WOMEN'S MOVEMENTS IN KLRAlA CHALLENGES AND PROSPECTS

THESIS SUWITTED TO MAHATMA GANOHl UNlVERSlM

FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

iJNDER THE FACULIY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

UNDER M E SUPERVISION OF Dt. P. K. JOSE

PROFESSOR & DIRECTOR SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

MAHATMA GANDHI UNlVERSlrY

SCHOOL OF GANDHIAN THOUGHT AND DEVELOPMENT STUDIES MAHATMA GANDHI UNIVERSITY

KOTTAYAM. KERAM

NOVEMBER 3995

Dr. P. K, JOSE PROF. & DIRECTOR SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION MAHATMA GANDHI UNIVERSITY KOITAYAM, KERALA.

CERTIFICATE

This is to Certify that, this thesis on WOMEN'S MOVEMENTS IN

KFBALA: CHALLENGES AND PROSPEm, submitted for the award of the

Degree of Doctor of Philosophy under the faculty of Social Sciences, is a record of

b o h d e research work carried out by Manjula Dwi S., S c b l of Gandhian

Thought and deveiopmem Studies, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, under my

supenision. No part of the thesis has been submitted for any degree before.

Dr. P. K, JOSE Supervising Teacher

. A

Dr. A. K. CKIIUPPANATIB Prof. & Dirmor

School of Gandhian Thought and Development Studies Mahatma Gandhi University

Kottayam, Kerah

DECLARATION

I, MANJULA DEVI S. hereby declare that this thesis has not ken previously

submitted in this University or any other University for the award of any degree,

d i p i o q associateship, fellowship or other similar titles of recupition.

I * C 1

& MANALA DEVL S.

School of Gaodhh Thought and Development Studies Mahatma Gadhi University,

Kottayam

Lhih o lmge number of persom h v e masted me in om way or other in

completing this drssertatim. I am extremely t-1 to my supe~ is i rg teacher

Dr. P. K. Jose, Director, S c b l of Distance Urntion, for his p i k e and hub.

rcudhian I m e my grutihrrde to Dr. A.K. Chirappmwtk, Director, S c b I of ('

7ih0ughr md Deveiupment Studzes, for the encmrugemeni / receivedfrm him in ampk

measure.

%nks are uiso due to &. M.S.John, Lecturer, Garr1CU7iun 7 b g h t and

Dewlopment Studies for rhe timely k l p and cmpration.

My kart-felt (harks are die to Prof. Mary Thomas for her sincere help,

wlwble mggesh'ons cad emwcrgement in preparing this Iksis.

Word5 are itmiequate to expres my ~ n c e r e grafit~uie 10 Dr. Gut-gt, Joseph

whose k i p is conspi~rous during t k final stage of the thesis.

I expres.% my sincere thanks to Mr. RajaselWwran P i l h ~ , Rubkr Hrxrrd,

Mr. Gr~pimthan h i p , Planning Bearti, Pro$ C M i k a b71,a3ml and MaJlika Muhcvh,

for the usststance t h y rxrenakd to me.

T7imk.c are al.~u due to the s7afJ oJ School of C i h i m 7hought u d

Dew lopmettt Srtrdies, eqzciaIly to Mr. George Varghese. Administrati w Oflcer -for

the sincere cmperation. I also wish to leave on record the help rendered by Ms. Iieettmn

of Deprtment L i b r q , mtd Librarians of l~p'slatiw Library, Trivmlclvm, I'ettire +for

Duvelopmmt Studies, Trzvanclrum, S N L) T Libray, B m h y a I>~rcctorure qf

~m+i<%resr infirmatiott ~ u r e m , T r i v b u r n . I om thankful ro ol/ ujho b\r

helped wxi et~cmraged me in the prepration of this dissertation.

C O N T E N T S

lNTRODUCTION

CHAPTER I

CHAPTER 2

CHAP= 3

CHAPTER 4

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

BIBLIOGRAPHY

APPENDICES

WOMEN'S MOVEMENTS IN THE WEST

WOMEETS MOVEMENTS IN INDIA

WOMENS MOVEMENTS IN KERALA: PRE-INDEPENDENCE PERIOD

WOMEN'S MOVEMENTS IN KERALA: POST-INDEPENDENCE PERJOD

WOMEN'S MOVEMENTS IN KERALA, CHALLENGES AND PROSPECTS

Adhivedanam : Marrying an additional wife.

Antharjanam ' : ~amboothiri Woman.

Charka : Spinning Wheel.

Chunri Festival : The festival to proclaim the g i r l who commited Sati as Sati H a t a .

Devadasi : A female member of a community of temple dancers.

Dharna : A form of mass strike by squatting.

Ghosha : Umbrella-like covering used by Namboothiri women in front of others.

Grama Sevakan : A male worker at village level appointed by government.

Illurn : Family of Naraboothiri in Kerala.

Ja th i vyavasthithi : Caste system.

Kal a r i : Place where formal education was given to children in the olden days.

Kalian : Type of coin in olden days.

1 Kalian=lO Chakrams: 2 8 Chakrams = One rupee.

Karanavan

Kul in i sm

: The seniormost male member of Nair family in Kexala who govern the family.

: Practice by which it was socially possible for even a hundred women to be g i v e n in marriage to a Brahmin by reason of his high status.

Karshaka thozhilali : Agricultural labourer.

Kuppayam : Jacket wore by women to cover the upper part of the bady.

Lahal a : Riot.

Lesbianism

Hahila Samajam

Mahila v idya laya

Harumakknthayam

Mmmarakkal

Makkathayam

nopans (Moopan)

Hukkuvan

Onam

P o o jari

Purohita

Pynkili novel

Raja

Samaram

Sambandham

Sntyagraha

Sastras

Sat i

Smartha

smartha Vicharam

: The term used for female homo-sexuality.

: Women's organisation.

: Educational institution for girls.

: The law of inheritance in the female line.

: Wearing cloth above the loins.

: The law of inheritance in the male line.

: A chief or head man of a gang of labourers.

: Person of fishermen c ~ m u n i t y ,

: National festival of Kerala.

: The priest who perfoms pujas or sacrificial rites in temple.

: A customary ceremony of drinking t h e juice of sour fruits by women in their first pregnancy.

: A cle rgy worn*.

: Colloquial term used to denote sub-standard novels appear regularly in Malayalam magazines.

: King of a state or country.

: Strike.

: The term used by Nairs of Kerala to denote marriage.

: A kind of resistance movement against the unjust laws.

: Pertaining to science or the science.

: Self immolation of a widow on her husband's Pyre -

: A person appointed by the Raja to perform the S111arthavicharam.

ulene : The punishment for women whohaccused of adultery.

S ~ d r a : Servant caste.

Tali

Thavazhi

Thakl i

Tharavadu

Thirandukuli

Varadakshina

Veli

Y q a m

Yuvajana sangham

: A chain or string tied by the bridegroom round the neck of the bride at the time of marriage as a token of wed-lock.

: Inheritance along the mother's line.

: A top like apparatus for spinning yarn.

: ~ a m i l y organisation of o airs in Kerala.

: A ceremony among certain castes when a girl attains puberty.

: Present given to the bridegroom by father of the bride at the time of wedding.

: A Brahmin marriage; married woman of a Namboothiri community.

: Council.

: Youth league.

INTRODUCTION

T h e status of women constitutes a problem i n almost a l l

sociatics and i s a m a t t e r of world wide concern. T h e growing

s3r.s it i . v e n e s s has bezn manifested by the emerqinq trends in

favour of women in t h e international scene. This has culminated

in the convening of the World Women's Conference a t Mexico i n

1 9 7 5 and the declaration of t h e period from 3975 to 1985 a s the

international decade f o r women. A second conference held under

the aegis of the United N a t i o n s at Copenhagen in 1980 adopted a

"Programme f o r Actiont' for the second half of the decade f a r

women. The third conference held in Nairobi in 1985 was

distinguished by t h e adoption of t h e 'Forward Looking

Strategies'. Efforts are being made at the United Nations f o r

securing 50 percent of t h e top U . N jobs f o r women by 2000 A . D .

The U.N Women's Conference held at Beijing, China, in September

1995, has demonstrated once again t h e concern and resolve to

widen t h e platform fo r action and to obtain greater equality of

opportunity for women.

Women in India have suffered due to t h e peculiar socio-

cultural structure of t h e society which is based on religious and

social factors such a s c a s t e , class and sex. Despite t h e laws and

other governmental and non-governmental measures for women's

upliftment, majority of them had been continued to live in a

state of bondage. The advent of social reform movements in the

nineteenth c e n t u r y signaUed the o n s e t of e f f o r t s for the

emancipation of wornen.The political awakening in the course of

~ndia's struggle for freedom gave an impetus to the process of

liberation of w o m e n in the country. Women's movement in India

l o s t its sense of direction and vitality with the attainment of

Indian Independence. But t h e 1960's w i t n e s s e d a new spurt of

enthusiasm. Women's movements have gathered considerable strength

since then and have come to gain wide recognition and acceptance.

The National C o r n m i s s i o r l for Women formed with the continuous

influence of the women's movement is taking up serious measures

to c h e c k the increasing violence against women in the country.

Moreover, after studying the overall condition of women, it has

recammended and moved a proposal to the concerned ministry to

reserve 30 percent of the government jobs to women. In line with

the National Commission, the Kerala State Government has already

introduced t h e Women's Commission Bill in the Legislative

Assembly to establish the s a m e in Kerala.

Besides, various conferences of women are being held to

discuss women's problems, their movements, future strategies and

to press the government to formulate policies in favour of women.

The National Conference on women's movement was held twice in

Bombay in 1980 and 1985 and once in Patna in 1988. The fourth

National Conference was held in Kerala in 1990 on the initiative

of women's groups in Kerala. All these provide some hope f o r

women in the state. Compared to the early women's movement, the

present day women's movement h a s had its own ideoloqies, new

strategies of action, different perspectives regarding women's

issues and is tryiny far networking throughout t h e country.

The State of Kerala situated in the southern most part of

India, deserves particular note in a study on t h e condition of

women. The State w i t h its legacy af matrilineal j o i n t family

system, had been noted for the dominant position enjoyed by women

in considerable section of society f o r a long period. What

however marks out t h e region is the progress achieved in female

education. The starting of schools by Christian missionaries in

the early part of t h e nineteenth century and the benevolent

attitude of the nat ive rulers had opened avenues for education

for g i r l s since very ear ly days. Christian missionary activities

a l so helped to awaken certain sections of women against some of

t h e unjust social practices to which they were subjected. The

caste-based reform movements which spread a l l over Kerala in the

last part of the nineteenth century further facilitated organised

campaigns for the uplift of women. O n e of the first campaigns was

a movement organised by t h e low caste Channar women ear ly in the

nineteenth century in opposition to the ban on covering the upper

part of their body. The Channar Revolt (widely known as

Marumarakkal Samaram) which lasted for about three decades was

one of t h e successful movements orqanised by women in Kerala. A

similar movement was organised by Namboothiri women against

Ghosha, t h e enforced use of an umbrella to conceal themselves.

The advent of t h e Indian National movement in Kerala

transformed the caste based movements into a wide political

movement which sought freedom for the country. The Civil

Disobedience Movement of t h e 1930's was conspicuous by the

enthusiastic participation of women, as the subsequent

satyagraha campaigns, khadi movement and quit India agitation.

Compared with the other parts of India, the condition of

women in Kerala is much better, especially in literacy and

heal th . The various demegraphical indicators like sex-ratio, life

standard index, and birth and death rates all show that women of

Kerala are better placed. Yet, in Kerala too, t h e status of women

in society has been far from satisfactory. The matrilineal system

which had assigned to women in Kerala a superior position, is

fast disintegrating in Kerala, due to political and economic

changes and patrilineal influence. Women are hardly visible In

positions of authority and responsibility. Their representation

is poor in t h e Legislative Assembly. Majority of t h e women in

Kerala are engaged in the most arduous of jobs, requiring long

hours of drudgery, and are paid discriminatory wages as elsewhere

in t h e country. Women's typical roles are those of wife and

mother, and even when she performs productive roles, it is

perceived as on ly marginal, supplementing the family income.

Violence and sexual exploitation are on t h e increase as

elsewhere. D o w r y deaths which were unheard of in t h e past, are

very much a social reality in present day Kerala.

This state of a f f a i r s h a s b rough t into f o c u s , issues

relating to women and their movements in Kerala. T h e period

from 1975, marked by the celebration of International Women's

Year and International Women's Decade (1975-1985), saw a major

shift in the nature of women's movement in the s t a t e too. The

'Shah Banor case and the Muslim Women's Protection of Rights (on

Divorce) A c t had its ripples in Kerala. The legal battle f o r

securing equal share of parental property, the movement within

fishing community challenging patriarchal values, the anti-liquor

agitations led by victims of alcoholic husbands, the activities

of the women's wing of political part ies and social and religious

bodies and t h e emergence and proliferation of autonomous women's

groups under women's own leadership, all epitomize t h e growing

s t r e n g t h of the women's movement in Kerala.

A notable development in the sta te of Kerala is the passing

of the Kerala Panchayat Raj Act, 1994, reserving 33.33 percent of

seats to w o m e n . The presidentship in each of these local self-

governing bodies has also been reserved f o r them. I n the recent

elections to Pawhayats and Municipalities, about f o u r thousand

five hundred and fifty t h r e e women were elected to village

panchayats, five hundred and sixty eight to block panchayats and

o n e hundred and f o u r women to district panchayats. They have

assumed charge as presidents in three hundred and thirty one

village Panchayats, fifty one block panchayats and five district

panchayats. In eighty one municipalities and in one of the three

corporations women have become presidents. This new development

marks a major break through with brighter prospects for the

empowerment of women in the S t a t e . It has helped to moderate the

disapproval of people towards the participation of women in

politics. Sharing of power should make them confident and self

assertive, empower them economically and strengthen the women's

mavements in Kerala.

The major objectives of this s t u d y are ( i ) l o trace the

history of women's movement in Kerala, startinq from caste-based

social reform movements in the nineteenth c e n t u r y ; ( i i ) to

analyse t h e recent trends in women's movement with special

reference to political organisations and autonomous women's

groups; and (iii) to study the challenges faced by t h e women's

movement in Kerala and to assess their prospects and strategies.

This study is based mainly on the data collected through

official publications and books, besides discussions and

interviews with women group leaders and other persons prominent

in academic circles, and analysis of media reports. Government

documents such as study papers, committee reports, gazetters,

census reports, five year plans, reports and publications of

various departments, legislations, and Kerala administration

reports were consulted.

The institutions visited for the purpose include Research

Centre for Women's Studies, Sreernati Nathibai Damodar Thackersy

Women's University, Bombay, Mother Teresa Women's University,

Kodaikanal, Women's Studies Centre, Alaqappa University,

Karaikudi and various research centres and offices of women's

organisations.

The problems of women and their movements in the West have

been t h e theme of several published works. Notable contributions

to t h e subject, particularly t h e origins of the women's movements

in Britain and America have been made by scholars like Mariamies

and ~a~avardhana', Barbara a an^, Christine ~ o l t ~ and Barbara

Sinclair Deckardm4 Barbara Ryan analyses both early women's

movement and the contemporary movement in United States.

Christine Bolt has attempted a detailed history of t h e British

and American women's movements in the nineteenth and twentieth

centuries. As the present study concentrates more on the women's

movement in India, particularly in Kerala, an elaborate and

intensive survey of literature on the movements in the W e s t has

n o t been attempted.

Social science literature have not paid much attention to

women's issues in India until recently. A movement in the

academia could be seen only after the declaration of 1975 as

International Women's Year. Some researchers and writers have

discussed the problems of women at various levels in India.

Women's participation in and their contribution to the national

movement also received some attention from academicians. But

compared to many other areas of women's studies, not many studies

are available on t h e theme 'Women's movements1. Paucity of

literature on the status of women and their movements in Kerala

did pose a great challenge to the p r e s e n t study. However an

earnest attempt was made to compensate the same through extensive

use of journals and newspapers and interactions with women's

organisations and activists. Though t h e s t u d y is cancentrated

mainly on the Kerala context, the origins of t h e movements in

Britain and America and the nature of women's movements in India

have been studied in order to present t h e theme in a larger

perspective.

Among the various Government documents relating to women,

wards ~aualitv', and w o n a l P e r a p s t i v e Plan for Wmen 1488 - ZOO0 A . D ~ are significant as they are systematic and analytical

in their portrayal of women's problems and issues. S t u d i e s on

women in India are relatively new and less in number.

However, a comprehensive study is attempted by Jana Hatson

Everett. Her book, entitled women and S o c i a l a e in 1ndlia7

discusses in detail the background, emergence and ideology of the

women's movement in India, and narrates its similarities and

differences with t h e women's movements in Britain and United

States. Womenf s & v i n _ ~ n d i a ' by Pratima Asthana presents a

systematic study giving a detailed account of women's movement in

India before the attainment of independence.

Notable contributions in the subject, supported by case

studies, has been made by Joanna Liddle and Rama Joshi .' Aruna

Asaf Ali's book, Resurgence of Imlian Women, ''marked by

information gained through her active and intimate association

with the national movement and one who worked with many women's

organisations. She concentrated on Gandhiji a n d Nehru and their

policies and opinions while dealing with t h e women's movement and

freedom movement. Reference also should be made of t h e research

study by S.Sreedevi whose book, G a n u and the W ~ a t i o n ~f

Women in lndiqll, f o c u s e s on the contribution of Mahatma Gandhi

to t h e emancipation of women in India.

Women's Ernancisation Mnvernent in India by Kanak ~ukherjee,

Revolut ion and t h e Status of the Women in India by Dr. Sushila

Mehta, &-Decade of W~men's Movement _in India - an edited work of

Dr. Neera Desai, Indian Womenhond Then N o w , edited by Jessie

E . Tellis Nayak, Women in Indian So~ietv, edited by Rehana

Gadially and Communists in Indian Women's Movement 1940-50 by

Renu Chakravawthy are some other books in this area of study. 12

General studies about women in India are attempted by other

scholars including Devaki Jain, V i j a y Agnew, A-S-Altekar, Tara

Ali Baig, Kiran Devendra, Marcus B.Fuller, Karabi Sen , Kalpana

Shah, P.N.Tikoo, Illina Sen and others. 13

Conference papers, booklets, working papers and study

reports form a major part of literature on women's movements in

r e c e n t times. Papers presented by researchers and scholars at

various national conferences on women's studies, UGC seminar on

Social movements f o r the Under-privileged held in Bombay in 1983,

Conference on Women's Status and Development a t Waranqal in 1982,

and t h e National Seminar on A Decade of Women's Movement in India

held at Bombay in 1985 have helped to add to literature on

women's movements.

T h e concept of feminism, women's movement and the different

approaches to feminism are dealt within t h e series of

publications of the Research Centre for Women's Studies, Bombay.

An edited work of Maithreyi ~rishnaraj on ~ e r n i n i s r n l ~ contains a

collection of articles of eminent scholars like Julie Stephens,

ail Omvedt, Radha Kumar and Susie Tharu. O t h e r publications of

Women's Research Centre, Bombay, include U s e n c e and

Develop~ent of Women's Qrsanisations in I l5 Fern-sm and . . n d u ,

t h e e n ' s Movement in 1 1 u I . h ~ ~ and -ce and Pr~liferati~n

of the.A&mmwus Women's Uraanlsatmns In -.I7

Not many studies have come out discussing women's problems

or women's movements in Kerala. The books on Kerala history

generally do not provide much information about women's movements

in the region. Women's role in the national movement in the state

has been discussed in the H i s t o r y of FrWom Movement i n K e r n l a

by P.K.K. ~enonl*, while H. Karunakaran Nair's book, Who is

KR-", give short biographical sketches

of some prominent women in Kerala. Further light in this area is

thrown by P. Bhaskaran Unni, E.M.S. amb boot hi rip pad, P.K.

Balakrishnan, William Logan, V. Nagam A i y a , V . T . Bhattathirippad,

V. R . Menon, M. S . A . Rao, K.P. Padmanabha Menon and others. 20

The autobiographies and biographies of prominent leaders

including V.T. Bhattathirippad, E.M.S. amb boot hi rip pad, C-Kesavan

a n d Mannathu padmanabhan21 also provide some information relating

to the conditions of women and about the origins of women's

movement in Kerala. Other notable studies include an analysis of

women's organisations in Kerala concentrating on women's co-

operatives and women's societies, by P.M. Mathew and M. S .

air,^^ a case study by M . Indu en on'^ which examines the role

of education in raising the status of Muslim Women in Kerala, an

interesting narration about the historic struggle by the

agricultural labourers for more wages and rights and t h e role of

women agricultural labourers in the movement, by N.K-

Kamalasanan. 2 4

As t h e very title shows, A History of Women's Education in

Kerala by ~ . ~ . yesudas~' give an account of female education i n

Kerala in the pre-independence period. The author has succeeded a

certain extent in presenting the efforts of Christian

Missionaries a s well as that of the government in t h e field of

women's education. The s tudy c o m e to the conclusion that 'The

Introduction of English Education and Western Liberal Thought'

among women by the C h r i s t i a n missionaries and the consequent

efforts of the local rulers and social reformers in t h e field of

female education went a long way in shaping the present women of . .

Kerala. P o l l t i c s w - by Robin ~ e f fry26 explains

how t h e shaping of a new public world affected the material well-

being of Kerala people. He was of the opinion that the vital

roles played for this was the opening out of politics, the growth

of readiness among ordinary people to try to influence decisions

and t h e ambiguous changes in the position of women. T h e changes

in t h e condition of women which form a small section of t h e book

is described through portraits of four women namely Janamma(l860-

1 9 4 0 ) , Mary Ponnen Lukose (1886-1976), Akkamma cherian ( 1 9 0 9 - 8 2 )

and K . R . Gouri (born in 191.9).

As evident from the a.bove review of literature, studies on

women of Kerala are comparatively few and h e n c e t h e researcher

had to depend considerably on interviews and discussions w i t h

academicians and activists and on articles and reports in various

newspapers and journals. The journals utilised for the study

include -, th 3 ,aw Rulletin,

. . olitlcal Weeklv, Malnstrem, -, Yoiana, Alternatives,

Kerala Calling, Hanusu,The Week, Jndia Todav, Illustrated

Weeklv, &u&&y and Kerala Padananaal.

The dissertation includes five chapters, besides an

introduction and the concl.usion. The first chapter presents the

conceptual framework far the study and traces the origins of

women's movement, particularly i n Britain and America.

Chapter 11, entitled The Women's Movements in I n d i a ,

examines the emergence of the movement during the nineteenth

century, the formation of women's organisations and t h e f i l l i p

the movement received during the Indian national movement under

Mahatma Gandhi. The progress registered by the women's movement

in the post-independence period, its identification with militant

mass movements in the 1960's and 1970's involving industrial

workers, tribals and a g r i c u l t u r a l labourers, t h e anti -rape

movement, the woment s move:ments during the International Women's

Year (1975) and t h e Women's Decade (1975-85) and the working of

independent women's organisations under women's own leadership

are also discussed in the chapter.

Chapter 111 present s t h e emergence of women's movement in

Kerala in a historical perspective. It traces its origins during

the early part of t h e nineteenth century consequent to Christian

missionary activities andl t h e reforn: movements in the caste-

ridden society of Kerala, ijnd examines the efforts of caste based

organisations like Yogaksheaa Sabha and the Sree Narayana D h a r m a

Paripalana Yogam to improve t h e conditions of women. It also

assesses the impact of the Indian national movement in Kerala and

the nature of women's participation in the working c l a s s

movements involving agricultural labourers, and industrial

workers.

The nature of the women's movement in Kerala during the

post-independence period is the theme of discussion in chapter

IV. The individual as we.11 as organisational efforts of women

against discriminatory laws and patriarchal values and the

functioning of social organisations and political parties have

been examined in this chapter. An attempt is also made to analyse

t h e recent trends in the women's movement in Kerala where a

number of independent wornenfs groups have emerged with the clear

objective of fighting an>ything which discriminates against or

oppresses women.

C h a p t e r V examines the various factors which hinder t h e

progress of women's movenlen t s in Kerala, and to discuss i t s

prospects and strategies.

One mentionable change adopted with regard to t h e references

cited is the omission of t h e traditional Latin abbreviation of

'op-cit.' to indicate t h a t a work has already been cited. T h e

procedure that has been followed in this work to refer to a work

which has already been cited in the same chapter is as follows:

8 . Prathima Asthana, w e n ' s Movement ln I-, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., 1974, p . 9 9 .

3 6 . Asthana, n.8, p.115.

The abbreviation 'n. 8' in reference no. 36 means that t h e

book has been cited earlier as reference no. 8 .

Women's studies, the intellectual arm of women's movement,

is widely recognised as a subject of study in the academic

circles. It serves as a tool for examining the status of women ,

the nature of oppression to which they are subjected and t h e need

and strategy to redeem their position. Research relating to women

as a major part of women's studies should help as a catalyst to

women's movements. Besides, this can fill t h e gaps of knowledge,

lead to purposeful action and betterment of society. Moreover,

it helps in making women visible in history. History is

generally silent about women's issues and struggles. Economists

do not give due consideration to women's work in t h e home and

thereby bypass the nexus between the relation i n t h e family and

capitalist development. T h i s s t u d y represents an a t t e m p t to

recapture the main trends in t h e history of women's movement i n

I n d i a in general and Kerala in particular with a view to securing

for women their rightful place in history. It also endeavours to

provide a stimulus to women's movements by bringing to focus

their positive role in the upward social mobility of w o m e n . The

efforts made in t h e study to identify the factors which pose

challenges to women's move~ments, it is hoped, would encourage new

initiatives to re-orient them and to ensure better prospects fo r

them.

REFERENCES

1. Mariamies and Jayavardhana, F e m i n i s m . - i n Eurowe Liberal and Socilalist Strateqle~ 1789-19U, Institute of Social Studies, T h e Hague, 1981, 1983 edn.

. . 2 . Barbara Ryan, Femmlsrn and the Women's Movement, Routledge,

N e w York, 1992.

3 . Christine B o l t , The Women's Movements i n U i t e d States d Br- from the 1790's to the 192Qts, Harvester Wheatsheaf, New York, 1993.

4 . Barbara S i n c l a i r Deckard, The, Harper and R o w Publishers, N e w York, 1983.

5 . Government of India, Department of Social Welfare, Towards m, Report of t.he Committee on t h e S t a t u s of Women in India, N e w D e l h i , 1975.

6. Government of India, Ministry of Human Resources, Department of Women and Child Development, fo r Women 1988 2000 A - a, New Delhi, 1988.

7 . Jana Matson Everett, Women and Social Chanae in India, Heritage Publishers, New D e l h i , 1981, 1985 edn.

8 . Prathima Asthana, en's Movement i n Ins, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. L t d . , 1974.

9 . Joanna Liddle and R ~ m a Joshi , nf Indeeendence, Kali for Women, New D e l h i , 1986.

10. Aruna A s a f Ali, Resur-ce of Indian Women, Radiant Publishers, N e w Delhi, 1991.

11. S.Sreedevi, Gandhi and the Eman-, Gandhi Sahithya Prachuranalayam, Hyderabad, 1969.

12. Kanak Mukherjee, m e n ' s Emanci~ation Movement in India, National Book Centre, N e w Delhi, 1 9 8 9 ; Susila Mehta, Revoluti~n and the $:tatus of Women in India, Metropolitan Book Company Ltd., N e w D e l h i , 1982; Neera Desai (ed. ) , A Decade of Women's Mavement in India, Himalaya Publishing House, Bombay, 1988; Jessie B.Tellis Nayak, Indian W_Pnaenhood: Then and Now, Satyaprakasan Sanchar Kendra, Indore, 1 9 8 3 ; Rehana Gadial ly , Indian society , Sage Publications, Hew Delhi, 1988; Renu Chakravarthy, m u n i s t s i n Indian Women's M~vernent 1940-1950, Peoples Publishing House, New D e l h i , 1980.

13. Devaki J a i n Ied.), Indian W~men, Publication Division, Ministry of Informatioh and Broadcasting, N e w Delhi, 1975, 1976(rpt.); Vijay Agnew, Uite Women in Indian P~litics, Vikas Publishing House P v t . Ltd., New Delhi, 1979; A . S .

sition nf Women in Hindu C i . . .

Alteker, Pa villsatjga, Motilal ~anarsidas Publictions Pvt. L t d . , Hew Delhi, 1959; Tara Ali Baig (ed.), W ~ m e n i n India, Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, N e w Delhi, 1957, . . Women i n 1990(rpt,); Kiran Devendra, Status and Posltlon of w, Shaki Books, N e w Delhi, 1985; Marcus B . Fuller, 'J& Wronas of Indlan Wornemhood, Inter-Tndia Publications, New Delhi, 1900; Karabi Sen (ed.), Her Storv, Prajna Publications, Calcut-ta, 1985; Kalpana Shah, Worsen's

d Valunt.arv Action, Ajanta Publications, New Delhi, 1984; P . N . T . ikoo , Indian Women, B.R. Publishinq Corpora t ion , N e w D e l l l i , 1985; Illina Sen l e d . ) , A S w W-the_Struga.le, K:ali f o r Women, New D e l h i , 1990.

0 .

14. Maithreyi Krishnaxaj led.), F e m l n ~ a : Debates 1990, Research Centre for Wclmen's Studies, SNDT, Bombay, 1991.

15. Neera Desai , m-gxlce and Rev@- of Women ' s Orcrawstions w, Research centre for Women's Studies, SNDT, Bombay, 1982.

. . 16. Gail O m v e d t , m n t and the Woman's Movement in India,

Research Centre for Women's Studies, SNDT, Bombay, 1987.

1 7 . Vibhuti Patel, m e n c e and Proliferation of the Autonomom Women's O r a ~ a t i & n % in In&, Research Centre for Women's Studies, SNDT, Bombay, 1986, 1990(rpt.).

P.K.K. Menon, The Historv of Freedom Movement in Kerah , The Regional Records Survey Committee, Government of Kerala, Trivandrum, 1972 .

K-Karunakaran Hair (ed.), Who is Who of t h e Freedom Fishters In Kerala, Regional Records Survey Committee, Government of Kerala, Trivandrum, 1975.

P. Bhaskaran Unni, Pathonnatham Hoottandile Keralm (Malayalam) , Kerala Sahithya Academy, Trissur , 1988 ; E .M. S . Namboothirippad, Kerdam - (Malayalam), Kerala Granthasala Sangharn, Trivandrum, 1948, 1981 edn.; P.K. Balakrishnan, Jvathiyvavasthithi~um Ke-

ari thr~vure (Malayalam), N B S , Kattayarn, 1 9 8 3 ; William Logan, MalabarMnnud, t r a n s i l a t e d by V.T. Krishnan, Mathrubhumi Printing And Publishing Company, Calicut, 1985; V-Nagam Aiya, m o c o r e S t a t e _Manuel, Vol I, Asian Educational Service, New Delhi, 1989; V.T. Bhattathirippad,

(Hal-ayalam) , India Press, Kottayam, 1970; V. R . Menon, -ude w i t h r a t Vol I (Malayalam), Mathrubhumi Printing and Publishing Company L t d . , Calicut, 1973; M.S.A. R a o , S o c i a l m e in -, The Popular Book Depot, Bombay, 1957; K.P. Padmanabha Menon, -tory of -la, Vol 1x1, Asian Educational Service, New Delhi, 1984.

V.T. Bhattathirippad, S-, (Malayafam), N.B.S, K c r t t a y a m , 1983; E.M.S. Namboothirippad,

(Malayalam), Chintha Publishers, Trivandrum, 1993; C. Kesavan, Jeevitha S- (Malayalam), Sahitya Pravarthaka Sahakarana Sangham, Kottayam, 1990; Mannathu Padmanabhan, mte Jeevitha Smaranahal (Malayalam), Vol.1, Nair Service Society, Changanacherry, 1964.

P.M. Mathew and M.S Hair, &omen's OrQs m-5, Indian Institute of Regional Development Studies, Kottayam, 1984.

M-Indu Menon, Status of Muslim Womn i n In-, Uppal Publishing House, New Delhi , 1981.

N.K. Kamalasanan, a Thorn (Malayalam), D C Books, Kottayarn, 1993.

R . N . Yesudas, A Histvrv of Women's Education in Kerala, South Indian Social Centre, Trivandrum, 1988.

