KUNTILLET hIRUD(HORVAT rEMAN)

AN IRON AGE II RELIGIOUS SITEON THE IUDAH.SINAI BORDER

ZE,EV MESHEL

with contributions by

S. AHITUV B. ARENSBURG, E. AYALON, P. BECK,I. CARMI, E. ESHEL,

A. GOREN, Y. GOREN, J. GUNNEWEG, S. HELLWING, L. K. HORWITZ,O. LERNAU, N. LIPHSCHITZ,H. K. MIENIS, N. NAVEH,I. PERLMAN,

N. RESHEF, D. SEGAL, O. SHAMIR, A. SHEFFER, Y. SITRY,

A. TIDHAR, R. YAKAR

Editor: Liora Freud

English style: fohn Tresman

_ I raf- r; ''ri::'-i? : ;' fi:;r

ISRAEL EXPLORATION SOCIETY

JERUSALEM 2012

WERE MADE POSSIBIE THROUGH A GENEROUS GRANT FROMTHE SHELBY WHITE-LEON LEVY PROGRAM

F OR ARCHAEOLO GICAL P UB LICATION S

O 2012 by the Israel Exploration Society

ISBN 978-965-221-088-3

Layout Awaham Pladot

Production editor: Alan Paris

T)?esetting: Marzel A.S. - ferusalem

Printed by Old City Press, Ierusalem

CHAPTER 11

wooDEN OBJECTS

YIGAL SITRY

INTRODUCTION

Tirenty-one wooden objects were found at Kuntillet'Ajrud during the excavations. This chapter discussesthe linds upon which traces of tool-working could be identified, and those which may be defined as artifacts.The items lvere examined typologically and technologically, based on comparison with other ancient finds,and similar uses among traditional societies today. Some of the finds whose identification is uncertain areillustrated in this chapter, with h)?otheses regarding their function. Wood species identifications were madebv Nili Liphschitz (See Ch. 13)

DESCRIPTION OF ITEMS

r. Warp beam of a warp-weighted loom (L ro4, Reg.No. rooTloz), Figs u.ta, trb,2.57

I{ood: Tamarix aphyllaMeasurements: Length originally more than roo cm,ar-erage diameter 4.o cm.Description: A round wooden beam, made from asingle branch. The beam was discovered broken into

nlr\\rlV

r--:-:=a\-=-r=aSP\+d_,-,r

Fig. rr.r. a. Warp beam ofthe vertical weighted loom. b. Reconstruction ofthe r.ertical weighted loom. (after Forbes r964: zo9)

three pieces, with one end intact and the other broken.The intact end is characterized by a gradual taper ofthebranch up to about 4 cm from the end, and a thickersection at the end ofthe beam. About 7 cm from the endof the beam there is a r.z cm diameter hole into which

317

313 YTGAL SITRY

a small wooden stick was inserted. The original lengthofthe stick is unknown, but 7 cm of its length has beenrres err.ed.

The object was discovered at L ro4, at the foot ofthe stairs leading to the roof. Loom weights were alsotound nearby.r

The design of the end of the beam identifies theobject as the upper warp beam of a vertical weightedloom. The proximity of the location of the beam to thatof the weights supports the identification. Such a beamis placed on the top of two vertical beams (sometimesirorked branches). It is to this beam that the warpthreads, stretched by the weights, are attached. Theends of the warp beam (sometimes one end only), usu-alh' taper to prevent it from moving to the side duringrrealing. These tapers rest in a fork-shaped split or in around recess in the upright beams. (Shamir r994: 3g-39;Sheffer r98r: 8r-83, pl. r5, 16, including references to theYertical weighted loom in ancient visual art).

In the vertical loom, the warp is vertical, and therr'efi is interlaced with it. The weaving is stretched andtightened upwards. After weaving a segment of cloth itis rolled onto the warp beam. The short stick stuck inthe rvarp beam is intended to help in turning it and thecloth wrapped around it. In addition, in the event ofanunrr.anted reverse rotation of the warp beam, the stickalso serves as a brake by striking another pin, perpen,dicular to it, fitted into the vertical beam of the loom,(see Fig. rr.rb no. r). In traditional looms in Scandinavia,the turning stick is placed in the thick section at the endof the warp beam (Hoffmann ry74: 3o7, fig. 4o).

