Women’s Traditional Knowledge, Use Value, and the Contribution of Tamarind ( Tamarindus indica L.)...

Women’s Traditional Knowledge, Use Value,and the Contribution of Tamarind (Tamarindus indica L.)to Rural Households’ Cash Income in Benin1

BELARMAIN FANDOHAN2, ACHILLE EPHREM ASSOGBADJO*,2, ROMAIN GLÈLÈ KAKAÏ

2,TINA KYNDT

3, EMMY DE CALUWÉ3, JEAN THIMOTHÉE CLAUDE CODJIA

2,AND BRICE SINSIN

2

2Laboratory of Applied Ecology, Faculty of Agronomic Sciences, University of Abomey-Calavi, 01 BP526( Cotonou, Benin

3UGent Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium*Corresponding author; e-mail: [email protected]

Women’s Traditional Knowledge, Use Value, and the Contribution of Tamarind (Tamarindusindica L.) to Rural Households’ Cash Income in Benin. This study examined differences inknowledge, use values, and contribution of tamarind (Tamarindus indica) to women’s cashincome during the dry season, focusing on seven tribal groups in Benin. Data were gatheredusing semistructured individual interviews and monitoring, and were analyzed using quantitativeethnobotanical methods. Principal component analysis was applied to describe the use value anduse forms of tamarind according to different tribes. Tamarind was found to play an importantrole in local communities’ livelihoods. Overall, 26 different uses were mentioned for tamarindproducts. Most commonly, the fruit (pulp) was used to make beverages, as a laxative andpurgative, and it seems to be the only plant part sold commercially. Bark was frequently used as amedicine to treat wounds, and leaveswere used tomake porridge and as an antibiotic.Medicinal,cultural, andmaterial use categories were correlated best with the Fulani, whereas commercewasmost correlated with Gourma tribes (PCA analysis). There were significant differences fortamarind utilization among the tribal groups, with overall ethnobotanical use values (EUVT)ranging from 10 to 14, and contribution to cash income ranging from 8.8% to 56.4%. In viewof its domestication potential, it is crucial that traditional tribal knowledge of tamarind bepreserved and integrated into management policies. Further development and research needsfor utilization and conservation are improvement of commercialization, organization of marketchannels, and extent of genetic diversity within and among populations.

Savoir endogène des femmes, valeur d’usage et contribution du tamarinier au revenu desménages ruraux au Bénin. Cette étude a mis en évidence les différences entre groupestribales sur les connaissances, les valeurs d’usage, et la contribution du tamarinier au revenumonétaire des femmes pendant la saison sèche au Bénin. Les données ont été collectéesgrâce à des entretiens individuels semi-structurés et analysées au moyen de méthodesethnobotanique quantitatives. L’analyse en composante principale a été appliquée pourdécrire la valeur d’usage et les formes d’utilisation du tamarinier en fonction des différentestribus. Le tamarinier joue un rôle important dans les activités génératrices de revenues pourles communautés locales. Au total 26 différentes utilisations ont été mentionnées pour lesproduits issus du tamarinier. Généralement, la pulpe du fruit est utilisée pour faire desboissons, comme un laxatif et un purgatif et semble être la seule partie commercialisée de laplante. L’écorce est fréquemment utilisée en médecine traditionnelle pour traiter les blessuresprofondes alors que les feuilles sont utilisées pour la préparation de bouillis et comme unantibiotique. L’espèce a plus une valeur médicinale, culturelle et artisanale pour les Fulani

1 Received 14 October 2009; accepted 1 June2010; published online 3 July 2010.

Economic Botany, 64(3), 2010, pp. 248–259.© 2010, by The New York Botanical Garden Press, Bronx, NY 10458-5126 U.S.A.

alors qu’elle a une plus grande valeur commerciale pour les tribus Gourma (analyse ACP). Desdifférences significatives ont été observées entre les tribus sur l’usage du tamarinier, avec desvaleurs d’usage ethnobotanique total comprises entre 10 et 14 et des contributions au revenumonétaire variant de 8.8% à 56.4%. Compte tenu de son potentiel à la domestication, il estcrucial que les connaissances traditionnelles sur le tamarinier soit préservées et intégrées dansles politiques de gestion. L’amélioration de commercialisation, l’organisation de circuits decommercialisation, l’évaluation de la diversité génétique intra et inter populations au sein del’espèce sont nécessaires pour assurer son utilisation durable et sa conservation.