. . a , Women and Well - beinq Robbin Jeffry, , Mac Millan, Cambridge, London, 1992, 1993 edn.

CHAPTER I

WOICKN'S l4OVJ3HBl!EIN THE WEST

A movement i s a course or series of actions and endeavours

on the part of a body of gersons, moving or tending more or less

continuously towards s o m e special end.' However there is n o t a

commonly accepted d e f i n i t i o n f o r i t. Consensus is y e t to be

reached on t h e exact meaning of social movements.

According to the Encvclonedia of Social Sciences, social

movements are uninstitutionalised groups in some insurgent

relationship to existing society, involving unmediated bonds

between leaders and followers. 'A social movement, in the

opinion of Rudolf Herberle, aims to bring fundamental changes in

t h e social order, especially in the b a s i c institutions of

property and labour relations1 .3 For M.N. Zald and R . A s h , \a

social movement is a purposive and collective at tempt of a

number of people to change individuals or societal institutions

and structure^.'^ T.K. Oommen defines social movements as

conscious or purposive collective mobilisations, informed of an

ideology, to promote change in any direction, (past / future)

using any means - violent or non-violent -and functioning within

at least an elementary organisatianal f rame-work . According to

Hans Toch, a social movement represents an effort by a large

number of people to solve collectively a problem that they feel

they have in common. In 'Wendell C. King's opinion, 'a social

movement is a group venture extending beyond a local community or

a single event and involving a systematic effort to inaugurate

changes in thought, behaviour, and social relationships. William

B. Cameron ho lds that a social movement occurs when a fairly

large number of people band together in order to alter or

supplant s o m e portion of the existing culture or social order'. 6

All these definitions have some characteristics in common. A

social movement is a collective activity which aims at social

change in any direction.

The characteristics olf social movements include sustained

collective mobilization for or against change, presence of an

ideology and a stand more or less conflictual in nature.7 The

relation between social mclvements and action groups or t h e role

of action groups in a movement is of great importance. Action

groups or pressure groups may be catalysts of a social movement.

Sometimes they will be the initiators also. However, social

movements and action groups are n o t one and the same though

closely related. D.H. Dhancagare observes: Action groups can be

initiators of social movements, but not necessarily their

customary agents, instruments or carriers. Social movements once

institutionalised, may operate through already formed groups,

part i e s , trade unions, origanisations and similar paraphernalia.

He adds: " A n a c t i o n group which initiates the mobilization

process and acts as a c a t a l y s t of a social movement may also

became its principal sheet-anchor when that movement moves in the

direction of institutionalisation representinq a broader zone

and political action. But some action qxoups may dissociate or

withdraw from the movement . " & Organisation or y r o u p is a unit i n

a social movement. "Socia l movements are more amorphous social

collectivities as compared with political parties a n d pressure

groups .119 Social m0vement.s can be classified on the basis of

their participants, their scale, dominant issues of interest,

nature of the desired s o c i a l change and the means of action.

There are various movements. They include religious, caste,

tribal, dalit, s tudent , peasant, worker and feminist movements.

These movements "have their inception in a condition of unrest,

and derive their motive power from wishes and hopes f o r a new

scheme or system of living. "lo

Feminist movement or women's movement is one of the

categories of social movements which s t a r t e d with t h e aim of

changing the deteriorated position of women to which they were

condemned to for centuries, It was started in different countries

at different periods. About women's mavement, Encvclo~edia of

. . says "It is more wide ly used, and more all-embracing

than either feminism or women's liberation movement and can

include any and all activities and organisations which have the

aim of improving women's status and situatian."ll Neera Desai

defines women's movement i3S t h e organised effort to achieve a

common goal of equality and liberation of women and it pre-

supposes sensitiveness to crucial issues affecting t h e life of

women. 12

Gail Omvedt says: " n o t all movements which include w o m e n are

for women's liberation, and women's liberation movements may also

include men."13

A broad category of women's movement includes movements in

which women par t i c ipa te in large numbers with men as in t h e case

of national movements and peasant movements, movements led by

women for general issues such as far slum improvement, or against

price-rise, and movements f or achieving women's rights and for

their upliftment. Before studying women's movements it is

necessary to have an idea about certain terms such as patriarchy,

feminism and various theoiries or approaches to feminism. These

terms are of ten used and c1.osely related to women's movement.

Of late, we find t h e term Patriarchy used by mast of the

feminists. Generally used to denote male domination both in

family and in society, the word means 'the rule of the father. '

Gail Omvedt explains: "Patriarchy comes from a L a t i n word

meaning t h e power of the male head of the family, and refers to

t h e power of the man (or patriarch) both over women and over

children and other dependents in t h e family. I t l i n k s the power

of man i n the family w i th t h e power of man in society as a

whole. According to Kamala Bhasin and Nighat Said Khan, "When

one uses the word patriarchy, it refers to the system that

oppresses and subordinate women in both the private and public

sphere .# ' They fur ther say: "it refers to a social system where

t h e father controls all members of the family, a l l property and

o t h e r economic resources and makes all major decisions. Linked to

this social system is the belief or the ideology that man is

superior to woman, that women are and should be controlled by

men, and are p a r t of a man's property. T h i s thinking forms the

basis of many of our religious laws and practices, and explains

all those social practices; which confine women to t h e home, and

control their lives. our double standards of morality and our

laws which give more r i g h t s to men t h a n to women are a l so based

on patriarchy. "15

Feminism is a contr-oversial word today. Many w h o were

directly or indirectly involved in the f i g h t for women's equality

and against women's oppression generally hesitate to say that

they are feminists. The word feminism is not acceptable to many

women and men in India. Most of them think that feminism is a

western word or concept which is against men and that feminists

are man-haters. But feminism does not mean that. As Kamala

Bhasin and Nighat Said Khan explains : "the term feminism may be

foreign, t h e concept s tands f o r a transformational process, a

process which started in South Asia in the nineteenth century as

an organised and ar-t iculated stand against women's

subordination.tm16 Feminism stands far t h e advocacy of woments

rights . And a feminist is one who supports feminism or women's

rights. The best way of looking at feminism is to see it as an

ideology of women as an oppressed section, in struggle against

their oppression just as socialism is the ideology of t h e workers

organised in class struggle. 1 7

T h e meaning of f e m i n i s m may vary from time to time.

Feminism of t h e eighteenth c e n t u r y may n o t be the same a s t h a t of

t h e twentieth century. It also differs from c o u n t r y to country

and person to person. A more accepted broad definition of

feminism is 'an awareness of the oppression and exploitation of

women in society, at work and within the family, and conscious

action by women and men to change this situation'. According to

this definition any one who recognises the existence of sexism

(discrimination on t h e basis of gender), male domination and

patriarchy and who engages in some a c t i o n against them is a

feminist. l8 Feminists may fight against all forms of oppression

against women. To accept the legitimacy of the term \feminismf

means that women are specially oppressed as women, that their

exploitation cannot be reduced to that of being members of the

warking class. 19

There are various theories or approaches in feminism. Major

approaches are liberal feminism, radical feminism and socialist

feminism. Liberal feminism is also called "moderate feminism" or

"women's rights feminismM. Liberal feminism aims at bringing

equality within the framework of the existing system; radical

feminism aims at revolutionary change in all social institutions

and sees sexual oppression as primary; socialist feminism seeks

to unite the fight for socialism with women's liberation. Today

nearly all feminists in India are socialist feminist^.^' However, the liberal tradition cou1.d be seen in the movement during t h e

pre-independence period in India.

Women constitute near ly half of t h e world's population. Y e t

they have been subjugated for centuries, though the nature and

form of that subjugation hiave varied from country to c o u n t r y and

period to period. This is reflected in the aims, objectivity and

methods used by women's movements in different parts of the

world. In many countries w o m e n had to fight a long and fierce

battle to attain voting rights and freedom.

Women's movement had i t s origin in the West during the

nineteenth century. It is often described as having two stages.

i ) The first wave of feminism and ii) the second wave of

feminism. The first wave emerged in an organised way during

nineteenth century and was known as t h e women's rights movement.

It almost faded out with t h e attainment of better status and

voting rights for women. The second wave of t h e movement emerged

in the 1960's and was widely known as modern feminist movement or

women's liberation movement.

The debate on Feminism arose in developed countries like

B r i t a i n and France duri-ng t h e eighteenth and nineteenth

centuries. The first recorded expression of the idea that women

were the political equals of men occurred during the French

revolution (1789). But it was only in the second half of the

nineteenth century that emancipation and suffrage groups began

to be formed. 21 The English revolution of 1648, the American

revolution of 1776 and the French revolution of 1789 (which was

influenced directly and indirectly by the English and American

revolutions and had a great impact on the whole of Europe and the

United States) almost ended feudalism and encouraged capitalism.

T h e industrial revolution, t h e increase of centralised power, the

intellectual flowering of humanism associated with Renaissance

and the ideological challenge to the church, monarchy and

aristocracy to a great extant changed Europe.

Eminent philosophers and political thinkers of the period

w e r e Jean Jacques Rousseau, Montesquieu, Volttaire, Condurcet and

Diderot. Though these philosophers and t .hinkers of French

revolution upheld the ideas of fraternity, liberty and equality,

only a minority spoke about women's liberty. 2 2 Jean Jacques

Rousseau expressed radical revolutionary ideas on the social and

political order and emphasised the value of freedom and equality.

" B u t for a l l h i s enlighte.nrnent on political and social issues,

Rousseauts ideal republic excludes women; the family is a

'natural institutionf, t h e man is head of the family with power

of control over t h e wife, who is denied equal rights; freedom,

equality are fo r t h e patriarchal heads of families, and women are

n o t part of the social contract or the 'general will' Rausseau

proposed a fundamentally different education for boys and girls.

According to Rousseau only man was rational and capable of

thinking rationally and abs tract ly , therefore women, lacking

these qualities, could n o t be given freedom and equality. On t h e

c o n t r a r y , they had to be subjected and controlled as their

passions were a source of danger.w23 Many of the thinkers shared

t h e ideas of Rousseau in t h e case of women's rights. However a

minority supported women's rights. Among that group Condurcet's

name w a s prominent.

T h e new ideas and the n e w awakening of the period influenced

women also. The rich women who got some education raised their

voice in favour of women's education. Isolated voices began to be

heard from women about t h e i r position and education. Some women

writers questioned the discriminatory social practices and

proclaimed the necessity of educating women and of giving access

to women in all types of employment.

The most outstanding feminist writer of the time was Mary

~ollstonecraft~~ who wrote t h e famous document A V i n d i c a t b n of

Ricrhts of m, published in England in 1792. she says

"challenged t h e idea that: women exist only to please men and

proposed that women receive the same treatment as men in

educa t ion , work and po1it:ics and be judged by the same moral

standards. tq25 Barbara S i n c l a i r says: I q i t was the first full-scale

book favouring women's liberation, and nineteenth century leaders

of t h e women's movement in Europe and the United States read it

and were much affected by it.w26 Mary Wollstonecraft asserted

that woman was a f u l l y rational human being and denied the

existence of separate male and female virtues. She vehementally

criticised Rousseau for h i s views on women and advocated similar

education f o r boys and g i r l s . Wollstonecraft~s V i n a c a t i ~ n the

ahts on was published in French in 1792. Many

women's clubs w e r e formed in France which urged women to involve

in politics and demanded equal education for women. Among the

names of the revolutionary women Olympe de Gouges's name is

prominent during that period f o r her work in 1791 entitled the

Declaration of t h e Right's of Women. This declaration demanded

equal rights for women in the field of access to government

employment, freedom of thought, as we11 as better education,

equal property rights and :reform of the marriage laws. Though the

period of industrial revel-ution provided a big boost to debates

on feminism, as Hariamiea and Jayawardhana remarks, the early

decades of the nineteenth century w e r e a period of reaction. In

1793, the women's political clubs were abolished. The Civil Code

which would have given greater rights to married women was

rejected. In 1795, women were forbidden to attend political

meetings. In 1804, t h e Napoleonic Civil Code decreed the total

submission of w o m e n to marital authority, and t h e right of

divorce, which had been granted in 1792, was abolished in France

in 1814. The brief whiff of freedom during the revolution was

replaced by repressive laws and constraints. 27

The struggles f o r democratic r igh t s set in motion in t h e

eighteenth century continued into the nineteenth century when

more systematic liberal doctrines based on bourgeois

parliamentary democracy we:re put forward, in a period which s a w

t h e great expansion of industrial capital in Europe. A s in t h e

early phase , the most r a p i d strides in Industrial Revolution

took place in Britain, w h i c h up to the latter decades of the

nineteenth century w a s the most advanced capitalist country. The

strong bourgeoisie which arose in Britain had to struggle ayainst

feudal forces in both t h e economic and political spheres.

Politically t h e continued existence in the unreformed parliament

of powerful feudal interest left to a massive campaign for the

reform of the parliament culminat ing in the Reform Bill of 1832,

under which t h e bourgeoisie were able to obtain political

representation. 28

As elsewhere, until the nineteenth century, women in Britain

had never been politically discriminated against in a conscious

way. The law had never expressly forbidden women to sit in

parliament, for instance; it remained true that none had ever

done so. It. w a s the f i r s t time in the English legislation that

the word "male" appeared in the First Reform Bill of 1832,

extending franchise to large sections of t h e new industrial

middle class. Voting w a s thus specifically and officially

restricted to qualified % a l e personsu. 29

Industrial revolution also paved the way for t h e emergence

of feminist thinking. In the pre-capitalistic period production

was centered on household or small community. And women actively

participated in the workforce along with men. Emergence of

capitalism and the industrial revolution changed the centre of

production from home to factory. As a result the wife as

husband's productive partner and fellow worker disappeared

forever. The family as the co-operative unit of production faded

o u t . T h e one exception was agriculture, which retained the family

as a unit of production, but the qradual shrinking in the number

of farms a n d increasing urbanisation S G reduced t h e farming

population in the indus t l r ia l i s ed countries. Housewives were

gradually deprived of most of t h e work that had been

traditionally done at home: most of t h a t work was now moved to

industrial plants. The effect of capitalist development and the

industrial revolution brought poor women out of their homes and

fields, to factories, mines and sweated industries as cheap

labour. Middle class and upper class women were kept within t h e

four walls of home. They were totally excluded from work outside

home and were wasted, and they suffered intensely from it. As

. . Jean Crimshaw remarks in her book Feminist Philosa~hers; this

situation "led to an increasingly sharp split between home and

work and a resultant tension in the lives of many middle class

women.lt30 Education, an essential lever of power w a s almost

completely denied to these middle class women who had few chances

of gainful employment.

This situation led to the entry of more and more women in

the f i e l d of social work and contributed to the early campaigns

of women against the existing discriminatory laws concerning

property, birth control, divorce, prostitution and for securing

educational and employment opportunities.

Women established educational institution^^^ for women, and

led the battle far reforms within t h e e x i s t i n g leqal and

institutional framework by sending petitions to the Parliament,

publishing books, circulating pamphlets and orqanising protest

groups. Same campaigns were suppressed by the government though

certain demands were accepted.

Women led campaigns for married women's property right.

Women's committees which become active on the issue, petitioned

to parliament to chanqe the law. Their campaign met with success

when in 1882 a law was passed allowing married women the control

of the property acquired at the time of their marriaqe.

The other problem on which women reformers involved was that

of prostitution. Double standard of morality in that age was

clearly brought o u t in the Contagious Diseases A c t of 1864 under

which if a women w a s believed to be a prostitute, s h e could be

compulsorily examined medically, hospitalised and imprisoned if

she refused treatment. Led by Josephine Butler, the Ladies

National Association was ,formed to organise opposition to the

Acts. They exposed the class aspects of the Acts whereby the

upper-class men could have access to 'publicly cleansed' women of

the working class and the sexist nature of the legislation under

which women wha were the victims were transformed into the

culprits. They published a , U q n t s Protest which was reproduced

widely in t h e press. The women courageously took the campaign

into the political arena, supporting candidates favouring

abolition of the A c t s . The Acts were eventually repealed in

1886. 3 2

The nineteenth century in Britain was an age of reform; it

was a period when l i b e r a l s suppor ted by radicals were able to

implement limited legislative reforms. Women in Britain w e r e

beginning to react against several disabilities and

discriminatory laws which oppressed them. English law denied

women political or econon~ic or t h e right to suffraqe. Married

w o m e n could not sue, be sued, or be called as witnesses. They

enjoyed no property rights, all her earnings belong to her

husband. Even they were denied rights over children. Divorce was

practically impossible f o r them.

However the most prominent and the militant struggle led by

women in the nineteenth century was t h e Women's Suffrage

Movement. The suffrage movement in Britain paralleled the

movement in the United States. In t h e fifteenth century women

petitioned for the right to vote. Books like Mary

Vindication of me Uahts of Wollstonecraft's A Woman f17921

argued for woman suffrage. The demand was also raised by the

movement in the 1840's- Soon afterward reports of

suffrage movement in the United States reached England. 3 4 The

woman suffrage movement in England is a natural outgrowth from

the Great Reform A c t of 1832. "This was the first time that the

word 'male' had been used in the electoral law of England;

hitherto the words used had always been of a generic character-

"personaN, tqfreoholdersM e t c . The bill specifically

enfranchised male persons thus excluding the other half of the

population.

When most of the nineteenth c e n t u r y political thinkers were

against womenfs equality, John S t u a r t Mill - the leading

ideologue of British liberalism -strongly supported women's

rights. John S t u a r t ill ' s 3 6 name stands prominent when

talking about the women's rights movement in Britain. Mill, on

h i s wife Harriet Taylor's persuasion, supported and took u p the

issue of women's franchise. He even included women's franchise in

h i s manifesto during h i s political campaign fo r election to the

House of Commons.

Two years af ter (1968) when t h e f irst women's franchise

committee w a s formed in Manchester, John Stuart Mill presented to

Parliament a petition signed by near ly one thousand five hundred

people including Florence Nightingale, Frances Power Cobbe,

Josephine Butler, Harriet Marlineau and Mary Somerville calling

for equal suffrage for women. But an amendment to this effect to

t h e Reform Bill of 1867 was lost, seventy three in favour, one

hundred and ninety s i x against. Following the defeat of the

amendment, numerous local woman suffrage societies were organised

in England and Scotland, fallowed by the formation of t h e

National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies under the leadership

of Millicent G. Fawcett. From 1867 onwards, the movement in

Britain and Ireland never ceased. 37

Meanwhile some qains were made by women. Women taxpayers

were given t h e municipal franchise (in 1869). The question of

women's franchise was debated frequently in the Parliament. B u t

all the move towards that end failed due to lack of support from

both conservative and labour parties. T h i s behaviour of the

political parties made some w o m e n orqan i se and lead a separate

movement. "By this time disillusionment w i t h both t h e labour and

liberal part i e s had spread amongst feminists, and the initiative

passed to t h e militant suffragettes led by Emeline Pankhurst . 3 8

Pankhurst made the then campaign f a r suffrage into a

militant one and used all means to achieve t h e goal. T h e

leadership of t h e movement thus shifted from a moderate to a n

extremist hand, using violent means to gain their ends for the

first time in the history of European women's movement.

Pankhurst established a new organisation for the cause,

namely, Women's Social and Political Union. It was formed i n

1903. 3 9 Though led by middle class w o m e n , the campaign had

support among sections of working class women, Irish activist

women and women radicals. 40

Under the efficient leadership of Pankhurst, women rose in

rebellion against the government, they held warnen's parliament,

organised mammoth meetings and adopted violent means to get wide

publicity to their cause* On several occasions they were arrested

and imprisoned. "They organised window smashing raids on shops

and the fashionable men's clubs in the West End af London; street

lamps were broken; train seats, orchid houses, flowerbeds and

golf greens were damaged; telephone wires were c u t ; fuse boxes

blown up; sports pavilions and grand stands at races were burnt

down; w o r k s of art w e r e damaged; several empty houses and stately

homes and church property were destroyed; and bombs were placed

i n key places such as near the Bank of England. In addition t h e

women used violence at political party meetings, interrupted the

House of Commons debates and attempted to disrupt the Derby Races

(where a woman suffragette threw herself in front of the king's

carriage and was killed). Their cause was further highlighted by

t h e i r martyrdom f o r t h e repressive s t a t e action against them

included much brutality, beatings, arrests, imprisonment and

forced feeding in jail and t h e death in action of several

suffragettes. 41

But the outbreak of the world w a r in 1914 changed the course

of the movement as its foremost leaders Emeline Pankhurst and

her daughter Christobel joined war efforts thus g i v i n g up the

agitation. However Pankhurst's one daughter Sylvia continued t h e

campaign. But its activism and militancy vanished to a great

ex tent .

Women leaders participated enthusiastically in war efforts.

They extended their service in the quite running of the

government machinery. Many women became nurses at t h e front ,

drove army trucks and ran the army communication system. 4 2 After

the world war women were given limited freedom. As Barbara

Sinclair writes: "in 1918, partly as a reward for helping win the

war and partly under the continued pressure of socialist

militants, the government at last gave universal suffrage to m e n

and women. 4 3

But unlike men, women only above thirty years of age were

allowed to v o t e . They had to wait until 1928 to get equal

suffrage. After the attainment of suffrage the movement declined

and no such militant movement is seen before 1960's in British

history.

Compared to Britain and United States, t h e issue of women's

voting rights was raised in France only later. Leyon Rishiyar was

one of the pioneer of the woment$ movement in France who

published the book w e n 1 s _ B i a h t s in 1869. The movemer~t initially

concentrated on legal reforms such as campaigns for right to

education and property. In 1878 Maria Deraismes organised the

first International Congress far Women's rights. Around 1880's a

movement started fo r women's suffrage in France. Hubertine hucert

started a suffragette paper, 'La citoyennet in 1881- However the

movement was very slow, It was only in 1909 an organisation to

fight fo r voting rights was formed. It conducted conferences and

processions to press t h e demand. I n 1919, though the law

regarding this was accepted, it was later rejected by t h e Senate

in 1922. In France voting rights were given to women only in

1945.

A s in Britain, in many other countries, including United

States , a movement by women for reform and suffrage developed

during t h e same time. There are very many versions and o p i n i o n s

among feminists and historians about t h e origin of feminist

movement in Uni ted States- The beginning of the movement is

generally traced to the Women's Rights Convention in Seneca F a l l s

in 1848. " B u t an enlightenment w a s seen from the American War of

Independence (1776). In the United States of America the feminist

movement was also an outcome of demands for democratic rights. It

first emerged around 1800, a period of intellectual ferment in

Europe as well as in the United States of America. The leaders of

the American War of Independence (1776) and the makers of the

American constitution had been strongly influenced by t h e

philosophers of the 'age of reason' in Europe, and at this time

s o m e ~rnerican women took up the issue of women's rights. 1 t 4 4

During much of the 1800's both by law and by cus tom, women

were considered 'non-persons. T h e law as the powerful

restraining force on women's emancipation. Religious principles

also maintained wives' rightful subordination to their husbands.

Education f o r slaves were non existing and fo r non-slave w o m e n

suppressed. Before an organised women's movement began, middle

class women were agitating for the right to higher education.

In 1821 Emma Willard opened Troy Female Seminary w i t h local

tax money to educate women. At first her request far funding to

open such an institution w a s refused by New York legislators. In

1833 Oberlin college opened its doors to a l l races. Women were

also admitted so that they might be trained for their future role

as proper minister's wives . But some of the first Oberlin

graduates ins tead of being cultured appendages of their husbands,

began breaking down gender barrier. Early graduates included Lucy

Stone, soon to become a leader in t h e women's suffrage movement.

Meanwhile the temperance movement attracted women very much.

Elezabath Cady S t a n t o n c o n n e c t e d temperance and women's r i g h t s

and advocated divorce when alcoholism was present. Within a short

period women began to feel that temperance was a matter of

women's rights.

Another area in which women actively participated was in t h e

movement against slavery. T h e women leaders actively involved in

efforts to eliminate slavery were L u c r e t i a Mott, Elizabeth Cady

Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, Lucy Stone, Antonette Brown and Grimke

sisters .

In 1830 anti-slavery societies were formed and Lucretia M o t t

who was present at the organisinq meeting of the American Anti-

s lavery Society later become one of the organisers of t h e Seneca

Falls Women's Rights Conference.

Women in America took part in struggles against slavery had

to face vehement opposition from t h e i r male counterparts.

Angelina and Sarah Grimke the two female abolition workers o f t e n

received a negative reception from the public not on the content

of their abolition t a l k but because they were women speaking in

public. Thus while working in the anti-slavery agitation women

become self consciously aware of their subordinate pos i t ion . A s

a result they began including in t h e issue of women's rights also

in their lecturers.

Later t h e exclusion uf feminist l e a d e r Elizabeth Cac ty

S t a n t o n , and other women deleqates from an anti-slavery

convention held in 1840 forced them to think and d i s c u s s the i d e a

of o r q a n i s i n q a women's rights convention. T h a t incident

pract i -ca l ly paved the way for a separate movement. Thus in 1840

a n Equal R i g h t s Association for the emancipation of slaves and

women was founded,

The first Women's Rights Convention w a s h e l d in Seneca

Falls, N e w Yark in 1848. A Women's rights document based on

American Declaration of Independence was the speciality of that

convention. Signed by sixty eight women and thirty two men, the

Seneca Falls declaration stated: "We hold these truths to be

self-evident: t h a t all men and women are created equal ... . T h e

history of mankind is a history of repeated injuries and

usurpations on the part of man toward women, having in direct

object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over h e r .... 91

T h e convention demanded for women the right of equal education

and the right to preach, to teach, and to earn a livelihood. It

also passed a resolution stating "that it is t h e sacred duty of

the women of this country to secure themselves their sacred right

to the elective franchise." Thus was l a i d t h e foundation for

the women's suffrage movement in the United States. 45

A f t e r that convention various conventions were organised in

different states. In 1850 the First National Convention was held

in Worcester with delegates from n i n e states. Another convention

was held i n Syracuse N e w York, in 1852.

However from the 1850's until the Civil War, the women's

movement w a s mainly c o n c e r n e d with grass r o o t s orqanisinq.

Activism was constituted of meetings, conventions and petitions

to state and national legislative bodies only. After Civil War

Negro Males were enfranchised. But women were n o t given any s u c h

consideration. For more than five years, activists for abolition

and women's rights had been intensely involved with the 15th

Amendment granting black males the vote. It showed women that

they had no power to influence the c o n t e n t of laws. Thus the

passage of the 14th and 15th Amendment became a political setback

for white women as they were now, for the first time, explicitly

excluded from politics. Naturally, achieving equal status th rough

t h e vote become the primary goal of women's movement from 1860's

onwards.

Xn 1863, a f t e r a number of southern victories, Susan B

Anthony and Elizabeth Cady stanton called a convention of women

to farm a Loyalty League. President Lincoln had issued the

Emancipation Proclamation, but it freed slaves only in the rebel

States. The 13th Amendment outlawing slavery passed w i t h o u t

mentioning suffrage for blacks or white women. Immediately

afterwards a 14th Amendment was proposed with the intent of

granting citizenship rights to freed slaves and, by inference,

suffrage; the 14th Amendment was significant because it contained

the word male, t h e first time this designation had been used in

t h e Constitution. This Amendment with words 'male citizen' left

i n t a c t w a s passed . In 1869 a 15th Amendment was introduced ta

grand black males , t h e right to vote- Once again, women's efforts

to have the female sex introduced in this Amendment were rebuffed

by abolitionists who feared this inclusion would jeopardies

passage. U n d e s i r a b l y , the forces for abolition and women's

rights, instead of working together, were now pitted against each

other . 4 6

Anthony and Stanton organised the National Women Suffrage

A s s o c i a t - i o n (National) to work f o r t h e women in the 15th

Amendment. The National Association was the first independent

organisation formed for women that w a s defined and controlled

solely by women.

Six months after the founding of the National, the American

Suffrage Association was formed to work for passage of the 15th

Amendment as it was worked with the intention of working for a

16th Amendment for women's suffrage after passage of the 15th.

Before t h e war, the women's rights movement had made progress on

a number of issues raised at the 1848 conference. Far instance,

the activists had made significant gains in two of their most

sought after goals: inheriting rights and entrance into

educational institutions. However, passage of t h e 14th and 15th

Amendment constituted a political setback for white women as they

were now, for the first time, explicitly excluded from politics.

And by the end of 1860 the primary goal of the women's movement

was to obtain equal s ta tus through t h e vote , and thus , the

women's rights movement became the women's suffrage movement.

Durinq this time t w o groups w i t h different views and

opinions were formed inside the women's movement. Some felt t h e

need to obtain suffrage through the amendment of S t a t e

Constitutions while others had t h e firm opinion that the

immediate requirement was the enactment of amendment to the

United State's Constitution. Two groups namely the National Woman

Suffraqe Association (under t h e leadership of Susan.B.Anthony and

Elizabeth Cady Stanton) and American Woman Suffraqe Association

(Top leaders were Lucy Stone and Julia Ward Howe) were

established in the same year 1869. 47 They followed their own

methods to obtain the desired results, but did not succeed. In

1890 the two organisations merged to form the National American

Woman Suffrage Associatian and continued their fight in both

ways.

Meanwhile three American women Harriot Stanton Blach, Alice

Paul and Lucy Burns,taking their cue from the got experience in

the militant suffrage movement l e d by Emmeline Pankhurst in

Britain introduced militant tactics i n t h e women's movement in

America. And in 1914 Alice formed the Congressional Union. The

Congressional Union members engaged in ac t ions to call attention

to the issue of suffrage, thereby keeping it in the mind of the

President, Congress and public. She 'staged scenes' introducing

tactics and splash n o t found in t h e movement since its inception.

Always calling newspapers ahead of time, she organised

demonstrations on a grand scale with stirring songs and

pageantry. The Union adopted colours - purple, white and gold,

held parade with women dressed in white carrying tri-coloured

banners, and established a weekly publication, "The S u f f r a g i s t t t .

In 1916, in the states where w o m e n could vote the

Congressional Union formed a women's party to divert women's

votes from the democratic party. Though the former President

Wilson got re-elected, the woments party was able to claim a

women's protest vote.

In 1917, the United States declared w a r on Germany. Iqnorinq

the war, the Congressional Union officially become National

Women's Party (NWP). The National Women's Party initiated

picketing at the White House and held "Watchfires of Freedomw in

which they burned newspaper clippings of President Wilson's

words. The first picket lines appeared in January, and for the

next year and a half, on m o s t days that congress was in session,

women carrying purple, white and gold banners w e r e to be found

infront of either the White House gates or the Capitol.

Delegations representing different status or organisations took

t u r n s on the picket line, thereby ensuring a constant reminder to

t h e President and legislators of women's demand for suffrage. 48

After six months of picketing a series of arrests began,

which extended over a year. Attacks by heckling crowds became a

frequent occurrence and their banners were rippled away. But at

every time new processions of women with banners appeared,

arrests continued. Arrest and more stringent penalties could not

deter the enthusiasm of w o m e n . More and more women came to the

front f o r picketing. Increasing penalties were invoked, resulting

i n prison terms of thirty to sixty days and the occoquan

workhouse. Eventually some suffragists including Alice P a u l were

sentenced to seven months in prison. Calling themselves political

prisoners, seventeen imprisoned suffragists went on a hunger

strike. The response from authorities was to forcefeed them. The

process of arrests, refusal to pay fines, jailing, hunger strike,

forced feeding, and eventual release continued throughout the

remainder of the suffrage campaign. With t h e c o n s t a n t coverage

provided by the press, women's suffrage become a household word.

Finally i n 1920 American women were enfranchised by the 19th

amendment to the constitution. By 1945 in m o s t European

countries and America, women had won a high degree of political

and legal equality with men. During the Second World War many

women took up jobs outside home and held even high positions.

B u t the legal rights won by women increased their status

only to a limited extent. The discrimination in all f i e l d s of

activity continued. A s Jo Campling says: ". . Women remained a minority at all levels of political life, they were grossly under

represented in high professional positions, they were

discriminated against in a l l areas of employment, they were paid

less than men, welfare provisions assumed and encouraged

dependence on a husband, and many women certainly did nct share

the benefits of the newly affluent society."49

Bath in Britain and America, the first wave of f e m i n i s t

movement disintegrated with the attainment of voting rights. The

organisations existed but activism disappeared. And till 1960's

no such movement emerged.

Three years later Alice Paul wrote Equal Rights Amendment

(ERA) and had introduced it in the congress of the United S t a t e s .