The warp beam is made of a branch of TamarixaPb,lla. This tree is common in the area of the site eventodal', xn;1 it may be assumed that the craftsman choseto use it due to its availability and because it was strongand hard. The beam shows marks made by simple tools,including an adze. The taper near the end ofthe beamrras made by a knife. The perforation was made by asimple hand-drill, and the turning stick was a tight fit,held ii in place by friction.

t. Carrying handle for a basket (L 5o, Reg. No.4S5 -o). Figs r r.za, rr.zb, tr.zc

llb od: Populus euphratica.\Ieasurements: length between ends 36.5 cm, inner.:ameter 3.5-3.8 cm, average diameter of thickest parts-:.S - 5.4 cm.Description: A bent tree branch worked to a circular.ross section, with projections at both ends.

The object is a rigid carrying handle for a wickerbasket.2 The handle is fitted into two plaited loops madeofa flexible material on opposite sides ofthe basket. Thepolygonal enlarged ends of the handle are intended tohold the loops and prevent them from disconnectinsduring carrying. The ends ofthe handle are cut diago-nally to facilitate their insertion into the loops. The arcof the handle affords comfortable carrying, even whenthe basket is filled to the brim.

Handles similar to these have been found in varioussites and from different periods. In Cartagena, a miningsite from the Roman period in the Murcia region ofSpain (Alfaro ry84: t7o r73 pl. LV), handles were foundwith the baskets, and it is evident that each handle $'asmade to fit the basket it was attached to.3

Two similar, but longer, handles were discoveredin the Ma.agan Mikhael shipwreck, which dates to theend ofthe 5th century ncr (Sitry zoo4: r88-r89). Oneof the handles was discovered next to a basket whichcontained the ship's carpentert tools. In the reliefs ofLachish at Sennacherib's Palace in Nineveh, a wo\renbasket with a similar handle is shown hanging on a

wagon (Ussishkin r98z: 84 fig. 69). Although the drau'-ing is schematic, the details of the handle and the war-it ib attached to the basket can be clearly discerned ( Fig.rr.zc).

In traditional societies similar handles are used tocarry baskets to this very day. Identical handies weremade and sold until the r96os in village markets inIran-a

3. Fire board (L 92, Reg. No. 78617o), Fig. u.3

Wo o d: Pop ulu s euphraticaMeasurements: Length 13.6 cm, maximum width 3.acm, thickness z.o cm.Description: A short piece ofwood, broken at both ends.Two round recesses are located on the edge ofthe upperface ofthe board, one conical and the other rounded insection. The recesses are darkened, and show signs ofsingeing and sheen as a result of extensive use.

The identification ofthe object as a fire-lighting toolis based on comparison with other ancient devices andsimilar objects that were used in traditional societiesup to the 2oth century (Harrison :1954, Peuie ry17: 59).This is the only known Iron Age ignition device foundin Israel. A similar item from the Chalcolithic period.made of Sallx sp., was discovered by de Vaux in a cavein Wadi Murabba(at (de Vaux 196o I: r8, fig.3, no.9,II: pl. V, no. rr).s A similar device from the early zni

CITAPTER 1I _ WOODEN OBJECTS

Fig. rr.z. a. Carrying handle. b. Basket with a carrying handle fromMurcia, Spain. (after Alfaro r984: fig. LVIIt.). c. Bask-et with carrv_ing handle hung on a wagon on an Assyrian relieffrom Nineveh(after Ussishkin 198z)

-ilg

Fig. rr.3. Fire board (part of a fire-lighting device)

320 YIGAL STTRY

millennium BCE was discovered at Kahun in Eglpt(Petrie r9r7: s8, pl. LV no. ro8). A fire board ofan igni-tion device from the New Kingdom period, found inDeir a1-Madina, is in the Eglptian Museum in Cairo.An ignition device from the Roman period found atEn Rahel in the Arava (Sitry zoo6: r48) is a small objectwith two conical recesses at the edge of the long side.Many ignition devices from the 3rd-znd centuries BCE

have been found at the Karanis site in Fayum, Eg1pt.These items have yet to be published, but some ofthemare on display at the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. A simi-lar object from the Byzantine period was discovered atthe St. Epiphanius monastery in Upper Eglpt (Winlock19z6: 55) .

Or-r fire-making techniques see Harrison 1954, andon the same subject in ancient records see Humphreyand others r998: 39-4o.

4. Wedge (L r3, Reg. No. 48/7r), Fig. rr.4

Wo o d : Pho e nix dacq)liferaMeasurements: Iength r7.5 cm, width 6.7 cm, thicknesso.3-2.O Cm.

