Application of Theories andPhilosophy to Teaching Practice By: Harold E. B. John, March, 2015.

Abstract

The foundation of education commenced from the

beginning of the world with the story of Adam and Eve interacting

with the Tree of Knowledge. It continues in the earliest

prehistory times, as adults trained the young in the knowledge

and skills deemed necessary in their society. Whether by

traditional or conventional method, education is a form of

learning to obtain knowledge, skills, beliefs, habits, and

values. It is transferred through teaching, training, research or

by stories telling. Educators have always been flooded with

innovative ideas about learning and teaching. Teachers seek new

ways to be effective practitioners and are bombarded with

suggestions for reform. Educators are usually required to try new

curricula, innovative teaching strategies, and new assessments.

Education affects everyone. The process of teaching and

learning is personal and lies at the very heart of education. As

the process becomes known in greater depth, the better an

individual will be able to influence his/her growth and

direction. The attempt to better understand the teaching and

learning process has traditionally been dominated by behaviorist

and positivist research paradigms. It is possible to increase

advances previously made by examining how those who are

principally and directly involved in the process of teaching and

learning (teachers and students) utilize their consciousness in

grasping information and contents and also the way by which they

behave.

Teachers have a teaching role. A teaching role is a set of

behavioral patterns that emerge in response to the learning

environment. This includes students and the learning task

demands. Each teaching role engages students to learn in a unique

manner, using one mode of grasping experience and one mode of

transforming experience. The educator must closely monitor the

quality of student performance toward the standards they set, and

provide consistent feedback. These are the standard setting and

evaluation role to help student apply knowledge toward

performance goals. Hunt (1987) suggested that a learning spiral

is shared between individuals through interaction. To one

another, people relate. They relate in a pattern of alternating

reading and flexing the true representation of the learning

process. A skilled educator through specific strategy can

activate learning modes in students based on their pattern of

learning style.

This learning style is usually developed from the educators

personal and professional experiences. In a sense, it commences

with understanding both the classroom and non-classroom settings

with the composition such as, age, gender and learning styles,

previous exposure to course content and previous work experience.

It is believed that learning in adulthood is distinguished

from learning in childhood. This belief is generated by the way

some aspects of the learning process and the way the context

intermingle in adulthood. With adults, the education they seek is

transformative as they are seeking to extend, refine, and

rejuvenate beliefs and knowledge they already possess. Some

adults need repeated practice of a concept or skill. So with

questions and answers, experimenting and researching, finding and

solving, their consciousness open with a mature thought process

that allow the mind to be retentive. Education is an ongoing

process. One never stops learning. Every day is a new day with a

new agenda. Therefore mankind should always seek to reform

knowledge and gain more useful and relevant agenda.

INTEGRATING LEARNING THEORIES WITH PERSONAL 5

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.Introduction……………………………………………………….5

2.Purpose of Study………………………………………………….6

3.Learning Theories and Principles………………………………...7

-The ways the brain learns………………………………………..7

-How learning occurs……………………………………………..7

-Multiple intelligences and learning styles……………………….8

-Perspective of multiple intelligences…………………………….9

-Multicultural ways of knowing and learning…………………...10

-Non-western ways of knowing……………………….13

-Theories surrounding adults learning…………………………...16

-Postmodernism and adult learning……………………………....21

-Feminist learning theories……………………………………….23

4. Teaching Based on Specific Part of the Brain……………………...26

5. Implications for Teaching and Teachers……………………………27

6. Personal Teaching Philosophy……………………………………...28

7. Importance of Respectful Interactions Among teachers And Students………………………………………………………..31

8. Summary……………………………………………………………33

9. Conclusion………………………………………………………….34

10. References………………………………………………………….35

Introduction

The art of teaching adults effectively requires an

understanding of various principles or theories of how adults

learn, and requires exerting great effort in applying some of the

known principles to practice. In applying these theories to

writing instruction for adult learners, the suggested methods are

as follow: Incorporate more writing in more contexts in the adult

education setting to promote self-reflection and articulation of

learning; to get learners to be involved in online activities

with communities as contributors, readers, and peers, to foster

their self-directed learning, and perseverance; and deepen

critical thinking by providing feedback that challenges the

assumptions of the learners.

Learning doesn’t happen in isolation. It relates to

the society and the society is affected by it. What an individual

intends to learn, what is available, what is offered, what is

financially feasible, and the manner by which an individual

learns are resolved mainly at any particular time by the essence

of the society. It is known for centuries that adults learn

differently than younger students. With this knowledge, several

literatures have been documented in support of the idea. In

educational research, models of education exhibit distinct lines

of inquiry into the aspects of adults learning. These distinct

lines of inquiry are andragogy (six assumptions about the adult

learner), self-directed learning, experiential learning,

transformational learning, and postmodern learning theories.

The influence that shape teachers’ live is implanted

in within. The things that move teachers’ actions can be hardly

found in research studies (Brookfield, 1995, p. 49). Brookfield

recognized this as genuine that our style, techniques or format

of teaching is generated from our own autobiographies throughout

our lives, from the early period of our development, going

through the period of life from puberty to maturity, and as

adults (p. 50). Brookfield further suggested that our learning

process should continue through professional advancement that

includes, graduate education, post-graduate education, seminars

and conferences, career and professional workshops (p. 51). My

life experiences (both personal and professional) contribute

greatly to the development of an autobiographical learning

experience and personal teaching philosophy.

According to Brookfield (1995), in the classroom he

was always intimidated and the fear affected him greatly. Later

in his education, he was comforted by a professor who assured him

that they are team members and working together. The intimidation

felt in the classroom during childhood and adult education and

the action of the professor helped him to design strategies that

would help his student feel comfortable with good understanding

and with the absence of intimidation feeling. This study will

evaluate adult learning theories with the lens of current

research theories in the field of adult education and how they

align with my personal teaching philosophy.

Purpose of Study

The purpose of this study is the demonstration of the

necessity in establishing appropriate tools to be available for

measurable data on adults learning theories. This study intends

to explore areas integrating learning theories with personal

philosophy in the following manner: (a) Learning theories and

principles, (b) teaching based on specific part of the brain (c)

implications for teaching and teachers, (d) personal teaching

philosophy, (e) and importance of respectful interactions among

teachers and students. By reviewing, evaluating, examining these

five fields, a cornerstone will be established for the creation

of tools to stipulate measurable factual information on adult

learning theories.