The Women's Party activists belived that this may raise women to

an equal sta tus with men and do away with the legal barriers to

women's advancement in the public realm. The women's groups from

that time onwards debated on it and many opposed the passing of

such an amendment. While the Women's Party worked for equality

between t h e sexes , most of the other women's groups considered

women as mothers who needed special treatment and protection and

were for legislative provisions for maternity infant health care

and proctive labour legislations. Later the movement almost

succumbed to the div i s ions within.

The period from 1920's to 60's was a period of anti-

feminism. During second World War, though women were encouraged

to accept jobs outside home by the government, many of them were

thrown out of the ir jobs in the post war period. The credit of

campaigning single-mindedly as a feminist group for woments

equality and far Equal Rights Amendment goes to the National

Women's Party which faced great apposition and criticism from

other women groups.

T h e second wave of feminist movement developed i n t h e e a r l y

1 9 6 0 ' s in United States. Publication of B e t t y Friedan's

Feminine Mvstiaw i n 1963~' gave much inspiration to the feminist

activity in America. Millions of copies of it were sold in

America and Britain. As many women entered paid employment they

became more and more aware of their position, and demands f o r

change were voiced.

T h e f o r e r u n n e r to the 1960's social movement w a s black

activism in the South. The precipitating event to organising mass

protest occurred in 1955 when Rosa Parks, a member of the

National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People

(N=CP) in Montgomery, Alabama, refused to give up her seat and

move to "the back of the busw. This action went beyond the

concept of integrated educational facility and inspired Southern

civil rights activists to protest segregation of public facility

in general . Martin Luther King worked on the resulting mass

transit boycott and the organising of the Southern Christian

Leadership Conference ( S C L C ) . College-age students in SCLC formed

the Student on-violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) in 1961 and

began promoting summer 'Freedom Rides ' in the deep South. Another

campus movement of importance founded in the early 1960rs ,

calling itself the New Left, was Students f o r a Democratic

Society (SDSI 51

The younger generation who were involved in the movements of

the Political New L e f t , civil rights and particularly in students

dominated antiwar movements found themselves treated as second

class participants. Many such college educated women founded

organisations and worked for a change, such type of experiences

including discrimination, inequality and neglect in almost a l l

fields made employed women also work in this line.

Various organisations were formed to work for the cause of

women. The 'National Organisation for Women' (NOW) was formed in

1966 which in its 1971 conference supported the right of each

person to define and express h i s own sexuality and passed a

resolution declarinq the oppression of the 'lesbians' a

legitimate concern of feminism. WEAL, the Women's Equity Action

League, focussing on legal and economic issues was established by

some of the former 'NOW* members in 1968. L a t e r a radical

feminist group, 'The Feministsr was organised by Ti Grace

Atkinson. All the time while working within t h e social

movements, women suffered discrimination. Their secondary status

and suppression of their rights within these social movement

circles which espoused high ideals of social justice made women

to protest publicly. In 1964 women in the Student Non-violent

Coordinating Committee wrote a position paper protesting their

status within that organisation. They were ridiculed by male

activists.

Moreover in a National Conference for New Politics (NCNP)

held in Chicago in August 1967, a group of radical women led by

Jo Freeman and Shulamith Firestone attempted to move a resolution

that women who represented 51 p e r c e n t of the population musk

receive 51 percent of t h e convention votes* They w e r e refused

access to the micro phones and were t o l d that they had more

i m p o r t a n t issues to t a l k about than women's liberati~n.'~ This

and other similar incidents occurred during the period urged them

to organize seperately. They held a meeting in Chicago asking

women of t h e L e f t to organize their own autonomous movement for

women's liberation. B o o k s s u c h as The Se- by Simone de

. . Beauoir (1948) and The Feminlne Mvstiaue by Betty Friedan (1963)

inspired women of Britain and America. Later Jo Freeman acted as

t h e editor of the first n e w s letter - 'Voice of the Women's

Liberation Movement' for radical activities. In 1968, with Pam

Alien, she formed the N e w Yark Radical Women (NYRW). This group

organised the first media protest - t h e 1968 M i s s America pageant

which launched the movement into the public eye. By this time,

consciousness- raising groups were widespread. Women's centres

become common. Women examined t h e i r lives, and issues bubbled

over. Research from a feminist point of view slowly gained

legitimacy and eventually led to a new and positive perspective

on traditional women's values.

Despite the growth of the women's movement, ideological

divisions emerged inside the groups which tried to analyse

women's issues and wanted to change women's s t a t u s differently.

Marxist feminists have blamed women's problems on capitalism and

a class s tructured society and advocated an end to capitalism,

Separatists, often lesbians, have claimed that women's situation

will change only if w o m e n withdraw from male-formed s t r u c t u r e s .

Radical feminists have seen women's situation as the result of

biology and seek to change women's status through biatechnoloqy

and fundamentally restructured families and communities. Many

socialist feminists have agreed with important elements of both

t h e radical and ~arxist critiques. However, they have advocated

fundamental societal changes that will accommodate women's

biological and social roles. 5 3

The major i s s u e s on which women agitated were i ) equal pay

f o r equal work and i i ) protection of g a i n s and equal

participation in decision making. B u t ideological differences

inside the movement created problems many times. Generally issues

related to fair employment practices, education and political

p a r t i c i p a t i o n united women, but family and sexually related

concerns especially abortion and lesbianism polarised women. 54

Though in 1970's and e a r l y 1980's women's movement

concentrated on the passage of Equal Rights Amendment, it failed

to w i n ratification by 1982. As a result the activists began to

revaluate their strategies.

The long struggle led by women enabled them to achieve many

gains. By 1980's women had gained access to almost every public

office. In 1981 Sandra Day O'Connor became the first women to sit

on United States Supreme Court. Pressure from the women's groups

resulted in various Amendments. Title I X of t h e Education

Amendments of 1972 prohibited discrimination based on sex in

educational activities and programmes in order to enable teachers

and administrators to became c o n s c i o u s and to c h a n g e

discriminatory practices. Efforts were also made by women to

change the language and the media to avoid its gender b i a s . They

demanded equal pay for work of equal value and challenged many

assumptions about the relationship between men and women and

about the family roles.

The 1960's witnessed the re-emergence of a women's movement

in Britain also. It was mainly l e d by le f t wing of women. The

first women's groups banded together as a loose collective called

the London Wamenrs Liberation Workshop and published a news

letter called SHREW. The first National Women's Liberation

Conference was held in 1970 at Ruskin college, Oxford. 55

The news about the movement in America and Britain spread

fast and inspired women of other countries in their struggle f o r

achieving rights.

The movement for liberation carried out by women in

different countries for getting equal status with men, though not

successful had no doubt improved their condition to a large

extent. The liberal ideas and the news about the women's struggle

far getting equal rights in Britain and America reached India

which influenced educated Indians during the nineteenth century.

1. R,W.Burchfield (ed.), The Oxford Enalish Dictionary, Vol-x, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1989, p . 3 5 .

c i a 1 Scien 2 . Adorn Kuper & Jessica Kuper ( e d s . ) , The So ce cvclogedia, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1985, p.778.

C o n c e ~ t 3 . Arunkumar Chatterjee, Socioloqv s and Theories, Prakash Book depot, Bareily, 1985, p.424.

4. Qucted in John Desrochers csc, et. al, Social Movement2 Towards--, Centre for Social Action, Banqalore, 1991, p . 6 .

5. T-K-Oommen, u o t e s t & Chanqe. Studies in S~cial Movements, Sage Publications, D e l h i , 1990, p . 1 3 ,

6. Arunkumar Chatterje, a c i o l o a v Conc~uts and Theories, Prakash Book depot , Bareily, 1985, Pp. 4 2 4 - 4 2 5 .

7 . Desrochers, n. 4 , p.16.

8 . D.N.Dhanagare, 'Action Groups and Social Transformation i n India', -&, 6:5, 1988, p.42.

9. Cited in Desrochers, n . 4 , p.42.

11. L i s a Tuttle, ~ v c l o p e ~ a of Fe- . . , Longman Group Limited, 1986, p.361-

12. Neera Desai (ed. ) , A Decade of Women's Movement in U, Himalaya Publishing House, Delhi , 1988, p.ix.

13. Gail Omvedt, -sm and me W o w f s Movement in . . r w , Research Centre for Women's Studies, S Il D T, Bombay, 1987,

Pp. 3-4

15. Kamala Bhasin & Niqhat Said Khan, Some Ouestwns on Fernlnl~gl . . and ~ t s n e Ln South Asla. W-n, New D e l h i , 1986, 1993, p . 9 .

O m v e d t , n.13, p - 5 .

B h a s i n , n . 15 , p-2.

Omvedt, n. 13, p . 5 .

Joni Lovenduski, W ~ m e n and Eurowe . . an Politics C o n t e w a r v FeIplnlsm, Wheatsheaf Books Limited, Brighton, 1986 , p.6.

Barbara Sinclair Deckard, The Women's Movement, Harper & Row Publishers, N e w York, 1983, p.206.

. . Mariamies & Kumari Jayavardhana, m r n in Euro~e L i b e r a t Strategies 1789 - 1919 , Institute of Social

Studies, The Hague, 1981, 1983, p . 8 .

Mary Wollstonecraft : A n English feminist, radical and writer, self-educated and driven from an early age by anger at the way in which women were oppressed.

University of Chicago, The N e w EncvcloQ&&i Rri-, Vol. 12, ~icropedia, united States of America, 1771, 1988 edn . , p.733.

Sinclair, n.22, p . 2 0 7 .

Mariamies, n.23, p.22.

Amaury de Riencourt, & w n and Power in Historv, Sterling Publishers Pvt. L t d . , N e w Delhi, 1989, p.312.

. . Jean Crimshaw, Pemlnlst P ~ ~ ~ o s Q D ~ , Harvester Wheatsheaf , London, 1986, p . 8 .

In 1869 five medical students admitted to the medical courses in Edinburgh were refused permission to cont inue their courses due to riots from some male students and faculty members against their admission. They protested and later went to London and started the School of Medicine for women.

Mariamies, n.23, p . 8 8 .

Chartism was a British working-class movement for social reform that normally came into existence after the publication of The People's Charter in May 1838.

Bncvclo~edia America-, Grolier Incorporated, Danbury, 1829, 1988, p.326.

Ibid, Pp.104-105.

William D.P.Bliss (ed.), me Encvclowedia of S~cial Reform, W e s t Port, 1897, 1970, p .1406 .

John Stuart Mill: - English Philosopher, economist and politician. Probably the best known, most influential man in the history of feminism, he presented the classic liberal argument for women's rights in The Subjuqation of Women (1869).

The Encyclopedia of Social Reform says; 'votes eighty three in favour and one hundred and ninety six against'.

Lovenduski, Polltlcs . . Conte- and Puhllc nolicv, Wheatsheaf Books ~imited,

Brighton, 1986, p.28.

Mariamies, n.23, p.92.

Some of t h e leading suffragettes included Emmeline Pankhurstfs daughters, Christobel and Sylvia; Millicent Garret Fawcett, a long time champion of women's rights; Countess Markieviez, the Irish revolutionary; and well- known figures such as Lady Pethwick Lawrence and Lady Constance Lytton, and working-class militants such as the cotton mill worker Annie Kenney.

S inc la ir , n.22 , p.211.

Mariamies, n.23, p.96.

0 . . a

Jo Campling (ed. ) , e, The Macmillan Press Limited, London, 1992, p .38 .

Mariamies, n.23, p . 9 9 .

Ibid.

. . Jo Campling, q, The Macmillan Press Limited, London, 1992, Pp.148-149.

. . Barbara Ryan, F e r n ~ l s m and t h e Women's Movement, Routledge, New York, 1992, p.42.

Tuttle, n.11, p . 3 5 9 .

Encyclopedia of A m e r w , Grolier Incorporated, Danbury, 1829, 1988, p.110.

Ibid, p.110.

Tuttle, n.11, p.361. The best known of early feminist writers in Europe w a s Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-97).In 1791, she wrote the Vindication of the Rights of Women, in which she challenged all t h e prevailing n a t i o n s about women's rationality.

CHAPTER IX

WOHBN'S I30VEKENTS IN INDIA

Many historians hold the view that w o m e n i n India in the

early Vedic period' enjoyed a f a i r l y hiyh status in comparison

with t h e later periods. Altekar observes: "Girls were educated

like boys and had to pass through a period of brahmacharya. Many

of them used to become distinguished poetesses and the poems of

some of them have been honoured by their inclusion in the

canonical literature. The marriages of girls used to takeplace at

a fairly advanced age, the normal time being sixteen or

seventeen . Educated brides of this age had normally an

effective voice in the selection of their partners in life. In

social and religious gatherings they occupied a prominent

position. Women had an absolute equality with men in the eye of

religion; they could perform sacrifices independently and were

not regarded as an impediment in religious pursuits. n 2

Even though the Rigvedic society was patriarchal in nature,

women enjoyed a relatively high statusm3 In Vedic period s a t i

custom was n o t in vogue and widow remarriage was allowed. Tara

Ali Baig notes that Rigvedic society was based on moncgamy.' The

main disability from which women suffered in this age, a s well

a s in t h e next one , was proprietary in nature. They could not

hold or inherit property. Altekar contends that landed property

could be owned only by one who had the power to defend it against

actual or potential rivals and enemies.6 However, from the above

details it can be safely assumed that women in the Vedic period

enjoyed a high status.

It is believed that the position enjoyed by women in the

early Vedic period changed gradually in the later periods. In t h e

age o f Later Sarnhitas, Brahmanas and upanishads7 a decline in

education and greater seclusion of women could be observed.

Following the gradual decline in female education all their

privileges also received a set back. Accordingly their religious

rights were also curtailed. But t h e change was gradual.

"Naturally there was no tonsure (shaving of the head) of widows,

purdah was altogether unknown, but women had ceased to attend

public meetings."' The two main reasons put forward by Altekar

for t h e decline of the status of women are:

( i ) introduction of the non-aryan wife (who was uneducated and

had no knowledge of their religious practices) into the

aryan household, and

(ii) the growing complexity of t h e Vedic sacrifices which

required long training for the students, So it became

difficult for a female student to spend long years to get

education and training in religious matters. 9

During the age of t h e Sutras, the Epics and the Early

amh hi tas1° women's position deteriorated considerably.

Marriageable age w a s lowered, widow remarriages w e r e discouraged

and the practice of s a t i started appearing in society during this

period.

Women continued to fall lower in the social ladder till the

code of Manu summed up her position: The father protects a woman

in her childhood, husband during her youth, her son, in old age;

a woman is never f i t for independence. l1 It was Manu's code which

became a part and parcel of Hindu Law. Though Buddhism provided

women certain privileges and greater freedom: they were not

regarded as equals with men. It is significant that "even in the

liberated rules of Buddhism, a nun howsoever advanced in her

faith, was always subordinated to the youngest novice among the

brethren". 12

The period from the invasion of India by Mohammed of G h o r to

t h e establishment of British authority in the second half of the

eighteenth century witnessed in general the further deterioration

of the position of women in India. The medieval period which

synchronised with Muslim rule had brought further deterioration

in their position. There were many factors directly and

indirectly responsible for the continuous deterioration in the

status of women in the medieval times. The then prevailing

conditions in the society demanded the protection of women from

t h e eyes of Muslim rulers and led to the system of "purdahm13

which blocked the way of their further progress. Early marriage

became a rule to safeguard the honour and chastity of g i r l s . In

addition to these cruel customs, the disabilities to which Indian

women ware subjected to were sati, polygamy, kulinism15 and

e n f o r c e d widowhood. This was the social situation when the

c o u n t r y passed under t h e political domination of the ~ritish.

The introduction of English education, the activities of

Christian missionaries and the impact of ideas of liberalism,

democracy and equality from the W e s t contributed to a new

awakening in India in t h e nineteenth c e n t u r y . The first English

eddcated Indian elite welcomed the introduction of English

education throughout the country. They began to view many of

their social practices and beliefs critically. In their urge for

change, they also aspired "to bridge the increased gap between

husband and wife (women were not usually given education) and to

enable wives to prepare their sons for a western educated

milieu".16 These western educated Indians were the pioneers of

social reforms in India. They focused their reform activities on

women and their education. Moreover, English education helped

men and women of India to know and study about various movements

in other countries of the world.

Christian missionaries started working in India from the

early part of the nineteenth century itself. They d i d commendable

social service by opening orphanages, widow homes and schools.

They vehemently criticised Hindu values, beliefs and customs.

Though their major aim was conversion of people to their faith,

it aroused a new spirit and rethinking of values among Indians

and introduced improvements in Hindu society. The elevation of

the status of women became one of the main planks i n the

consequent social reform movements.

The British authorities had initially followed a policy of

strict neutrality towards indigenous socio-religious problems.

But the reformist zeal of enlightened educated Indians forced a

change in their stand. Pioneers among the champions of social

reformers were Raja Rammohan Roy, Dhondo Keshav Karve, Mahadev

Gavinda Ranade, Behramji Halabari, Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar,

and Swamy Dayananda Saraswati.

Rammohan Roy was the first Indian social reformer who took

up t h e cause of women. Barn in 1772 in a Kulin Brahmin family, 17

he became a great scholar in Arabic, Persian and Sanskrit.

Pained by t h e prevailing socio-religious maladies of the time in

India, Rammohan Roy was determined to work for reforms. He viewed

English education as one of the means for reforming Indian

society and th rough his persistent effort got it introduced in

India. H i s historic agitation, against strong opposition from

orthodox Hindu leaders, to end the cruel practice of a, resulted in the declaration of as illegal in 1829. 18

To further his reform activities, Rammohan Roy founded the

Brahma Samaj or Divine Society which upheld the unity of God,

decried idol worship, advocated communal harrnonylg and championed

the cause of women. The freedom and equality of women and

remarriage of widows figured prominently among the goal of the

Sama j.

Rammohan Roy also opposed polygamy and considered it a s a

blot on t h e f a i r name of ~induism. 20 One of his pamphlets 'Modern

Encroachment on t h e Ancient Kights of Female' stressed the need

f o r removing the property disabilities of women. 2 1

Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar's name is associated with two

important reforms, namely t h e education of girls and widow

remarriage. Born in 1820 in a Brahmin family, he became the

Principal of t h e Sanskrit College, i.n ~alcutta. 22 Vidyasagar took

an important part in the vigorous campaign in favour of widow

remarriage in Bengal. H i s endeavors were responsible for A c t 1 of

1856 legalising the remarriage of Hindu widows. 23 In the five

years following the enactment of the Widow Remarriage A c t , twenty

five widow marriages were performed through the efforts of

Vidyasagar who was also liberal w i t h monetary h e l p . 2 4 He used

his time and energy to educate girls. He was largely responsible

for helping the government to found t h e first girls* school in

Calcutta in 1849. He established as many as forty girls' schools

in Bengal between 1855 and 1858.25

Swamy Dayanand Saraswati who founded Arya Samaj in 1875, 26

was another staunch advocate of women's freedom and education. He

was a l s o highly critical of the system of dowry and early

marriage of girls. He recommended the study of Vedas and other

holy scriptures for women and exhorted them to follow the example

of ~ a r ~ i ~ ~ and Maitreyi. 28 In order to execute his programme, t h e

leaders of Arya Samaj opened a large number of girls' schools

throughout northern India. 29

Kesab Chandra Sen w a s another great social reformer of the

time in India. He was born in 1838. Sen joined the Brahma Samaj

in 1857 and was a whole time missionary of t h e Samaj. In 1859, he

staged a drama on widow remarriage which openly a t t a c k e d the

practice of Kulinism. Sen brought to the Brahma Samaj a dynamic

force which it never possessed before. B u t the advanced ideas of

s o c i a l reforms, such as inter-caste marriage, widow remarriage

and t h e removal of purdah f o r women did not find favour with t h e

oRder section of the Samaj l e d by Devendranath Tagore. This led

to an open conflict and Sen and h i s followers formed a new

organisation called 'The Brahma Samaj of India' in 1866. 30 In

1870 he founded the Indian R e f o r m Association, w i t h the welfare

and emancipation of women a s its major objectives. The education

of women got special attention of Kesab Chandra Sen. He started

an organisation f o r educating female members at home.

. . -- a magazine for women was started. He inaugurated a

prayer meeting called Brahmika Samaj, an organisation exclusively

meant for women. H i s campaign against early marriages facilitated

t h e Civil Marriage A c t of 1872. 31

Mahadev Govinda Ranade was the leader of social reform and

cultural renaissance in Western India. He w a s born in the Nasik

district of Mahsrashtra in 1 8 4 2 . ~ ~ In 1870 he joined the

Prarthana Sarna j, the counterpart of the Brahma ~ a m a j in Western

India. He was an active m e m b e r of t h e Poona Sarvajanik Sabha and

w a s connected with over twenty Association at Poona. He worked

a g a i n s t the social abuses and advocated women's education. H e

also formed the National Social Conference (NSC) i n 1887 to

provide an all India forum for discussion of social reforms. 3 3

Ranade began his work by giving education to h i s wife. H e taught

her and encouraged her to immerse herself in social reform

movements. Soon Remabai Ranade became a pioneering woman social

reformer -

Behrarnj i Malabari was a journalist who did commendable work

against social evils. He was very much inspired by Christianity.

Malabari devoted his life in fighting against child marriage and

enforced widowhood. He founded a journal, Indian Soectator, to

spread h i s reformist ideas. He published two n o t e s - 'Infant

Marriage' in India and 'Enforced Widowhoodr in 1884. 3 4 Thus

through publications and by his speeches he roused public opinion

against those social evils and worked for legislative remedy. His

efforts m e t w i t h success when in the year 1891 t h e A g e of Consent

~ i 1 1 ~ ~ was passed.

Another Great reformer was - Dhondo Kesav Karve who worked

enthusiastically for the emancipation of women in India. On the

death of his first w i f e , Karve married a widow in 1893. In the

same year he founded an association in Maharashrta to which

admission was restricted only to persons who had re-married or

had the courage to dine openly w i t h re-married couples. Karve

signalized t h e launching of this association by starting a

boarding house in h i s own home and under the supervision of

himself and h i s w i f e , for the children of re-married couples. 36

Karve's yreatest achievement was in t h e field of women's

education. In 1 9 0 7 he founded the Mahila Vidyalaya with the

assistance of Deccan Education Though the efforts met

with considerable opposition, Karve's Women's University was

formed o n 2 0 June 1916 at Poona. 38 In 1908 he established t h e

Nishkam Karmamath for training a body of selfless w o r k e r s . Later

he was awarded Bharath Ratna for h i s services. 3 9

The efforts for the betterment of the status of women in

India, pioneered by a group of eminent men, were soon taken up by

women themselves, Their efforts to improve the condition of women

in India laid the foundation of the women's movement in India.

The pioneers among women social reformers were Pandita Ramabai,

Rarnabai Ranade, Anandibai Joshi, Francina Sorabji, Cornalia,

Dr.Annie Jagannadhan, Swarna Kurnari Debi and Rukmabai.

Panditha Ramabai was born in Mysore in 1858, as the

daughter of Ananth Sastri, a very learned man, who encountered

persecutions for h i s conviction that women had the same right to

higher knowledge as men themselves possessed. Ramabai imbibed

this s p i r i t from her father.40 In her early years she suffered

many hardships because of poverty, diseases, death of her parents

and hostility from the public. By overcoming a l l hardships she

became an eminent scholar and emerged as an individual with a

qreat mission in life. Even conservative men appreciated her

scholarship. In 1878, the title of 'Saraswati' w a s conferred on

h e r . Later she was honoured w i t h the title of Pandita. 4 1 H e r

denunciations of men for keeping women down, her marriage out of

her caste and the criticism of popular Hinduism roused the ire

of t h e orthodox aqainst her; but they admired her scholarship and

eloquence. 4 2 She took up women's upliftment as her mission. And

concentrated her activities on improving the condition of widows

a n d on t h e education of women. For that she sought help a n d

i n s p i r a t i o n from abroad. Ramabai was attracted to western ideas

and embraced Christianity in 1883 when she visited ~ n ~ l a n d . 4 3 She

studied the education system in America and concentrated on

women's education in India.

Ramabai started the Aryh Mahila Sarnaj at Poona.44 By writing

books and delivering lectures about t h e sad condition of child

widows in India, she sought financial support from America. And

she succeeded in opening her first home for widows called Sarada

Sadan i n Bombay in 1 ~ 8 9 . ~ ~ H e r great enterprise of educating

widows begun at Sarada Sadan in Bombay grew rapidly, particularly

during t h e t i m e of the Great Famine in 1896. 4 6 Hex dedication

to the cause of widows was great. This is evident from her

mission to save widows from Vrinddvan, She had heard that

priests were using widows for immoral traffic and the number of

temple prostitutes was increasing. For fifteen days she lived in

Vrindavan in t h e guise of a beggar and convinced seven widows to

go with her to Poona. B u t they w e r e locked up by t h e priests, and

s h e could rescue only one against threat to h e r own life. She

started relief work during the famine of 1897, and rescued about

sixty women from t h e She founded many i n s t - i t u t i o n s for

the welfare of lower castes and women. Besides schools for

children, s h e opened a t r a i n i n g school f o r teachers and an

industrial school with garden, field, oil press, diary, laundry,

departments for baking, sewing, weaving and embroidery. 4 8 She

encountered many hardships during her efforts to improve the lot

of Indian women. Y e t s h e continued her efforts with great

enthusiasm and became an encouraging force f o r other social

reformers. Pandita Ramabai was regarded as the first great woman

pioneer who laid solid foundations for Indian women's freedom and

education. 4 9

Ramabai Ranade , wi f e of the great social reformer Justice

Ranade, was another outstanding woman who devoted her l i f e f o r

women's emancipation. Her major work was in the f i e l d of women's

education. In t h e campaign of women's suffrage also her

contribution was immense. 50 She joined the Arya Mahila Sama j in

1881 and worked hard to organize the womenfolk. In Bombay she

founded the Hindu Ladies Social and Literary Club, which

conducted regular classes on subjects like religion, medicine and

industry. The classes tried to spread literacy too. 51 When the

social conference m e t in Bombay in 1904, she presided over t h e

session specially convened for w o m e n . 52 In 1910 s h e published

her \ReminiscencesF which was later translated into many

languages. In 1913, when a severe famine affected Gu jarat and

Palanpur, she led a group of workers from Seva Sadan who

distributed food grains, clothes and medicines to the affected

people. She pres ided over the meetings of Bhara th Mahila Parishad

on f o u r occasions and her speeches laid qreat stress on t h e

education of women. 5 3 She protested i n 1914 against the British

policy towards Indians in South Africa, led an aqitation in Poona

in 1920 f o r free and compulsory education for girls, and from

1919 onwards took an active part in the suffrage movement. 54

Swarna Kumari Dehi - t h e sister of Rabindranatha Tagore was

a famous social reformer of Bengal. Tn 1886, she s tar ted a Ladies

Association in order to promote friendly intercourse among Indian

women and to provide a home fo r education of poor g i r l s and to

prepare them f o r employment. She become t h e president of t h e

Theosophical Society of Bengal fo r 1885-86. 55

Frncina Sorabji w a s a distinguished woman who contributed to

t h e social reform movement of t h e time. She w a s an ardent

advocate of women's education. Francina established many

educational institutions for girls at Poone.

Other great women who worked for the emancipation of women

included Dr-Anandibai Joshi (1865-87)- a contemporary and friend

of Pandita Rarnabai, Cornelia, Dr-Annie Jagannadhan and

Rukrnabai who rebelled against tradition in order to join a

medical college. These names are however only indicative. Among

the great social reformers of t h e time are Swami Vivekananda,

Sree Ramakrishna Paramahamsar, Sasipada Banerjee, Rabindranatha

Tagore and Gopalakrishna Gokhale. Mahatma Gandhi's name is the

foremost while discussing t h e names of social reformers. H i s idea

of women's emancipation and h i s approach to their problems w e r e

novel and he w a s the person w h o talked abou t complete equality

between men and women during that period. Gandhiji organised

women on a mass scale and b r o u g h t them to t h e forefront of the

national movement.

Besides the individual reformers, several social reform

organisations took up the cause of women's upliftment by

organising women and propagating ideas against the evil practices

concerning women and advocating education for women. Such

pioneering organisations were s tar ted by early reformers like

Rammohan Roy, Ranade, Swamy Dayanand Saraswati and others.

Notable among these organisations were the Brahma Samaj (founded

in 1828), the Prarthana Samaj (1867), the Arya Samaj (18751, Deva

Sama j, the Sikh Association, Servants of India Society ( 1905) ,

Social Service League, Seva Sadan, Sarada Sadan, Bombay

Provincial Social Conference, Bombay Presidency Social Reforms

Association, 56 Theosophical Society ( 1886) , Ramakrishna Mission

( 1 8 9 8 ) and the Decan Education Society (1880). 57

M o s t of these organisations aimed at social and religious

reforms. And so women's upliftment became one of the major

objectives of many of these organisations. They led campaigns for

women's emancipation and established schools for their education.

Later many associations and institutions were started solely for

women. Many of these organisations were either started by men or

d i r e c t e d by m e n .

Many of the reform associations started durinq 1 R 7 U r s h a d

their women's wing too. In 1866 Brahma Samaj split i n t o t h e

Brahrna Samaj of India led by Kesab Chandra S e n a n d the A d i

Brahma Samaj led by Debendranath Tagore. Under the leadership of

Kesab, the Samaj opened a g ir l s ' school, s t a r t e d a women's

magazine, the m a b ~ d h i n i ( l 8 6 3 ) , and founded a women's branch,

the Bramika Samaj in 1865. The women attended Brahmo religious

ceremonies, though they s a t behind a curtain. Social opposition

to this early women's associat i .on was illustrated by t h e

excommunication of women by their nan-Brahmo relatives. 58 Brahma

Samaj was divided into liberal and conservat ive factions in

1870's and 80's- namely Navabidhan Brahma Samaj and Sadharan

Brahma Sama j. Arya Nari Sama j and Banga Mahila Sarnaj were the

corresponding women's branches of the above mentioned

associations. 59

Soon women took up t h e leadership and started various

women's organisations and thus gave a powerful lead to t h e social

reform movement, especially t h e women's movement. The

organisations thus started focused their activities on improving

the condition of widows and giv ing them education.

Sarada Sadan was founded by Pandita Ramabai in 1889 in

Bombay. A similar institution was founded in Poona in 1892. Sri

Mahipatram Rupram Anadhasram was started by her at Ahmedabad in

1892. This w a s to help widows and to give shelter to illegitimate

c h i ldren . 60 Swarna Kumari Debi in 1886 formed a Ladies

Association to provide home for the education of poor g i r l s and

to prepare them for employment. 61 In 1909 Seva Sadan w a s

established by Ramabai Ranade. It provided a home f o r women,

imparted education and prepared them f o r social work. In 1904,

leaders of National Social Conference organised a women's section

which held annual conferences during t h e National social

Conference sessions. This with the name Bharat Mahila Parishat,

organised educational and inspirational programmes in which women

of distinction like Ramabai Ranade, Annie Besant, S a r o j i n i

Naidu, Ganguli and several Maharanis made speeches. 6 2

In Madras Presidency, an Indian Christian social reformer,

Dr.Sattinadhan, encouraged h i s wife Kamala to s t a r t Indian

Ladies Magazine in 1901. She edited the magazine f o r many years.

Subbalakshmi Ammal founded a Brahmin Widows' home in 1913 and the

Mahila Seva Samaj of Mysore in the same year. In 1909, Rameswari

Nehru organised a Mahila Samiti in Allahabad. The early

associations and their agitations against social evils in the

community encountered bitter opposition also. Muslims, especially

Muslim women were very backward in education. So Muslim Women's

association were conspicuous by their absence, in t h e early

period. All India Muslim Women's Conference was started only in

1916 by the Begum of Bhopal. In 1917, Abrubegum proposed a

resolution against polygamy which provoked opposition from

Muslims. Opposition also was encountered by Sheikh and B e g u m

Abdulla when they s tarted a girls' school in Aligarh in 1906 and

by A t i y a Begum and Sakhawat Hussain when they tried to be

a d m i t t e d to the All India Muslim Educational Conference in

1 9 2 6 . " Meanwhile YWCA (Young Women's Christian Association) was

a c t i v e among Christians.

Hundreds of s u c h women's associations w e r e formed in the

early part of t h e twentieth century of which only some are

mentioned here. B e t w e e n 1910 and 1930 several National level

women's organisations were formed and they widened and

strengthened the women's movements in India.

