroscientists tell us that information that comes to
the brain is processed first in this emotional center before
being processed in the cognitive or “thinking” center, located in
the frontal lobe of the cerebrum. “With information processing
short-circuited first to the emotional center, chronic stress may
impair long-term memory and deep learning” (Hardiman, 2010). For
educators, there is an impact of stress and treat on learning.
While we may be unable to control all the factors of
stress in the lives of our students, the highly skilled or well-
trained teacher can minimize practices within the classroom that
generate treat. Existing in a coordinated fashion, there should
be effective strategies that are positive in promoting emotion.
Research has shown that while threats impede learning, positive
emotional experiences, during which the brain produces certain
chemicals or neurotransmitters, can contribute to long-term
memory. The activities and processes of the mind include the
manner by which humans “receive, store, retrieve, transform, and
transmit information” (Merriam & Caffarella, 1995, p. 195).
Implications for Teaching and Teachers
It is known from research that the relationship
between learning and teaching is complex. Moreover, the research
on learning and research on teaching are usually done
independently. This has resulted in a disparity leading to
understanding between the two groups of researchers who
understand and work on learning and those who understand and work
on teaching. In recent years, “scholars have been trying to
bridge the gap between these intellectual communities with some
modest success” (Romberg and Carpenter 1986). One reason the
relationship remains elusive is that learning cannot be mandated;
there is no guarantee to teachers that a particular student will
learn (Jackson, 1986). A teacher may exert all possible effort to
teach science to a student, but the learning comprehension
depends on the student. Whether the student is able to comprehend
the content depends on both inside and outside factors within the
teacher’s control. Some of the questions generated are: Is the
student motivated? Did the teacher use appropriate and effective
instructional strategy? What about the attention span, is the
student interested? Are the classroom environments conducive to
learning? Are there any supportive classroom environment? Is the
time allowed to grasp new content enough digest the ideas and
practice new skills? Is there any peer pressure? The questions
are ongoing. Nevertheless, there are always implications for
teachers’ work.
Personal teaching philosophy
My teaching philosophy would be described by this
adage, "You learn to do by doing." My students will interact,
research, write by freestyle and by instruction and participate
in peer discussion through feedback. I will design my syllabus
frequently. When I'm in pursuit of a more creative method of
teaching a particular genre of literature or element of grammar,
I seek to provide my students the opportunity to think
critically, problem-solve authentically and convey their emotions
and thoughts in writing. As a teacher I strive to engage,
challenge, and inspire growth in my students. It is my belief
that every student is capable of tasting the passion that I feel
for accounting/auditing. To engage my students in the study of
business management, I will craft business scenarios whereby
students will participate as business owners, business
consultants, accountants/auditors. I believe as I take this
endeavor that it is my duty to let the student feel that they are
in the real world of business. I believe that business
management, especially accounting are the core positions in all
organization. Business management professionals are the leaders
and the accountants are the eye of the organization for
effectiveness and survivability. The learning style will be self-
directed in order for student to feel independent in making
educative decisions.
In teaching based on the brain research, I will
implement changes to a deliberate plan for positive emotional
connections within the framework of a specific learning unit. In
such framework, students will be encouraged to be emotionally
connected to the content. There will be a continuous slow
introduction of the visual and performing arts, exhibiting an
effective way to make a strong and advantageous connection into
the emotional response system of the students. This emotional
response system enhances learning and will be included within the
activities of every learning unit.
In addition, it is known by researchers that the
visual attending mechanism of the brain is greatly influenced by
new incidents in the environment. Accordingly learning is
affected by sound, lighting, and aroma. Soft background music can
aid students to be relaxed and establish a learning environment
that is conducive and comfortable. The most effective strategy
when performing tasks that require high levels of concentration,
a quiet setting is appropriate. Researchers have discovered that
well-lighted environment, increases students’ achievement when
compared to dark learning environment (Kosik & Heschong, 2000).
Aroma can also be used to enhance memory, as the humans’ sensory
connected with sense of smell input moves directly to the limbic
system. This is what enables humans to recall a lot of activities
that an encounter with a familiar aroma may bring about.
My next goal is to maintain a class setting whereby I
will challenge the students and give them the opportunity to
challenge me. This is in the form of transformative learning.