Learning Theories and Principles:

The ways the adult brain learns.

The brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves are team

members united and integrated as an information processing

center, which is controlled by the central nervous system. This

central processing unit governs both conscious and unconscious

facets of human’s life. The brain predominantly renders an idea

of how adult learning is process internally. “It involves

something happening inside the head” (Bruer, 1997). These mental

processes involve the way people “receive, store, retrieve,

transform, and transmit information” (Taylor, 1996, p. 301).

The brain grants us the capability of acquiring and

applying all sorts of skills and behaviors as needed for

surviving effectively in this sophisticated and dangerous world.

The brain is structured in an architectural way for absorbing and

interacting through language understanding. The learning is

automatic. Just as we may have to go to school to learn, read and

write; as well as listening and speaking effectively. These

functions are carried in an unconscious manner through

repetition.

How learning occurs?

To do things we go to work and the way we earn our

living is the work we do. The main objective of going to work is

to perform assigned task at the same time we learn new things

while performing our duties. At work, must of us work at a

reflective level whereby problems are analyzed and solutions are

grouped, make decisions, and interact with co-workers. Sometimes

in the process of doing so, we adapt and evolve in our behaviors

without conscious effort on our part. Through trials and errors

we learn. We make mistakes. We correct the mistakes. The mistakes

become experiences and corrective measures. The corrective

measures become preventive measures for future action. So we

learn by our observations of the successes and failures of others

(Shepherd, (2007). It can be stated that if the job is valued and

the career is encompassed with risk, the same experience will

repeat itself over and over again.

One of the main learning systems is encompassed with

networking. The network includes experts, coaches, mentors, on-

job instructors, instructors, professional colleagues, and peers.

Access is gained to reference materials, prepared contents,

learning at the point of need and just-in-time learning. To all

learning materials, access is gained and development of knowledge

and skills commence to venture future challenges. As learners

develop more relationship “with teachers, trainers, facilitators

and co-learners, they have the opportunity to formalize the

learning outcomes through educational and training courses” (p.

27). In all, the interaction of people and content generate

multi-useful functions.

Multiple intelligences and learning styles.

The theory of multiple intelligences indicates that

individuals are born with the innate capacity to succeed in a

particular domain, and one way to aid in identifying and

developing student’s innate capacities is by education. The idea

of learning styles predicts that each student possesses a unique

and particular way of learning that can generate and extract the

best out of them such as, visualization or through hands-on

activities; therefore, teachers are obligated to make sure that

students are able to learn in conformity with the best style

suitable to their preferred way.

In dealing with multiple intelligences (IQ),

several types of theories have been developed beyond the

traditional academic IQ. One of the well-known theorists is

Gardner (1983). He systematically indicated eight intelligences

that encompassed variety of areas such as, mathematics, musical,

interpersonal, intrapersonal, linguistic, spatial, naturalistic,

and kinesthetic. According to Materna, (2007) every individual

possess the potential for utilizing inherent intelligence with

variety of degrees and among individuals are differences. To

other theorists like Knowles, multiple intelligences are

considered talent and not intelligence (Knowles et al. (2011).

Most educators have had the experience of not being

able to reach a challenging student until trying a completely

different approach. Perhaps it was a student who struggled with

writing until the teacher provided the option by creating a story

in a graphic manner, with narrative that sparkles with beauty and

complexity. Or maybe it was a student who just couldn't seem to

grasp fractions, until he created them by separating oranges into

slices. Because of these kinds of experiences, the idea of

learning styles and the theory of multiple intelligences resonate

with many educators. These theories support what we all know to

be true: A one-size-fits-all approach to education will

invariably leave some students behind. People are different and

learn differently. This is due to the personal and professional

experience, memories, cultures, beliefs, and attitudes, and

attributes brought to the learning environment (Materna, 2007).

Adults learning may be different from children as the

unique structure of adults’ personality impacts the manner by

which materials are processed through sensory of modality that is

stronger in processing information (Materna, 2007). Gardner

(1983) displayed that the sustainability of a broad variety of

adults’ mental capabilities are due to cross cultural influence.

However, culture conducts a great function in the mental

capacities of individuals, both children and adults. With this

in mind, intelligence can be characterized as the capacity to

solve problems or to fashion products that are valued in several

cultural settings as significant segment in the development of

intelligence (Materna, 2007, p. 57).

Perspectives of multiple intelligences.

The development of multiple intelligences concept has

done much to broaden people's understanding and definition of what

intelligence encompasses. Although there’s an absence of scientific

evidence, these ideas can be useful in executing teaching techniques

and practices; the essential point requiring resolution is the manner

by which information is used. Most critically, students should not be

classified as being specific types of learners; they cannot be

sectioned as having an innate or type of intelligence that are fixed.

For example, if the “Edutopia Learning Styles Quiz” maps is taken

into consideration to analyze Howard Gardner's multiple

intelligences; a fun way it will be to learn about how some of our

tastes and interests can influence how we take in information.

However, its results are not intended as a way to label people as

"naturalistic learners," "musical learners," etc.

With labeling, limits are created. When limits are created,

contingent problems are waiting to be manifested as boundaries are

the last things we need when it comes to learning. Someone who grew

up in a different cultural environment will only partly agree with

Gardner’s position that mental capabilities are due to cross cultural

influence. Individuals possess multi-faceted qualities of

intellectual abilities. These abilities are developed from multiple

segments. For several up-bringing, cultural influences is the core of

most personalities, their learning styles, and techniques. There is

one problem with Garner’s theory: this is the all-inclusiveness of

intelligence theory because aspects of intelligence such as

reflective and experiential and emotion is part of the composition of

human’s intelligence. As our quenchless desire to know more about

learning process continues, scholarly studies and scientific

research may emerge to support or dispute multiple intelligences,

learning styles, or any another developed theory. 

Multicultural ways of knowing and learning.