Major women's associations formed during the period are

Bharat Stri Mahamandal (BSM) founded in 1910 by Saraladevi

Choudhurani, Women's Indian Association (WIA) founded in 1917 by

Annie Besant, Dorothy Jinarajadasa and Margaret Cousins, Bombay

Presidency Women's council (BPWC) , founded in 1918 by Lady Tata

and others who had been act ive in war work; National Council of

Women in India (NCWI), founded in 1925 by Lady Aberdeen of t h e

International Council of Women, Lady Tata and others from BPWC;

and t h e All India Women's Conference (AIWC) or Akhil Hind Hahila

Parishad (AHMP) founded in 1927 through the efforts of Margaret

Cousins and others. 64 Among the nationwide womenr s organisations

started during the first and second decade of twentieth century,

All India Women's Conference become the most influential

organisation of the time in terms of its performance to t h e cause

of women.

All India Women's Conference began functioning from 1 9 2 6

with the sole objective of imparting education to women, but

later enlarged its scope to include social reform. It w a s

primarily concerned with influencing government policy on women

in m a t t e r s of education, social service, law, s u f t r a q e , health

and employment. From the 1 9 3 0 ' s a notable shift in i ts

perspectives can be seen. It got involved in making resolutions

on a wide range of development issues and talked in terms of

equality between the sexes as a necessary condition of social

development. The net-work of branches all over India widened its

realm of ac t ion . It played an important role in pressurisinq the

government to make social legislations. It took a lead in the

suffrage movement also.

By 1930's Women's Indian Association became a part of AIWC.

Thus it became one of the most influential organisations which

focused its efforts on women's education and women's suffrage.

This organisation acted as a training ground f o r many women

leaders who later took part actively in t h e National Movement and

held responsible positions in t h e government after independence.

The political awakening in India and the participation of

women in the national movement gave a new turn to the women's

movement of I n d i a . It provided a new stage for women to work side

by side with men in t h e public arena. Such a mass part ic ipat ion

under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi gave women a s e n s e of

equality with men. This imparted greater strength to the wcmen's

movement .

After the beqinninq of the world war I, some elite women had

a t t e n d e d political meetings. T h c outstanding of these women were

Annie Besant, Sarojini Naidu and Bi Amma, the mother of

Mohammed Ali. 6 5 Few women w e r e associated with the National

Congress initially. They a t t e n d e d the sess ions of t h e Indian

National Congress as w i v e s and visitors. The first Indian woman

who entered into active politics and lived to see India attain

freedom was Saro jini ~ a i d u . 6 6 There was no woman delegate among

those who e n t e r e d their names in the register at the inaugural

meeting of the Indian National Congress. A woman deleqate

part ic ipated for the first time in the fifth annual session, in

1889. She w a s Kadambini Ganguly, who was the first women to

graduate in medical science. 67

When Annie Besant formed the H o m e Rule League in 1916,

there began an accentuation of the ideal of unity in India, and

women of different provinces m e t together to exchange views on

vital national issues. 68 The League also had established a

women's branch to meet and discuss political issues w i t h o u t the

inhibiting presence of men. The movement against the p a r t i t i o n of

Bengal in 1905 included women also.

Women participated in the first major political satyagraha

in 1919, but only in limited numbers. Small and isolated groups

of women held political meetings in Bombay and Punjab. Annie

~esant~' and Sarojini ~aidu~' addressed meetings in Bombay to

educate women on the nature of satyagraha, and Kasturba Gandhi

and Karnaladevi chathopadhyay7' s o l d proscribed 1 iterature in

the streets. A t the A I C C session of 1922, of the t h r e e hundred

and fifty delegates, sixteen were women.72 The first woman to be

elected as president was Annie Besant in 1917. Eight y e a r s later

in 1925, Sarojini Naidu became its second woman president. 73

T h e Khilafath and Non co-opexation campaigns (1918-1922)

marked t h e beginning of Gandhiji's leadership of the Indian

nationalist movement.74 He combined t h e problems of women with

t h e struggle for freedom and attacked social evils by appealing

to t h e nationalist feelings of the people. Gandhiji w a s t h e

first great pioneer who brought women out of the four walls of

home and then to the forefront of the freedom struggle. A t a t i m e

when no reformers spoke of women's equality with men, Gandhi ji

throughout h i s l i f e , maintained and worked for the equality of

women w i t h men. He belived in women's ability, strength of will

and character to stand her own and to work with men.75 According

to him, the soul in both man and woman is the same. The two live

t h e same life, have t h e same feelings. 76

Gandhiji was totally against the evil customs like dowry,

child marriage and enforced widowhood, and asked the public not

to re ly completely on t h e religious t e x t s alone but to follow

one's own reason on every issues which an individual or society

confronted. He s a i d : "all t h a t is printed in the name of

scriptures need not be taken as the word of God or t h e inspired

For him, woman is the companion of man gifted with equal

mental capacities. She has the right to participate in the

minutest detail of activities of man, and she h a s the same right

of freedom and liberty as he. 7 8

Gandhi ji's ideas and views had great impact on t h e minds of

Indian people. Women's problems were discussed by h i m in his

newspapers. When he called upon women to join Indian National

Congress and to work for the independence of the c o u n t r y , the

response was tremendous . They joined t h e Congress , worked

wholeheartedly and proved themselves as mare compatible for non-

violent struggle than men. In a l l the satyagraha movements

launched by Gandhiji women participated in great numbers. Police

violence or, riqorous imprisonments did not deter them.

The Civil Disobedience Movement of 1930 elicited wide

enthusiasm among women. They took part actively in it and carried

illicit salt in their sarees. Under t h e leadership of Kasthurba

Gandhi, women volunteers picketed before the liquor shops. 79

Sarojini Naidu assumed the leadership of the satyagraha a t

Darsana, the scene for the mass breaking of salt laws. Numerous

women marched in processions, p i c k e t e d shops selling foreign

cloth and liquor. They spun and propagated Khadi, went to jails

during the nan-cooperation movement and participated actively in

the revolutionary movement. 80

Gandhiji's constructive programme provided women with

education and t r a i n i n g i n the fundamentals of organised activity

and propaganda. And thus women could accept supportive as well as

leadership roles in t h e constructive proqramme without any fear

of stepping outside t h e limits of conventional behaviour . Women

were encouraged to participate in t h e programme of khadi,

village industry, prohibition and eradication of untouchability.

At the annual AICC meetings of the Indian National Congress,

women were present as members and were appointed as delegates.

Gandhiji had established a convention of electing at least one

woman member to the e l i t e working committee of the Congress.

Saro jini Naidu for many years filled this position. 82 ~andhiji ' s

leadership in t h e National movement provided many women an

opportunity to rise in politics and to become leaders. Their mass

participation in the Nat ional movement helped a general

awakening, which contributed to t h e formation of many women's

organisation and to t h e women's movement as a whole.

The few names of women who worked wholeheartedly side by

side with men in t h e national movement and thus gave strength to

the women's movement were Suchetha Kripalani (wife of J B

Kripalani), Anasuya Sarabhai (the sister of Ambalal Sarabhai,

a wealthy textile industrialist and a devoted follower of

Gandhiji), Manibehn Pate1 (daughter of Pyarelal Nayyar),

Basanti Devi (wife of C R D a s ) , Begum Hasrat Mohani (a delegate

to the A I C C meetings, member of All India Muslim Conference),

Kamala Nehru, Rajkumari Amrit Kaur, Mridula Sarabhai (daughter

of Ambalal Sarabhai), Satyavati grand daughter of Swami

Sradhananda ) and Dr. Muthulakshmi ~ e d d ~ ~ 3.

Women of India n o t o n l y played their ro le in the non-

violence s t r u g g l e but also engaged in the secret missions aimed

at the early attainment of freedom. During t h e 'Quit India

Movement' Gandhiji's 'Do or Die' pledge encouraged women like

Aruna Asaf Ali, Sucheta Kripalani, and Usha Mehta, who assumed

the leadership of the movement i n various places while staying

underground.

B i n a Das, Preethi Lata Waddedar, both from Bengal and

Kalpana Dutt as members of secret and terrorist societies had

undertaken dangerous assignments and pursued politics of violence

in the National movement.84 Thus though the participation of

w o m e n in the movement and their role in the leadership of t h e

movement w a s in no way near to that of men, their presence can be

seen and felt in almost all fields of a c t i v i t i e s in the national

movement.

The movement for obtaining the right to vote for women in

India deserves special mention. Before 1920 the women of India

were not given t h e right to vote. During t h e freedom struggle

women leaders organised and launched a movement to win womenf s

suffrage. It s t a r t e d when in 1917 under the leadership of

Sarojini Naidu, a group of twelve members including Annie

Besant, and Dorothy Jinarajadasa appeared before Lord

Montague and demanded women's franchise. 86 I n i t i a l l y British

authorities ignored women's demand. But later t h e government left

the matter to the decisions of Indian legislatures.

When i n 1920 British qovernment published The Rules for

Elections to Provincial Legislative Councils , Women's Indian

Association arranged a campaign. T h e number of women involved in

this varied across the provinces. The Bombay campaign appeared to

be the most vigorous, as nineteen women's associations and over

800 women including some European women, participated i n it. 8 7

Finally, in 1923 and 1924, some Indian S t a t e Legislatures

enfranchised women,88 Other states also enfranchised women in the

following years. A f t e r securing franchise women leaders started

a second campaign for the removal of t h e ban on women entering

legislatures. Without much effort women won that campaign also.

Suffrage Movement was a great success fo r the women's movement in

India. And it gave them an impetus to struggle f o r better results

i n other areas.

T h e women's movement during the post-independence period can

be divided into three phases:-

i) the period from 1947 to t h e late 60's, which is charactrised

by complacency and acquiescence after the attainment of

formal equality and liberation under the constitution;

ii) the period from the late 6 0 ' s till 1975, which is marked by

growing economic crisis leading to rural revolts in which

women actively participated; and

i i i ) the post 1975 period which is witnessed by tremendous

changes within the women's movement: the observance of

International Women's Year and the International Women's

Decade 1975-1985; abundance of systematic study and

research on women's issues, the submission of the report on

the status of women (Towards Equality), anti-rape campaign,

the influence of western feminist groups and t h e emergence

and proliferation of a new type of women's osganisations.

In India, women's movement engaged as part of t h e national

movement. The first wave of the women's movement in the country

lost i t s vigor and enthusiasm after the attainment of equality

before law. The absence of an inspiring goal like t h e quest for

freedom naturally weakened the women's movement. Equality before

law guaranteed by t h e Constitution of India aroused in women a

feeling that their problems were solved. Most of the women's

organisations of the time ceased to be a c t i v e . Some organisations

settled down to do welfare work among women with the grant

provided by the government.

Vibhut i Patel remarks: "Once independence w a s achieved,

Indian women left public life. Larger issues of society no more

concerned them. Women's organisations got themselves immersed in

routine a c t i v i t y of cookery, sewing and embroidery classes,

fashion parades, henna competition etc. 89

A period of stagnation prevailed on the scene for a long

period in India. This in no way means that the problems of women

disappeared or that they were getting equal treatment in every

walk of their lives. A new awakening of women could be seen only

in 1970's after the formation of autonomous women's groups. There

were some women's organisations working in India since the early

decades of the n i n e t e e n t h century, like All I n d i a Women's

Conference which followed a liberal feminist ideoloqy. The spread

of autonomous women's groups in the country gave a n impetus to

t h e feminist movement in India. They took up issues concerning

women and fought vehemently against oppression, exploitation,

injustice and discrimination agains t women in society. This

positively contributed to t h e origin of a second feminist

movement in India.

During the late 1960's India witnessed militant mass

movements involving industrial workers, tribals, agricultural

labourers and middle class masses. In all these general

struggles, women also actively participated. T h e economic and

political events in the late 1960's and the resultant discontent

among the people were t h e major factor behind these mass

movements.

Nanditha Gandhi writes: "The Indian economy, after an

i n i t i a l spurt settled at stagnation level. The increase in

unproductive expenditure during the China and Pakistan wars in

1962 and 1971, famine and drought, coupled w i t h fluctuations in

foreign aid forced t h e Indira Gandhi government to double the

amount of deficit financing, prices of all commodities shot up,

and black marketing took over. E s s e n t i a l commodities like food

grains, sugar and oil saw a twenty five percent to thirty percent

increase every year. official measures to check inflation like

wage freezes and credit controls only frustrated an already

disillusioned and e c o n o m i c a l l y battered people. The urban working

class, agricultural labourers and sections of the middle class

-1oined different political streams to voice their

discontentment. 91 V a r i o u s movements emerged in different states

and spread to other parts of the country. The opposition parties

organised campaigns against corruption, unemployment and price

rise. The movements of the period included t h e Anti- price rise

movement of 1972, the Naxalbari movement which s t a r t e d in 1967,

the Chipko movement of 1970's and various other movements led by

industrial workers , students and agriculturai labourers.

Majority of t h e s e struggles covered Kerala, Andhra Pradesh

and Tamilnadu in the south; Maharastra, Goa, Gujarat in the w e s t ;

Bihar, Rajasthan, Utter Pradesh, D e l h i in t h e north; and West

Bengal and Assam in the eastern parts of India.

The anti-price rise movement in Maharastra, G u j a r a t and

Madhya Pradesh saw the m o s t massive women's mabilisation of the

time. The economic c r i s i s of that period affected family as a

whole. The increasing debts and the consequent misery in t h e

family brought women to t h e forefront of the campaign.92 Various

women's orqanisations including womenfs w i n g s of political

parties led the movement and mobilised women belonging to all

sections.

During this time, politically leftist part i e s showed much

interest in mobilizing women. In 1954, National Federation of

Indian Women w a s formed. 9 3 This was organised by some women party

members who had worked in t h e AIWC before i n d e p e n d e n c e . I n 1 9 7 1

the C P l ( M ) recognised t h e need f o r a women's organisation and

set up Sramic Mahila Sanghathanna (Working Women's Organisation)

to mobilize women. The socialist par ty also organised a women's

wing.

All t h e s e women's organisations joined with other women's

organisations like Samajvadi Mahila Sabha, Bharatiya Mahila Sabha

and Bharatiya Mahila Federation (state branch of the C P I

affiliated to NFIW) led the anti-price rise movement by

organising an Anti price rise Joint Women's ~ront.'~ The protest

movements organised between 1973-75 included women from Congress

and non-party middle class housewives. Their activities included

mass concientisation, gheraos of ministers and industrialists,

demonstrations and public meetings and marches with rotis

attached to their rolling pins. The anti-price rise movement was

suspended after t h e declaration of t h e S t a t e of Emergency. The

Naxalbari movement which began in 1967 also had active

participation of women, It first originated in West Bengal and

later spread to Maharastra, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil

Nadu. This struggle helped to strengthen the organisation of

agricultural labourers on wages and land issues.

The forest protection movement of 1970s in the North Indian

hill areas is regarded as a women's movement. This spread t h r o u g h

out India and is known as 'Chipko Movement'. This movement in

the Utter khand region of Himalayas w a s largely a tribal-women-

centered struggle where women had clung to the trees i n o rde r to

protect them from the saws of the contractor's men. A s the

forests were increasingly felled f o r commercial i n d u s t r y , the

women sought to protect their livelihood through the Gandhian

method of satyagraha and non-violent resistance.

I n 1974 the village women of Reni forest of Chamoli district

in Utter Pradesh decided to a c t against a commercial enterprise

intent on felling some t w o thousand five hundred trees. T o

protest against this, women joined hands and encircled the trees.

To cut t h e trees, they would first have to cut-off their heads.

Thus the Reni forest was saved. 95

Movements of agricultural workers for minimum wages, land

rights and against feudal servitude durinq 1970's i n Kerala,

Andhra Pradesh and Tarnilnadu also witnessed very keen

participation of women agricultural labourers. Because of

increasing agrarian unrest, the government had to come up w i t h

various schemes f o r the employment of rural poor. Rural women

constitute more than half of the "beneficiaries" of the r u r a l

employment scheme. They have also participated in the struggle

against corruption and sexual harassment by the contractors and

government off ic ia ls involved in such schemes. 96

The intensive movements of different sections of people

which spread all over India got a set back due to the imposition

of Emergency in 1975. However this added to the climate of

d i s s e n t . The objectives of t h e movements of the 60ts were mostly

general issues. Women's specific issues did not appear

prominently in these movements. H o w e v e r participation of women i n

these movements helped them to rethink their problems. They

became aware of the fact t h a t unlike men they dre doubly

oppressed in t h e society. This developed in them a w i s h f o r

change. Many new women's organisations were formed d u r i n g this

period. Participation in general movements made women politically

conscious and it helped to produce leaders among women. Thus the

newly formed democratic consc iousness among w o m e n contributed

much to a climate favourable to feminism.

During this period the feminist movement in the West was so

intense that the news about their activities and their literature

reached India and influenced educated Indian women. "The issues

of women's liberation movement in the W e s t were demands for equal

pay f o r equal jobs, absence of discrimination at w o r k place,

defiance of sexism in media, right to contraceptives and

abortion, child care facilities for working mothersM. 97 Women of

India by this time also started organising around specific issues

which are in some way similar to those of the West. They started

questioning patriarchal values and prote s t ed against t h e

discrimination and oppression of women as a class.

"The Women's Liberation Movement in the West created a

great s t i r during 1965 to 1975 as a result of which the United

Nations declared 1975 as the International Women's year. "'* The

declaration of 1975 as International Women's Year had

tremendous impact on the feminist movement in I n d i a . T h e

submission of the government report on women, Tswards Eaualitv

a n a l y s i n q women's position in I n d i a was another favourable

development. The report submitted in 1975 says: "The review of

the disabilities and constraints on women, which stem from

socio-cultural institutions, indicates t h a t the majority of women

are still very far from enjoying the rights and opportunities

guaranteed to them by the constitution. ..the i n c r e a s i n g

incidence of practices like dowry indicate a further lowering of

t h e status 3f women. They also indicate a process of regression

from s o m e of t h e norms developed during the freedom movement". 99

The release of this report led to serious discussions among

educated women about women's deteriorated position. The

presentat ion of the above government report coincided with the

celebration of 1975 as International Women's Year. Later the

period from 1975 to 1985 was declared as International Women's

Decade. And India w a s one among those countries which signed the

U.N Charter on Women. A s a result research on women got greater

attention in academic circles. Literature on women multiplied.

Conferences and seminars were organized in different parts of the

country on women's issues by political parties, academic circles,

and women's organisations.

The most remarkable feature of the period was the emergence

of autonomous women's groups in major cities of India. These

organisations were qualitatively different from the earlier

women's organisations. Members of most of these groups were from

middle class. Autonomous women's group provided a platform for

women to discuss a n d take u p women's specific issues such a s

r ape , dowry, sexism in media, wife beating and prostitution.

They highlighted specific problems of women in general s u c h as

problem of women workers in factory, victimisation of women

during caste and communal riots, women's plight during droughts

or ecological disasters. loo These types of women's group were

first of its kind in lndia,lol and they gave full a t t e n t i o n to

women thereby activating the women's movement in India.

At first Autonomous women's grcups were started in major

c i t i e s like Bombay, Delhi, Pune, Hyderabad and Patna. Stree Sakti

Sanqathana -Hyderabad, Vimochana -Bangalore, Stree Jagrut i

-Mangalore, Mahila Mukti Manch -Patna, Nari Samatha Manch -Pune,

Saheli elhi hi, Women's Centre - Bombay, Sakhi Kendra -Kanpur, and

Pennurimai Iyyakam -Madras are some of the women's organisations

which emerged during the International Women's Decade which

fought militantly against women's oppression, Many other groups

were formed in various other parts of the country. Describing

its autonomy, Vibuti Pate1 writes: p autonomous Women's

Organisations are by women, of women and f o r women in the true

s e n s e of the term because they do not compromise on women's

i s s u e s 1 ' . B u t that does not mean that Autonomous women's

organisations are against men* They sought the support of men

also in their activities.

Along w i t h these women's orqanisations, by this time,

political parties particularly the women's winq of left parties

began to take up women's issues. Also various i n t e r e s t groups

w i t h feminist perspective started functioning i n different fields

like media, law, academia and in popularising science, health

etc . B e s i d e s , traditional type of women's orqanisations were also

working among women but not challenging the existing patriarchal

values and not g i v i n g attention to specific issues. Many such

organisations performed certain welfare activities for women like

income generating activities etc. Thus women's movements in India

have such diverse aims and activities, perspectives and

programmes that it is hardly possible to reduce them to certain

distinct categories.

Autonomous women's groups became a strong current in the

women's movement in India in the 1980's. They led many campaigns

on issues related to dowry, police rape, witch hunting,

alcoholism and on temple prostitutions. They engaged actively in

unionising women workers, domestic servants and slum-dwellers.

One of the major campaigns led by Autonomous women's

organisations was against dowry murders and police rape. In 1979

the campaign against dowxy murders started. D o w r y deaths were on

the increase especially in Delhi and other major cities in north

India during that period. Murder of young brides for their

failure to bring in more and more dowry as demanded by their

husbands or in-laws were o f t e n regarded as suicides by the

authorities. And many times the accused w e n t scot-free owing to

lack of evidence or to the influence of the in-laws.

"When newly formed women's groups in Bombay and Delhi

reported cases of 'unnatural' deaths of newly married w o m e n to

the police, t h e police treated t h e s e with indifference. Most of

t h e cases of bride burning, dowry deaths and wife murders are

passed off as 'accidental deaths' in police reportsu. 104

In the anti-dowry campaign which had begun in Delhi several

women's groups held street protests to draw attention to the

burning of young women by their husbands and in-laws. The

movement was particularly strong in D e l h i and women's groups

received wide support for their protests. As a result, the dowry

deaths hitherto treated as suicides or accidental deaths were

called murders. Radha K u m a r remarks: "it was the first time that

the private sphere of the family was invaded, and held to be a

major site for the oppression of women, and the public- private

dicotomy was broken by qroups of women demonstrating outside the

houses and offices of those who were responsible for dowry deaths

within their families and demanding the intervention of both the

state and civil society. tt105

During 1977-79 women's groups and democratic rights

organisations took up cases of gang rape of women by police men

in Punjab and Hyderabad and m a s s rapes in Marathwada, Aligarh,

Agra and Luknow. This violence against women and brutal torture

generated a public protest. It was against this background that

the infamous Madura rape case which aroused such hue and c r y from

t h e women's organisations triggered a nation-wide anti-rape

movement. Madura, a fourteen year old girl w a s raped in police

custody in Chandrapur, Maharastra. In the case, the Sessions

Court, Nagpur declared the policemen innocent but t h e High Court

convicted them. But when it come to Supreme Court, the High Court

judgment was reversed and curiously alleged Madura t o be of loose

morals ( t h a t Madura had qivan consent to sexual intercourse

with t h e policemen)- This anti-women judgment of t h e Highest

Court of India aroused nation-wide anti-rape protests. The

women's groups took up the issue seriously and fought militantly

against the verdict.

Four professors of Delhi University wrote an open letter to

the judge of the Supreme C o u r t condemning t h e judgment . Io7 And

from every part of the country, women's organisations demanded

reopening of the Madura case and also demanded amendments in the

rape law. Many new groups were formed in different parts of the

country f o r this purpose. One such organisation was the Bombay

based Forum aga ins t rape founded in 1980. The campaign has

received a great deal of media publicity also. Many political

parties especially left parties joined the campaign. Finally the

campaign m e t with success when the government accepted the demand

to reopen t h e case.

The success in anti-rape movement boosted the confidence of

womenfs groups. They extended their activities to academic f i e l d

also. Women's centres were s t a r t e d in Bombay and certain other

cities. They paid mare a t t e n t i o n to studies on women's issues, to

analyse the historical reasons, and also to conscientise and

mobilise women towards action. Many such women centres provide

emotional, legal or medical support to victims of atrocities.

Women's studies were accepted as serious subjects in Indian

universities during this t i m e . Many new feminist journals were

started. The journal became very prominent among them

because of its effective commitment to women's i s s u e s . Women's

movement also spawned feminist cultural groups purporting to

spread their messages through p l a y s , songs , f i l m s and other

media.

Women f o r once, began to register their protest against

anything and everything which they considered discriminatory or

oppressive. They protested aqainst obscenity and vinlence l .r!

films and campaigned for a change in the way women were depicted

in films, television, radio, press and in advertisements (which

portraits women as sex objects). "The Ahmedabad Women's Action

Group organised demonstration against obscene plays and also

poured coaltar over obscene advertisements, posters and

hoardings. Mahila ~ u k t i Manch (Patna), Mahila Morcha (Kanpur),

Committee on Media Image of Women (Delhi) and Pennurimai Iyyakkum

(Madras) also took up similar protests. 108

Along with the agitation against violence and

appression,campaign for legal reforms continued. Many women from

different religious backgrounds challenged constitutional

validity of personal laws which had religious sanctions. They

filed petitions in c o u r t s f o r getting divorce, maintenance,

property rights, and custody of children. In challenging the

existing laws or customs they had to face ostracism from

community and also from their awn family. On 23 April 1985, the

Supreme Court of India in a landmark judgment awarded life long

maintenance to a divorced Muslim woman, 'Shah Bano'. But this

evoked much hue and cry from Muslim fundamentalists and the

political party -Muslim League. Rallies, demonstrations, mass

petitions, signature campaigns and media w a r s both far and

aga ins t the Muslim personal laws were held.

There was hectic political activity. The government decided

to intervene. But the government framed a bill to take away the

husband's liability of payinq maintenance to divorced Muslim

women. Women's groups joining hands with political parties and

some progressive groups campaigned vigorously against the passing

of such a bill. However the then government bowed before the

fundamentalists and statusquo-its by passing Muslim Women

Protection of R i g h t s (on Divorce) Act 1986. The act deprived the

divorced Muslim women of maintenance right sanctioned as per

section 125 of the Criminal Procedure Code. This was a serious

set back to the women's movement in India. Perhaps no single

piece of legislation in recent times has attracted as much

criticism as t h e Muslim Protection of Rights (on Divorce) A c t

1986 following the Supreme Court verdict in the Shah Bano case.

Protest movements criticising the government's failure to

prevent s a t i l o g and for making effective measures to check that

social evil was t h e salient feature of the women's movement i n

t h e year 1987. The government with all its powers not only failed

to prevent the girl from committing or abetting to commit sati

but also it f a i l e d t o prevent the communal f a n a t i c s from

celebrating the so called ~ h u n r i festival to proclaim that girl

as S a t i m a t a . Later due to high demand from the public including

women's orqanisat ians and political parties the Government of

Rajasthan passed an anti-sati l a w . A month l a t e r the central

government also passed a bill which sought to provide more

effective prevention of s a t i . 110

Similarly in 1988, a g a i n s t the sex determination tests on

foetus and the ahartions to eliminate the unwanted q i r l , women's

organisations ag i ta ted . The long battle were fought by

organising special forums and by conscientising the mass

through seminars and meetings. And yet the efforts have not

succeeded fully.

These are only some of the major issues on which Indian

women led long battles. Many women's groups organised agitation

against strict rules in women's hostels, they also attempted to

free women from brothels and to rehabilitate them; took up the

problems of Devadasis, exploited maid servants and tribal women

and worked to improve their lot.

In general, women's movements underwent a metamorphosis.

Their aims multiplied; their modus of action changed. Maithreyi

Krishnaraj says:- "By the early eighties, therefore, the women's

movement had grown i n such a way that autonomous feminist groups

were only one of its several currents.w112 Most of the women's

groups developed links with far left, working class, tribal and

anti-caste organisations. And women increasingly began to take

pa r t in o the r social movements like environmental protection and

civil rights.

Unlike in the early years of their functioning the women's

groups and generally the women's movement earned much confidence

in their activities and received much support from the public.

Though western feminist ideologies were discussed in detail in

India, t h e feminists groups here did never go in for the extremes

like bra burni~g sr nale-hating.

Women's movement in the pre-independence India was for

getting legal reforms for the right to education, employment,

vote, and divorce. But present day women's movement in India has

advanced far. They have realised the importance of seeing every

i s sue through woman's perspective. It has begun to fight against

everything which in one way or other tries to oppress or

discriminate against women. As Kamala Bhasin says: "now

feminism is trying to develop a perspective on all issues,

economic, political and cul tural tm. 113

The women's movement in India along with the national

movement h e l p e d women to secure equal rights with men. The

constitution of India provided equal rights f o r women and also

made 'special provisions' for them. A series of legislations were

made to raise women's status in society. Some of the acts passed

were The Hindu W i a a e Act. 1955. The Hindu Succession Act.1956.

o r l t v and Gu- A a . 1 9 5 6 and The Hindu

Ado~tion u n t e n a n c e Act.1956,

Under the Hindu Marriage A c t polygamy has been abolished

and t h e right of divorce has been given to both males and

females. Under the Hindu Succession A c t the widows have been

conferred full rights over their property. Besides, mother and

daughter are also given equal rights on property as the sons are.

Under the Minority and Guardianship A c t , the custody of a minor

child under the age of five shali ordinarily be with the mother

ins tead of the father. Under the Hindu Adoption and Maintenance

Act, a woman can adopt a son in her own name. Both male and

female child can be adopted and in case the w i f e is alive, t h e

husband will have to take the consent of h i s wife in adoption. 114

Thus in many respects the rights of women have been brought at

par with men.

Many women entered various professions in government

institutions. Education of women got great momentum. The

political awareness and women's experience in the national

movement raised them to positions of high distinction as cabinet

ministers, governors of states and ambassadors.

In t h e first general election many women contested and s o m e

of them were elected to t h e Loksabha. Twenty three women w e r e

elected to the Loksabha in 1952, while nineteen were nominated.

The brilliant dancer Rukrnini Arunndale was nominated to the

Rajya Sabha. 115

Sarojini Naidu, Suchetha Kripalani, Vijayalakshmi Pandit,

Lakshmi. N. Menon and Padmaja Naidu were among the Indian women

who occupied high political positions and served the country

efficiently. Sarojini Naidu became the first woman governor of

U t t e r Pradesh. Later, her daughter Padmaja Naidu was appointed

governor of West Bengal. Suchetha ~ripalani was the first woman

C h i e f Minister af a sta te . The stature of the late Prime Minister

Indira Gandhi needs no elaboration here. Many women became

members of important delegations to world forums. Vijayalakshmi

Pandit w a s elected president of the United Nations General

Assembly. Many notable women were elected to various state

leqislatures; tney did well not o n l y as members but also as

ministers.

In the field of social work and welfare activities women's

contribution has been immense. When the Central Social Welfare

Board was constituted, Durgabai Deshmuqh, an ardent social

worker and an efficient administrator became its first chair

person.

The Five Year Plans consistently placed special emphasis on

providing minimum health facilities integrated with family

welfare and nutrition for women and children, education, their

large participation in the labour force and welfare services

for women in distress. Various welfare and development schemes

have been introduced to improve especially t h e living conditions

of women and to increase their access to and control over

material and social resources. Special steps have been taken to

remove legal, social and other constraints to enable them to make

use of the rights and new opportunities becoming available to

them. Meanwhile various commissions and committees were s e t u p by

t h e central government and state governments to analyse the

prevailing condition of women in India and to suggest measures

fo r their improvement.

In 1971 The camit tee on the Status o f Women in In- (CSWI)

was appointed by the Government of India,

(i) to evaluate the changes that had taken place in the status

of women as a result of the constitutional, legal and

administrative measures adopted since independence,

(ii) to examine the impact of the complex processes of social

change on various sections of Indian women, and

(iii)to suggest measures which would enable women to pl.ay their

full and proper role in nation building. The committee set

up six Task Forces and two Study Groups to examine the

changes in the field of social life, law, economic

participation, educational development, political status and

women's welfare and development. 116

The report of the committee on t h e status of women in India

was presented in 1975. The report exposed once again the

continuing low status women had in India.