Description: A wedge, processed from the trunk of adate tree.

l- ---,tFig. u.4. Wedge

The object is worked with its length along the grainof the wood. It was intended to aid in stabilizing andlevelling building furniture, such as doorframes andlintels, and to tighten joints. It is possible that it also.served to set stones in the construction of wa1ls. Similaritems from the rst century BCE, found at the Roman/Nabatean temple of Bint Faroun in Petra and kept inthe local museum, have yet to be published. Identical,but smaller, wedges used in furniture, have been foundat Masada. (Sitry zoo6, Volume II: 9, items z6a-35a).

5. Wedge (Lr9, Reg. No. 46z17o),Fig. tt.5

Wo o d: Phoenix dactylifera

Measurements: length r9.r cm, width ro.3 cm, thicknesso.1 2.3 Cm.

Description: Same as No. 4

Fig. rr.5. Wedge

6. Wooden spoon (L 7 Reg. No. 11/Zo), Fig. 11.6

Wood: Tamarix (X5)

Measurements: length ro.3 cm, width z.z cm, maximumthickness o.8 cm.Description: The object is spoon-shaped - concaveon one side and convex on the other. It is broken at

the sides and at the end, and it appears that the miss-ing extension was a handle. It was originally about 1.2

cm thick and about 3.5 cm wide. The width decreasedover time as a result offractures in the tool due to weakadhesion between the fibres ofthe wood in the tangen-tial direction.

The wooden spatula was a simple and useful tool,which explains its widespread occurrence in places

where wood is well preserved. Hundreds of spatulasfrom various periods and in various materials, includ-ing wood, are to be found at the Petrie Museum inLondon. Fifteen wooden spatulas and larger spoonsfrom the Roman period have been found in Israel (Sit11'

zoo6, Volume II: ro7-ro9)6. The spatulas have differ-ently shaped bowls and handles, and had many andvaried uses. Their functions would probably suit thecontext in which they were found (Sitry zoo6, Vol. I:

e4-e6).

!--,J

Fig. rr.6. Spoon

CIIAPTERII WOODENOBJECTS 321

7. Worked board (side ofa wooden chest) (L S, Reg.No. 842/7o), Figs rr.7a, u.7b

l\roo d: F icus sy camoruslleasurements:length 23.o cm, i ridth r6.o cm, thicknesso.9 cm.Description: A wooden board, broken on three edgesand rvorked on one side. It seems to have been attachedat its edge to another board of similar length. A clearlymarked raised strip z cm wide, projecting 1 mm, crossesthe entire width of one face of the board. A o.3 cmdiameter hole is drilled approximately at the centre ofthe strip. The shape of the board, its thickness, and the

Fig. tt.7. a. Side of a piece of furniture (chest). b.Reconstruction of a panel made of several boards joinedlengthways. The centre drawing is the piece discussed.

working on one face are reminiscent ofparts ofan edge-glued panelT. The strip is where a long, thin woodencross-piece was attached across several boards in orderto connect them, the hole serving to insert the nail (Fig.

rr.7b). After the boards were joined they received a finalfinish. This work reduced the thickness ofthe board byr mm, except where it was protected by the cross-piece.Clear signs offinishing are evident over the entire sur-face of this side of the board.

It seems that the object is a part of the side of a

wooden chest. During the rst century ncr burial coflinsmade with sycamore boards were produced at En-Gedi(Hadas 1994: 45-46, fig. 73). The En-Gedi boards wereconnected to one anothe-r by a similar technique, andit may therefore be assumed that it is a part of a simplewooden chest (Sitry zoo6: 43).

8. Part ofapiece offurniture (L r57 Reg. No. tt99l7o),Fig. rr.8

Wood: Tamarix (X5)Measurements: length r3.o cm, width 4.5 cm, thickness

3.2 Cm.

Fig. rr.8. Wooden bar, cut later for secondary use?

Il YIGAL SITRY

Description: The object has a flat surface on one siderrith an oblique hole at its centre. There is a thin tenon-like projection at one end, while at the other end thereis a Iong narrow projection.

It is difficult to identify this object. Ifthe projectionreallv is a tenon, it seems that originally it was part of apiece of furniture built in a bar structure (for examplea stool). However, the flat surface with the oblique holemay indicate that it was fixed to a wooden board. Thismav be a sign of secondary use.