To know something reflects degree of involvement with

knowledge with variation from the indefinite number of external

cognizant to the indefinite number of observation of our inner

most self. Knowing is based on experiencing something. Once

something is known, there is no more thinking or speculation

about it. We perceive it so deeply within ourselves as the truth

that is no need to discuss it. It is our reality and cannot be

altered. It is simple; we can say it is only experience. In that

regards, it cannot be approved or disapproved. Experience is

built in within us. By staying inside of us it resides deep

within us in privacy. It can be stated that to experience

something is to know about it. For example, when there is

sunrise, there is sun shines; our skin feels the warmth of the

sun. This feeling is personal and individualistic. Therefore,

because the feeling is personal, we sometimes forget to be aware

that we know something, such as the warmth of the sun. There are

lots of things we can realize that others cannot see or feel;

just as the sun we know them to be true with strong conviction.

That is the decoration of knowledge. Knowing something can change

our interaction and relationship to every occurrence in our life

because of the transformation of our inner most self with the

greatest sense of who we believe we are.

As an ordained pastor, I commenced the way of knowing

with the Scripture: “God revealed these things to us by his

spirit; for his spirit searches everything and show us God’s deep

secrets. For no one can know a person’s thoughts except that

person’s own spirit; and no one can know God’s thoughts except

God’s own spirit. And we have received God’s spirit; so that we

can know the wonderful things God has freely given us” (New

Application Bible).

As an auditor, I have experienced ways of knowing as

an ongoing process. Auditors know by observation; understanding

of others point of views; and comprehension of others thoughts.

The primary responsibility of an auditor is ensuring that an

audit is effective in serving its intended purpose. Management

can establish the scope of an audit, and the auditee can

cooperate in making his program and facility ready and available

for inspection, but it is the auditor himself who will determine

the success or failure of the audit. In order to be a good

auditor one should always try to identify both strengths and

weaknesses in a positive manner that will be beneficial to the

auditee and his management. Ways of knowing should be sought by

review procedures and review performance data. Moreover to gain

in-depth knowledge, the auditor conducts review of internal

reports, conduct phone interviews, conduct surveys, and conduct a

self-qualification check, interviews, inspections, and records

reviews. In addition, he or she must take continued education

courses and attend seminars to maintain an ongoing way of

learning. It is of essence to ways of learning that these

situations are valid as they are required for the auditor to

effective, efficient, and competent at all times.

According to the Theory of Knowledge (TOK) there

are eight ways of knowing (WOK). These are: language, sense of

perception, emotion, reason, imagination, faith, intuition, and

memory. They are penetrated through an exploration and

interpretation of the world. They operate in coordinated fashion

through human’s sensory.

-Language is the mental ability that enables people to learn and

utilize communication systems and it is significant in

communicating knowledge.

-Perception is external so it is made up of five senses: sight,

touch, smell, taste, and hearing. The basis for human’s knowledge

is collective of the five senses.

-Emotion includes the situation or experience, the

interpretation, the perception, and the response or feeling

related to the experience of a particular situation. The emotion

is the source of social, ethical, and political knowledge by

generating an understanding of the world. Emotions control your

thinking, behavior and actions.  Emotions affect your physical

bodies as much as your body affects your feelings and thinking.

-Reason is aligned with logic. Therefore, it allows us to process

statement with valid conclusions. It is the motive or action,

decision, or conviction. Logically and persuasively, we talk or

argue.

-Imagination is the ability to form mental images of things that

are not present to the senses or not considered to be real.

-Faith is the substance of things hoped for and that those things

will actually happen. Faith acknowledges the things unseen, and

acts as if they are visible. It gives us assurance about things

we cannot see. The verb of Faith is doing what God told us to do.

Faith makes us listen to instructions and commands from the

spiritual world. Listening brings obedience and with obedience,

we execute the action which is the accomplishment of God’s

purposes.

-Intuition is the immediate cognition or knowledge suffixing an

inference, evidence or justification,

direct perception of truth, fact, etc. It is

independent of any reasoning process;

 And immediate apprehension is needed.

-Memory is the means by which we draw on our past experiences in

order to use the information in the present’ (Sternberg, 1999).

Non-Western Ways of Knowing:

To gain diverse knowledge, concentration should be

focused on the thoughts, cultures, and beliefs of non-Western

values and ways of knowing. As Merriam points out, “lack of

understanding multiple perspectives can result in marginalization

of other ways of knowing (Merriam et al. 2007). In order to grasp

an understanding of other WOK, this study discusses WOK of Native

Americans, Confucianism, Hinduism, Islam, Maori, and African. By

so doing, indigenous knowledge will be gained on other WOK to

generate a better holistic understanding of adult learning.

Native Americans: According to the Native Americans,

life is a circle. Each person has a place in the circle because

the beginning and end of life are near each other on the circle,

just spring is to summer. So because life is viewed as a circle,

respect is given to every living thing. Emotion is the foundation

for developing a relationship between what you learn and why you

are learning it. So the love for people and one’s land is the

primary reason for learning (Cajete, 2005).

Knowledge is obtained through observation and through

oral tradition. People learn by observing others. They will

observe until confidence is gained that enough learning and skill

have been obtained. Then new skills will be tried individually.

According to the Native Americans, learning is viewed as holistic

and not segmented. Oral tradition is another segment of the

learning process. The elders use stories to deliver meaning to

specific dilemma. The stories are used to record tribe’s

achievements and their way of life. By these stories

significantly transmit and maintain significant knowledge,

beliefs, traditions, and valuable way of living. So by listening

to story tellers, children learn the importance of harmony and

balance within the circle of life and also of obligations.

Confucianism-China, Korea, Taiwan: They view learning

as a never-ending process toward becoming fully human. According

to their philosophy, a person who does not know how to act in a

situation must follow and learn from one who does. They believe

that adults learn from life’s experience. The Confucianism

assumes that students need to receive knowledge from teachers.

They must not criticize but only memorize the knowledge.

Criticizing a teacher’s opinion or expressing different opinions

is considered disrespectful and destroying the harmonious social

order. Therefore, learners obey their teachers and the teachers

are well respected.