To operationalise the recommendations of the CSWI, a 'Blue

print of Action paints and National Plan of Action for Women'

1976 was formulated by the then department of social welfare. In

1978 the Report of the Working Group on Employment for Women, and

that on Development of Village level Organisations ot rural women

were published. The impact of these reports necessitated t h e

inclusion of a separate chapter on Women and Development in the

Sixth Five Year Plan. It a l s o resulted in women being perceived

as contributors to t h e nation's economy. The Report of the

Working Group on Personnel Policies for bringing greater

involvement of women i n science and technology-1981 reviewed the

extent of participation of women in scientific establishments and

suggested measures for promoting greater involvement of women in

science and technology. In the seventh F i v e Year Plan, the

chapter on socio-economic programmes f o r women (1985-90) moved

further away from a 'welfare approach' to a more positive

'developmental approach' to women's concerns. More recently, the

Indian parliament adopted a National Policy on Education (1986)

which included a chapter on Education for Women's Equality. The

Government of 1ndia launched the Twenty Paint Programme in 1975

~ i i i p a i r l t i r l ~ areas of special thrust which would show immediate

results. 118

Re~ort of the Natlonal m r t C o m t t e e on Women's

soners (19871 identifies the gaps and draw backs in existing

facilities and services for women offenders and recommends a mare

humane policy for them. The N a t i o n a l o n on S . E m P l o v e d

in t h e informal sector was appointed in January 1987 to

look into the ways and means to alleviate the sufferings of the

unprotected labouring women. 119

e H a t w a l P e m l v e P l U - n 1988 - 2 0 0 0 s is an

effort at evaluating the impact of developmental plans and

programmes on Indian Women. It is linked to the national targets

determined fo r t h e end of the century in respect of certain basic

indicators especially of health, education and employment. T h e

plan sees women not as the weaker s egment of t h e s o c i e t y or a s

passive beneficiaries of the development process but as a source

of unique strength f o r reaching national goals.

The plan aims at:-

( i ) economic development and integration of w o m e n into the main

stream of the economy;

(ii) equity and social justice f o r all women.

These are critical goals for the all round development of

women not merely as producers and providers, but also as

individuals with a right to human dignity in a society where

culture, class, and caste tend to discriminate against t h e

'weakerrgender.

Despite all the efforts made by the government of India,

welfare organisations and individual members, things have n o t

ckangze nzzh f o r uorner~ since 1975. Society remains staunchly male

dominated. It is true that t h e status of women is changing but

only at a slow pace. Position of women in Indian society is far

from satisfactory. Wide gap exists between men and women in many

spheres of l i f e . In society the women's place has been

primarily confined to home, her role limited to procreation,

upbringing of children and caterinq for the needs of men. Many

social and religious customs, taboos, and rituals hinder women's

freedom, education and work participation in productive labour.

While many problems have been solved and the International

Women's Year has ushered in an era of hope, some problems have

staged a come back. Dowry deaths are on t h e ascendancy . Female

infanticide which got reduced considerably, is b a c k with a

scientific boom. Female foetuses get aborted, after their s e x is

determined by tests during pregnancy. Infanticide in its true

form prevails in certain places of Tairtilnadu. Reports show that

in Usilampatti (Tarnilnadu) almost all female children born a re

being killed by the parents, 120 women's literacy rate is very low

when compared to that of men. Rural society is not at a l l free

from bias against girls' education. In poor families girls have

to take the household burdens at an early age itself. The problem

of w i f e beating is perhaps the most common amongst Indian women's

problems though people are openly fighting against rape and

dowry, wife beating is discussed inside home only. I t is seldom

reported. A l m o s t every single day, newspapers report incidents of

dowry harassments, dowry murders and suicides of newly married

girls. Rape cases are increasingly reported in the media. The

reports are like tips of the ice-bergs.

There are people who even today would consider the practice

of s a t i as part of India's glorious heritage. It w a s belived that

the inhuman custom s a t i had died in the nineteenth century. But

it had not. On 4 September 1987, eighteen year old girl, Roop

Kanwar was burnt to death on her husband's funeral pyre in

village Deorala, Sikar district, Rajastan. 12' N o t only did the

administration with all its power fail to prevent the girl from

committing s a t i but also it failed to prevent t h e communal

f a n a t i c s from celebrating the so called Chunri Festival to

proclaim the girl as Satimata.

Devadasi system still exists in many parts of India

particularly in the states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and

Maharastra. It was reported that in Karnataka every year, girls

below twelve years of age were dedicated to goddess Y e 1 lamma 122

a s devadasis. 123 It is said that t h i s system i s nothing b u t

prostitution under the banner of religion.

T h e amniocentesis; tests-the chromosome test done on t h e

amniotic fluid in the womb of a pregnant woman to learn the s e x

of the unborn foetus is usually followed by abor t ion i f it

happens to be a female one; This practice is gaining wider

currency as more and more people come to know about it. In

recent times dowry is becoming a serious problem in Indian

society. Dowry which was earlier regarded as a symbol of love

given by the girlsr parents according to their ability, has now

became institutionalized as a right to be demanded by the boy's

parents.

All these reveal the fact that though constitutional rights

including equality and equal opportunities in many spheres were

guaranteed to women, many of their problems have remained

tli;selt-ed.

This in no way means that women's movement was not able to

make any headway in fighting injustices towards women. The

movement succeeded to a great extent in checking the increasing

problems. T h e campaigns against dowry , sex determination t e s t s

etc-create an impact on the public. Consciousness raising among

women about their problems, their rights and about the laws made

for them is a major contribution of the movement. Legal a i d

cells, counselling centres and centres fo r women in dis tress

functioning in t h e country is providing assistance atleast to a

minority. Crimes against women often went unreported during

t h e early years. But as a resul t of the movement more and more

women show courage to speak o u t their sufferings. Moreover,

crimes against women are widely reported in t h e media. Though t h e

movement is trying to make links with other social movements and

o t h e r classes of people even now t h e women's movement includes

mostly women of the middle classes. However with the inclusion of

more and more women and also men to t h e movement and by making

better liaison with international bodies the women's movement may

able to change the awful situation of women with t h e passage of

t i m e .

1. The age of the Rigveda - From 2500 B.C to 1500 B. C.; Sarva- [Malayalam), Vo1.4, State Institute of

~ncyclopediac Publi .cat ians , Trivandrum, 1978, 1993 (rpt), p . 8 3 3 .

. . . - . 2 . A . S . Altekar, pas;ttion of women i n Hindu C i v l l i z a t i w ,

Motilal Banarsidas Publishers Private Limited, N e w Delhi, 1959, p . 3 3 8 .

3. Tara Ali B a i g (ed.), Yomen i n Ln-, publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, N e w Delhi, 1957, 1990 (rpt.), p . 4 .

4. A l t e k a r , n.2 , p.339.

6 . Altekar, n.2, p . 3 3 9 .

8 . A l t e k a r , n.2, p.341.

9 . u, Pp.345-346; See also, E3 G Gakhale, merit In- a U -, A s i a Publishing House, Bombay, 1952, p.128.

10. The period between c 500 B.C to 500 A . D .

11. Swamy Sidhinadhananda (Interpreter), I

Mathrubhumi Printing and Publishing Co. L t d . , Kozhikode, 1988, p.391.

12. A . L . Basham, Tbe Wpnaer that was India, Rupa & Co., Calcutta, 1967, p.19.

1 3 . G.R. Madan, Indian Social Pr-, Vol 11, Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New D e l h i , 1967, p.113.

Polygamy was the practice of having more than o n e wife at a time . Kulinism was t h e practice by which it was socially possible f o r even a hundred women to be given in marriage to o n e Brahmin by reason of h i s 'Kul' (high status).

Jana Hatson Everett, e, Heritage Publishers, New elh hi, 1981, 1985 (rpt.), p . 4 2 .

S. ~atarajan, A C e n t u r y of Social RefQrm in 1 , Asia Publishing House, Bombay, 1959, 1962(rpt.),p.26; Jamuna Nag,

,Hind Pocket Books Pvt. Ltd., New D e l h i , 1972, p.12.

Kalpana Shah, Wowen's Tiberation & Voluntarv-, Ajanta Publications, New Delhi, 1 9 8 4 , p.32.

Prathima Asthana, , Vikas Publishing House Pvt. L t d . , Delhi, 1974, p.25; Joanna Liddle & Rama Joshi, - m e n d e w e , Kali for Women, New Delhi, 1,986, p.20.

Vaikom Chandrasekharan Nair, N a v o p (Malayalam), The Gouthama Books, Quilon, 1972, p.54; T.R.Rarnan amb boot hi rip pad, N i w ~ R S h t r a SiLni)raL [Malayalam), National Book Stali, Kottayam, 1969, p.12.

Shah, n.18, p.32; For Details See, Jamuna N a g , & i a BQY, Hind Pocket Books, New Delhi, 1972.

Hiranmay Banarjee, n, Sahi tya Akaderny, N e w Delhi., 1968, p.23; Asthana,n.19, p.25; For Details, Benoy Ghose , -~handra Vid-, Pub1 ication Division, Government of India, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, New Delhi, 1965, 1973(rpt.), p.23.

Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar, -e o f u u Wid-, K P Bagehi and Company, Calcutta, 1976, Pp. 160-161.

Because of this monitory he lp given, same of the marriages led to complicated situations, the bride grooms coming forward with a view to obtaining financial assistance and some times even threatening to leave their wives, if further money has not forthcoming. Natarajan, n.17, p.44.

Asthana, n.19, p.27.

Sil~ikal K.P. Kesava Menon, Pava Bharata (Malayalam), Mathrubhumi Printing and Publishing Company Ltd., ~ozhikode, 1963, 1972 (rpt.), Pp.204-205; Jawaharlal Nehru, m a Quest, Asia Publishing House, Bombay, 1963, p . 2 1 6 ; E M S

amb boot hi rip pad, A History of 1- Freedom S t r u m , Social Scientist Press, Trivandrum, p . 8 7 .

Gargi:- A Scholarly lady of Vedic period. Vettom Mani, P u r d c Encvclo~edia, Current Books, Kottayam, 1965, p . 3 8 4 ; G Padmanabha Pillai, datharavali (Malayalam), ~ahithya Pravarthaka Sahakarana Sangham, Kottayam, 1923, 1990 ( r p t . ) , p.727.

Maithreyi:- A Brahmavadini of Vedic era.

G Padmanabha Pillai, Sabdatharavali (Malayalam), Sahithya Pravarthaka Sahakarana Sangham, Kottayam, 1923, 1990 (rpt.), p. 986.

Asthana, n.19, p.28.

. . R . C. Majurndar (ed.), w t c v and In-

, Part 11, Bharathiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay, 1965, 1 9 P I ( r p t . ) , p.103.

Asthana, n.19, p . 3 0 .

P . J . ~ a g i d a r , m a d e 0 m, Publication Division, Ministry of Human Development, Government of India, New Delhi, 1971, p . 3 .

Everett, n.16, p.60; Jagidar, n. 32, p.150.

Cited in Asthana, n.19, p.32; Jagidar, n.32, Pp.153-154.

A g e of Consent B i l l - 1891. By this the age of consent of marriage of girls was raised from ten to twelve.

Natarajan, n.17, p. 32.

Asthana, n.19, p.32.

Natarajan, n.17, p.129.

Aruna Asaf Ali, Resursence of Indian W~rnen, Radiant Publishers, New elh hi, 1991, p . 3 7 .

Menon, n.26, p . 1 3 3 ; M, p.42,

Natarajan, n.17, p.86.

S Sreedevi, W i and Th-n cination of Women in India, Gandhi Sahithya Prachuranalayam, Hyderabad, 1969, p.39.

Baig, n . 3 , p .219; Ali, n . 39 , p.36; Asthana, n . 1 9 , p . 3 2 .

Manmohan Kaur, +&men in I n u ' s Freedom St-, Sterling Publishers Pvt. L t d . , New Delhi, 1968, 1992 ( r p t . ) , p . 8 5 ; Natarajan, n. 1 7 , 1). 8 7 .

Sreedevi, n.43, p 41.

Asthana, n.19, p . 4 7 .

Ibid-

Sreedevi, 2 - 4 3 , p . 4 1 .

Kaur, n.45, p.88; Asthana, n.19, p . 4 8 .

Asthana, n.19, p.52.

Hatarajan, n.17, p.110.

Asthana, n.19, p.51.

Ibid, p.52.

Kaur, n . 4 5 , Pp.86-87.

Prathibha Jain, -an Ideas, Social Movements and Creativltv,

. . R a w a t Publications, Jaipur, 1985, p.141.

T h e Theosophical !society had been established in the United States in 1875 by Madam H P Blavatsky along w i t h colonel H S Olcott. They came to India in 1879, at Adayar, near Madras, set u p the headquarters of the society in 1886. Kali Kinker Dutta, %cia1 Historv of Modern India, The Mac Millan Company of India Ltd., N e w Delhi, 1975, P p . 360-383.

Everet t , n.16, p . 5 2 .

9 Vijay A g n e w , U ' d ' . . , Vikas

Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., N e w elh hi, 1979, p.29.

Kaur, n.45, Pp.86-h87.

Everett, n.16, p.59.

w, Pp. 6 8 - 6 9 .

Agnew, n.60, p . 3 5 .

Devaki Jain (ed.), Indian Women, Publication ~ivision: Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, New el hi, 1975,

1976 (rpt.), p.24.

Asthana, n. 19, p.58; Also see, C P Rama Swamy Aiyer, a -, Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, N e w Delhi, 1963, 1977 (rpt.); Menon, n.26, Pp.133-147.

Annie Besant:- Born in 1847 in Ireland, she joined the Theosophical Society and was migrated to India in 1893. As an educationalist and social reformer, she give much emphasis to female education. Became the first president of Indian National Congress in 1917. It was on Annie BesantJs call that many women joined t h e Home Rule Movement. She stood for women's rights and favoured for vote far women. She was one of t h e founders of Women's Indian ~ssociation started in 1917.

sisirkumar Mitra, Resuraent India. Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd., Bombay, 1963, Pp. 160-161.

Sarojini Naidu:- Born in 1879, in Hyderabad, became one of the famous poet, a great political geneous and a champion of women's rights, n staunch follower of Gandhiji. Actively participated in Mahathma Gandhi's non-coopertion movement. In 1925 elected a s President of Indian National Congress. She worked f o r the emancipation of Indian Women. In 1918, at Bombay she worked for getting the resolution an women's franchise passed. In 1919, went to England as a member of the Home Rule League deputation and took that opportunity to put forward the case f o r women's franchise. She attended t h e second Round Table Conference at London as an official representative of women in India. After independence she became the first woman governor of a State ( Utter Pradesh).

. . For Details See, ?'ara Ali Baig, F a r o w N a i a Publication Division, Government of India, New Delhi, 1974, 2980 (rpt.).

Kamala Devi Chathopadhyay:- Born in 1903 at Mangalore. Attended International Congress of women's league for peace and freedom in Parague. Actively participated in Civil Disobedience Movement and Swadesi Movement. She established Congress Sevadals in different parts of the country and was i n charge of that Organisation.

A g n e w , n.60, p.55.

Jain, n.66, p.25.

Everett, n.16, p.75.

Sreedevi , n. 4 3 , p . 75.

. , m, 21 February 1940.

S Radhakrishnan, HahatHla G- 100 Ye-, Gandhi Peace Foundation, 1968, New Delhi, p.217.

M K Gandhi, Injustice, Havajeevan Publishing House, Ahmedabad, 1958, p . 6 7 .

Jain, n.56, p.150.

8 0 . Agnew, n.60, p . 4 0 .

81. S D Maurya, W e n in India, Chugh Publications, Allahabad, 1988, p . 4 .

8 2 . In 1936-37, when Jawaharlal Nehru as President d i d not appoint a woman to the Working ~ommittee, that incident provoked protests from Gandhiji and women's orqanisatians.

A g n e w , n.60, p . 8 6 .

83. Muthulakshrni Reddy (1886-1968):- The first woman medical graduate of Madras. She gave up her practice to dedicate her full-time f o r women's upliftment. Later became t h e first Indian woman legislator when nominated to the Legislative Council of Madras in 1927. She subsequently elected Deputy Speaker of the c o u n c i l . She resigned in 1930 in protest against the arrest of Mahatma Gandhi.

For details see Aruna Asaf Ali, Resurgence of Indian Women, Radiant Publishers, New Delhi, 1991, Pp.77-78.

8 4 . Agnew, n.60, p.78.

8 5 . Margaret Cousins :- One of t h e most illustrious women leaders who played a mighty role in shaping the women's movement in India. An Irish woman deeply interested in the progress of Indian women. In 1915 came to India and joined Annie 9esznt. T h e first non-Indian who is elected as member of Indian Women's University Association of Poona in 1916. A c t e d as one of the joint secretaries and editor of "Stri Dharmaw, a magazine published by association. She was the brain in agitation 'vote for women1. Founded All India Women's Conference in 1926.

86. Shah, n.18, p . 4 0 .

8 7 . Everett, n.16, p.107.

8 8 . Shah, n.18, p.42.

89. Vibhuti Patel, and Proliferation of the en's O r a w , Research Centre

for Women's Studies, SNDT, Bombay, 1986, 1990 ( r p t . ) , p . 2 .

- Nandita Gandhi, Study of t h e Anti Price Rise Movement i n Bombay, 1972, Paper presented in t h e IIIrd National Conference on Women's Studies 1-4 October 1986 at Punjab I J n i v e r s i t y , Chandigarh, Pp.3-4.

Neera Desai, qence and Develo~ment of Women ' s -sations in a, Research Centre for Women's Studies, SNDT, 1982, p . 1 4 .

Gandhi, n.91, p . 7 .

Now t h e activities of women in the Chipka Movement in I ts t w o decades of e v o l u t i o n have been extended from embracing trees to embracing living mountains and living waters.

. . Mariamies & Vandana Shiva,Ecafemmlsm, Kali for Women, N e w Delhi, 1993, p.246; Also see, Gail Omvedt, 'Ecology and

Ec--ekl\t, . . social Movements', Vol XIX, Na.44, 3 November 1984, p.44; Shobhita Jain, ' Women . . and People's Eco.Lqgica1 Movementt,- and Poll- Weekly, Val. X I X . No.41, 13 October 1984, p . 8 6 ; Vandana

l o s v m L S u r v i v a l - Shiva, Stavina Alive. Eco Kal i for Women, N e w D e l h i , 1988.

John Desrochers csc, et al, Social Movements Towards a Perssect-, Centre for Social Action, Bangalore, 1991, p.157; w, p.15. Government of India, Towards E a u a t y , Report of the Committee on the Status of Women in India, Government of India, Department of Social Welfare, Ministry of Education and Social Welfare, December. 1974, p.359.

T h e first socialist f e m i n i s t organisation was formed in India in 1974 at. Hyderabad. It was known as Progressive organisation of Women (POW); M, p . 1 8 .

102. Neera Desai, A De~ade of Womenis~ovement in I&, Himalaya Publishing House, Bombay, Pp.122-126.

1 0 3 . Patel, n.89, p.16.

104. Maithreyi Krishnaraj (ed.), Women and Violence A Country -, A study sponsored by UNESCO, SNDT, Bombay, 1991, p-152.

105. Radha Kumar, 'The Women's Movementr, S e m i n x , March 1989, p . 3 2 .

1 0 6 . Krishnaraj, n.104, p.152.

107. Desai, n.102, p.123.

109. On 4 September 1987 an eighteen year old Roop Kanwar was burnt to death on her husband's pyre in a village Deorala , Sikar District, Rajastan. Mathrubhum iailv, Cochin, 5 September 1987.

110. Vasudha Dhagrnwar, 'Saint, Victim, or Criminal, -, New D e l h i , February 1988, p . 3 7 .

111- I n October 1985 tne Forum against Sex Determination and SGX Pre-selection was founded in Bombay.

Chhaya Dattar ted.), T&g Struagle A a ~ h t V i o m , Mahindra Sen for Stxee, Calcutta, 1993, p . 6 4 .

112. Maithreyi Krishnaraj (ed. ) In- Debates, Research Centre for Women's Studies, SNDT, Bombay, 1990, p.147.

113. Karnala Bhasin and Nighat Said Khan, Some Questions its Wlevance in South, Kali for Women,

New Delhi, 1986, 1993 ( r p t . ) , p . 2 1 .

115. Baiq, n.3, p . 9 9 .

116. Nat;innal P ~ w e c t i v e plan _~o_r men 1 9 8 8 - 2000 AQ , Ministry of Human Resources Department, Government of India, N e w

D e l h i , p - v i .

120. V.S. Thomas, 'Murder not Girl Child in Tamilnadu' , Indian Exgress, Cochin, 26 May 1993.

121. Mathrubhumi Daily, Cochin, 5 September 1987.

122. Yellamma is supposed to be the God of Y e l l a r n m a temple. There is one Yellamma Temple in Belgam District of Karnataka.

123. S-Sreelatha, 'Innurn Thudarnnu Varunna Devadasi Sampradayamf, M-humi D a u , Cochin, 20 March 1990.

CHAFFER 1 1 1

W O M R N f S m - . I N K m :

PHE-INDEPENDENCE PERIOD -

The word Kerala refers to the south western region in

India. Till t h e states1 reorqanisation in 1956, Kerala continued

to be divided into Travancore and Cochin- t h e two p r i n c e l y states

a n d Malabar which was under t h e Madras presidency.

The state of Kerala is famous for its progress in t h e fields

of education, political awareness and general health care. It is

also well-known for the matrilineal joint family system where

women got dominance and which existed for a long pericd of time.

It also has the unique distinction of achieving hundred n~r~~rlf:

literacy, the o n l y state IJI India to do so. According to t h e 1991

census, the female literacy rate stood at 83.93 percent, a

creditable achievement.

A relatively tiny state of the Indian union it is , both in

terms of population s i z e and geographical area; its women folk

enjoy, relatively, a very high s t a t u s in the society. Certain

demographic indicators like normal sex-ratio, life expectancy at

birth, level of literacy, high social priority given for

education far both sexes etc.', point to this fact. But this is

not the whole story. Despite h i g h literacy rate and education

women of Kerala too are not free from many of t h e problems which

they share with their c o u n t e r p a r t s i n other parts of India.

Kerala represents a mosaic of socially different groups of

people. In the pre-independence era Kerala was strictly divided

into numerous castes and subcastes. The t h r e e major religions

Hinduism, christianity and lslam prevailed there. Untouchability

w a s much in vogue. Every caste had its awn identity,

individuality and prejudices. The soc ia l attitude of each

community towards their women folk also differed. Ever, though

women in this part of India enjoyed considerable respect and

freedom in the earl ier centuries, women suffered the lack of

both.

T h e two types of family organisations,- 'matrilineal" and

'patrilineal3- existed in Kerala from time immemorial. The

difference rested on the system of inheritan~e.~ One of the

distinctive features of Kerala was the matrilineal system of the

Nair community which has prevailed for centuries. This has

created the general impression that women of Kerala enjoyed

absolute freedom and equality. The matrilineal system has

certainly afforded high status to women. But the system has

never been a feature of all t h e communities of Kerala. The

Brahmin community for instance followed patrilineal system.

Like-wise most of t h e Muslim and Christian communities also

followed the patrilineal system.

It i s d i f - f i c u l t t:o list accurately the several castes and

communities following either matrilineal (marumakkathayam) o r

patrilineal (makkathayam) system of inheritance a s t h e r e were

considerable regional variations,

The Malabar Manual gave the lists of communities grouped

under matrilineal and patrilineal system of inheritance.

~ccording to it, castes following patrilineal system a r e 1)

Namboothiri 2 ) Pattar 3 ) Embran 4 ) Mussat 5 ) Eleeth 6 ) Thangal 7 )

Nambidi 6 ) Karnmath 9 ) Vaisian 10) Nambiyachan 11) Chakyar 12)

Adikal 13) Pidaram 1 4 ) Vilakkitharavan 15) Eerankolli 16)

Mattachettiyar 17) Kammalar 1 8 ) Thandan 19) Ezhavar 20) Cherumar

and Chaliyar Jeedar, Kaikolar, ~aniyan, and Thiyyar of

Thiruvithamcore.

Those follcwing matrilineal system are 1) ;<shatr ; .yar ,r:!

Thirumulpadu 3 ) Nair 4 ) Oorali 5 ) Andore 6 ) Pallichan 7 ) Kusavan

8 ) Vyabari 9 ) Kolayan 1 0 ) Chembatti 11) Pisharodi 12) Varian 13)

Nambi 14) Thiyyambadi 15) Maran 16) Kuttunambi 17) ~thikurissi

18) Unithiri 19) Eradi 20) Vallodi 21) Nedungadi 22) Veluthedan

and 23) Chaliyan and Thiyyan of the ~ o r t h . ~ This shows that

only a section of the people observed the matrilineal system.

The two major castes around whom the controlling powers vested

were amb booth iris and Nairs.

Namboothiris in Kerala strictly followed patrilineal system

of inheritance. O n e of the special features of their family which

they called Illum, was that only t h e eldest son w a s allowed to

marry within the cas te . Other brothers were not permitted to

marry. They c a n only have Sambandham with N a i r women. And their

wives and children were excluded from the circle of kinship.

In Namboothiri family discrimination between boys and gir l s

was prominent. Girls were denied education while boys were given

education. Strict segregation was observed in the case of girls

in families. Condition of Namboothiri women during 18th and 19th

century Kerala society w a s deplorable indeed. A s the people who

always stay inside the illams, they were called anthaxjanams.

Antharjanams were not given freedom. Purdah, polygamy,

smarthavichaxam, enforced widowhood and dowry system-all

contributed to their suffering. Illiteracy added to their

woes. "They observed Purdah and strict segregation was

maintained. Polygamy was allowed to the extent of havinq t h r e s

wives. The younger brothers were no t supposed to talk or even see

their eldest brotherts wife or w i v e s ~ . ~ Girls were discriminated

against from the time of birth itself. The birth of a girl child

in a ~amboothiri family was an unwelcome event while that of a

boy was celebrated with fan fare.

The payment of dowry was another important feature in the

marriage of t h e amb booth iris. Very huge amounts were demanded as

dowry and this has caused the ruin of many Namboothiri families.

The Travancore Raja's Proclamation of 1823 says that 'those

Namboothiris who demanded more than seven hundred kaX ian money

for one girl will be punished by t h e 'Court of I,an'.7 T h i s

clearly shows that a heavy Varadaksh ina in marriaye prevailed

during that time. Naturally many women of poor Namboothiri

families, had to remain unmarried till death.

The practice t h a t o n l y the eldest son could marry had

brought about already a situation where there were excess of

Namboothiri women. It is quite natural to conclude that the

founders of t h i s custom completely ignored the fact t h a t there

are as many ~amboothi lr i women as there are Namboothiri men.

While men were free t c 3 marry or to have Sembandham with many

women as they liked, widows were strictly prohibited from

remarrying. Even a child widow must remain unmarried till her

death. This was the law of the time.

"The consequence was t h a t while t h e Namboothiri bachelors

solace themselves with their sudra lovers, Namboothiri spinsters

secluded and vigilantly guarded in the privacy of their h o u s e ,

must 1 ive and d i e unmarried. m 8

Though Polygyny existed, that custom was not a boon but a

curse on the poor women and that worsened their married life.

P. Bhaskaran Unni says that all antharjanams during that period

were included in any of the three categories namely, i ) unmarried

i i ) sapatni or iii) widow.9 High dowry and non-availability of

elder sans of Namboothiri families made many women remain

unmarried. The majority who got married had to share their

husbands with other wives . As young women marrying old

amb booth iris was common, a majority of them easily slipped into

the category of widows. P . K . ~alakrishnan describe t h e

condition of Namboothiri women in the nineteenth century

Kera la . 'From the reports of Cochin (1881) it can be calculated

that the average number of persons in a Namboothiri illam was

t e n , In 1891 t h e popul.ation of ~arnbooth ir i s in Travancore was

twelve thousand three hundred and ninety five including six

thousand seven hundred and eighty seven men and five thousand s i x

hundred and eight women. This means that there were five

thousand six hundred and eight entharjanams in about one thousand

two hundred and thirty nine illams. B u t the number of available

Narnboothiri men to marry them were only around thirteen hundred.

Even if each of them married three women, t w o thousand women

remained as spinsters +ill their death. 10

V. T . hatt tat hi rip pad i n his autobiography -neerum Ki~lav&p

(Tears and Dreams) has presented a clear picture of the life of

an average ~amboothiri woman. Even in h i s last days, an eldest

Narnboothiri of a poor illam marrying a young woman was n o t

uncommon. l1 Due to this type of veli (marriage) of old

Namboothiris and the system of polygyny, even those women who

got married did not en joy a long marital life. The polygyny of

the Narnboothiris and practice of young women marrying o l d

Namboothiris might l ead to extra marital sexual relationship.

The women accused of adultery were treated very badly under

the heinous custom of Smarthavieharam. The women accused of

adultery were subjected to mental torture under this system.

Smarthavicharam provided f o r an enquiry followed by a trial of

the accused woman which lasted months, The Jury called smarthas

were appointed by the Raja (King) of the s t a t e . ~ u r i n g t h e trial

she was mentally forced to confess her guilt. A f t e r the

confession, she might be excommunicated. H e r male p a r t n e r s of

guilt were a l s o ostracised.

When t h e accused did n o t confess, various modes of torture

were resorted to e x t r a c t a confession; The torture methods

included rolling up the accused in a piece of matting and

letting the bundle fall from the roof to the court-yard below or

l eav ing rat snakes and o t h e r vermin into her room; in certain

cases cobras w e r e turned ib and if, after having been w i t h the

cobra f o r a certain l e n g t h af time, and she was unhurt, it was

accepted as conclusive evidence of her innocence.12

Compared to the condition of Namboothiri women, Nair women

enjoyed better status in Kerala. Their family organisation was

matrilineal and that contributed positively to their high

position. A Nair family was known as Tharavadu. The Tharavadu of

the Nairs was a large lineage, the members of which reckoned

d e s c e n t from a common ancestress and consisted of all the

descendants through the female line. When it grew unwieldy it

might be divided w i t h consent of all the members for the sake of

convenience into t a v a z h i s (mother's lines), family units

clustering round a mother. 13

Joanna Liddle a n d Rama Joshi remarks that the Nairs

represent a form of family organisation in opposition to t h e

patriarchal structure of t h e North lndian Brahmin family, where

property is owned in common by the men and inherited through the

male line, and t h e men have c o n t r o l over t h e women's sexuality.

In t h e N a i r family, property is owned in common by t h e men and

t h e women, and women and men are in control of their own

sexuality within certain broad limits.14 They add that as the

~ e o p l e with whom t h e N a i r s engage i n sexual relationships are n o t

t h e people on whom they depend upon for economic survival, there

will not be economic exploitation within the sexual relationship-

So there is no question of economic dependency. And a Nair woman

never regarded her husband as master or lord.

Nairs were among t h e few castes who gave education to

girls. Boys and girls of the community were given education in

the nearby schools known by the term K a l a r i s . Education was in

Sanskrit and Malayalam. However girls after t a l ikettu kal yanam

ceremony did not attend the classes. Though descent was traced

from t h e mother, the family was governed by the senior most male

member called karanavan. However the eldest of female member also

enjoyed an honourable position in the family. All female members

of the family received special attention. After marriage the

girls remained in t h e tharavadu only and the husbands visited

them.

In t h e case of females of Nair community t w o t y p e s of

marriages existed. Padmanabha Menon observes: "marriage among

the followers of marumakkathayam law of succ:ess ion may mean

either what is called talikettu kalyanam, which is a mere formal

ceremonial or sambandham, which latter alone creates t h e relation

of husband and wife between the parties. While t h e former is an

essential ceremony wit.h females, t h e males have no corresponding

ceremonialv. l5 Tal i k e t : t u k a l yanam was not t h e real marriage. It

is only a ceremony to be performed on a girl before she a t t a i n s

puberty. It includes tying of a tali around girl's neck by a

Brahmin or a relative of the girl. Eleven was t h e ideal age. In

every tharavadu, the c:erernony was performed once in ten years, or

twelve years, in a mass scale for a batch of girls. The ceremony

was elaborate and involved much expenditure. The t a l i tier was

not intended to be the g i r l s ' future husband, 16

Marriage among Nairs was known by the term sambandham. The

ceremony includes \g . iving cloth' to t h e bride by t h e groom.

Sometimes the giving of cloth was done by close relatives of the

bridegroom. Mannathu Padmanabhan in Jeevitha S s e

(Memories) says that no freedom was given to bride and groom in

choosing their partners.17 But the wife could divorce t h e husband

at any time and the husband could discontinue visiting his wife.

Women were allowed remarriage also. 18

Besides N a m h o t h i r i s and #airs there were many other c a s t e s ,

in Kerala including Kamrnalars (artisans), Kanisans

(astrologers), Ezhavas (toddy tappers), Valans, Arayans or

Mukkuvans (fisher m e n ) , Cherumars, Pulayas and Parayas, Nayadis

( h u n t e r s ) and various h i l l tribes. They were designated polluting

castes or untouchables.