Fig. u.9. a. Part of a lintel. b. Suggestion for hingemade of hardwood inserted in the edge of the lintel. c.Suggestion for a hidden joint in frame structure

9. Part ofa threshold or lintel (L 19 (07), Reg. No.g7l7o),Figs rt.9a, rr.9b, rr.9c

' Wood: Phoenix dactyliferaMeasurements: length 24.3 cm, width 8.5 cm, thickness5.8 cm, recess 5.7x4.5,2.7 cm deep.Description: A well-worked palm wood component,with its long side following the grain. There is a pre-cisely-cut rectangular recess at one end, but it is burntat the otller end, preventing estimation ofthe originallength.

l

1_ ._l_____a____ ?L-_- .- {- ---: I,:__-__IJ

C}IAPTER TT _ WOODEN OBJECTS

Identiflcation of this item is difficult. It is possible

that the recess was intended to receive a rectangular partmade ofa harder wood with a hole for a door-hinge. Theinsertion ofa hardwood piece into parts ofsoftwood iscustomary in the wood timber industry to this day. It isalso possible that the recess served as a mortise for thetenon of a beam jointed perpendicularly.

ro. Wooden board with a tenon-like projection at itsend (L 6, Reg. No. 36bl7o), Fig. u.ro

llbod: Acacia raddianaMeasurements: length rz.o cm, width 4.6 cm, thickness2.6 cm.Description: A short heary piece of wood. One end iscut to a tenon-like shape.

The original use ofthis element was as a bar in a bar-structure piece of furniture, but there is no indicationof its secondary use.

-1: -i

Fig. u.rr. Wooden nail

diameter. Wooden nails were used as connecting devices

in masonry and furniture-making (Sitry zoo6: tl6-tll).

rz. Wooden plugs (L 256, Reg. No. tz6zlTo), Fig. rr.rza

Wood: Pistacia khinjukMeasurements: Average outer diameter about ro cm,

average inner diameter about 3.2 cm.

ml

Fig. u.ro. Tenon joint at the edge of a bar?

rr. Wooden nail (L 254, Reg. No. tz54l7o), Fig. rr.rr

Wood: Tamarix(X4)Measurements: length 4.8 cm, diameter 0.6-0.8 cm atthe top, o.25 cm at the point.Description: Awooden nail with a hexagonal section.

The nail was shaped using a knife. A polygonalsection increases the holding power of a wooden nailin a timber. The nail, which is usually harder thanthe beam, was forced into a bore slightly smaller in

Description: A carved hardwood cone. Tool-marks are

evident all around the object.The object apparently served as a plug for a stor-

age jar. The conical design enabled it to seal open-ings of various sizes, but the marks remaining on itindicate that it fitted tightly into a circular opening ;cm in diameter, corresponding to a medium sizedjur.

Sharpened slivers ofwood wrapped in cloth forcibh

YIGAL SITRY1l,t

inserted into the hole served as plugs, stopping leaks in Following in Table u.r are several items which havenot been definitelv identified.pottery vessels. Fig. u.rz.b

ilil

\V#

ffiffi

? __ __9*Fig. rr.rz. a. Wooden plug. b. Wooden plug forced into a hole in wall of a jar

ilffiili

il[wooden artifacts, Items

e)\--,"

flrll,'l\rlli/

\/

,"U

(za

Fig. rr.r3. Unidentified

CIIAPTER TT - WOODEN OBJECTS

Table rr.r. Unidentified wooden artifacts

3I

No. Locus Reg. No. Description Wood Measurements in cm Fig. Suggestedidentification

13 13 4817o Board with sr.,rnmetrical recess Ficussycomorus

l=22.9,\l{=ys,l =3Hole: D=6.5, T=r.5

11.1313: Part used in threshold. See also no. 9

14 65 6yl7o Worked piece Tamarix(X5) L= 15.o, W=7.o 11.1314:

15 256 tz74l7o Cube Phoenixdactylifera

L=3, W=3.5 11.13:15

t6 256 tzTtlTt Polygonal cylindet thinner atone end.

Tamarix(Xq) L=8.o 11,13:16 Handle?

17 6 4217o Sharpened sliver Pistacia sp. L= 4.5, 11.13t17 Nail, Point

r8 256 44ol7o Cylindrical sliver, decreasing indiameter at centre. Sharpened atone end, opposite end broken.

Tamarix(X+) L= 5. D=r.o rr.r3:r8 Point. Wedge.Loom instrument.

19 8 5ol7o Polygonal sliver sharpened to apoint

L=ro.4 maximumD=2.3

11.13:19 Nail, point.

20 256 n7ol7o Partially-worked branch,sharpened at end

Tamarix(X5) L=8.2 D=o.7 11,13:2O Spindle?

27 65 617l7t SIiver Tamarixaplrylla

L=9.6\N=2.7 11.13t21 Wedge?