Hindu: The Hindu’s WOK is based on the religious

philosophy of Mysticism. This is based on experience: the state

of realization that is knowable and communicable; whereby, people

are taught how to reach it. Also, it has as its goal the release

of the spirit-substance of the individual from its prison in

matter, whether matter is considered real or illusory. In

addition, there is a necessity control the mind and body as a

means of realization through spiritual growth. This is in the

form of meditation that generates the cultivation of mind and

body in order that energies may be properly channeled. Finally,

at the core of Hindu mystical thought is the functional principle

that knowing is being. Thus, knowledge is something more than

analytical categorizing: it is total understanding. This

understanding can be purely intellectual, and some schools of

thoughts equate the final goal with omniscience. So with

Hinduism, life is not about the acquisition of knowledge but

rather about the development of wisdom by understanding oneself

in a holistic manner.

Islam-Arab nations: In the Islamic world, learning is

sacred and obligatory. It is embedded in the community. “The

purpose of education is to bring humans closer to God and his

creation, and to integrate the rational, spiritual, and social

dimensions of a person” (Merriam et. al., 2007). For example, if

there is no engineer to serve a community, then the community is

obligated to send one or more of its members for engineering

training. Failure to do so is considered a community sin that is

shared by each of its members. People are obligated to share what

is learned. The Muslims believe that learning is a lifelong

journey. Since God’s knowledge is infinite. “It is like a drop of

water in the sea; one can never complete acquiring it” (Kami and

Muhammad, 2007, pp. 34-35).

Maori- New Zealand: The Maoris believe that learning

is a lifelong process. Learning and teaching are the same word in

Maori. Their concept of learning and knowing begins by describing

the history of New Zealand and the power relations between the

Pakeha and Maori groups with a comparison of the educational

interests of both groups. They believe that knowledge is always a

collective entity. The core of the Maori learning process is

based on culture, reciprocal learning, collective philosophy,

mediation, and extended families.

African: With Africans oneness is the belief. This is in

with the meaning that to learn is to live happily with one’s

family, community, society, and ancestors’ spirits. The deceased

are considered still alive in spiritual form, protecting families

and relatives. It is a collective method. Learning is conducted

through ceremonies, rituals, recreations, storytelling, poetry,

and spiritual work. People also learn by oral tradition; whereby

the elders will give stories and narratives of significant

experiences and incidents. There is no restriction of who can be

a teacher or learner. It all depends on the person’s ability.

Which one can be integrated into your personal

educational philosophy?

Knowing something change my relationship to

everything in my life, because it changes me in the deepest sense

of which I feel I am; this includes a change in my educational

philosophy. The Hindu way of knowing fits into my philosophy

because of their understanding is based on a larger picture of

viewing things. I meditate to clear my mind and to gain knowledge

and I am spiritual in nature. In my file, I need to incorporate

students’ and my life experience to transform my teaching

technique for effective learning process. I believe that life is

a circle and respect should be given to every living thing just

like the Native Americans. Also, that my emotion is the

foundation of developing relationship between myself and what I

am learning. As a pastor, I put myself in the frame of mind of

the other person so that I can “meet their minds”. Therefore,

emotion plays a great role in what I do.

Theories surrounding adults learning.

This study analyzes self-directed and experiential

learning as established through andragogy as theorists are

pursuing adult learning to make it more conducive to the targeted

population. Since the late 1960s Knowles expanded the Andragogy

as an art and science of helping adults learn. Knowles uses six

assumptions to solidify his theory. These assumptions are as

follows: 1- Adults want to know the justification for learning;

2- Adults use their personal and professional experiences to help

in their learning process; 3- For decisions on education, adults

are required to be responsible for their participation, planning,

and evaluation of their direction; 4- The readiness and

assumption of adults roles are intertwined; 5- Adults are eager

to apply new knowledge gained immediately to develop required

skills for professional ventures or career enhancement; and 6-

Adults possess internal reasons for the motivation to learn.

These assumptions are interlocking with the thoughts and theories

of other theorists.

In the early 1970s self-directed learning (SDL) has

dominated the mind of researchers and writers. Many educational

institutions are utilizing the concept in addressing significant

goals to enable students to become lifelong self-directed

learners. The study of SDL has been developed as one of the main

interpolate of adult education research for over thirty years.

SDL is an educational position with respect to conditions and

circumstances of a learning process in which an initiative is

grasped by the learner in diagnosing his or her own learning

needs. In addition, it is a process in formulating and locating

needed resources in fulfillment of set objectives as indicated in

a learning plan. This is combined with the self-evaluation of

learner’s learning experiences to determine if the execution of

the plan is moving toward achieving set objectives and goals.

Within the category of SDL as a process, it is encompassed by

three types of models: linear, interactive, and instructional.

Merriam and Caffarella (1999) discuss in detail self-

directed learning, experiential learning, and transformational

learning. With the linear model, learners pass in a certain

direction with steps in a continuous motion to reach certain

learning goals in a self-directed manner. The resulting

frameworks of linear model in the learning process include

several elements of the traditional teaching process (Tough,

1971). The interactive model is not well-planned or linear in

nature. It is based on opportunities people discover in their

environments; the attributes and personalities of the learners;

the conscious intellectual activities of the learner; and the

setting or environment of learning. In an amalgamated and unified

manner, these factors interact to establish episodes of SDL

(Merriam & Caffarella, 1999). The instructional model represents

an instructor’s framework in formal settings that can be used to

blend into a functional unit of self-directed methods of learning

into their programs and activities.

Experiential learning is a process whereby knowledge

is generated through changes of experience (Kolb, 1984, p. 38).

So it is method of educating through first-hand experience,

skills, knowledge and experience that are acquired outside of the

traditional academic classroom setting. These experiences can be

generated from internships, Studies overseas, field research and

trips, and special learning projects. The concept of experiential

learning was initiated by John Dewey and Jean Piaget. David A.

Kolb brought it into life as it became popular with a four-stage

learning cycle. This model of learning is a process whereby

“knowledge is created through transformation of experience” (as

quoted by Simply Psychology.org). The four-stage cyclical models

of learning are: concrete experience (CE), reflective observation

(RO), abstract conceptualization (AC), and active experimentation

(AE).