The polluting castes were graded according to the degree

of pollution. Hence they were to keep away, by a certain distance

prescribed by custom violation of which could bring corporal

punishment to offender. For example, a Mukkuvan must keep twenty

four feet from a Namboothiri , an Ezhava thirty two, a Cherumar

sixty four, and a Nayadi seventy two. Such severe limitations

were placed on the movements of t h e s e castes.'' polluting caste

women were n o t allow~d to wear c l o t h above the waist.

O f the polluting castes, Ezhavas constituted the bulk of the

Hindu population. Amony Ezhava women polyandry existed. The

system of a common w i f e for many brothers of a family also

prevailed. C Kesavan in geevitha S- (The struggle of life)

says that h i s mother married her husband's brother after the

death of t h e husband.20 Until 1785 it was forbidden for women of

the Ezhavas and of those of the lower castes to wear any clothing

above the loins. T h e i r women did not have property rights.

Polyandry existed among Kammalars also. 21

Christians and Musl.ims form two other major communities in

Kerala. The former were concentrated in the northern parts.

Muslim women were not allowed to enter mosques. Their right to

property was only half of that of men. Men observed polygamy and

all these had religious sanction. Men had the right to divorce

their wives on flimsy reasons or none a t a l l . Christian women

enjoyed greater freedom comparison with Muslims, Christian g i r l s

were given education. s y r i a n Christians followed patrilineal

system. Early marriage of their g i r l s was not uncommon. 22

Christian miss ionar ies arrived in Kerala i n the early p a r t

of the nineteenth century. Though their prime aim was t h e

propagation of their r e l i g i o n they did c h a r i t y work and s tar ted

schools for g i v i n g e d u c a t i o n to women. Christian missionaries

succeeded in converting low caste people to their religion. ~ l s o

J they could instill i n them an awareness about t h e i r rights. AS a

result t h e converted Channar women agitated for their rights, the

agitation developed into a movement which is generally known as

Channar Lahala. During that period Channar women were not

allowed to wear cloths above t h e l o i n s . The converted Channar

women's first struggle w a s fox getting t h a t right recognised. In

1829, the riot started through o u t South Travancore when the

converted Channar women started wearing dresses above the l o i n s .

This provoked the caste Hindus. High caste people burned the

churches and schools of new christians. And the government had to

seek the help of the army to quell the commotion. c in ally colonel

Monroe granted Channar women the right to use kuppayam (jacket)

but not the separate upper cloth.

This subsided the riot for a short period. But soon demands

came from both Hindu and the Christian Channar women f o r rights

to wear separate upper cloth. They submitted various memoranda to

~ h i r u v i t h a r n c o r e Government. But they did not get a favourable

reply or orders. T h e y appealed to the Madras Presidency

Government, and received an unfavorable response. However by

this time Channar women s t a r t e d wearing the upper cloth without

waiting for the permission of the government. They received ample

support from Christian missionaries in challenging caste

Hindus. 2 3

Again riots broke out in 1859- Channar homes, churches and

schools were destroyed. A t last in July 1859, the government

granted Channar women the right to wear upper cloth with the

strict direction that it must n o t be in the style of high caste

women. Hindu Channar women were also given the right to wear

jackets. 24 In Central Travancore also riot occurred occasionally.

In Kayamkulam when an Ezhava women walked along the public road

by wearing the upper cloth, caste Hindus and some Muslims

insulted and harassed her. 25 This incident also led to riots.

Similar incidents which followed riots were not uncommon in

Travancore. The courage showed by the women of Channar and

Ezbava communities to fight against discrimination and for their

rights was immense. Channar Lahala was a remarkable example of

women's awakening in Kerala.

Towards the l a s t quarter of the nineteenth century Kerala

w i t n e s s e d a profound awakening which expressed itself in a number

of socio-religious movements. The custom ridden society underwent

revolutionary changes. A spirit of reform and rejuvenation swept

over t h e whole of Kerala and every community felt its impact i n

varyinq degrees. The percepts of Brahma Samajam and A r y a Samajam

and the teaching of Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa and Swami

Vivekananda in addition to the influence of English education and

of western science, were chiefly responsible fo r the generation

of the new s p i r i t . 2 6

All castes and communities had many problems and h u r d l e s on

their way to progress. Ta reform their castes, they orqanised

movements but under strict caste identity. In their struggle fo r

social equality, with high castes riotings occurred. Riots were

largely for and against giving admission to low caste pupils to

schools, temples and for the right to walk along public roads.

Under the impact of all these new developments, t h e caste-ridden

society began to change.

Starting of printing presses and publishing of newspapers

and journals contributed to the new awakening in the society.

Various heinous customs and practices including superstitions

existing in the society were widely discussed by these newspapers

and journals. Gradually novels and short stories were published

by Keralites who got the benefit of education.

In written by 0. Chandu Menon in 1889, rudiments

of feminism could be seen. 27 Chandu Menon th rough h i s novel

ridiculed the prevailing practices in the society and presented

to Keralites the image of an educated girl with intelligence and

courage to decide h e r future and to choose her life partner

according to her wishes which was really unthinkable i n those

days. In 1887 a women's magazine Keraliva Suauna Bodhlnl . . w a s

started. It was the f i r s t women's magazine in Malayalam.

S r e e w the first Wamen's weekly in Malayalam was

published by Anna chandy, 28 from Trivandrum. A f t e r a break of two

years, in 1940 it restarted publishing from Changanacherry. Along

with stories and articles about home management, general health,

household industries, it widely discussed women's freedom, their

rights and question of widow remarriage.

The reform activities initially came from men as they w e r e

the people who enjoyed all freedom. Influenced by western

education and modern ideas they f e l t the need to reform their

community especially the women folk. In t h e first stage women's

participation in the movement was minimal as they were kept under

strict rules and regulations. Only Nair women had the freedom of

expression and the freedom to come out of their homes.

The major force behind women's education in Kerala was

Christian missionaries. Wives of the protestant missionaries took

a lead in this work. They started modern education for gir ls in

Kerala. A t first there was a l o t of prejudice against women

education. This became a great obstacle to their education.

Christian missionaries started the first girls' school in 1819~'

in Nagercoil. Also in north Travancore the first school for girls

was started at Kottayam by ~ m e t i a Baker in 1820. 30 After that

many schools were started by missionaries in different pa r t s of

Kerala. B u t due to social opposition, the attendance was minimal.

The school authorities had to g i v e free food, clothes and

boarding to attract q i r l s to schools. They imparted vocational

education also. Meanwhile near Nagercoil a school fa r caste Hindu

girls was also started. his helped the caste Hindus who from the

early years were reluctant to mix up with other communities.

Church Mission Society ( C M S ) was mainly responsible for

the education of girls i n central Kerala. In 1820 Nortoc started

a girls school in Alleppey. 31 Baker Memorial School was

established at Kottayam in 1869. The missionaries imparted free

education in Malabar and Cochin also. These missionaries lit

the fire of education and paved the base of modern education in

Kerala. The progress in education especially of women contributed

much to the social r e f o r m movement of the time. This influenced

the government also to t h i n k about starting girlsy schools and in

1864 Travancore Government s tarted the first government school.

~ h o u g h less in number t h e educated women became aware of their

condition in society and urged for a change. Educated women were

soon absorbed as teachers in schools as there were few women to

teach in girls1 schools. Education modernised and reshaped the

life of women.

The reform movements in each community and caste l e d to the

formation of organisations such as Sree Narayana Dharma

Paripalana Sangham, ( S N D P ) , Yogakshema Sabha, and Nair Service

S o c i e t y which in turn acted as a medium to struqqle f o r their

rights and to work for economic prosperity and social reforms.

A s early as 1 8 8 7 , pained by the social disabilities to which

t h e low castes had been subjected at that time, Sree Narayana

Guru began work to reform t h e Ezhava community.32 He started h i s

campaign by consecrating a Siva idol at Aruvippuram. Temple

consecration by low caste people for low c a s t e people w a s a

revolution, t h e high castes could not tolerate. This w a s a great

challenge to high caste people. T h e Guru urged h i s community men

to do away with the expensive and s u p e r s t i t i o u s customs like

t h a l i k e t t u kalyanam, thirandukuli, pulikudi. He advocated women's

education and asked his people to work for the same.

In 1903 Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogarn IS N D P ) w a s

formed33 to propagate t h e ideas of Harayana Guru and a c t as a

powerful instrument of social reform. S N D P Yogam concentrated

mainly on issues like education for men and women, freedom of

movement on public roads and representation for Ezhavas in public

services. Such type of organisations were formed in other

communities also.

Namboothiris who occupied the highest position in the social

ladder had been s u f f e r i n g from many disabilities. However till

the last part of the nineteenth century they remained indifferent

to modern education and the changes occurring all over the state.

The Namboothiri women spent their time in t h e gloomy interior

of their residence, behind purdah. In the Administration Report

of Travancore for l9l0, it is recorded that i n that y e a r o n l y

n i n e hundred a n d s e v e n t y six children of t h e Namboothiri

community had joined school. T h e first i n s t a n c e , perhaps of the

education of a Namboothiri g i r l on modern lines was when

Karimanthur Pararneswaran Nampoothirippad in north Malabar sent

h i s daughter in 1911 to an elementary school. The Namboothiris

were over-ridden by custom and it was extremely difficult for

them to break t h e shackles of tradition.34

In 1908, t h e Yogakshema Sabha was formed with the objective

of reforming the Brahmin community. Kuroor Unni Namboothirippad

and Chittoor Narayanan Namboothirippad were the early organisers

of the group.35 A weekly called Yoqakshemam was a l s o s tarted .

'Yogakshema Sabhaf gave emphasis on English educhtion. They tried

to make the community awarE of the need of English education. The

other objective was to improve the plight of Namboothiri women.

However no substantial progress was made by t h e Sabha in the case

of women.

Meanwhile a 'Namboothiri Yuvajana Sangham' or 'Youth League'

came to be formed as a radical organisation under the leadership

of V.T. Bhattathirippad and K N Kuttan Nalhboothiri. They

published a monthly, r J n n i o t h i r i , to disseminate progressive

ideas of reform among the members of the community. 36 Tremendous

changes occurred among the community after the formation of the

Youth League. The great revolutionary who took up the cause of

Namboothiri women and devoted much of h i s time f o r that was, V .

T . hatt tat hi rip pad. He was the person who laid t h e f o u n d a t i o n of

the reform activity among women. Raianeeransam - the c:ol lection

of short stories publ - i shed by V .T. Bhattathirippad p r e s e n t e d

before the community t h e silent sufferings of Namboothiri women.

Atukkalavilninn V.T. Bhattathirippad wrote a p l a y u

firanaathekku (From the Kitchen to the Arena) which portrayed the

inhuman customs e x i s t i n g in Namboothiri illams and the pathetic

condition of Namboothiri women. The staging of the drama was

opposed greatly ky the conservatives. B u t against all obstacles,

the drama was staqed durinq the t w e n t y second yearly c o n f e r e n c e

of Yogakshema Sabha at Edakkunni . 3 7 Later, in many places which

include many illams, the drama was staged and women also got an

opportunity to see and enjoy the play which made a conscientising

effect on t h e community.

Another literary work which promoted reforms was the novel

(Father's Daughter) written by M, Bhavatratan

amb boot hi rip pad. The works Iruthumathi (The Fertile Female) by

M.P . Bhattathirippad, and -1ile Ma- (The

Inferno behind Parasol) by M.R. Bhattathirippad were also aimed

at the reformation of ~amboothiri women. 38 The drama

kud-ile Mahanarakam was staged in t h e year 1930. These

works advocated English education f o r Namboothiri g i r l s and boys

and laughted at t h e system of polygyny, t h e marriage of young

g i r l s to o l d Narnboothiri men, t h e practise of younger sons

marrying q i r l s of lower communities (being forbidden to marry

g i r l s of Narnbooth i r i community), and the system of e x -

communication.

T h e f i r s t ever widow re-marriage w a s conducted i n 1939 u n d e r

V.T. Bhattathirippad's initiative, w i t h his blessings a n d also

due to h i s efforts. 3 9 The woman who came o u t with courage was

"Nangema", V . T , Bhattathirippad's wife's sister. The bridegroom

was M.R. hatt tat hi rip pad. Though it roused much protest from the

caste people, it triggered off a revolution which was to happen

in ~amboothiri community.

Meanwhile the members of the Yuvajana Sangham removed the

sacred thread f r o m their bodies, condemned Polygyny in which the

leaders indulged and advocated the remarriage of widows. 40 Under

the a u s p i c e s of 'Namboothiri Yuvajana Sangham', a marriage sub

committee was formed to compel t h e unmarried Namboothiri

youngsters to marry from the same caste. 4 1 Picketings were

organised by its members to prevent marriages of young g i r l s with

aged Namboothiri men and t h e second marriages of Namboothiri men.

The resistance d i d not yield r e s u l t s immediately, but it created

a feeling among Narnboothiris against this type of marriages.

Moreover, t h e fear of p i c k e t i n g s compelled many Narnboothiri

families to do away with these marriages. E.M.S.

Namboothirippad- the veteran Communist leader- participated

actively in some of the picketings aimed at preventing marriages

between young girls and #old men. He describes these picketings in

h i s ~ m t h q ~ ' (Autobiography) Many Namboothiri married from the

same c a s t e . It i s apt to recall here that i n Namboothiri

community, only the e,Ldest brother was allowed to marry from t -he

same caste. Others were not allowed to marry from t h e c a s t e .

Challenging the old custom, V . T . Bhattathirippad and Pandurn

vasudevan Namboothiri married from the same caste. The girl whom

V . . hat tat hi rip pad married w a s to have been given i n marriaqe

by her parents to an aged Namboothiri.

Gradually women also came forward to be active participants

in the reform movement. The reformist Namboothiri women began

wearing blouses instead of t h e ghosha.43 The first woman w h o

rejected ghosha and came out was Mrs.Manezhi. She attended a

meeting of Yoghkshemasabha at Edakunni in December 1922 w i t h o u t

wearing qhosha. Though only one woman attended the twenty second

meeting of the Sabha, seventy five women having rejected the

ghosha took part i n the meeting of the Sabha w h 2 ~ it zeisbrated

its Silver ~ u b i l e e . ~ ~ After M r s . Manezhi, of t h e many women who

rejected ghosha are Parvathi Nenminimangalam and Arya Pallam.

P a r v a t h i presided over the meeting of 'Yuvajana Sanqhamf h e l d at

Thaliparambu. She later represented Narnboothiri women at t h e time

of discussion on Namboothiri B i l l of Cochin. 4 5 Lalitharnbika

Antharjanarn and ~ a t h a n a d i were also among t h e active women

leaders of t h e time.

V.T. Bhattathirippad took the initiative for Intercaste

marriages also. His sister Ittippapti was married to a Nair youth

named ~ a ~ h a v a n . 4 6 Here again V. T. ~ h a t t a t h i r i ~ ~ a d had to suffer

insults f r o m h i s own people, But nothing would deter t h a t great

revolutionary.

A t the thirty fourth a n n u a l conference of the 'Yoqakshema

Mahasabha' held at O n g a l l u r in December 1945, E : . M . S .

Namboothirippad w h o presided stated t h a t the Namboothiris should

be free to marry girls from any other community and that similar

privilege should be extended to the Namboothiri women as well. ~t

that conference resolutions were passed on the disabilities of

the ~amboothiri women concerning marriage, the abol - i t ion of dowry

system and adhivedanam, the formation of Women's ~ssociations,

and desirable amendments of law concerning the Namboothiri

community in Travancore, Cochin and Malabar. 4 7

Nair Service Society was formed by Mannathu Padmanabhan -

a great social reformer of t h e time - for the upliftrnent of Nair

community. airs were given education irrespective of their sex

and their women enjoyed considerable freedom. So reformation

among Nairs became easier than in other castes. Nair Service

Society concentrated its activities on stopping the ceremonies

like talikettu kalyanam, on reforming the system of marriage and

starting educational institutions for the education of Nair boys

and girls. Later Nairs agitated f o r the abolition of

marumakkathayam and individual partition of properties.

Mannathu Padmanabhan devoted h i s entire life time for the society

and for the welfare of t h e community.

Though women of Nair community enjoyed comparatively grea t e r

freedom, they d i d n o t a t t e n d public meetings and discussions. A

change came about th rough the efforts of Mannathu Padmanabhan

and Nair Service Society through the historic annual conferences

conducted throughout t h e state every year. The first annual

conference of N a i r Service Society was organised at Karuvatta i n

1 9 2 9 . 4 8 The most n o t i c e a b l e event of this conference w a s an

exclusive session for women. The session was presided by

Thottakkattu Madhavi ~ m r n a ~ ~ a well -known social reformer of the

time. A very large number of women attended the session. The

interesting aspect of it was that t h e majority of speakers were

women. T h i s conference is considered a s a milestone in t h e

history of women's emancipation in t h e Nair community. From that

session onwards women's sess ion become an inseparable part of

air conventions. The conventions discussed various iss1~e.;

concerning w o m e n and it instilled in them a sense of equality and

freedom.

In all communities reform movements s t a r t e d which in turn

resulted in making laws and regulations. On 20 February 1931

w a s passed the Travancore Malayala Brahmin Regulation to define

and amend the law of succession and family management of t h e

~a rnboo th i r i community. Provision w a s made f o r t h e better

administration of tharavad affairs, the improvement of t h e rights

of junior members and the prescription of rules of intestate

succession in respect of self-acquired property. T h e impediments

to healthy family life put in the way of junior members as well

as the uncertainties in the law of succession were removed. " ~n

1913 the F i r s t Nair Regulation A c t was passed. In 1925 a Nair

Bill providing f o r individual partition, monogamy and the right

of wife to the self-acquired property of her husband also became

law. 51

'r'he Government of cochin decided to pass requlations o n the

model of ~egulation in Travancore, t h e air Regulation which was

p u t into effect from 5 June 1920. 5 2 Thus laws were passed f o r

different communities according to t h e demand from the people.

The reform activities among various castes and communities

led to a new awakeniny in Kerala and it raised the s t a t u s of

women to a great extent. This caste based movements soon got

transformed to a wider political movement which sought freedom

fo r the c o u n t r y .

While revolutionary ideas spread and changes were taking

place in different communities in Kerala, Nationalist Movement

also began to take roots in the state. The National movement had

close links with the reform movement and the resultant renewal

among various communities here. Though t h e political ideas

reached t h e interior of t h e s t a t e very slowly, t h e educated

Keralites imbibed t h e spirit of the freedom movement at once.

Mahatma Gandhi's ideas influenced men as well as women of

Malabar, Cachin and Travancare. H i s crusade against

untouchability and his idea of high thinking went straiqht tn the

h e a r t s of the people of Kerala w h e r e the s t r u q q l c against

untouchability and c a s t e system had already bequn. AS t h e

educated belonged to middle class elite they were the majority

who participated i n the freedom movement. Malabar w i t n e s s e d

vigorous sa tyag raha movement from t h e early years as it was the

o n l y region which w a s under direct British rule. It was during

the political developments in Malabar in the wake of the famous

s a l t satyagraha o n e can observe t h e active p a r t i c i p a t i o n of

women in the freedom movement in Kerala. There is hardly a n y

political writing about: women in Kerala, Even the books which

deal w i t h t h e National movement in Kerala did not qo i n t o detail

about the women's role and their participation in it. However The

Hlstorv of Freedom Movement i n Kerala written by P . K . K Menon

g i v e s a bird's eye-view of the women's role in the freedom

movement in tne state. Women's role was only supportive during

t h e early years of the struggle. They encouraged sathyaqrahis and

volunteers in ample measure. One instance for this is that at the

time of civil disobedience movement, through an article in

Mathrubhumi - a nationalist triweekly in Malayalam T.C.

Kochukuttyamma of Cochin Educational Service exhorted her sisters

in Kerala to h e l p the freedom movement and take to the

constructive programme outlined by Gandhiji. On 10 February 1929,

C. Rajagopalachari attended the first 'All Kerala Hindi Prachar

Sammelan' at Ernakulam. It was attended by prominent o f f i c i a l s

and non-of f icials including nearly t w o hundred women.

Lakshmikutty Nethyaramma the c o n s o r t of t h e Ruler of Cochin, was

the president of the reception committee.

In March 1930, at a meeting arranged under the auspices of

t h e s a t y a q r a h a committee at Purameri in Nor th Malabar, D e v a k i

~ e t t i l a m m a made a donation to the satyaqraha committee.53 On

April 1930, women led by Gracy Aron t o o k part i n a grand

reception to K.Kelappan and his first batch of Sathyagrahis who

reached Payyannur to inaugurate the 'Salt Satyagrahar . 5 4

On 20 July 1930, when Hassan Koya Mulla was elected

president af the Kera:La provincial Congress Committee, M.

~ a r t ~ a ~ a n i a r n r n a ~ ~ was co-opted as a member of the same body. The

civil disobedience movement was gaining momentum day by day.

Women had already entered t h e political field though they did not

break the law till theneS6 Meanwhile the news of the arrest, at

Bombay of Sardar Valiabhai Patel, Madan Mohan Malavya and same

o t h e r members of the congress working committee on 1st August

caused much excitement in Malabar. The Congress Working

Committee called on the people of India to observe 10 August as

'Political Sufferer's Day'. The leading members of the Mahila

Sangh and the Swadeshi League at Calicut went round t h e town

organising a hartal which was highly successful. The volunteers

w e r e headed by A . V . Kuttimalu Amma, E . Narayanikutty Amma and

Mrs- U Gopala Menon. 57

On 16 November 1 9 3 0 , w o m e n leaders in Calicut decided to

take a u t a procession to protest against t h e cruel treatment

meted o u t by the police to t h e women satyagrahis a t Bombay. On

the p r e v i o u s day the D i s t r i c t ~agistrate served on t h e m , orders

under section Cr. P C 144 by which they were prohibited from

taking out processions or meetings. But it d i d n o t deter them.

They assembled at verkot house at Tali, Calicut and s t a r t ed the

procession. The women who led the procession were Kartyayani

Amma, A . V . Kuttimalu Amma, K . E . Sarada, T. N a r a y a n i Amma,

P . G . ~arayani Amma, E. Narayanikutty A m m a , Mrs. K . Madhavan

Nair, Mrs. T . V . Sundara Iyer and Gracy Aron . 58 The procession

was stopped by the police and M. Kartyayani Amma, E . Narayani

Kutty Amma, Gracy Aron and Jayalakshmi were arrested. All

except Kartyayani Amma were sentenced to undergo imprisonment

till t h e rising of t h e cour t . Kartyayani Amma was sentenced to

t w o months simple imprisonment. This was t h e first occasion on

which women were arrested in Kerala in t h e course of t h e freedom

movement. The arrest of the women aroused great protest among the

public. In protest against t h e arrest, the students of most

schools and colleges in Calicut observed hartal on 17 November

1930.

T h e system of appointing dictators for the satyagraha

movement began in Kerala during 1930's. The dictator w a s to lead

t h e entire satyagraha movement for a certain period. The dictator

is supposed to be an efficient person who can take decisions

independently, chalk o u t and implement programmes for t h e

movement. Women of Kerala played a remarkable role as dictators

of t h e movement. Many women were appointed as dictators during

the civil disobedience movement. G r a c y A r o n , Eswar i Ammal ,

K . ~ u n j i l a k s h r n i Amma and Pavamani were some among those who

acted as dictators and proved their leadership qualities a n d

dedication to t h e movement.

P o t h e r i Madhavan was nominated as t h e first dictator.

Waqhava Kurup, the second dictator on h i s arrest nominated

Gracy ~ r o n ~ ~ as the next dictator. She gave prior intimation to

the authorities about h e r programme of action- O n 1 3 January

1331, s h e conducted a procession to the Calicut beach acccmpanied

by P . Devaki Amma, L.S. Prabhu, Ganesh P a i , Vedavathy

Ammal and t w o men-volunteers, K Kumaran Nair and T.K. Ayyappan

~ i l l a i . She hoisted the tri-colour flag as t h e crowd sang the

f l aq song in chorus. There w a s also a bonfire of foreign cloth on

their return from t h e beach. All the women and men-volunteers

were arrested by t h e po,lice. Calicut observed a pzrtisl hnrtal on

that day. This was the second occasion when women were arrested

in Malabar. 60 Gracy Aron and the two men-volunteers d i d n o t

take part in the trial proceedings. But t h e o the r women made a

statement demanding maximum punishment for themselves. All of

them were sentenced to s i x months rigorous imprisonment and asked

to give security for good behaviour for s i x months after release

from j a i l . They were taken to t h e Presidency Jail for women at

Vellore. M r s . Ganesh P a i had a child also w i t h her.

Eswari Ammal, w i f e of T.R. Krishna Swamy Iyer, was the

fifth dictator. But when Gandhi ji appealed to t h e nation to

observe 1 5 February as Motilal day , giving o u t a programme to be

followed by the country, Eswari A r n m a l , the fifth dictator had

already been arrested on t h e Calicut beach fo r breaking t h e salt

law on 2 February. The sixth dictator K . Kunjilakshmi Amma

and other prominent leaders appealed to t h e people of Kerala to

observe Motilal Day in accordance with Gandhiji's instructions.

Thus it was observed in all solemnity, even in villages with

complete hartal.

The National movelnent saw many women becominq leaders in

their own rights. K. Kunjilakshmi Amma was one such. she w a s a

teacher in cochin Government service. N. Sanjivi Bai was

anather prominent woman who was a teacher under the Malabar

district board. Both resigned their jobs to join the satyagraha

movement. These two were the first women to undertake picketing

in Malabar, On 2 2 February they picketed a piece-goods shcp tt

B i q Bazaar in Calicut. They were arrested on t h e third day and

were remanded to jail f o r a fortnight. They were tried on 28

February and awarded six months rigorous imprisonment by the

Magistrate of Calicut. On her arrest Kunjilakshmi Amma

nominated Margaret pavarnani as the n e x t dictator. Meanwhile

arrests and convicting of picketers were taking place in large

numbers in Palghat, Calicut and several other centres of north

Malabar.

Under the joint ausp ices of Bala Bharat Sangh and Balika

sangh, a large procession of boys and girls led by Jayalakshmi

a n d r G Swarna Kumari went a l o n g the important roads of Ca 1 i cu t

on 25 February singing national s o n g s In response to the c a l l o t

Pavamani, shops , streets and residential houses i n all important

places in Malabar w e r e decorated with tri-colour f l a g s on 2 ' /

~ ' e b r u a r ~ . ~ ~ Vigorous hcruse to house propaganda was conducted in

North Malabar by the members of the 'Yuvak Sangh ' and 'Desa

Sevika Sangh' headed by E . C . Kunjikkannan Nambiar,

Kartyayani Amma and ~ a t i l d a Kallan. 6 2

The andh hi-1rvin pact signed on 5th March 1931 was welcomed

i n Kerala. On 6 March ~ a v a m a n i , the seventh dictator and

o t h e r leaders ( K . Kelappan , K. Madhavan Nair and D r . G a n e s h

Pai) issued a communique calling on t h e people to observe the

terms of the Pact strictly and not to break law.'

on 7 March, public meetings were held to celebrate the event

all over Kerala. A t C a . l i c u t , a huge procession was organized by

t h e Bala Bharath Sangh, Balika Sanqh, the Mahila Sangh and the

Student's L e a g u e . At the m a m m o t h meeting held at t h e beach and

presided over by Pavamani , T. Prakasorn the great Andhra

leader who had been released on t h e previous day from Cannanore

jail, congratulated Kerala on the splendid part played by her in

t h e historic movement. 6 3 Pavarnani then nominated a new Kerala

~rovisional Congress Committee as an emergency measure. T h e new

working committee which was constituted included Karthyayani

Amma also.

Pavamani and P.M. Karnalavathi organised the picketi nq d t

Tellicherry while Mrs. M-Narayanan, Mrs. Madhava P a i , Mrs.

Bhandarkar, M . K . Kausalya, M.K. Yasoda, M.K. Vani, M.

Rudrani , S-Chandrika Bai, N. Madhavi and N. Revathy,

besides a few girls organised picketings at Cannanore. They were

helped by Sambavi Amma, Sumathi Bai and Chandramathi. At

a l l t h e s e towns t h e nationalist activity, as reported b y the

police, was regular and peaceful. On the whole the women who

entered t h e political f i e l d hailed from respectable middle-class

families and were educated. Their participation in the movement

enhanced its popular it:^ and was bound to contribute to i t s

ultimate success.

Meanwhile vigorous picketing campaigns were organised by

women in Cochin and Travancore also. Women of Cochin including P.

Amritamma, P. Visalakshi, T. Lakshmi Kutty, M . Kartyayani

Amma, M. Lakshmikutty Amma, Poduval Ambadikochamrnini, K.

Kamalam, T . Subhadra, Mrs. Achuta Menon, M r s . Ikkanda Warrier

and others launched the picketing campaign in Trichur on 25 April

1931 with the co-operat.ion of A . V . Kuttimalu Amraa and Pavamani

from Calicut. They were led by E. Ikkanda Warrier, K. N.

Namboothixippad, and K Madhava Menon.

A s regards Travancore, K. Kumar organised an effective

picketing of foreign cloth shops at Alleppey. Women and young

boys and girls also were very active at Alleppey. Mrs. T.K.

Madhavan, Dr. Rugmini Amma, K. Lakshmi Gopalakrishnan and

others led by M. K a r t y a y a n i Amma from Trichur did n o t spare

themselves, d u r i n g the campaign. In May 1931, together with the

Fifth Kerala Provincial Political C o n f e r e n c e , The Provincial

Women's Conference also w a s held at Badakara in Malabar. Mrs.

Padmavathy Asher in her presidential address called the wamen to

keep the tri-colour flag flying aloft until the attainment of

independence. 64 This conference turned to be a h i s t o r i c one for

t h e women of Kerala. It demanded the recognition of the equal

rights of women, in all administrative institutions. Besides, the

conference resolved t h a t a l l Hindus irrespective of caste

difference should have free access to all public places. It w a s

decided to organise the 'Kerala Mahila Desa Sevika Sanqh' f o r

carrying on nationalist work and serving the cause of women in

the c o u n t r y and to s e t up night schools and handicraft training

centres for providing education and employment fo r poor women.

'Kerala Mahila D e s a Sevika Sangh' was formed in Calicut on

13 June 1931 at a meeting of women at Verkot House, w i t h

Margaret Pavamani as president, Kunjikkavu Amma as vice-

president, A.V. Kuttimalu Amma as treasurer and P.M.

Kamalavathi and K.~unjilakshmi as secretaries. The Kerala

Provincial Congress Committee resolved to organise Kisans and

labourers in factories and so a committee was appointed;

(Pavamani, U.Gopaia Menon, K . A . Damodar Menon and Mohammad

Abdur Rahman were t h e members). Meanwhile t h e women leaders of

Calicut had decided to organise an All Kerala Women's League

w i t h head quarters at Calicut for national reconstruction work.

During January 1932, when Gandhi- I r v i n pact had come to arl

end, a second period of dictatorship began in Malabar. After the

arrest of the dictator K C K Naha of Parappanangadi, Lalitha

prabhu6' took up the leadership of the movement. She w a s arres ted

at ~ellicherry for p i c k e t i n g shops. She was awarded s i x months

imprisonment and fined Rs.1000/- by the Magistrate ( D . W .

Dodwell). Towards the f i n e , she surrendered all her jewels except

the t a l i , as it was considered sacred. But the Magistrate ordered

the police constable to remove the t a l i also. 6 6

The high-handedness of t h e British Magistrate and t h e

callous disregard of sacred custom provoked universal indignation

in India and several women's organisations including o n e at

Nagpur s t a r t e d an agitation for an enquiry into his c o n d u c t .

V.P.N. Nambiar raised t h e issue in the Madras legislative

council, which also came before t h e British House of Commons.

~r-~uthulakshmi Reddi, Jinarajadasa, Ammu Swaminadhan and

Sen brought t h e matter to the notice of M. Krishnan Nair, then

law member. ina ally the government of Madras condemned, in a

press note issued on 2 3 February the action of the magistrate and

got t h e tali restored to Prabhu. Dodwell himself later

expressed regret for his a c t i o n . But Swami Anand Tirth, a

relative of Prabhu was refused permission by Dodwell to

interview her. Also when she w a s taken to the Velloor j a i l , she

had to travel in third class and was escorted by two constables

but no women-warden. All this created protest from the public.67

Meanwhile picketings and a r res t s of women continued

unabated. The f o r t h day of every month was celebrated as Gandhi

day at Calicut under the leadership of Kun j i kava Amma,

Pavamani, Padmavathy Amma and others. On 1 0 February Matilds

B. Kallan w i t h a few other volunteers, w a s arrested for l e ad ing a

procession at Quailandy. T h e women of Palghat including P .