D=diameter, L=length, W=width, T=thickness

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Twenty-one worked wooden items are described in thischapter. Only 12 items have been typologically identi-fied, but they are ofgreat importance as being unique inthe iron Age. Interesting items among them are: parts ofa warp-weighted-1oom, which are evidence for weaving

activities at the site; some parts ofbuilding components,

which supports the assumption that at least some of the

openings had doors; and a fireJighting device, which isa rare find in this period. No furniture has been found,although some of the unidentified items may have been

simple furniture parts. One item was apparently part ofa side of a low-quality storage chest.

Al1 items have been identified botanically, 852" ofthe wood coming from the vicinity of the site. The

most common species are Tamarix and Phoenix dac'tylifera (date palm). Other objects were made of wood

from trees that grow in Sinai and the Negev. This taitstrengthens the assumption that most items were manu-

factured on site.

A1l the items are of low-quality manufacture, er-i-

dence based also on the tool-marks left on them. irlostmarks are of carving tools, apparently a knife. In one

case (Item 9), the use of a chisel to create the housing

of a door hinge was identified. Traces of a saw as rtellis an adze were identified in only one item (Item;). Ina few of the unidentified items, more professional tools

might have been used.

In conclusion: from the manufacturing aspect the

craftsmanship at the site may be defined as simple and

of low quality. The items were probably made by la1'men

or unskiiled artisans. This is supported by the quantinof artifacts, their size, the wood and its origin, and the

tools used to make them.

326

Altogether, rr weights l\rere found at the adjacent Loci r androz (87 93). There may have been many more of unfired clay,rvhich disintegrated.Wicker handles could also have been used, but it seems thatthe rigid handle had an advantage in maintaining the shapeand contents ofthe basket.The woven baskets there are made ofspanish reed (esparto),and were reinforced on the outside by wooden battens perpendicular to the direction of the weave. The baskets werecoated with a layer of asphalt both inside and out. Alfarobelieves that the sealed baskets served to carry water orother liquids.Personal communication by Avraham Sitry (r99o).

Item no. mur 335, internal number ofthe Israel AntiquitiesAuthority 463326. To the best ofthe author's knowledge, thisis the earliest fire board found in the ancient East.The spatulas were made of a single carved piece, whichincluded the handle and the palm. Their overall lengthvaries between 15 and zo cm. The palm is usually oval, itslength varyrng from 2.5 to 7 cm, according to the overalllength ofthe object.A panel consists of several long wooden boards attached attheir edges to form a single unit oflarge surface area, to beused as the side of a piece of furniture (see at length Sitryzoo6: t75).

YIGAL SITRY

NOTES

REFERENCES

Alfaro, G.C, 1984 . Tejido y Cesteria en la Pen{nsula lb6rica,Instituto Espaffol de Prehistoria, Madrid

Forbes, R.f. r964 . Studies in Ancient Technology yol.Iy lzHadas, G. r994. Nine Tombs ofthe Second Temple period

at 'En-Gedi, Atiqot z4Harrison, H.S. 1954. Fire-Making, Fuel and Lighting. In

A History of TechnologyYol. r, Singer, C., Holmyard, E.

J. and Hall, A. R. (Eds): z16-z4oHoffmann, M. 1974. The Warp-weighted Loom, OsloHumphrey, I.W., Oleson, I.P. and Sherwood, A.N. 1998.

Greek and Roman Technology: A Sourcerook, New yorkPetrie, W.M.F. rgr7. Tools and Weapons, Lond,onShamir, O. 1994. Loomweights from Tell Qasil e.In lsrael

People and Land,R. Zeevi, (Ed.) 7-8, (25-26):35-42(Hebrew; English summary, p. 9*)

Sheffer, A. r98r. The use of perforated clay balls on thewarp-weighted lo om, Tel Aviv 8i 8r-83, pls r5, t6

Sitry, Y. 2oo4. Unique Wooden Artifacts: A Study ofTlpology and Technology. In The Mahgan MikhaelShip: The Recot,ery of a z4oo-Year Old Merchantman.lzoL Il, Kahanov, Y and Linder, E., lerusalem: r8z-r9o

Sitry, Y. 2006. Wooden Objects from Roman Sites in theLand of lsrael, A Typological and Technological Study.PhD Thesis, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan (Hebrew)

Ussishkin, D. 1982. The Conquest of Lachkh bySennacherib, Tel Aviv

de Vaux, R. 1960. Archdologie. In Grottes de Murabba,at,Benoit, P., Milik, J. T. and de Vaux, R. (Eds), (DID II),Oxford: 3-36

Winlock, H.E. t926. The Monastery of Epiphanius atThebes, New York