CE is a stage where an activity is actively

experienced by the learner. Lab session or field assignment is

appropriate example for CE. RO is the conscious reflection on

specific experience. It focuses on helping learners make

judgments based on experience related to primarily complex and

heavily dimmed problems. AC is where the learner’s observation in

an attempts to conceptually interpret a `theory or image. AE is

where the learner is trying to plan how to evaluate a theory or

plan for a perceived experience. According to Kolb, these stages

are aligned with four learning styles that highlight conditions

by which learner learn better. These styles are: Assimilators: in

which the learner learns better when given theories of logical

sound to consider. Convergers: is a situation where learners are

given concepts of practical application to work with and they

learn better. Accommodators: this is a hands-on experience

provided to the learner with a consequential better learning

experience. Divergers: this is a style whereby learners learn

better when given the opportunity to observe and collect

comprehensive information in a different direction.

Inwardly, transformative learning is a well-extended

structure that shifts in basic presupposition of conceptions,

responsive awareness, and deeds (Transformative Learning Centre,

2004). In a sense, it is a process whereby learners are enabled

to change prior inherent characteristics of thinking (Cranton,

1994a). Transformational learning influences change deeper than

any other learning theory; it molds the learner in a specific

manner by producing “significant impact or paradigm shift” which

stays within the experiences of the learners (Clark, 1993).

Experience, critical reflection and development are three major

points to transformational learning. The experience is the

ability to be creative, retentive, and transfer knowledge.

Critical reflection is part of andragogy’s self-directed

learning. In order to generate effective learning experience for

adults, they need to reflect and think (Garvin, 1993).

Development is aligned with andragogy’s third assumption. This is

based on the assumption that for the establishment of effective

learning opportunity adults must take into consideration personal

development.

Early development of transformative learning was by

Mezirow in 1978 when he introduced a comprehensive, ideal

characteristic to his study transformation of U.S. women

returning to the educational arena to continue their education or

to start a new one. Mezirow, 1981 developed the concepts of

“meaning Perspectives, one’s overall world-view, and meaning

schemes, smaller components which contain specific knowledge,

values, and beliefs about one’s experiences”. Learning involves a

total transformation. Teamwork of many meaning schemes to produce

specific meaning perspective. Positive transformation experienced

during pre-adulthood, procreates meaning perspectives. These

perspective are life changing experiences and they often involved

unexpected crisis such as death, divorce, accidents, illness,

financial problems, etc…

Numerous authors have conducted study on

transformational learning; in collectiveness and amalgamation,

their work has sprung-up to epithelize transformational learning

in adult learners. With the religious sect, especially the Bible,

transformation means change or renewal from a life that no longer

conforms to the ways of the world to one that pleases God (Romans

12:2). This is accomplished by the renewing of our minds, an

inward spiritual transformation that will manifest itself in

outward actions. The Bible presents the transformed life in

Christ as demonstrated through our “bearing fruit in every good

work [and] growing in the knowledge of God” (Colossians 1:10).

Transformation involves those who were once far from God being

“drawn near” to him through the blood of Christ (Ephesians 2:13).

In the accounting field, self-directed learning,

experiential learning processes and transformative learning play

major role in the development of competency and efficiency. In

the accounting/auditing environment, the personality attributes

of learners, cognitive process, and the context of learning, are

cores in maintaining a continuous updates of strategies of

internal and external controls in organizations. For

accountants/auditors, experiential learning is part of their

development. It operates on the premise that individuals learn

best by practical means. The process involves setting goals,

thinking, planning, experimenting, decision making,

recommendations rendering, implying corrective measures; all done

through observation, reviews, detection, and reflection.

Self-directed learning is a multifaceted concept. It

encompasses goals of self-directed learning, self-directed

learning as a process, and self-direction as a personal attribute

of learners. Experiential learning of adults has always been

viewed as critical components of learning in adulthood. Although

exploring the role of experience in learning possesses a long

history. It is a continuous process to discover more about the

connections between learning and experience and how to assist

adults in formal and non-formal learning settings.

In recent years, through transformational learning,

significant change occurred in many entities in their

organizational designs, competitiveness, environments, and

information technologies. The business environments have been

exhibiting variety of structures and processes, including

advances in information technology. All these factors have driven

innovation and change in aggregating, measuring, analyzing and

information communicating internally and externally in the

organization’s environments. Included in such change is resource

planning systems, e-commerce, the internet, electronic data

interchange and electronic meetings. Because these entities are

changing, managerial accounting is also undergoing

transformation. These are proactive change and adaptation of

strategies for preventive, detective, and corrective measures,

and development. These are transformations that include strategic

plans for effective internal control.

Post-modernism and Adult learning

In the 18th century, the age of wisdom began and was

accompanied by the concepts of mind's dominance and modernism

with the outline of things to be considered, bringing forth the

consideration of ages as part of the agenda. In defining

modernism, the main concepts generated the following principles:

rationalism, 1ogic, universal scientific rights, algorithmic

systematic way of thinking, positivism, universality, etc…

Postmodernism is the philosophical belief of the non-existence of

truth. When truth is the subject, it only relates to culture.

Postmodernism is prevalently a form of questioning and

perspective than a set of ideas. It is widely debated whether

adult education is embedded in postmodernism.

There is a push for Adult educators to be involved

with the issues raised by postmodernism of culture in the

following manner: In what way the social relations are organized

and what are the desirable social visions? One should be

identified by recognizing their own and others' beliefs,

contexts, and frameworks; there should be intensive focus on

understanding power structures and foster development of

alternative forms of knowledge; and in order to engage in maximum

efficiency, one should consider themselves as cultural workers

rather than technocians. Postmodern education is based on the

assumption of what people think to be knowledge really consisting

of just constructs, not truth. In trying to understand postmodern

education, constructivism shed light on comprehension.

Constructivism is the main underlying learning theory in

postmodern education, it is the understanding that it is in the

mind of humans that knowledge is invented or constructed (Quist,

2005).

“Post-postmodernism salvages the enlightenment

educational project of increasing human knowledge and

understanding while yet endorsing the idea of a multiplicity of

valid perspectives” (Leichester, 1989); shifting boundaries and

conceptual change it encourages. Respect for diversity for adult

education is not offered by postmodernism. Usher, Bryant, &

Johnston (as cited by Merriam, et al., 2007) spell-out groups

that are relegated to an unimportant or powerless position within

the society as women, homosexuals, blacks, and other ethnic

minorities were unable to advocate actively until recently in

critical theory. Their primary focus is based on rational,

economics, class, and power. These are directly linked to the

identification of a specific system of power and oppression that

is transparent material by analysis of key components of society

is conducted through critical theory (Merriam et al., 2007).