Key Words: Tamarind, underutilized crops, ethnobotany, cash income.

IntroductionRural households across the world extract a

wide variety of non-timber forest products(NTFPs). NTFPs are important to rural house-holds in terms of their contribution to health,food, energy, cash income, and other aspects ofhuman welfare (Cavendish 2000; Mahapatra etal. 2005). New initiatives in agroforestry seek tointegrate into tropical farming systems indigenoustrees whose products have traditionally beengathered from natural forests (Leakey and Simons1998). Furthermore, the search for plants withhigh nutritional, medicinal, and/or commercialpotential has been intensified in order to identifycandidate species that could help in maintaining abalance between agricultural output and popula-tion growth (Barminas et al. 1998). Thesestrategies seek to alleviate severe malnutritionand poverty and, in so doing, improve thestandard of living in developing countries. Multi-purpose species, such as tamarind (Tamarindusindica L.), have an important role in localeconomies by supplementing the local diet andentering into traditional therapies (Jama et al.2008). But despite its widely-accepted potentialimportance, tamarind remains underexploitedand unimproved in Africa (El-Siddig et al. 2006;Schreckenberg 1999).

Tamarind is a semi-evergreen, multipurposetree typical of savanna ecosystems, featuringprominently in riparian habitats (Fandohan2007; Maundu et al. 1999; Mohamed 1999).Its pulp is much appreciated in condiments, isused to make juice, and is a good source ofproteins, fats, and carbohydrates that could beused to alleviate malnutrition in children(Jama et al. 2008). Tamarind seeds are 2 to15 times richer in protein than maize andcassava, respectively, two common local crops(Kilungu and Njoroge 2002). Industrially, theseeds have the potential to comprise 30% ofcereals in livestock rations (Nyandoi 2004). The

leaves are used medicinally (Kawasaki et al.1999; Nordeide et al. 1996), and the seedsare used to manage diabetes (Iyer 1995).In efforts to enhance the species’ geneticconservation and utilization, it has been identi-fied as one of the top ten agroforestry tree speciesfor future crop diversification programs anddevelopment in sub-Saharan Africa (Eyog Matiget al. 2002).

Until recently, scientific research on tamar-ind in Africa has been limited to biochemicalanalysis (Soloviev et al. 2004), genetic diversity,breeding systems, and pollination-related issues(Diallo et al. 2007, 2008). Ethnobotanicalstudies on tamarind are scarce, and littlescientific information is available on quantitativedescriptors of its utilization and its contributionto local communities’ revenues. Such informa-tion could help determine the true value of thespecies, leading to more rational decisions aboutits sustainable utilization. Quantitative ethno-botanical studies on individual tree species arecomplementary to more traditional qualitativemethods (Martin 1995; Sandoval 1996). InBenin, these include Assogbadjo et al. (2008,2009) and De Caluwé et al. (2009) on baobab(Adansonia digitata L.), Gaoué and Ticktin(2009) on Khaya senegalensis (Desr.) A. Juss,and Ouinsavi et al. (2005) on Milicia excelsa(Welw.) C.C. Berg.

The objectives of this study are (1) tocharacterize differences in knowledge and utiliza-tion of tamarind among ethnic groups inBenin, (2) to assess the impact of tamarindproduct sales on rural women’s cash income,and (3) to analyze the conservation and utilizationaspects of tamarind as a model for enhancingrural women’s purchasing power. The researchinvolved seven rural communities of northernBenin where subsistence agriculture and extensiveanimal husbandry form the main sources ofincome.