Devaki Amma, P . Janaki Amma and P I Padmini Kutty were

sentenced to imprisonment for varying terms during that period.

The women at Tellicherry, Sambhavi Amma and K . Madhavi Amma

m e t with the same fate for having picketed foreiqn-cloth shops .

A t Calicut A.V. Kuttimalu Amrna, the ninth dictator together with

her co-workers were arrested on 22 February; charges were framed

only against the women who were later sentenced to rigorous

imprisonment for t w o years.

The women leaders were conscious of their rights and they

would fight fo r them. This is how A . V . Kuttimalu Amma stood her

ground a g a i n s t heartless dictatorship. She had a two month old

child on her hand when she was arrested. But as the trial was

over, Kuttimalu ~mma'~ was not permitted by the Magistrate to

take her baby to jail. She protested and s t u c k to her decision

and finally the court accepted her arguments and allowed her to

take the baby with her, In Kasargod Taluk, a conference was

held in f r o n t of the customs off ice, on 9 July. It was presided

over by T.Kamala B a i . A s usual, the agitators went on a

procession which w a s asked to disperse. On their refusal to do

so, police caned them. T h e President of the Kuttiyadi village

conference, Narayani Amma and three other volunteers w e r e

sentenced, to rigorous imprisonment for six months. A . v .

Lakshmi Amma president of t he Azhikodu village conference which

was held on 4 September was given one year's rigorous

imprisonment. 69

During the Swadeshi movement of 1931-32 there was vigorous

picketing of foreign cloth shops in all parts of Kerala. Educated

w o m e n , assisted by men volunteers including lawyers and students

came out of their homes and picketed shops in a l l important

towns. The table below gives an idea of t h e course of the civil

disobedience movement in Malabar from January to August 1932.

Number of persons convicted up to 31-7-1932

Men 408

Women 2 2

Except in t h e town of Calicut and a few other places in

Malabar, t h e Civil Disobedience Movement had been overshadowed

during 1932 by the 'Guruvayur Temple E n t r y Satyagrahaf and anti-

untouchability campaign. Women including Dr. Rugmini Amma and

M. Kartyayani Amma were actively associated with this struggle. 7 0

A s p e c i a l committee was formed under the leadership of P.M.

Kamalavathi to orqanise the Temple Entry Satyagraha. Women in

large numbers attended the conferences and participated in

satyaqraha.

I n september 1934 C ~unjikkavu ~rnrna~l was elected by

majority vote the president of Kerala Provincial Congress

C o m m i t t e e . During t h e civi 1 disobedience movement in August

-September 1 9 3 8 , Accamrna cherian7' become the twelfth president

of t h e State congress. A s the president she l e d the All

Travancore State C:ongress Volunteers J a t h a to t h e

Padmanabhapuram palace of the reiqninq Maharaja, on 2 3 O c t o b e r

(being Maharaja's birthday), demanding immediate granting of

Responsible Government and an unconditional release of political

prisoners.

T h e other prominent women who took leadership in the

agitation for responsible government in Travancore were T.N.

Kalyanikutty Amma, Matilda Kallan, C . R . Devaki Amrna, Anna

Kuruvila, Rosamma Punnoose and Saramma Mathew. T . N .

Kalyanikutty A m a effectively used her magazine Vanitharatnam to

fight for t h e responsible government. But the government

proscribed t h e magazine as anti-government. She later started

another publication m t h - which was intended to encourage

a struggle for Responsible ~ o v e r n m e n t ~ ~ . S S Miranda was

another important leader of the agitation for Responsible

Government. She joined the Travancore State Congress as a

volunteer and took part in its struggles. During civil

disobedience in 1938, she was arrested at Attingal and was

brutally tortured for having participated in a procession from

chirayinkil to ~ t t i n ~ a l ~ ~ . Rosamma Punnoose also participated

in t h e movement and organised the Desa Sevikas, the women's wing

of the Congress Volunteers Carps-

Women's contribution to the propagation of k h a d i and

s p i n n i n g is remarkable. They fully imbibed the true s p i r i t o f

Gandhiji's message an khadi and organised committees a n d

c o n d u c t e d classes in spinning all over the s t a t e . They w e r e

effective examples a s they wore khadi t o propagate t h e importance

of khad.i among the people. On 17 May 1 9 3 0 when t h e Kerala

provinc ia l Congress C o r n m i t e e met at Payyannor , a committee w a s

constituted t o organise khadi work i n Kerala i n order to satisfy

the increasing demand f o r it. Meanwhile a committee of women was

formed at Calicut for effective khadi work. The committee

consisted of T . Narayani Amma, Mrs. U. Gopala menon, K . E .

sarada and Margaret Pavamani .75 Its members and other leading

women soon organised a number of classes in spinning, carried on

home propaganda and distributed charka and cotton among the

people in Malabar.

A 'Rastreeya Stree Sabha' was formed in Cannanore on 28

~ p r i l 1931 with Madhava pai as president and O.K. Madhavi

Amma and Mrs. M.Narayanan as secretaries. The committee included

3 5 women. The objective of the body w a s to organise classes in

spinning, popularise Hindi and conduct propaganda for prohibition

and 'swadeshi movement'. Those who could, were also asked to

picket foreign cloth shops . 7 6 In Calicut a large number of

educated persons including young women formed the Khadi

Pracharana Sangh during 1 9 3 1 . They distributed Charkas, Taklis

and c o t t o n free of cost among the people in different centres.

P . I . Kaimal served as t h e secretary of the Sangh and Kuttimalu

Amma as t h e treasurer. Kartyayani Amma who had given up her job

fo r national service w a s the most active worker of t h e Sangh .

Women organised classes in Khadi Spinning wherever possible.

E . Narayanikutty Amma took a lead i n the formation of Swadeshi

C o m m i t t e e i n t h e meeting held on 5 June 1 9 3 1 . When the first

Swadeshi Art and Industrial Exhibition was held at the premises

of Annie Hall in Calicut, the Women's Indian ~ s s o c i a t i o n and the

Mahi l a Sangh cooperated with the exhibition committee7-'. I n 1937

Khadi producing centre w a s started at Pulikkal in Ernad Taluk. It

was admittedly a great boon to a large number of Muslim women and

girls. Under this centre four subsidiary branches also functioned

in places where the members of the Moplah Community constituted

the majority. Nearly thousand women got the necessary training in

In the states of Cochin and Travancore many women

came forward to enforce prohibition and popularise Khadi.

When M a h a t m a Gandhi launched Quit India Movement in 1942, it

had a tremendous impact on Kerala. Women of Kerala offered

enthusiastic and dedicated participation. Many assumed leadership

role also. Notable women leaders w e r e Kamala Nambeesan, E .

Ammukutty Amma, M, ~artyayani Amma, P. V. Madhavikutty Amma

and G Suseela. E. Ammukutty Amma p i c k e t e d the Zamorinls

College, Calicut during the Qui t India Movement. She was awarded

o n e month's rigorous imprisonment i n the special sub j a i l ,

Calicut as 'c' class prisoner79. Lakshmikutty Amma was

sentenced to one month's imprisonment far having m a d e a

'prejudicial' speech in 1 9 4 2 . B" Karthyayani Amma was one among

the leaders who orqanised t h e mass movement i n ~ o c h i n state

during 1942. Likewise Kamala Nambisan played an important

role in organising youth and students during Q u i t India Movement.

When Indian National Army (INA) was organised by veteran

freedom fighter Nethaji Subhash Chandra Bose, women of Kerala

served a s dedicated sol-diers i n its women's wing. Lakshmi

Saghal from South Malabar served as a doctor and commanded t h e

Rani of Jhansi Regiment. She was imprisoned in 1945, when

Singapore w a s re-occupied by t h e British. Nalappattu

Narayanikutty joined the 1ndian National Army as a fighter in the

Rani of Jhansi Regiment in September 1942. she later become an

officer in the Regiment. During 1942-45 Lakshmi Krishnan also

served as a soldier in the women's wing.

,The reform movement side by side wlth the nationalist

movement and t h e success of various satyagraha namely ~aikorn

Satyagraha and Temple E n t r y Struggles aroused egalitarian values

and democratic consciousness among Ezhavas and other low caste

people in Kerala. This new consciousness led to t h e emerqence of

working c l a s s movement where the participation of women

especially from t h e low caste people could be seen. Many women

from t h e women's wing of Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam

became leaders or activists in the labourers' struggles later.

Trade unionism began to spread in Travancore from the year

1922. The Travancore Labour ~ssociation, formed during this time,

got encouragement from Congress Socialist P a r t y . Women workers,

many a t i m e e x p l o i t e d by t h e landlords or their employers, joined

hands with men to conduct a g i t a t i o n s . The struggles to be singled

out are those which were o q a n i s e d by Travancore Coir Factory

Workers Union in October 1938; the protes t movement organised by

'Quilon F a c t o r y Workers' Union (cashew w o r k e r s ) in 1 9 3 9 ; t h e

struggle against dismissal of workers by Goodcare company and the

agricultural workers movement in Kuttanadu in 1940's.

The general s t r i k e organised by Travancore Coir F a c t o r y

Worker's union in October 1918 was the first of its k i n d in

Kerala. T h e workers protested against wage-cuts, fines and

retrenchment and demanded payment in cash, a minimum wage of Rs.

30/- a month, unemployment allowance, maternity benefits,

educational facilities for themselves and their children, medical

a i d and recognition of the union. 82

They raised political demands such as adult franchise ,

responsible government and release of political prisoners. During

picketing of factory gates, women also participated. They l e d

t h e agitation when male workers were lathicharged. They played a

great role in distributing information among workers through

letters, circulars and statements of the strike-committee. The

women's movement got an impetus as efforts were made by the union

to mobilise them and many women activists like Kalikkutty

A s a t t y who was a member of S N D P women's committee joined the

movement.

In ~ u i l o n , during 2 3 3 6 , Factory Workers' Union was formed.

The process of conscientisation of workers of v a r i o u s sectors of

t h e economy including women workers ga ined momentum by 1 9 3 9 a s

the Communist P a r t y was formed. 8-3 The political education

campaign led by the party helped to conscientise the workers in

general and women workers in particular. Various campaigns led by

women workers themselves were clear examples of this new

awakening. The earliest of such struggles was the one for

onam festival advance, undertaken by women workers and led by

Meenakshi, a t h i r t e e n year old ratt-spinner, of the British

multinational, Darragh Srnail, the first and the biggest coir

company in Alleppey, in 1941; the second one, f o r maternity

benefits, was held in the company premise under her own

leadership. The employer was forced to accept both the demands84.

During 1 9 4 4 - 4 5 , about 2 8 8 cases of maternity benefit w a s

taken up by Travancore Coir Factory Workers Union and a l l were

paid Rs. 0 . 4 9 per day f o r two months- It has to be noted t h a t in

Cochin, where the number of women workers were much higher than

in Travancore, maternity benefit was paid by no employer though

the Maternity Benefit Bill was passed in 1939 itself. 85

The third noteworthy struggle, against dismissal of workers

by Goodcare company, was also won by the workers. The practice of

using abusive language against women workers by mopans of the

company was considerably reduced after this struggle- In the

former issue women shouted slogans, though they were intimidated

by the police, while in the latter case they applied a novel

method of filling their betel boxes with pebbles and throwing

them against the mapans whenever they abused any women worker. 86

Thus it become a common practice for women to lead struggles for

specific issues and also f o r o ther general demands of t h e

workers. T h e courage and enthusiasm shown by the women i n these

campaigns was immense.

Women's trade union and political activities got a new

dimension as they formed a radical organisation of their own. The

Ambalappuzha Taluka Mahila Sangharn ( A T M S ) w a s formed in 1 9 4 3

with R. Meenakshi as secretary and Kalikutty A s a t t i as

president. This w a s the culmination of the organisational efforts

t a k e n by women workers in coir factories. Struggles conducted

within t h e factories led to the formation of Women's Factory

iyteus t ~ y 1941.9 '

T h e struggles in t h e industrial field had i ts impact in t h e

agricultural sector also. In agriculture many women were engaged

in transplanting and harvesting work. 1939 onwards a trade union

movement was developed among t h e agricultural workers of

Kuttanadu. In 1940 *Thiruvithamcore Karshaka Thozhilali Union1

was formed. Women in large number participated in the agitations

against denial of work and demand fo r higher wages.

There were instances in which landlords were surrounded by

women workers in t h e threshing fields and not allowed to leave

t h e spot until they consented to the workers' demands, usually

for higher wages. In one instance which took place in 1 9 4 0 s , a

b i g landlord was tied with ropes and paddy was taken away by the

workers f o r c i b l y . 89

Women resorted to gheraos for wage-rise in different places

like Kottayam, Kumarakom, Vaikom and Ettumanoor. Mostly low caste

women participated in these struggles f a r which they had to

suffer a lot. B u t everywhere their enthusiasm and dedication fo r

the cause was tremendous. In Alleppey women agricultural workers

led a demonstration with broomsticks in their hands.g0 Picketing

by women in f r o n t of the farmers' houses f o r d a y s was common

during that period. 1.n 1943 when 'Kerala Mahila Sangham' was

formed, the women leaders who took t h e initiative were

Thankamma ~ r i s h n a Pillai, Kamalakshi, Saraswathi and

Radharnma Triankachy. Women participated in communist-led Punnapra

V a y a l a r struggle also during 1 9 4 6 .

"Besides participating in the armed struggle women also

engaged in solidarity actions by the families of workers during

this period of repression. Many women activists were arrested,

tortured and raped by the army and t h e police, though many of

them went underground. lqgl

Thus, together with their men folk, women fought battles for

land and wages and against feudal repression. Their role was

indeed commendable in these movements. Their participation in

these movements encouraged and strengthened the women's movement

in Kerala.

REFERENCES

1. Sou the rn Resianal . Consultation Renort, Institute of Management in Government, Trivandrum, 1990, p.1.

2 * Martilineal:-The system in which mother takes precedence of the father in traciing line of descent and inheritance.

'3. Partilineal:-Descend in the male line.

4 . M . S . A . Hao, Social chanse in Malab=, The Popular Book Depot, Bombay, 1957, p . 23.

5. William Logan, -bar Manual, translated by V.T. Krishnan, Mathrubhumi Printing and Publishing Company, Calicut , 1985, P p . 160 - 161.

6 . P. ~ankunni Menon, Thiruvi tharncore Charitram (Malayalam), Kerala Bhasha Institute, Trivandrum, 1973, 1988 ( r p t . ) , p . 6 6 ; Rao, n.4, p. 82.

7 . Quoted i n P . K . Balakrishnan, Jathivvavasthithivum Kerala Charithravum (Malayalam), N . B . S , Kottayam, 1 9 8 3 , p . 3 6 5 .

8. Quoted in K . P . Padmanabha Menon, History of Kerala, Val. 111, Asian ~ducational service, New Delhi, 1984, p . 9 4 .

9. P. Bhaskaran Unni, Pathapatham Noottandile Keralam (Malayalam), Kerala Sahithya Academy, Thrissur, 1988, p . 296.

10. Balakrishnan, n . 7 , p . 3 6 4 .

11. V . T . hatt tat hi rip pad, -urn Kiwvum (Malayalarn), India Press, Kottayam,l970, p.17.

12. Menon, n.8, p . 112; For Details See P. Sankunni Menon, l t r a m (Malayalam), Kerala Bhasha

Institute, Trivandrum, 1973, 1988 (rpt.), Pp. 69-71.

13. Rao, n . 4 , p . 2 3 .

1 4 . Joanna tiddle and Hama Joshi, Pauuhters of Jn-endence, Kali f o r Women, N e w Delhi, 1986, p . 29.

15. Menon, n.8, p . 2 5 3 *

Rao, n.4, p . 8 5 .

Mannathu Padmanabhan, E n t e Jeevitha Smaranakal (Malayalam) V o l . I, N.S.S, C h a n g a n a c h e r r y , 1964, p. 6 9 .

Cited i n Unni, n . 9 , p.306.

Rao, n.4 , p. 21.

C . Kesavan, Jeevitda.. . Samaram, Sahithya Pravarthaka Sahakarana Sangham, Kottayam, 1990, p.20.

Kerala History Association, Kerala Charithram (Malayalam), Vol.1, Cochin, 2 9 7 3 , p . 9 8 8 ; P.N. Chopra, et a l , History of South India, Vol.111, S Chand & Co. L t d . , N e w Delhi, 1979, p . 2 0 9 .

itics. Women and Well beins Robin Jeff ry ,Pol , Mac Millan, Cambridge, London, 1992, 1993(rpt.), p.146.

Kerala History Association, n.21, p . 1 2 0 3 .

A. Sreedhara Menen, Kerala C h a r i t h r a (Malayalam), Sahithya Pravarthaka Sahakarana Sangham Ltd., Kottayam, 1967 , 1985 ( r p t . ) , p.474; R.N. Yesudas, The W t t - o r v of t h e London Missionarv Society ln Travancare 1806-1908, Kerala Historical Society, Trivandrum, 1980, p.194.

Unni, n . 9 , p.751.

P.K.K. Menon, 'the Historv of Freedom Movement. i n Kerala, Vol. 11, Government of Kerala, 1972, p.454.

M. Sneha Prabha, 'The N e w Women as revealed th rough Malayalam F i c t i o n ' ,

I Supplementary Volume, A.K.G. Centre for Research and Studies, 1994, Trivandrum, p.14.

Anna Chandi was the first Woman High C o u r t Judge in India.

Ms Mead : - wife of Rev: Charles Mead, a Missionary of London Missionary society, started the school.

Hepzi Joy, 'Women's ducat ion and social change in KeraLaF, tiom Con-s on Kerda Studies, V a l . 11, A . K . G .

Centre fo r Research and Studies, Trivandrum, 1994, p . 1 0 2 .

31. V. N a g a m A i y a , Travancore S t a t e Manual, Vol. 1 , A s i a n Educational Service, N e w Delhi, 1 9 8 9 . p . 4 7 5 ; E.M.S ~ a r n b o o t h i r i p p a d , K e r a l ~ YesterdayL Today and lorn I I morrow, ~ a t i o n a l Book Agency Pvt. Limited, Calcutta, 1967 ; H . N

Women's, Education in Kerala Yesudas, A Historv of , S o u t h Indian Social Centre, Trivandrum, 1988, p.38.

33. M.K. Kumaran & P. Bhaskaran (eds. ) , Sree Naravana Guru Prabhavan (Malayalam), Antha Rashtra Sree Narayana Guru Varshacharana Committee, Varkala, 1977, p . 3 3 0 ; R . N Yesudas, A History of Women's Education i n -, s o u t h Indian social Centre, Trivandrum, 1988, p. 3 8 ; E.M.S Namboothirippad, Kerala. Yesterday. Today and Tomorrow, National Book Agency P v t . Ltd., 1967, p.120.

3 4 . Menon, n.26, p . 4 6 9 .

3 5 . Kumaran, n.33, p.328.

3 7 . Kumaran, n.33, p.356.

3 8 . Kerala History Association, n.21, p.974.

3 9 . V . T . Bhattathirippad, Veetivude Jeevitha Smaranakal (Malayalam), N . B . 5 , Kottayam, 1983, p.183.

41. Kerala History ~ssociation, n.21, p.1288.

4 2 . E.M.S. Mampoothirippad, -tha (Malayalarn), c h i n t h a Publishers, Trivandrurn, 1993, p.145.

4 3 . Ghosha - an Umbrella like covering used by Namboothiri women in front of other men. They were not used to go out without using this Purdah.

4 4 . Kumaran, n.21, p . 3 5 8 .

4 5 . Kerala History Association, n.21, p . 1 2 8 9 .

4 6 . Bhattathirippad, n.39, p . 2 0 1 .

47. Menon, n.26, p.472.

48. Padmanabhan, n.17, p.218.

' l ' ho t t akka t tu Madhavi Amma was the first woman member of the L e q i s l a t i v e Assembly, Cachi.

I b i d , y.182.

K . Karunakaran Nair, Who is Who o f Freedom Fishters in Kerala, Government of Kerala, Trivandrum, 1975, p . 1 .

M. Karthyayani Amma : - Born at Trichur in 1905. Took active p a r t in the National Movement in 1930 - and t h e r e f - o r suspended from service ( She was a teacher in a government School, Trichur ) . Later practised as a lawyer, but at t h e behest of Gandhiji, 1946, left the Bar to become a f u l l time Khadi Worker.

Nair Service Society, Suvarna Grant-, (Malayalarn), Golden Jubilee Publication, Kottayam, 1964, p.339.

Gracy Aron : - p r t iA-ipatel3 in Hlticnal Movement from 19;s. Organized Congress work among women in Calicut and Cannannore. Arrested and imprisoned many times.

Ibid, p.223.

Matilda Kallan : - born at Vadakara, Kozhikode district on 1904, August 31. She gave up her job as a teacher and joined t h e Civil Disobedient Movement in 1931. Selected a s a dictator of the Kerala Youth League in 1932. Sentenced to rigorous imprisonment for leading the National Movement in 1932. Conducted the Kasthurba Harijan Balika Sadan at Ottappalam and Calicut and served as a Matron from 1935.

Ibid, p.231.

Lalitha Prabhu : - daughter of Great Educationalist M. ~eshagiri Prabhu.

ivude Charithra V.~.Menon, Mathubhum m, (Malayalam), Vol. 1, ~ a t h r u b h u m i Printing and Publishing Company Limited, ~ a l i c u t , 1 9 7 3 , p.349; Leela Darnodara Menon, S w a t h a n t h r y a ~ a m a r a t h i l Vanithakal vahicha Panku (Malayalam), Janawatham, August, 1 9 9 3 , p.6 .

A.V. ~uttimalu Amma: - Born in 1905. Did her education at anth hi van. Entered active Politics in 1 9 3 0 , acted as President of Town Committee, Calicut, District Congress Committee, Malayala Pradesh Congress Committee, Kerala Pradesh Congress Committee and selected as member of KPCC and AICC. Elected twice to Madras Legislative Assembly (1937,1946). She hold the responsible position of president, Desiya Mahila Samajam.

Kunjikkavu Amma : - born on 20th March 1895 at Ottappalam Palghat ~istrict. Joined Indian National Congress in 1930, At Calicut while leading women's procession defying prohibitory order, she was detained in the sub jail. ~ q a i n she was imprisoned for having addressed t h e meeting in front of the Zamorin's College, Calicut, violating an order under section 144- She became t h e seventh dictator of Kerala Provincial Congress committee in 1 9 3 2 . Devoted her l i f e for the upliftment of Harijans.

Accamma Cherian : - born at Kanjirappally on 15th february 1909. Served as Head Mistress of S t . Mary's High School. In 1938 s h e resigned her job and joined t h e Travancore State Congress to participate t h e struggle fox responsible Government. She became the 12th President of State Congress. During Quit India Movement (1942), she was detained f o r a year. In 1946, while leading a procession in defiance of Prohibitory order at Kanjirappally, s h e was arrested and awarded s i x months imprisonment.

Nair, n.54, p.190.

Menon, n.26, p.196.

Nair, n.54, p.25.

Meera Velayudhan, Women Workers and Class Struggles in Alleppey, 1938 - 1 9 5 0 , Social Scientist, 1983, M a r c h , P s . 50- 51.

P.M. Mathew and M.S. Nair, Women's ~rsanisations and Women's Interests , Indian ~nstitute of ~egional studies, Kottayam, 1984, p . 1 3 3 .

Thozhilali N.K. Kamalasanan, Kuttanadum Karshaka Erasthanavum, D- C. Books, Kot tayam, 1993, Pp.66-67.

Mathew, n.83, p . 1 3 3 .

Kamalasanan, n.88, p . 9 4 .

Mathew, n.83, p.137.

WOMEN'S HOVEnENTS IN K W :

POST-INDEPENDENCE PERIOD

Women of Kerala after independence were freed from many of

their social handicaps of the earlier period. T h e Christian

missionary activities started in the state at a very early period

(1819) and the initiative on the part of the yovernment

encouraged women to acquire education. Disintegration of cas te

system a n d removal of untouchability contributed to this new

awakeninq. T h e progress made by women in t h e field of education

enabled them to find jobs outside home and come out of their

seclusion. Legal equality was achieved easily as t h e Constitution

of India granted equality of sexes. Women's participation in the

National movement opened the doors of political and

administrative fields to them. And they proved themselves

efficient political leaders and administrators. The press in

Kerala also played its role in women's emancipation. Constraints

and impediments in t h e way of women's development were viewed

with empathy by t h e media and given wide coverage. Past

independence Kerala saw women's achievements in almost all fields

of activities, and mostly in politics, education, employment a n d

general health.

When the shackles of age-old beliefs and customs were

removed, girls from all communities were benefitted by education.

Missionary activities for improving girls education s t a r t e d from

the early part of the 19th century itself. And in 1 8 6 4 ~ the first

government girlsf school was founded in Trivandrum. Co-education

was tolerated and more institutions exclusively fo r girls were

started t h roughou t the s t a t e . The Kerala S t a t e administration

Report f o r 1956-57 remarks: "there were one hundred and t w e n t y

four high schools and twenty eight special schools run

exclusively for girls. G i r l s were also admitted i n all secondary

schools. * The numberof girls -students increased many times

during the years that followed.

Various census r epor t s show i m m e d i d ~ e inc rease in female

education in the state. The literacy rate of women in Kerala

increased from 3.15 percent in 1901 to 31.41 percent in 1951. 3

This was a remarkable change un matched by the other parts of

India. Unfortunately due to the Oorthodoxy of Muslims, Malabar

remained an educationally backward area. 4

T h e 1981 census of ~ n d i a shows that Kerala kept uo the pace

and lead in female literacy. In 1971 female literacy rate was

54.31 which increased to 65.73 in 1981. And by 1991, it touched

a high percentage of 86.93. Later Kerala was "declaredu6 a state

which attained hundred percent lizeracy. Also percentage

enrollment of girls in schools and cclleges came very near to

that of boys in Kerala. Free s n d compulsory education

naturally, raised the status of women in Kerala. The social

disabilities like untouchability, ear ly marriage, seclusion and

other similar restrictions on their movement saon disappeared. As

a result t h e educated women of Kerala entered various professions

and began to complete with men.

Recent statistics show that in cer ta in fields of employment

women outnumbered men. The departments of Public Instruction,

Sqcial Welfare and Health Services are concrete examples.

According to the 1981 census, percentage of women in t h e

department of Social Welfare is 50.12. Correspondinq percentages

in Health Services and Public Instruction are 51.34 and 50. 4 2 7

respectively. The statistics reveal t h a t women worked i n all

departments and assumed top level positions.

With more and more women taking u p employment, they become

economically more independent. This new follnd freedom ultimately

instilled in them a sense of self-reliance. This in turn helped

them develop their personality. Their participation in National

Movement had increased the political cansciousness and majority

of them effectively used their franchise in t h e general

elections. Some of the women leaders became members of

legislative assembly, parliament and some of them became

min i s t er s . But when t h e size of the electorates is considered t h e

number of women contesting the elections is found to be meagre.

Many who participated in the National Movement continued in

active politics and held responsible positions in Congress.

Before the formation of Kerala State (1950) Annie Mascrene became

t h e f i r s t woman minister in the Travancore-Cochin S t a t e Assembly.

During t h e first general elections to the Kerala 1 ,eq i s la t ive

Assembly in 1457, out of t h e one hundred and twenty s i x seats,

seven women won seats. Ten women had contested the elections.

K . R . G o u r i became t h e first woman minister in Kerala. She was

entrusted with the portfolio of Revenue. In the next general

elections also (1960) seven women were elected.

They are : -

Leela Damodaran Menon

C . T . Sarada Krishnan

Kusumom Joseph

K.R. Gouri

Nabisath Beevi

Aysha Bai and

K . R . Saraswa t h i Aiiuna

B u t no one from them was accommodated in t h e ministry. In

1965 only three women were elected namely K . R . Gouri, Suseela

Gopalan and K . R . Saraswathi Amma. Since no party got majority

in t h e house t h e Assembly was dissolved.

In 1967 o n l y one woman was elected. K . R . Gouri, the l o n e

member became the minister in charge of the portfolio of food .

~ u r i n g 1970 elections, one more member Pennamma Jacob was

elected i n addition to K . R . Gouri. In the Legislative Assembly

constituted after the elections i n 1971, Bhargavi Thankappan

was the only woman m e m b e r elected. The 1980 elections showed a

slight improvement in terms of the number of women. Five were

elected. They are :-

P . Devooty

M I Kamalam

K.R. Gouri

K.R. Sarswathy Amma and

Bhargavi Thankappan.

K . R . Gouri became a minister in the Left Dem~cratlc F r o n t

Ministry led by E . K . Nayanar. O u t of the four women candidates

elected to the Assembly in 1982, M Kamalam became minister in

the ministry of K. Karunakaran. She was the second person to

become minister after K . R . Gouri i n the state. Other members

elected during 1982 are P. Devootty, K . R . Gouri and

Bhargavi Thankappan. The 1987 elections returned eight women

members in the Legislative Assembly. Again K.R. Gouri was

appointed a minister f o r ~ndustries and Social Welfare. O t h e r

women members are :

M.T. Padma

Leela Damodara Menon

Rosamma Punnose

Rosamma Chakko

J. Mercykutty Amma

Nabeesa Urnma and

Bhargavi Thankappan

In the 1991 elections eight women were elected namely :-

K . R . ~ o u r i

Rosakkuty

Sobana George

Rosamma Chakko

Alphonsa John

Meenakshi Thampan

M.T. Padma and

N.K. Radha

M.T. Padma became the Fisheries Minister. When the

percentage of women candidates elected to t h e Legislative

Assembly is considered the percentage of women elected to the

Parliament is quite encouraging. In 1951, Annie Mascrene from

Trivandrum was elected to the first Lok Sabha. She was from t h e

state of Travancore- cochin.l0 Election to the Lok Sabha during

1992 shows the highest percentage of elected women. Among t h e

twenty members, t w o are women. They are Prof. Savithry Laxman and

Suseela Gopalan.

Progress in one field leads to progress in o t h e r s . Thus,

progress of women in political status and educational field, also

spread to the field of health. An attempt is made here to asses

the health conditions of women of Kerala. Factors 1 i k e ,

attitude to marriage, age at marriage, fertility values, s e x of

the child, t h e pat tern of family organisation and the role

demanded of women by social conventians and the like affect the

health of women. l1 In addition, demographic trends and health

care services are also to be reckoned with, for a fair

evaluation.

Regarding sex r a t i o , l2 it is found that, unlike in the rest

of India, the sex ratio in Kerala is more favourable to women. In

1971 there were one thousand twenty women per thousand men and it

increased to one thousand thirty two per thousand in 1981. T h e

1991 census shows that the sex ratio is one thousand f o r t y women

f o r thousand men . I 3 Though these figures can n o t be taken as a

factor indicating womenfs high s t a t u s , it can be taken as fair

indication of the value society attaches to women.

The expectation of life at birth is higher f o r women in

Kerala than that of the rest of India. Accordinq to the actuarial

estimates in 1961-71 decade, the expectation of life at a l l -

India level, was 47.1 years for males and 45 .6 for females.14 The

disturbing trend i s that the gap between male and female life

expectancy has been increasing in the last five decades. However

the trend is just the opposite ie, in favour o f women in

l5 A s T-ds E w a l i t ~ Kerala . remarks : "It may be noted that

Kerala, which stands out f o r provision of maternity services

also , has the highest expectancy of life for women, which is 60.7

for 1971-75, and the lowest mortality rate."16 Higher literacy

levels and therefore better use of medical facilities and an

efficient public distribution system are the reasons attributed

to the high female life expectancy.