Other theorist like Donovan Plumb (1995) deals with adult

education from a modern world perspective. Also, Clark and Drikx

(2000) are other theorists with postmodern perspective. Their

perspective self-awareness allows the generation of

understanding, honoring, and fostering diversity within the lives

of our adult learners (Merriam et al., 2007). Finally, Kildore

(2204) study analyzes the nature of postmodernism of knowing with

the notion of multiple truths. Jean Lyotard (1984), depends post-

modern trends in philosophy in his book: “The Post-modern

Condition”. According to Lyotard, post-modernism denotes the

dissolution of what meta-narrative.

Feminist learning Theory            The development of feminist theory has been in three

swings. Suffrage and political right is the first swing; the

second swing is social inequality between the genders; and the

third, emphasizes the conception of globalization, post

colonialism, post-structuralism, and postmodernism. Feminism is

the endeavor by feminists for equality of women and men. At the

inception of the feminist movements, there was a strong belief

that the society is patriarchy. This belief led to more

aggressive for the following: working to increase equality,

expanding human choice, eliminating gender stratification, ending

sexual violence, and promoting sexual freedom. The core of

feminist theory is the focus of feminism on the experiences from

oppression especially, in the education sector (Merriam and

Caffarella, 1999, p. 359). In pursuing these beliefs, they

utilized the following approaches: Liberal feminism,

social/maxism feminism, multicultural/women-of-color feminism,

and radical feminism. It is the belief of feminists that the

society is patriarchy.

The major source of gender socialization within schools is

the concealed curriculum as indicated by Lawson, Heaton, & Brown

(2010). According to their belief, text books are published to

depict modern family culture in a way to teach children at early

age that males are dominant within the family; various subjects

are aimed at a certain gender group, for example Food Technology

would be aimed at females, leading on to the typical role of

females doing housework and cooking; sport in schools are very

much male and female dominated within the education system, with

boys playing football and baseball while girls involved in

cheerleading and soft ball. It could be seen that the majority of

teachers are female, but that the senior management positions are

mainly male-dominated, although this is not the case in some

schools.

The basic assumption shared by feminists is that the gender

of divisions in society operates to the disadvantage of women.

The process of gender socialization usually encourages

traditional gender roles which reinforce and justify male

dominance. It is the philosophy of the feminists that he notion

of differences between men and women is a fallacy. According to

them, there is equilibrium between men and women and that women

are as capable to accomplish any just like men. In recent years,

the perceptions of women about marriage and children have

changed. The goal is career centered. In 1976, Sharpe in his

interview of few upper teenage females indicates that a job and

career were top of the list for girls with marriage and children

at the bottom.

           Liberal feminism: These feminists believe that the

appropriate way to fight patriarchal systems is by establishing

legislation to fight discrimination such as,  the right for some

women to vote in 1918 and finally all women to vote in 1928 were

liberal feminist approaches.

           Socialist/Maxist: Social feminism has more diverse

theoretical origins ranging from social learning theory to

psychoanalysis (Fischer et al., 1993). Feminism is the belief

that women’s inequality is due to the gender division of labor.

According to historical records, men have historically been paid

more and obtain more managerial positions with significant roles.

On the other hand, the Marxist feminist believes that base on

gender and class inequalities, women are oppressed.  

           Multicultural/Women-of-Color Feminism: This is

basically a movement by women of color. These traditional

feminists excluded the fight of women of color inequality. Their

fight exclude women-of-color also suffer from oppression based on

racial inequalities. Therefore the school of thought known as

"womanism" (for African-American women; this group movements is

excluded from Latina feminists, Native American feminists, etc.)

was born.

           Radical Feminism: The main core of this movement is

based on gender. The belief by some that married and straight

women cannot be feminist. It is the basic ideology that any

dependence on men is equivalent to oppression of women. The

school of thought of this group attracts a lot of lesbian

separatist groups. The other significant belief is that the end

of patriarchy will only be realized when women are freed from the

physical and emotional violence inflicted by men in all

environment.

            In concluding, these assumptions shared by feminist

activists demonstrate that the division between genders in the

society is disadvantageous to women.  Socialization is a process

that emboldened normally by reinforcement and justification of

male dominance in the gender role.

Teaching Based on specific part of the brain.

The brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves are team

members united and integrated as an information processing

center, which is controlled by the central nervous system. This

central processing unit governs both conscious and unconscious

facets of human’s life. The brain predominantly renders an idea

of how adult learning is process internally. “It involves

something happening inside the head” (Bruer, 1997). These mental

processes involve the way people “receive, store, retrieve,

transform, and transmit information” (Taylor, 1996, p. 301). The

brain grants us the capability of acquiring and applying all

sorts of skills and behaviors as needed for surviving effectively

in this sophisticated and dangerous world. The brain is

structured in an architectural way for absorbing and interacting

through language understanding. The learning is automatic. Just

as we may have to go to school to learn, read and write; as well

as listening and speaking effectively. These functions are

carried in an unconscious manner through repetition.

During the past decade, neurological and cognitive

sciences are bursting forth with discoveries about the brain as

being highly capable of being extended, altered, or shaped by

outside forces or influences. It was the perceptions that

paradigm may be genes or experience. Accordingly, researchers

have discovered that it can be a hybrid of both. It has also been

discovered that environment can activate genes to exhibit itself

in a manner that is hardly predictable. As there is an increased

recognition of the role of educators as consumers of this

discovered knowledge, there is also a movement to translate brain

research into classroom instruction. This has resurrected

challenges for the typical educational practitioner.

It is now known that there is an intricate interaction

between the emotional and cognitive brain systems. According to

research, the brain’s limbic system, located just above the brain

stem at the base of the brain, is the location for our emotional

responses. Neuroscientists tell us that information that comes to

the brain is processed first in this emotional center before

being processed in the cognitive or “thinking” center, located in

the frontal lobe of the cerebrum. “With information processing

short-circuited first to the emotional center, chronic stress may

impair long-term memory and deep learning” (Hardiman, 2010). For

educators, there is an impact of stress and treat on learning.

While we may be unable to control all the factors of

stress in the lives of our students, the highly skilled or well-

trained teacher can minimize practices within the classroom that

generate treat. Existing in a coordinated fashion, there should

be effective strategies that are positive in promoting emotion.