249FANDOHAN ET AL.: WOMEN’S USE OF TAMARIND IN BENIN2010]

Material and MethodsSTUDY AREA

The study was performed in the Sudanianclimatic zone of Benin, located between 10°and12°25′N latitudes. The climate is semi-arid,with mean annual rainfall usually less than1,000 mm. Relative humidity varies between18% and 99%, and temperatures range from24° to 40°C. The active vegetation period lastsfour to five months. Data were collected from thedistricts of Karimama (KD) and Banikoara (BD)in the uppermost north of Benin, and Matéri(MD) in the northwest (Fig. 1). Among theethnic groups most involved in tamarind extrac-tion in that zone are the Fulani and theGourmantché (KD), the Bariba (BD), and theBerba (MD). This study targeted two tribes withdialectic differences per ethnic group except forFulani, for a total of seven tribes (Bariba 1 and 2,Berba 1 and 2, Fulani, Gourma 1 and 2).

ETHNOBOTANICAL SURVEYWe contacted traditional leaders in the study

area for permission before starting with thesurveys. They granted us permission to stay, talk,and monitor tamarind fruit—related activitieswith local women. In 2008, explanatory researchwas undertaken in collaboration with local leaderswith experience and interest in indigenous plant

uses to develop a check list of different specificuse categories of tamarind. We classified thisinformation into categories of plant species useaccording to van Andel (2006). We also discov-ered that women under 40 years of age were notinvolved in the extraction and commercializationof tamarind products, but rather were culturallylimited to domestic activities. We carried outsemistructured individual interviews with 25women 40 years of age or older in each of theseven tribes, translating to a total of 175 women.Interviews focused on female knowledge on thespecies’ products and uses, variability in thespecies, and its contribution to cash income duringthe dry season (November to April). Duringinterviews, women were asked describe the use ofeach tamarind plant part (root, wood, leaves, fruit,and seed). Thereafter, each participant was askedto attribute a rank (Rij) to each specific use,depending on the frequency of utilization, that is,0 if not used, 0.5 if occasionally used, 1 if oftenused, and 1.5 if very often used. Interviews alsofocused on female perception of morphologicalvariation in tamarind, desirable and undesirabletraits, and links between traits.

CONTRIBUTION OF TAMARIND TO WOMEN’SCASH INCOME

Tamarind fruits were found to be the onlycommercially valuable part of the tree. Data on

Fig. 1. Location of study sites.

250 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL 64

tamarind fruit extraction and sales were collectedfrom each informant from February to May2009, corresponding to the period of fruitexploitation. Recorded information included theform in which fruit was sold, the price per unit,and the overall quantity sold (number of units).Each participant was then asked to determine therelative contribution of tamarind fruit sales totheir total cash income and the allocated laborforce for tamarind-related activities throughoutthe dry season. Data on fruit extraction and saleswere collected periodically for error reduction.

Data AnalysisKNOWLEDGE AND USE VALUE OF TAMARIND

Data were first arranged by categories of use.We assumed SUVik as the overall specific ethno-botanical use for the category of use (k) accordingto the respondent (i). SUVik values were calcu-lated as: SUVik ¼

P

jRikj, where Rikj is the rank

attributed to the specific use (j) within thecategory of use (k) by the respondent (i). Theoverall ethnobotanical use value (EUVk) of thespecies for each category of use was computed(Philips and Gentry 1993):

EUVk ¼P

iSUVik

N; ð1Þ

where, N is the number of respondents. Finally,the overall ethnobotanical value of tamarind foreach tribe (T) was computed as

EUVT ¼X

k

EUVk: ð2Þ

SUVi, EUVk, and EUVT values were com-puted per tribal group. A data matrix comprisingEUVk values was then submitted to a PrincipalComponent Analysis (PCA) to assess patterns ofcategories of uses among targeted tribes. Finally,the proportions of interviewees belonging totribes who identified particular tamarind traitswere used to analyze perceptions of variability inthe species.