This will be established be the awareness that everyone possess
unique abilities and capabilities that can be shared and everyone
can benefit from the generated supports. I will have open forum
for students to share opinions with one another and some may
directly or indirectly by mentors to others. Brainstorming is
something I experienced with one of my teachers in college so I
will incorporate in the syllabus brainstorming sessions, group
projects, and group presentations. A productive method as I
perceive it. Students will be given the opportunity to ask
questions. For questions that I do not have the appropriate
answer, I will state that “I will get back to you with the
answer. Straightforwardness is my policy. One important thing is
that I will let the student know that there is no such thing as
“foolish question”. All questions relate to something and will be
dealt with in an unbiased manner. Definitely my own learning
process is ongoing. I will continue researching for new ideas,
updates and areas of confusion. My colleagues input will be
cherished and reliable internet sources will gain my close
interest. My student will always be aware that their input means
a lot to me as my consciousness is open to their thoughts.
Finally, my students will be inspired to pursue
continued growth in their career by giving them the appropriate
tools to be implemented from the experience gained, in the real
world and in any other future career or profession they seek.
These tools will include: sense of curiosity, open-mindedness
with adaptability and flexibility, the search for knowledge,
self-directed learning, and experiential learning. I would like
my students to observe and begin to question the purpose and
meaning of human thought and behavior that will enable them to
derive needed information from others. To be able to detect,
prevent, and correct potential problems. After becoming skilled
observers, I would like my students to use their tools to ask a
few good questions, to creatively design a way of answering these
questions, and to openly share their new knowledge with others.
My primary goal is to teach my student to become motivated,
competent, reliable, efficient, effective, and business
professionals especially, managers and accountants/auditors
characterized by insight.
Importance of respectful interactions among teachers and students
Fundamental human value is respect. It forms the basis
of character and personality. It can be considered a standard
principle because it is an appropriate way to act. The term
respect has been used broadly and represented in the education
system in the United States of America for quite a while. Growing
up as a child in Africa, I was told that I must respect others
especially the elders, teachers, pastors etc…Respect was often
equated with age, that’s why I was told to respect the elders.
Children in this current world recognize themselves as
understanding and appreciative of those with whom they interact
with in school, learn and play with. These cores render a much
richer living and learning experience, expands horizons and
breaks down traditional barriers. Teachers are part of the groups
that students interact with .There are some teachers with good
personality and some with bad personality. We know that there are
those who work or interact with children who are not respectful
of them. In some settings, children are exploited, used and
abused. We also know that children are being raised in homes that
fail to teach them about respect or how to recognize the
difference between a good or bad behavior of others.
It is the responsibility of the teacher to create an
environment based on respect. The teacher’s role is imperative to
establish a successful teacher and student interaction and
creating an environment conducive to learning with positive
climate. With students’ achievement, there is a positive
relationship between teacher expectation and student; and
teachers must distribute their time equally because students
require help, need help and feedback of the teacher (McConnell &
Elliot, 2003).
The development of relationships is a major component
of respectful learning environment. These relationships are
developed by teachers who are the models. The teachers’ attitudes
and attributes are being observed by the students to see how they
negotiate the social and moral environment. The way adults act in
and out of the learning environment greatly impact role on the
development of learning environment that are respectful. And
according to Zehm and Kottler (1993), students will never trust
the teacher or open themselves up to hear what he or she has to
say unless they sense that the teacher value and respect them.
When students feel that the teacher values and cares for them as
individuals, they are more willing to comply with his or her
wishes. When students observe teachers, they can assess what is
genuine and what is performance. Children thrive on sincerity.
They deserve to spend their time in classrooms where teachers
respect the need for honesty and integrity. It is important to
establish a respectful learning environment. Once developed, it
generates better understanding and appreciation for diverse
populations within the learning environment. With a respectful
classroom environment fear will be decreased. There will be
decrease in bullying. Children in such a classroom are encouraged
to deeply interact and share ideas, explore new content and carry
this out with the feeling of safety and appreciation. When a
classroom is respectful, there is an existence of open-
mindedness. In such a classroom students feel safe and are
comfortable to share ideas.
In a respectful environment, through body language
respect is conducted by individuals. Their attributes are
positive with attitudes exhibiting respect. Respect is a daily
activity. It must be part of life and must permeate the
environment and be practiced and supported as an everyday agenda.