Research has shown that while threats impede learning, positive

emotional experiences, during which the brain produces certain

chemicals or neurotransmitters, can contribute to long-term

memory. The activities and processes of the mind include the

manner by which humans “receive, store, retrieve, transform, and

transmit information” (Merriam & Caffarella, 1995, p. 195).

Implications for Teaching and Teachers

It is known from research that the relationship

between learning and teaching is complex. Moreover, the research

on learning and research on teaching are usually done

independently. This has resulted in a disparity leading to

understanding between the two groups of researchers who

understand and work on learning and those who understand and work

on teaching. In recent years, “scholars have been trying to

bridge the gap between these intellectual communities with some

modest success” (Romberg and Carpenter 1986). One reason the

relationship remains elusive is that learning cannot be mandated;

there is no guarantee to teachers that a particular student will

learn (Jackson, 1986). A teacher may exert all possible effort to

teach science to a student, but the learning comprehension

depends on the student. Whether the student is able to comprehend

the content depends on both inside and outside factors within the

teacher’s control. Some of the questions generated are: Is the

student motivated? Did the teacher use appropriate and effective

instructional strategy? What about the attention span, is the

student interested? Are the classroom environments conducive to

learning? Are there any supportive classroom environment? Is the

time allowed to grasp new content enough digest the ideas and

practice new skills? Is there any peer pressure? The questions

are ongoing. Nevertheless, there are always implications for

teachers’ work.

Personal teaching philosophy

My teaching philosophy would be described by this

adage, "You learn to do by doing." My students will interact,

research, write by freestyle and by instruction and participate

in peer discussion through feedback. I will design my syllabus

frequently. When I'm in pursuit of a more creative method of

teaching a particular genre of literature or element of grammar,

I seek to provide my students the opportunity to think

critically, problem-solve authentically and convey their emotions

and thoughts in writing. As a teacher I strive to engage,

challenge, and inspire growth in my students. It is my belief

that every student is capable of tasting the passion that I feel

for accounting/auditing. To engage my students in the study of

business management, I will craft business scenarios whereby

students will participate as business owners, business

consultants, accountants/auditors. I believe as I take this

endeavor that it is my duty to let the student feel that they are

in the real world of business. I believe that business

management, especially accounting are the core positions in all

organization. Business management professionals are the leaders

and the accountants are the eye of the organization for

effectiveness and survivability. The learning style will be self-

directed in order for student to feel independent in making

educative decisions.

In teaching based on the brain research, I will

implement changes to a deliberate plan for positive emotional

connections within the framework of a specific learning unit. In

such framework, students will be encouraged to be emotionally

connected to the content. There will be a continuous slow

introduction of the visual and performing arts, exhibiting an

effective way to make a strong and advantageous connection into

the emotional response system of the students. This emotional

response system enhances learning and will be included within the

activities of every learning unit.

In addition, it is known by researchers that the

visual attending mechanism of the brain is greatly influenced by

new incidents in the environment. Accordingly learning is

affected by sound, lighting, and aroma. Soft background music can

aid students to be relaxed and establish a learning environment

that is conducive and comfortable. The most effective strategy

when performing tasks that require high levels of concentration,

a quiet setting is appropriate. Researchers have discovered that

well-lighted environment, increases students’ achievement when

compared to dark learning environment (Kosik & Heschong, 2000).

Aroma can also be used to enhance memory, as the humans’ sensory

connected with sense of smell input moves directly to the limbic

system. This is what enables humans to recall a lot of activities

that an encounter with a familiar aroma may bring about.

My next goal is to maintain a class setting whereby I

will challenge the students and give them the opportunity to

challenge me. This is in the form of transformative learning.

This will be established be the awareness that everyone possess

unique abilities and capabilities that can be shared and everyone

can benefit from the generated supports. I will have open forum

for students to share opinions with one another and some may

directly or indirectly by mentors to others. Brainstorming is

something I experienced with one of my teachers in college so I

will incorporate in the syllabus brainstorming sessions, group

projects, and group presentations. A productive method as I

perceive it. Students will be given the opportunity to ask

questions. For questions that I do not have the appropriate

answer, I will state that “I will get back to you with the

answer. Straightforwardness is my policy. One important thing is

that I will let the student know that there is no such thing as

“foolish question”. All questions relate to something and will be

dealt with in an unbiased manner. Definitely my own learning

process is ongoing. I will continue researching for new ideas,

updates and areas of confusion. My colleagues input will be

cherished and reliable internet sources will gain my close

interest. My student will always be aware that their input means

a lot to me as my consciousness is open to their thoughts.

Finally, my students will be inspired to pursue

continued growth in their career by giving them the appropriate

tools to be implemented from the experience gained, in the real

world and in any other future career or profession they seek.

These tools will include: sense of curiosity, open-mindedness

with adaptability and flexibility, the search for knowledge,

self-directed learning, and experiential learning. I would like

my students to observe and begin to question the purpose and

meaning of human thought and behavior that will enable them to

derive needed information from others. To be able to detect,

prevent, and correct potential problems. After becoming skilled

observers, I would like my students to use their tools to ask a

few good questions, to creatively design a way of answering these

questions, and to openly share their new knowledge with others.

My primary goal is to teach my student to become motivated,

competent, reliable, efficient, effective, and business

professionals especially, managers and accountants/auditors

characterized by insight.

Importance of respectful interactions among teachers and students

Fundamental human value is respect. It forms the basis

of character and personality. It can be considered a standard

principle because it is an appropriate way to act. The term

respect has been used broadly and represented in the education

system in the United States of America for quite a while. Growing

up as a child in Africa, I was told that I must respect others

especially the elders, teachers, pastors etc…Respect was often

equated with age, that’s why I was told to respect the elders.

Children in this current world recognize themselves as

understanding and appreciative of those with whom they interact

with in school, learn and play with. These cores render a much

richer living and learning experience, expands horizons and

breaks down traditional barriers. Teachers are part of the groups

that students interact with .There are some teachers with good

personality and some with bad personality. We know that there are

those who work or interact with children who are not respectful

of them. In some settings, children are exploited, used and

abused. We also know that children are being raised in homes that

fail to teach them about respect or how to recognize the

difference between a good or bad behavior of others.