CASH INCOME, CONTRIBUTION, AND

ALLOCATED LABOR FORCE

Cash income was assumed here as the grossmargin gained from tamarind fruit commerciali-

zation. The following formula was used toestimate it for each respondent:

Ii ¼ Ni � Pi; ð3Þ

where Ii is the cash income of respondent (i), Ni

is the number of units sold during the season, andPI is the unitary price.

Data related to the contribution to overall cashincome (Ci) and allocated labor force (Wi)throughout the dry season were computed as apercentage. Because (Ii), (Ci), and (Wi) valueswere not normally distributed (Ryan-Joiner test ofnormality; Ryan and Joiner 1976), we used theKruskal-Wallis non-parametric test to comparethe variables among the tribes. A Spearman’s ranktest was performed to check correlation betweenpairs of the variables.

ResultsWOMEN’S KNOWLEDGE OF TAMARIND USES

All the respondents knew and used differenttamarind parts. The local names of the tree areDjêtami (Fulani), Bu pug bu (Gourma), Mohoho(Bariba), and Pissi (Berba). The Fulani andGourma-1 reported 17 out of the 26 total specificuses (65.4%). Gourma-2, Bariba-1,2, Berba-1,2were aware of, respectively, 57.7%, 50%, 46.2%,42.3%, and 38.5%. Tamarind specific uses aresummarized in Table 1.

Fruits

The use of the pulp as a laxative, purgativebeverage, and porridge were the best-knownuses among all the tribes. Its use in malariatreatment was not mentioned by Bariba-1,2,but they do use the fruit in a sauce preparationas an aphrodisiac for men. The fruit is used totreat male impotence and against cough byFulani and Berba-1,2, respectively. The use ofpounded seeds as seasoning was restricted toGourma-1,2. Fruit was the only commerciallyvaluable part of the tree (Figure 2A, B).

Leaves

There were differences between the uses oftamarind leaves in the targeted tribes. Fresh leaveswere used to treat mumps and as an antibiotic forcircumcision injuries by Fulani and Gourma-1,2.


They were used to treat snake bites by Berba-1,2,as well as to treat malaria. Aqueous extract ofleaves was only used as ferment by Gourma-1,2.All the tribes used leaves as overhead fodder forlivestock. Only Fulani participants used leaves toease the process of birthing their cows, goats, andsheep.

Bark

Fresh bark was used to treat stomachache byGourma-1,2 and Bariba-1, and dry bark was usedto treat wounds by Gourma-1,2 and Fulani(Fig. 2E, F). These uses were not known in theother tribes.

Wood

The use of tamarind wood for agriculturaltool fabrication (yokes, shafts, and naves forcow harnesses), granary buildings, and astoothbrushes was common in all tribes. Itwas only appreciated as firewood by Bariaba-1,2

and Berba-1. Tamarind wood was also used byFulani for flagellation at feast challenges.

USE VALUES OF TAMARIND

The overall ethnobotanical use value of tamar-ind varied among the targeted tribes. The highestscores were found for Gourma-1 (EUVT=14) andFulani (EUVT=13.5) tribes. The values for theother tribes were, respectively, 12.5 (Gourma-2),11.0 (Bariba-1), 10.5 (Bariba-2), 10.28 (Berba-1),and 10.0 (Berba-2).The results of the principal component analysis

(PCA) performed on the overall ethnobotanicaluse values (EUVk) per category of use regardingtribes showed that the first two axes explain83.75% of the observed variation. Therefore,only these axes were used to describe the relation-ship between use categories and the factor tribes.Table 2 shows the correlation coefficient betweenthe different use categories and the two axes. Thefirst axis shows the opposite link betweencommerce and firewood uses and medicinal,

TABLE 1. CATEGORY OF USE, PLANT PARTS, SPECIFIC USES OF T. INDICA, AND TRIBES USING IT FOR DIFFERENTPURPOSES.