Once a respectful classroom is developed, there will be
politeness among classmates and to the teachers. The body
language will convey respect and students will listen to each
other attentively. Moreover students will comprehend the meaning
of respect, state of being worthy, courtesy, individuality,
peculiarity; and work as a team in unity and in coordination
regardless of race, gender, ethnicity, and/or ability.
Summary
It should be stated that learning process is always
continuous even when new mental codification of experience in a
particular organize way of perceiving cognitively and responding
to a complex situation as brought back into working memory when a
task in needed to be completed. WOK should be viewed openly not
in isolation; it should include multi-cultural intelligences. In
the construction of knowledge, WOK interacts in several ways.
They are also unified in the formation of knowledge. Therefore,
individual ways of knowing are put together into more elaborate
structures in order to generate knowledge.
Educators should utilize their advantage to hold on
to the ability of the brain and how it affects different
learners. So educators must continue to obtain more and more
awareness of the variety of factors that ultimately affect
learning ability (Materna, 2007). The main techniques to adapt
are activities involving past personal and professional
experiences, motivational activities, and flexibility in learner
and educator interaction. Teaching new facts will be based on
continued brain development that will boost learners view points
and ideas through the means of reading multiple articles with
different viewpoints. My teaching philosophy dictates that I am
assured that as I implement teaching based on brain research
including implementing what the neurological and cognitive
sciences tell us about how the brain thinks and learns, I will be
enable to establish effective strategic teaching plan that will
help my students develop critical thinking faculties that will
generate within them well-academically performing students.
Conclusion
This paper has presented principles from major
learning theories and principles and their application for
effective teaching practices. Designing an effective teaching
curriculum is a multifaceted task involving various issues and
roles (Jafari, 2000). However, it is the belief that learning
should be the primary reference focusing on the transformation of
students. Other issues such as technology, standards, usability,
etc., are significant but should be taken as secondary. Most of
the stated purpose of adult education in the United States is the
assumption that the ideal of a democratic society must be
maintained, and with one available way to pursue education. It
redirects the statement of Linderman that the dual purpose of
adult education is to improve both society and individual
awareness. In practice, however, it can be stated that education
is “an apparatus for social control” (Cunningham, 1988, p. 133)
rather than empowerment, and that adult education in the United
States is elitist and exclusionary. Andragogy has generated a
brandishing new outlook of adult education thereby, enticing
others theorists and practitioners to view adult learning as an
area for further research.
SDL and ELT have become so much a part of adult
education's identity. These theories or principles are best for
adult learning. They have had such an impact on practice, that
relegating them to the status of historical artifact is
inconceivable. Experiential learning of adults has always been
viewed as critical components of learning in adulthood. Although
exploring the role of experience in learning possesses a long
history. In anything in this our imperfect world, there will
always be criticisms. It is my hope that educators will be helped
by these concepts in engaging effectively in the learning process
of adult learners.
The way that adult are taught, transformative learning
theory has transformed. Like all physical and intellectual
powerful theories, it has been criticized, hypothesized, amended,
revised, and retested throughout the past three decades to
generate framework that are definite for describing the best
methods of how adults learn (Cranton, 1994, 2006; and Taylor,
1996). As more tests of the theory are conducted by researchers
in other disciplines, such as educational technology (King,
1994), the evidence for the strength, firmness and applicability
of the theory will continue to expand.
Teaching philosophy should dictates assurance of
implementing teaching based on brain research including
implementing what the neurological and cognitive sciences tell us
about how the brain thinks and learns; this will enable educators
to establish effective strategic teaching plan that will help
students develop critical thinking faculties that will generate
within them well-academically performing students. A well
utilized brain generates power within us that is noticeable by
others.
It should be stated that the success of power in adult
education is partly to be credited to the essential nature of the
women's struggle for educational opportunities. These are issues
of power and the transformational perceptions of women's role
in society. Power at the most basic metaphysical level embraces
the well-established debate between structure (determinism) and
doers (voluntarism) (Clegg, 1989). The doers are the people who
execute the individual power to control and alter their
environment, such as a girl's or woman's pursuit of education
when cultural and social pressures discourage or prevent it.
Doers stress responsibility and the exercising of reason, choice,
and will. I am hopeful that these concepts will be of valuable
assistance to educators in intervening effectively in the
learning process of adult learners.
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