It is the responsibility of the teacher to create an

environment based on respect. The teacher’s role is imperative to

establish a successful teacher and student interaction and

creating an environment conducive to learning with positive

climate. With students’ achievement, there is a positive

relationship between teacher expectation and student; and

teachers must distribute their time equally because students

require help, need help and feedback of the teacher (McConnell &

Elliot, 2003).

The development of relationships is a major component

of respectful learning environment. These relationships are

developed by teachers who are the models. The teachers’ attitudes

and attributes are being observed by the students to see how they

negotiate the social and moral environment. The way adults act in

and out of the learning environment greatly impact role on the

development of learning environment that are respectful.  And

according to Zehm and Kottler (1993), students will never trust

the teacher or open themselves up to hear what he or she has to

say unless they sense that the teacher value and respect them.

When students feel that the teacher values and cares for them as

individuals, they are more willing to comply with his or her

wishes. When students observe teachers, they can assess what is

genuine and what is performance. Children thrive on sincerity.

They deserve to spend their time in classrooms where teachers

respect the need for honesty and integrity. It is important to

establish a respectful learning environment. Once developed, it

generates better understanding and appreciation for diverse

populations within the learning environment. With a respectful

classroom environment fear will be decreased. There will be

decrease in bullying. Children in such a classroom are encouraged

to deeply interact and share ideas, explore new content and carry

this out with the feeling of safety and appreciation. When a

classroom is respectful, there is an existence of open-

mindedness. In such a classroom students feel safe and are

comfortable to share ideas.

In a respectful environment, through body language

respect is conducted by individuals. Their attributes are

positive with attitudes exhibiting respect. Respect is a daily

activity. It must be part of life and must permeate the

environment and be practiced and supported as an everyday agenda.

Once a respectful classroom is developed, there will be

politeness among classmates and to the teachers. The body

language will convey respect and students will listen to each

other attentively. Moreover students will comprehend the meaning

of respect, state of being worthy, courtesy, individuality,

peculiarity; and work as a team in unity and in coordination

regardless of race, gender, ethnicity, and/or ability.

Summary

It should be stated that learning process is always

continuous even when new mental codification of experience in a

particular organize way of perceiving cognitively and responding

to a complex situation as brought back into working memory when a

task in needed to be completed. WOK should be viewed openly not

in isolation; it should include multi-cultural intelligences. In

the construction of knowledge, WOK interacts in several ways.

They are also unified in the formation of knowledge. Therefore,

individual ways of knowing are put together into more elaborate

structures in order to generate knowledge.

Educators should utilize their advantage to hold on

to the ability of the brain and how it affects different

learners. So educators must continue to obtain more and more

awareness of the variety of factors that ultimately affect

learning ability (Materna, 2007). The main techniques to adapt

are activities involving past personal and professional

experiences, motivational activities, and flexibility in learner

and educator interaction. Teaching new facts will be based on

continued brain development that will boost learners view points

and ideas through the means of reading multiple articles with

different viewpoints. My teaching philosophy dictates that I am

assured that as I implement teaching based on brain research

including implementing what the neurological and cognitive

sciences tell us about how the brain thinks and learns, I will be

enable to establish effective strategic teaching plan that will

help my students develop critical thinking faculties that will

generate within them well-academically performing students.

Conclusion

This paper has presented principles from major

learning theories and principles and their application for

effective teaching practices. Designing an effective teaching

curriculum is a multifaceted task involving various issues and

roles (Jafari, 2000). However, it is the belief that learning

should be the primary reference focusing on the transformation of

students. Other issues such as technology, standards, usability,

etc., are significant but should be taken as secondary. Most of

the stated purpose of adult education in the United States is the

assumption that the ideal of a democratic society must be

maintained, and with one available way to pursue education. It

redirects the statement of Linderman that the dual purpose of

adult education is to improve both society and individual

awareness. In practice, however, it can be stated that education

is “an apparatus for social control” (Cunningham, 1988, p. 133)

rather than empowerment, and that adult education in the United

States is elitist and exclusionary. Andragogy has generated a

brandishing new outlook of adult education thereby, enticing

others theorists and practitioners to view adult learning as an

area for further research.

SDL and ELT have become so much a part of adult

education's identity. These theories or principles are best for

adult learning. They have had such an impact on practice, that

relegating them to the status of historical artifact is

inconceivable. Experiential learning of adults has always been

viewed as critical components of learning in adulthood. Although

exploring the role of experience in learning possesses a long

history. In anything in this our imperfect world, there will

always be criticisms. It is my hope that educators will be helped

by these concepts in engaging effectively in the learning process

of adult learners.

The way that adult are taught, transformative learning

theory has transformed. Like all physical and intellectual

powerful theories, it has been criticized, hypothesized, amended,

revised, and retested throughout the past three decades to

generate framework that are definite for describing the best

methods of how adults learn (Cranton, 1994, 2006; and Taylor,

1996). As more tests of the theory are conducted by researchers

in other disciplines, such as educational technology (King,

1994), the evidence for the strength, firmness and applicability

of the theory will continue to expand.

Teaching philosophy should dictates assurance of

implementing teaching based on brain research including

implementing what the neurological and cognitive sciences tell us

about how the brain thinks and learns; this will enable educators

to establish effective strategic teaching plan that will help

students develop critical thinking faculties that will generate

within them well-academically performing students. A well

utilized brain generates power within us that is noticeable by

others.

It should be stated that the success of power in adult

education is partly to be credited to the essential nature of the

women's struggle for educational opportunities. These are issues

of power and the transformational perceptions of women's role

in society. Power at the most basic metaphysical level embraces

the well-established debate between structure (determinism) and

doers (voluntarism) (Clegg, 1989). The doers are the people who

execute the individual power to control and alter their

environment, such as a girl's or woman's pursuit of education

when cultural and social pressures discourage or prevent it.

Doers stress responsibility and the exercising of reason, choice,

and will. I am hopeful that these concepts will be of valuable

assistance to educators in intervening effectively in the

learning process of adult learners.

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APPLICATION OF THEORIES AND PHILOSOPHY TO TEACHING PRACTICE 62

Integrating Learning Theories with Personal Philosophy