Category of use Organ Specific uses Tribes

Medicine Leaves Mumps Fulani, Bourma-1,2Antibiotic in circumcision injuries Fulani, Bourma-1,2Delivery facilitation for cows, goats, sheep FulaniMalaria Bariba-1,2Snake bite Berba-1,2

Fruit pulp Laxative Fulani, Bourma-1,2, Bariba-1,2, Berba-1,2Purgative Fulani, Bourma-1,2, Bariba-1,2, Berba-1,2Malaria Fulani, Bourma-1,2, Berba-1,2Cough Berba-1,2Male impotence Fulani

Bark Stomachache Bourma-1,2, Bariba-1Wound Fulani, Bourma-1,2

Food Leaves Overhead fodder Fulani, Bourma-1,2, Bariba-1,2, Berba-1,2Food additive Leaves Ferment Bourma-1,2

Fruit pulp Beverage Fulani, Bourma-1,2, Bariba-1,2, Berba-1,2Local porridge Fulani, Bourma-1,2, Bariba-1,2, Berba-1,2Sauce Bariba-1,2

Seed Seasoning Bourma-1,2Social Bark Witchcraft Gourma-1, Bariba-1,2

Metal-proof body Fulani, Bourma-1,2Wood Toothbrush Fulani, Bourma-1,2, Bariba-1,2

Cultural Wood Flagellation feast FulaniMaterial Wood Yoke, Shaft, Nave Fulani, Bourma-1,2, Bariba-1,2, Berba-1,2Construction Wood Granary Fulani, Bourma-1,2, Bariba-1,2, Berba-1,2Firewood Wood Charcoal Bariba-1,2, Berba-1,2Commerce Fruit Selling Bourma-1,2, Bariba-1,2, Berba-1


social, cultural, and material uses. Axis 2 showsthe positive link between food additive use andcommercial use. Moreover, Fig. 3 shows theprojection of the different tribes into the systemaxis 1 and 2. We deduce from this that Fulaniwomen assign a high ethnobotanical use value formedicine, social, cultural, and material use

categories but a low value for commerce andfirewood. In contrast, Berba-1,2 and Bariba-1,2assigned low value to medicine, social, cultural,and material ethnobotanical use values but highvalue to firewood. Commercial and food additiveethnobotanical use values were high for Gourma-1,2 women but low for Fulani women.

Fig. 2. Photograph showing Tamarindus indica fruits (A) harvested and stored in bags and (B) compacted andbowl-shaped for sale; (C and D) women harvesting tamarind fruits; (E and F) T. indica trees debarked formedicinal purposes.


WOMEN’S KNOWLEDGE OF TAMARIND

VARIABILITY

Little tree-to-tree variation was perceived byinformants, regardless of ethnicity, and few

particular traits were used to classify tamarindtrees. Six criteria are used to differentiate tamar-ind trees, including fruit (size and shape, pulptaste and color, seed size and color) and the bark(shape). Four distinguishing features of fruit sizeand shape are employed by all tribes: small-lengthened pods, small-curved pods, large-length-ened pods, and large-curved pods. However, thesefeatures were not used to differentiate amongindividual tamarind trees because different sizeand shaped fruit might be found on a single tree.Based on pulp taste, women distinguished tam-arind with sweet pulp from sour pulp. Using pulpcolor, brown-yellowish were distinguished frombrown-darkish. Regarding seed color and size,brown and small were distinguished from blackand large (Fig. 4). Using the bark shape, trackedand untracked types were distinguished. Accord-ing to Gourma and Fulani tribes, who best

TABLE 2. CORRELATION BETWEEN USE CATEGORIESAND PCA AXES.

Use categories Axis 1 Axis 2

Medicine 0.814 0.454Food additive 0.055 0.995Food 0.000 0.000Social 0.571 0.479Cultural 0.926 −0.298Material 0.926 −0.298Construction 0.000 0.000Firewood −0.652 −0.463Commerce −0.598 0.747

z1

4.0*Fulani

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

Gourma1 * * Gourma2

0.0

* Berba2-0.5

*Berba1

-1.0

-1.5 *Bariba1

* Bariba2

-2.0

-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0z2

Medicine, Social,Cultural, Material

Firewood, Commerce

Food additive,Commerce

Fig. 3. Projection of targeted tribes in the system axis defined by the different use values of tamarind.


perceived the variability, two principal types oftamarind can be distinguished crossing the differ-ent criteria: tamarind with sweet brown-darkishpulp and untracked bark versus tamarind with

sour brown-yellowish pulp and tracked bark. Theformer type, according to participants, wasobserved in gallery forests, whereas the latter wasobserved in open savanna. Black seed tamarind

Fig. 4. Photographs showing variability among Tamarindus indica seed color and shapes. The coin in thepictures has a diameter of 2.72 cm.


was rarely mentioned and was only found ingallery forest.

IMPACT OF TAMARIND FRUIT SALES ON

WOMEN’S CASH INCOME

The proportion of the women’s labor forceallocated to tamarind fruit extraction and sellingand its contribution to women’s cash incomeduring the dry season is summarized in Table 3.Fulani women were not involved in tamarindfruit sales, but respondents from all the othergroups received at least some cash income fromselling tamarind fruit. There were significantdiscrepancies among the tribes regarding incomevariables. Gourma-1 women allocated up to 4times more labor and gained approximately 2.6times more cash income than Berba-1, based onincome per labor unit. There was a significantpositive correlation between all pairs of variables(see Table 4): the higher the allocated labor force,the higher the cash income and contribution tooverall cash income throughout the dry season.

Discussion and ConclusionThis study documents the importance of

tamarind (Tamarindus indica) to local commun-ities’ livelihoods in rural Benin as well as itspotential role in poverty alleviation. We focusedon the variation of female perceptions, traditionalknowledge, and contribution of tamarind to localrevenues among seven local tribal groups. Resultsshowed that tamarinds are used by local people indifferent ways, including edible fruit, timber,fodder, medicine, magic, and others. Recordeduses overlap somewhat with those mentioned inother countries (Arbonnier 2002). We foundsignificant ethnic variation in knowledge and usevalue of tamarind. Gourma-1,2 and Fulaniwomen have greater knowledge and use valuesof tamarind than the other groups. Such inter-ethnic differences have been reported elsewherein Benin, including Ottamari and Dendi in

TABLE3.

TAMARIN

DEXTRACTIO

NCHARACTERISTIC

SOFTRIBES:

MEAN(M),

COEFF

ICIENTOFVARIATIO

N(CV),AND

PROBABILITYVALU

ES.

Fulani

(n=25)

Gourm

a-1(n=25)

Gourm

a-2(n=25)

Bariba-1(n=25)

Bariba-2(n=25)

Berba-1

(n=25)

Berba-2

(n=25)

Pm

cv(%

)m

cv(%

)m

cv(%

)m

cv(%

)m

cv(%

)m

cv(%

)m

cv(%

)

Allocatedlaborforcedry

season-round

(%)

––

38.80

35.92

18.00

39.27

29.20

66.98

30.00

63.03

11.80

141.02

10.20

88.92

0.00

01

Cashincome(XOF)

––

1037

937

.85

5876

23.96

5229

48.99

5492

81.97

2107

136.4

1043

90.02

0.00

01Contributionto

overall

cash

incomedry

season-round

(%)

––

56.40

25.53

53.60

20.06

45.00

47.36

35.20

72.02

8.76

116.89

11.00

47.27

0.00

01 TABLE 4. SPEARMAN’S RANK CORRELATION TEST.

Allocated labor

force Contribution Cash income

Allocated laborforce

1 – –

Contribution 0.75*** 1 –Cash income 0.70*** 0.83*** 1

Significance: *** p<0.001


regard to the baobab (De Caluwé et al. 2009).This diversity of traditional uses and knowledgeshould be considered when designing regionalmanagement strategies. For example, becauseFulani women assigned a high ethnobotanical usevalue to medicine, social, cultural, and materialcategories, but low values to commerce andfirewood, they should be involved in strategiesaimed at improving genetic selection. At the sametime, because commercial and food use values werehigh for Gourma-1,2 women, they should beinvolved in identifying potential market niches forthe species development in Benin.

Participants perceived little tree-to-tree variationin the species compared to findings for the baobabtree (Assogbadjo et al. 2008). The use of traditionalclassification occurs generally in those instanceswhere a species has attained a high degree ofcultural significance (Bye 1993). This may not bethe case yet for tamarind in all the targeted tribes.Furthermore, since fruits are randomly compactedirrespective of their origin (i.e., sweet/sour), noparticular preference traits were mentioned. How-ever, reported differences may be of considerableinterest in terms of selection and breeding programsif further genetic studies confirm this variability tobe genetically determined. AFLP markers as high-throughput DNA fingerprinting techniques toassess the measurements of genome-wide diversitycould be used to map the genome of tamarind todetermine if the locally-recognized types are con-firmed by genome-level genetic differentiation. Onthe other hand, the observed phenotypic differencesbetween the locally-recognized types might beplastic responses to differences in the environmentand habitat. Phenotypic plasticity has been foundin several species of tropical and temperate trees formany traits, usually in response to changes inclimate (Heaton et al. 1999).

The average contribution of tamarind fruitsales to overall income during the dry season is35%, suggesting that tamarind plays a key role intargeted tribes. There was, however, wide varia-bility among the tribes. Tamarind significantlycontributed to Gourma women’s overall cashincome, whereas it contributed weakly to that ofthe other tribes’ women. This discrepancy may belinked partially to differences in NTFP prefer-ences and economic values. For instance, in thenorthwest of Benin, baobab is the most importantnon-timber species (Assogbadjo 2006), whereasin the nearby region of Banikoara, the Africanlocus bean tree (Parkia biglobosa) is of greater

importance (Bonou 2008). As noted by Jain(1990) and Martin (1995), the search forempirical techniques and methods to exploitparticular species over the ages has led tosignificant variation in uses among tribes.

The method employed here to assess the con-tribution of tamarind to women’s cash income hassome limitations. Repeating the survey at regularintervals over the study period (i.e., weekly, seeMahapatra et al. 2005) would have provided usefulinformation regarding temporal reliance on tamar-ind products that may have been missed. More-over, the heterogeneity of reliance on this speciesfor cash income among the tribes suggests thatthese results should not be generalized across toogreat an area. Further research on tamarind andother NTFP extractive products should be carriedout in order to further promote sustainable resourceuse and improved welfare for rural women.

Tamarind is still an undervalued tree crop inAfrica, althoughmarkets for its products are availableat national and international level (El-Siddig et al.2006). Strategies to enhance its utilization shouldfocus on (i) cross-collaboration and knowledgeexchange with other countries where the species isbetter valued (e.g., India, Thailand), (ii) addingvalue through transformations, (iii) conformingproduct quality to international standards, and(iv) organizing local and international market-channels. These strategies may also help to improveincomes and empower the purchasing power oflocal women. In addition, the extent and pattern ofgenetic diversity within and among tamarindpopulations should be addressed to determineappropriate management strategies (domestication,in situ and circa situ conservation).

AcknowledgmentsWe are very grateful to all of the participants,

especially women from Benin for having facili-tated the survey, anonymous reviewers for theirhighly relevant comments to improve the manu-script, and the EU-DADOBAT project (Domes-tication and Development of Baobab andTamarind) which provided us with financialassistance to enable this work. We would alsolike to thank Sitske De Groote and Patrick VanDamme for their persevering help.

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