In fant mortality rate in Kerala is only thirty three per

thousand while t h a t in India is hundred and five. In Kerala t h e

number of women getting medical aid at the time of dying is less

when compared to men. However more than 80 percent of the people

are getting medical aid in Kerala. I t may be due to t h e increase

in t h e welfare measures and overall development, Kerala occupies

the first place regarding low death rate. According to the

latest Statistics available (1991), the death rate in Kerala for

female is 5.2 and that of male is 6.9. This is 9 . 7 and 10 for

female and male respectively in India. Kerala also has a low

maternal deaths ratio. During 1983, hundred and eleven maternal

deaths occurred of which hundred and six occurred in rural

areas. 18

Early marriage prevalent in Kerala during seventeenth and

eighteenth centuries which a f f e c t e d adversely the mental and

physical condition of the women folk almost disappeared1'

gradually. The age at marriage for girls increased from 17.1 in

the year 1901 to 21.8 in 1981. The corresponding increase in t h e

national level was 13.2 to 18.6. 20 Mean age of marriage of women

is highest in Kerala and this contributes much to women's status.

The birth rate is also comparatively less. The high age at

marriage, high literacy and large-scale improvement in family

planning measures in Kerala may be responsible f o r this. The

family planning programme h a s had a high degree of success in

Kerala; more and more families subscribe to t h e small family

norm.

The birth rate in Kerala is markedly different in comparison

with the rest of ~ n d i a . The life standard index also shows that

the position of Kerala is far better than other s t a t e s . It is

nearly hundred. Life standard index i n Kerala f o r women is 8 9 . 8

and that of men is 93.7.22 The gap is less between men and women

in t h e state, than that in Punjab, Maharastra, and Haryana which

rank next to Kerala.

Legal equality of s e x s has been a major concern of women's

movement all over the world. Women's domestic situation under t h e

care of parents , guardians or husband and her external environs

at t h e place of education, employment, entertainment involve the

law i n a positive manner. 2 3

In the pre-independence India, a r d u o u s struggle was made for

legislations against the prevailing cruel practices. Noted social

reformers namely Rajaram Mahan Roy, Govinda Ranade, Beyramji

Malabari and Vidyasagar are some among t h o s e who fought

vigorously for legislations. Important legislations made for the

cause of women in pre-independence India are the following. 2 4

1. ~egulation No. XXI of 1795 and ~egulation No. 111 of 1804

declaring infanticide illegal.

2. Bengal Sati Regulation XVII of 1829 declaring s a t i .Jr se l f -

immolation of widows illegal.

3. The ~ i n d u Widow's Remarriage A c t , 1 8 5 6 (15 of 1856)

legalising the marriage of Hindu widows.

4 . Indian Divorce A c t , 1869 ( 4 of 1869) enabling a wife to

petition f o r dissolution of marriage on certain specified

grounds.

5 . The Married Women's Property A c t , 1874 ( 3 of 1 8 7 4 )

declaring that t h e wages and earning of any married woman

and any property acquired by h e r through the employment of

her art or skill and all savings and investments thereof

shall be her separate property, i f expressed to be on her

own behalf, and that a married woman may maintain a suit i n

respect of her own property.

6. Age of Consent Bill-1891. By this act the age of c o n s e n t of

marriage of girls was raised from ten to twelve.

7. T h e Legal Practitioners (Women) Amendment Act, 1923 ( 2 3 of

1923). No woman shall be disqualified from being admit ted as

a legal practitioner by reason of her s e x .

8. Indian Succession A c t , 1925 ( 3 9 of 1925). There is no

distinction between those related through the father and

those related through the mother. The husband surviving h i s

wife has in her property the same rights as she would have

in h i s property, if she survives h i m .

9. The Child Marriage Restraint Act, Sarada A c t 1 9 2 9 (19 of

1929) fixing t h e minimum age of marriage at 18 years f o r

boys and 15 years f o r girls. -

T h e constitution of India came into force in 1950 . The

preamble of t h e constitution speaks about equality to all i t s

citizens. Article 14 of t h e constitution says: "The state shall

not deny to any person equality before the law or t h e equal

protection of the laws within the territory of Article

1 5 prohibits discrimination on the grounds of religion, race,

caste, sex or place of birth along with an additional line in

favour of women and children. ie., 'Nothing in this article

shall prevent the state from making any special provision for

women and children*. Various laws and amendments were made in due

course of time for women.

The Factories A c t . 1948. Plantation L a b o u r A c t . 1 9 5 1 and

nes A ~ t . 1 9 5 ~ prohibit the employment of w o m e n between 7 p.m.

to 6 a.m. in factories, mines and plantations, regulate t h e

working hours and contain provision for their s a f e t y and welfare.

The government is authorised to f i x the minimum load that may be

lifted by women and to open creches, etc. 26

The Hindu Successi~n Act, 1956.

This provides for certain new rights to women. ~ccording to

this A c t , women were entitled to an equal share in the properties

of their father. Section 14 of t h e Act g i v e s women the right to

acquire absolute ownership of property. Under t h i s section, woman

has now been given absolute power to dispose of her property as

she thinks f i t . Though the amended Hindu Law has given t h e women

many new rights, she cannot be a member of coparcenary and cannot

ask for a partition.27 Personal laws of other religions are not

in favour of women's property rights. Muslims, Parsis and

Christians had their own laws regarding the right of women.

'Muslims and Parsi women have some property rights but not

equal rights w i t h their brothers. Under their respect ive laws,

the son gets twice the share of h i s sister. The Syrian ~hristian

women were till recently governed by the Travancore and Cochin

Succession A c t under which they got almost no ~roperty. H o w e v e r

recently the Supreme C o u r t has ruled otherwise and Christian

women are now governed by the Indian S u c c e s s i o n Act 1 9 5 6 which

ensures them equal rights to property. 28

The husband is under a legal liability to maintain h i s wife

before j u d i c i a l separation or after. T h e secular law of

maintenance contained in Section 125 of the Cr P.C. 1 9 7 3 provides

for payment of a limited amount of maintenance even to a divorced

wife. Specific provisions are contained for grant of maintenance

under Sections 2 4 and 25 of the Hindu Marriage A c t , 1955 and

Section 18 of the Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance are also

available under t h e Parsi Marriage and Divorce A c t 1936 and the

1 ndian Divorce A c t , 1869. *'

oral T r a f f r In women and ~ i r l s A c t . 1 9 5 6 .

The Act inhibits trafficking in women and g i r l s fo r purpose

of prostitution, procuring, inducing or taking wornen/girls in

premises where prostitution is carried on, and detaining a woman

or a girl in premises where prostitution is carried on. 30

T h e Act was amended in 2978 and more recently, in 1986 now

titled The I m n r a l Traffic (Prevention) A c t . It is applicable

to both w o m e n and men. It provides for more stringent penalties

particularly w i t h reference to offences against children and

minors. It provides that the special police officer making a

search shall be accompanied by atleast two women police officers,

and t h a t a woman/girl would be interrogated only by a woman

police officer and in their non - availability, o n l y in t h e

presence of a woman social worker. 31

The Maternity Benef i t s A c t . 1961

Applicable to every establishment, plantation, mine or

factory, it provides for payment of maternity benefit at the rate

of t h e average daily wage f o r t h e period of a woman's actual

absence. 3 2

The Contract Labour [Reaulation and Abolition) A c t . 1970 and

the I n t e r - State Miqrant W e e n I R e g U i ~ n of Ernwl~vmen t and

. . Condltlons of Service) A c t , 1979 also have provision for creches

to care for t h e children of women working as contract laborers. 3 3

Medical Ter- of Preanancy A c t . 1971.

Abortion was made legal with the ~ e d i c a l Termination of

Pregnancy A c t of 1971. I t legalises t h e induced abortion by

qualified people on humanitarian and medical grounds.

ual Remuneration s t . 1976

It provides for payment of equal remuneration to men and

women workers and f o r t h e prevention of discrimination on the

grounds of sex against women in t h e matter of a n y employment.

T h e child marriage Restrainment A c t of 1929 was amended in

1949 and the age limit of girl w a s r a i s e d from fourteen to

fifteen. The lower age limit is f u r t h e r raised twenty one and

eighteen for boys and girls respectively by the child Marriage

Restrainment (Amendment) A c t of 1978.34

Criminal Law (AmenQEgentl Bill 1980.

The Rape Law, framed i n 1860, has remained unchanged for

well over a c e n t u r y . Under this law a rape v i c t i m had ta prove

t h a t the sexual intercourse, did n o t have her consent. 3 5 The

Government amended the law and introduced t h e Criminal Law

entl B U I n 1980 which ultimately became a n A c t i n 1983.

The changes made include protection of t h e victim f r o m the glare

of publicity during investigation and trial, change in definition

of rape to remove t he element of consent, addition of the crime

of 'custodial rapet , enhancement of punishment for the crj.me and

the shifting of the onus of proof on the accused. These steps

recognise that the woman victim of rape deserves a different kind

of treatment. 3 6 By section 376 of the Act the minimum punishment

for rape is seven years and the maximum, life irmprisonrnent.

Pawry Prohlbltion ~ ~ t l A c t 1984 , . .

In the pre-independence India unsuccessful attempts had been

made to end the custom of dowry. But no law was enacted to check

this until 1961 when t h e D o w r y Prohibition A c t was passed.

Pursuant to a wide spread demand from women's organisations, t h e

P o u r ~ h t l o n ~ e n t I . . .

A c t of 1984 was also passed.

According to this, the punishment for giving or taking dowry is a

minimum of six months imprisonment, subject to a maximum of t w o

years and fine, which may be upto Rs.10,000/- or t h e value of the

dowry which ever is more. 37

Again, in 1986 this was further amended to make provisions

for more stringent punishments. By this amendment, t h e period of

limitation for filing complaints was removed. The C o u r t now h a s

powers to a c t on i ts own knowledge or on a complaint by a

recognised welfare organization. The offence has been made

cognizable for t h e purpose of investigation. Protection is

extended to the complainant. A new section on 'dowry murder' has

been introduced in the Indian Penal Code. The Indian Evidence Act #

has been amended to shift the burden of proof, to the husband and

his family in cases of dowry deaths where t h e bride dies within

seven years of t h e marriage. Provision for appointment of D o w r y

Prohibition Officers and Advisory Committees has also been

made.38 The recommendation of t h e Committee on S t a t u s of Women

for banning t h e taking or giving of dowry in the Government

Servants Conduct Rules, had been accepted in 1976 and clause 13

A was introduced in the Central Service Rules for the purpose. 3 9

Iv Courts A c t 1984.

Parliament passed the Fa-y Courts A c t i n 1984 in order to

provide a forum in which family disputes would be resolved in an

atmosphere of reconciliation and understanding, keep t h e

advocates o u t and provide for counsellors to assist the judge. 40

This may help women to a great extent.

sentation of Women (Prohibitionl A c t . 1986.

Provisions are there in sections 2 9 2 , 2 9 3 and 2 9 4 of the

Indian Penal Code against obscenity. But as it was f o u n d

ineffective, a law w a s made in 1986. The salient features of the

~ c t are41 : - a) Indecent representation of women has been defined to mean

t h e depiction in any manner of t h e figure of a woman, her

form or body or any part thereof in such a way as to have

t h e effect of being indecent or derogatory to, or

denigrating, women or is likely to deprave, corrupt or

injure the public morality or morals.

b) It is proposed to prohibit all advertisements, publications

etc. which contain indecent representation of women in any

form ,

c ) I t is also proposed to p r o h i b i t selling, distribution,

circulation of any books, pamphlets etc. containing indecent

representation of women.

d ) Offences under t h e Act are made punishable w i t h

imprisonment of either description for a t e r m extending to

two years and fine extendinq to two thousand rupees on

first conviction. Second and subsequent convictions will

attract a higher punishment.

M uslim Women Protection of Ricrhts (on Divor~e), 1 986

This A c t has taken away the husband's responsibility of

giving maintenance to h i s divorced wife.

Hindu Marriage Act of 1955 provides the right to divorce to

both men and women. The husband and wife have the same grounds

for divorce, in addition to the option of divorce by mutual

consent.

By the recent amendment the Parsi Marriage and Divorce Law

has also been brought on the lines of Hindu law . But the law of divorce is different in personal laws of other religions.

The Muslim man can unilaterally proclaim divorce on the

women; the christian man can get divorce on the ground of

adultery , b u t the Christian woman has to prove adultery w i t h

incest, or with bigamy, or with rape, sodomy or bestiality. There

is no provision of divorce by mutual consent in either Muslim or

Christian law. 4 2

e Commission of Sat1 [Preventlonl A c t . 1987.

Though the regulation of 1829 declared s a t i illegal, the

government w a s forced to pass another bill in 1987 to make t h e

punishment more stringent. The commission of Sati (Prevention)

A c t , 1987 says : "Notwithstanding anything contained in the

Indian Penal Code, whoever attempts to commit s a t i and does any

act towards such commission shall be punishable with

imprisonment f o r a term which may extend to six months or with

fine or with both". 4 3 The Act also prescribes the maximum

punishment f o r the abatement of the Commission of Sati, to equate

it with murder rather than with abatement of suicide under

section 306 of the Indian Penal Code, as had been done in earlier

cases of Commission of Sati. T h e Act, also makes glorification of

the practice of s a t i an offence and goes a l o n g way in refuting

the myth that s a t i is a manifestation of the glory of Hindu

women. 4 4

ANational Womenf$ C~mmission w a s constituted with a view to

looking into cases regarding offences a g a i n s t wamen and to serve

as a mechanism to facilitate redressal of grievances of women. It

is an offshoot of the National Commission For Women Act, 1990.

It is a permanent commission which comprises seven full-time

off ice holders, including a chair person, five members and one

member secretary. Each member holds office for a period not

exceeding three years. The commission's mandate covers the whole

gamut of issues concerning women, from constitutional safeguards

f o r women's rights to atrocities a g a i n s t women. National

Commission for Women participates in the planning of, and gives

advice regarding, socio-economic development programme f o r women.

Its other functions include :-

i ) Commissioning special investigations of specific problems

re lated to discrimination and atrocities against women;

ii) Conducting research in order to suggest ways of ensuring due

representation, of women in all spheres;

iii) Evaluating the progress of the development of women under

the union and in states; and

iv) Inspecting jails, remand homes and o t h e r institutions and

places of custody where wamen are lodged voluntarily or

involuntarily.

While investigating complaints, the commission has the

powers of civil court in trying a suit; it can summon and enforce

t h e attendance of any person and examine him or her under oath,

as well as require the production of relevant documents etc.

Another provision of t h e National Commission f o r Women's A c t

is that the government of India shall consult the commission on

major policy matters affecting women.

N o w Mohini Giri is the Chair person of t h e cammission. On

this pat tern , The Kerala Women's Commission B i l l , 1 9 9 0 w a s

introduced i n t h e eighth Kerala Legislative Assembly w i t h a view

to providing for the constition of a Women's ~ o m r n i s s i o n to

improve the status of women in Kerala and to enquire into unfair

practices affecting women and f o r matters connected therewith or

incidental thereto.

The Five year plans of India envisaged some welfare measures

f o r women. And the only development after independence upto

1960's regarding women's movement was their focus on welfare

activities f o r women by the government and women's

orqanisations. In 1953 t h e Central Social Welfare Baard was

formed to function as the centre f o r all welfare activities i n

I n d i a .

In the First five year plan (1951-56) some programmes for

women and other weaker sections were introduced. A review of t h e

programme in Kerala from the second plan period onwards is needed

to know the progress of the programme r e g a r d i n g women.

During the Second plan period social extension projects were

set up. The aim was to promote family welfare schemes in u r b a n

areas and also to undertake other social welfare schemes for

women, children and the physically handicapped. The central board

sanctioned twenty eight projects of which eighteen were started

in the second plan. Each project was to comprise one welfare

centre - all centres arranging for feeding four hundred children out of UNICEF rice and milk. Also certain amount was provided for

A f t e r Care H o m e s , Rescue Homes and Shelters.

By the Third plan period (1961-66) there were sixteen

welfare extension projects of which t w o were wound up in 1963

(after completion of five years). They continued to be r u n by t h e

Central Social Welfare Board with state government's help. Also

it was decided to se t up three destitute homes (abalamandirs) for

women in t h e southern, central and northern part of the state,

each accommodating hundred inmates. A sum of Rs. 7.16 lakhs was

set apart f o r this and it was also proposed to s t a r t three after

care working women hostels f o r working class women discharged

from correctional and non-correctional institutes.

In t h e Fourth plan (1969-74) a new scheme, ~ a r n i l y and child

Welfare Centre was proposed to be implemented by the staff of the

erstwhile state social welfare board and conversion of existing

welfare extension projects. These multi-purpose welfare centre

known as Kshema Kendras were to have a Creche attached to each

centre. A Hukhya Sevika would supervise seven centre and these

centres would also be encouraged to undertake handicrafts

production. During each year of t h e plan, hundred centres were tc

be s e t up. During the fourth plan t h e state sector allotted Rs. 3

lakhs for a working women's hostel and offered grant-in-aid of

Rs. Five Lakhs to voluntary organisations. The abalamandirs to be

established during the third p l a n were s e t up. Though mahila

samajams existed in the state, but were dormant. So a decision

was taken to give one hundred and fifty selected mahila samajams

the minimum facilities required to take up continuous activity

useful for rural women. In 1971-72, a scheme was implemented to

impart nutrition education through mahila samajams.

From the Fifth plan onwards some programmes for creating

employment opportunities f o r women w e r e i n i t i a t e d jointly by the

Social Welfare Department, Department of Industries and t h e

Department of Rural Development. There w a s an intensification of

welfare activities also primarily in the areas of health care and

nutrition for women and children f o r which a i d through a number

of international agencies- UNICEF, WHO, CARE, F A 0 was available.

The three departments mentioned here undertake now t h e major

share of welfare/development activities specific to w o m e n . T h e

programmes in the fifth plan period have continued with certain

modifications in the sixth and seventh plans.

Social welfare board was formed in Kerala in 1975 w i t h t h e

specific aim of protection and upliftment of the weaker sections

of society. To benefit women and children, various i n s t i t ~ u t i o n s

were started by this department in different pa r t s of the state.

These included Day Care Centre f o r children, Hostels for working

women, Abalamandirs, Rescue Homes, Aftercare Hostels, and After

Care Home for t h e adolescent females. 4 E Besides this some

innovative schemes such as financial aid schemes and employment

generating schemes were implemented by this department f o r women.

From the Fifth plan onwards (1974-73) the social welfare

department is handling a major share of women's welfare schemes.

During this plan , one hundred and fifty Day Care C e n t r e were

proposed to be started at the rate of thirty centre e a c h year

with a facility to take care of thirty to forty children, five

hostels f o r working women of low income groups and a few kshema

kendras .

In the Sixth plan (1980-85) the department proposed to start

thirty Day Care Centres in unorganised sectors s u c h as coir,

fishing, agriculture where there were no voluntary organisations

to run them. A t t h e start of the sixth plan there were t e n

Abalamandirs. One more w a s to be s e t up i n Idukki and small scale

production units were to be started in all these homes.

Abalamandirs are institutions specially intended for giving

protection and also education to poor orphan women. Each

Abalamandir can accommodate about twenty five women . All expenses

regarding t h e inmates are m e t by the government. These women are

given training in employment and on requests, they are given in

marriage to s u i t a b l e persons. The government provides R s . One

Thousand ~ i v e Hundred each far t h e marriages. Now Abalamandirs

function in Trivandrum, Quilon, Alleppy, Kot tayam, Cochin,

Trichur, Palghat, Mancheri, Calicut and Cannanore. 4 6

In the Seventh plan (1986-90) the Creche cum Day Care Centre

were to be increased by another 100 particularly in places where

fisher men, brick and tile workers, cashew, coir and handloom

workers were concentrated. The programme would continue to be

implemented by assisting voluntary organisations: a number of Day

Care Centres were run directly by t h e department. A working

women's welfare society was registered with the objective of

constructing hostels, and in the seventh plan the provision was

made for completing the four hostels started i n the sixth plan.

N o w hostels f o r working women are functioning i n Calicut and

Malappuram. 47

The Social Welfare Board now undertakes the scheme for

financing t h e construction of working women's hostels under t h e

Government of India scheme. According to this scheme financial

a i d is being given to voluntary welfare organisations to

construct working women's hostels. Under this scheme the central

government w i l l meet 75 percent of the expenses.

The social welfare department envisaged the setting up of

additional small industrial units for the destitutes in t h e

abalamandirs, since the scheme started in the earlier p l a n s were

not adequate to meet the demands of growing numbers. Progress of

some of the women and child welfare schemes is shown i n table 13.

During this period, the department introduced two major

employment schemes. a) Scheme for promotion of employment

opportunities for women and b) Scheme f o r payment of financial

assistance to women for s e l f - employment. 4 8 The first scheme

envisaged t h e payment of assistance to organisations of women

registered under the Societies Registration A c t or Companies A c t

or under a n y Law or A c t for the time being in force, for

promotion of employment in small scale, cottage industry or

service centre. The unit should employ atleast three women. The

maximum assistance to be given i n the form of a non-recurring

grant-in-aid was to be Rs. 10,000/- or twice t h e amount

collected by the organisation, whichever is less for starting or

expanding a project, Report of the Task force on Women

Development says that the major activities started under this

scheme are food processing and tailoring. 4 9 B u t according to

table 1 4 , it is understood t h a t though the amount disbursed

increased from the sixth plan period onwards as also t h e number

of voluntary organisations procuring it, there occurred a

visible decline in the latter half of t h e plan and a further

decline in the first two years of the seventh plan.

The second scheme for payment of financial a i d to women for

self-employment was earlier envisaged for over-aged women in the

lower income group, who would be unable to obtain employment

th rough normal channels, but now covers widows, unmarried

mothers, women whose husbands or the male bread earners a r e

victims of prolonged illness, or are serving jail term. The

amount given as advance f o r all grant is Rs. Five hundred to

start some petty trade or business. From t a b l e 14, it seems that

under this scheme too, the amount disbursed and t h e number of

beneficiaries have declined. The Report of the T a s k force on

Women Development says "The experience with the scheme has not

been satisfactory, though it seems to be attractive for vegetable

vendors, fisher women and those engaged in petty trade. Some of

the problems mentioned are transportation- ca r ry ing t h e load on

the head fo r long distances, or misuse of the grant, small as it

is, for some other c ~ n t i n ~ e n c ~ ~ ~ . ~ ~ Both these schemes are now to

be transferred to the Kerala Women's Development Corporation.

Besides the above schemes the other institutions started for

women by the government under the social welfare department

includes Rescue Homes, After Care Hostels and Aftercare Homes for

the adolescent female. Rescue homes are meant for t h e protection

and rehabilitation of those women engaged in immoral activities.

In the s t a t e at present rescue homes are functioning in Alleppy,

Ernakulam and Malappuram.

A f t e r Care Hostels admit women freed from jails after

punishment. One such institution is functioning in Trivandrum.

Here a l s o employment training is given to the inmates.

Accommodation is available here for only fifty women.

After Care Homes afford protection and rehabilitation of

g i r l s released from other orphanages, balamandirs and poor homes

between the age group fourteen to t w e n t y one. Two such cen t r e s

are now in the state - one in Quilon and the o t h e r in Calicut.

Each can accommodate hundred girls. H e r e g i r l s are given

education and vocational training to help them stand on their

feet. There is also provision f o r giving them in marriage to

suitable persons.

In a society woman's s t a t u s is very much connected with

their economic status and their participation in productive work.

Though women were always engaged in some sort of worked they were

considered economically inactive as long as they work at home. In

comparison w i t h women of other states women of Kerala have

greater literacy, and at the same time, t h e percentage of the

educated unemployed, is a l so higher. To tackle t h i s problem, t h e

government of Kerala introduced many programmes f o r women

particularly through the Department of Industries.

In t h e Women's International Year, 1975 the state government

introduced a new industrial programme called 'Industrial

Programme for Womenr. Government gave special incentives to t h e

women's industrial u n i t s to attract educated unemployed women

into the f i e l d of industry.

Women's industrial units are defined as units

owned/organised and run by women, engaged in small scale and

cottage industries with not less than 80 percent of t h e total

workers as women. Between 1977-78 about seventy three women's

industrial units were established as small scale units. But it

w a s only with the provision of various special incentives

including a separate Women's Industries Cell that the number of

units and assistance given has risen significantly s i n c e 1979 .

According to the Department of Industries there were one hundred

and twenty units in 1978-79 which has now become one thousand

three hundred and forty. 5 2

These industrial units avail themselves of all facilities

generally available to small scale units. And in addition, there

is g r a n t assistance for (a) machinery - 5 0 percent of t h e cost

of capital equipment, subject to a maximum of Rs. 25,000/- (b)

building grant (introduced in 1986) f o r construction of a

workshed at 50 percent, subject to a maximum of Rs. 25,000/-. In

case of rented building a rent subsidy subject to a maximum of

Rs. five hundred fo r four years on a tapering scale is available:

(c) establishment grant - that is salary for a manager and

technical assistant, t h e maximum being Rs. Five hundred on a

tapering scale for f o u r years.

The other type of financial assistance given is share

participation in industrial co-operative societj.es, to the extent

of s i x times the collected share capital of the society subject

to a maximum of Rs 1 lakh. Women's industrial units are exempted

from payment of Sales Tax for s i x years (instead of five in

general). The amount of grants sanctioned has increased from less

than a lakh in 1978-79 to almost twenty t w o lakhs in 1987-88,

however share participation in industrial co-operatives has

declined quite sharp ly from eight lakhs to about three lakhs

during this period as also the number of units availing

themselves of this facility. Total government investment in

Women's Industrial Units in 1987-88 was about twenty five lakhs.

The employment created by these units was around fourteen

thousand.

The Seventh plan has allocated Rs. fifteen lakhs as share

participation in Women's Industrial co-operatives, however by

1987-88 hardly Rs. three lakhs were utilised.

Some programmes intended to help women are run through the

Department of Rural Development also, It took initiative in

promoting mahila samajams. Major programmes included, Composite

Programme for Women and children (CPWC), Applied Nutrition

Programme (ANP), Integrated Rural Development Service ( I R D S ) , and

Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA).

Applied ~utrition Programme was implemented in 1971-72 for

imparting nutrition education. Composite Programme for Women and

Children s t a r t e d in t h e fifth plan period is centred hround

balawadi and run through the local Mahila Samajams. By this

scheme assistance was given in the construction of ~a l a w a d i

buildings. Feeding centres were conducted. The report of the Task . Force says that under this scheme by the middle of t h e sixth

plan, around two thousand five hundred and eleven balawadis had

started catering to the needs of 2.5 lakh children and seventy

five thousandS3women.

Integrated children Development Services was started in

1975. Services rendered by this scheme are supplementary feeding,

health education and immunisation. This Programme is run by the

Department of Social Welfare. Another major scheme of employment

implimented by this department is the Integrated Rural

Development Programme (IRDP) in which 3 0 percent of the

beneficiaries are supposed to be women, This scheme targets low

income groups. The strategy involved provides the households w i t h

income generating assets which would sustain incomes and,

employment i n the long run.

The activities f o r which assistance has been given

especially to the women-headed families included goat-rearing,

raising betel vine, boat and net making, broiler poultry, well

and pump set, weaving, pot tery , ready to wear garments, bakery,

hiring of equipment, cycle shops, and radio repair etc . 5 4

A new programme exclusively for women and children in rural

areas started in 1984-85 is DWCRA (Development of Women and

Children in Rural Areas) . Its major objective was to give

assistance to the poorest women in rural areas to enable them to

take up income generating activities.

In 1954 Social Welfare Advisory Boards w e r e constituted in

various s ta tes . The major aim was to help voluntary organisations

engaged in welfare activities among the weaker sections of the

society. This Board g i v e s a i d t h rough organisations o n l y and

not directly to individuals. Some of the main programmes/schemes

run by this department are the following:

1. General grants-in-aid programme

By this scheme the government provides grants upto Rs.

10,000/- to voluntary organisations for setting up of or f o r t h e

expansion and development of institutions like balawadis,

protective homes f o r women, hostels and other such t y p e of

institutions.

2. Condensed course of Education

Under this scheme grants will be given f o r conducting

courses for 1) women (between the age g r o u p sixteen to thirty)

studied upto standard seven to make them fit to appear for the

SSLC examination and 2) women who failed in the SSLC

examination. The former is a two year course and the latter a one

year course .

Grants are also given for conducting vocational courses,

This includes courses in cutting and tailoring, garment making,

secretarial courses, h o k keeping, type writing, library science,

and radio engineering. The selection for these courses should be

in such a way to ensure more consideration to orphans and widows.

3 . Socio-economic Programmes.

This scheme provides f o r assistance to poor women so that

they can increase their income through self employment programmes

( s e t t i n g up of industrial units e t c . ) . Assistance is given to

small groups of women for cattle rearing also.

4 . Nutrition Programme.

Assistance under this scheme is for giving nutritious food

to small children in balawadis (upto s i x years of age). The a i m

of this programme is to produce healthy children in the society.

5. Creches

This scheme envisages looking after children of poor women

employees. But creches accepting a grant must provide all

facilities to children (upto five years of a g e ) . Besides children

of women labourers, children of women admitted in hospitals and

those affected with epidemics should be admitted i n these

creches. A creche w i t h atleast twenty five children will be given

a grant of Rs. 1112.50 per month - towards the expenditure. For

buying furniture an amount of 4000 will be given at the time of

starting.

6 , Concientisation camps f o r rural women.

Increasing the participation of women in the removal of

poverty and in welfare activities is the major aim in introducing

this programme. To conduct concientisation camps the Board

provides a grant of Rs. 10,000/-. Out of this amount Rs.2,000/-

is earmarked f o r g i v i n g a daily allowance of Rs. Ten each f o r

those taking part in camps.

7. Family Counselling Centre.

This is to handle and s o l v e problems suffered by woken and

children. A Voluntary Action Bureau is functioning along with the

Social Welfare Advisory Board itself in Trivandrurn to concientise

women of their rights and help them to recover from family

related issues. To extend the activities of this bureau the Board

provides grants to organisations f o r the setting up of similar

institutions in the state . An amount of Rs. 5,000/- is granted

f o r this purpose.

After independence, though the governmental and non-

governmental efforts in the field of welfare measures for women

gathered momentum the intensity of the women's movement in

general slackened. In the meantime, the state achieved tremendous

progress in women's education as in other fields of women related

activities. But corresponding progress was not achieved by the

state in terms of assuring equality and equal opportunities to

women in a l l walks of l i f e . The rights promised by the

constitution and the other laws enacted for women mostly remained

unimplemented. For more than a decade, women's specific issues

did not appear prominent.

When the militant mass movements of agricultural labourers,

industrial workers and tribals spread a l l over India during

1960's and 70's Kerala too witnessed a great awakening. In

1970's the state witnessed mass movements organised by

agricultural labourers, peasants and industrial workers. Most of

these struggles were led by the Communist Party of Kerala. Women

in large numbers joined these struggles and especially i n t h e

agitation in 1972 against price-rise.

Heera Velayudhan writes, A striking feature during 1971-73

was the militant participation of women in the Communist - led Karshaka Thozhilali Union (Agricultural Worker's Union) agitation

for the right to land, homestead, and higher wages. Those

struggles were spread over central Travancore, Alleppy and

Kottayam. During one of the struggles, for fixing working hours a

furious land lord stabbed seven women workers. 9t55 Such was the

intensity of the struggle.

In t h e various working class struggles in the traditional

industries of coir and cashew during the period 1971-72 also a

very large number of women workers participated. Their a g i t a t i o n

aimed to secure various demands like wage-rise, leave with wages

and greater dearness allowance and nationalisation of coir export

trade. In t h e agitation 1972, a fifty one year o l d women coir

worker "Ammu was killed in police firing. 56 T h e anti-price rise

movement which spread affected the whole of India during 1972,

induced many women of Kerala to join the struggle. They resorted

to picketing government offices road blocking and the like to

vent their feeling. A new awakening was thus formed in the state

during 1970's.

The International Wamenrs Year was celebrated with proper

pomp: a committee at the state level was constituted with t h e

Chief Minister as the Chairperson. The District level committees

were constituted under the respective Collectors. T h e

celebrations were held at various levels.

In the first meeting of the state committee 20 February

1975, three sub committees were formed

i) to undertake the study of benefits conferred on women under

the Maternity Benefits Act, The Factories Act etc ; and the

extent to which the provision of t h e s e acts are given effect

to: Rosamma Punnose was appointed convenor of t h e

committee.

ii) to undertake the study of t h e conditions of women in the

Rescue H o m e s , Abalamandirs, A f t e r Care Homes, Working

Women's Hastels etc; Retnakala S . Menon was appointed as

t h e convenor.

iii) to conduct sports, seminars , publicity and such other

a c t i v i t i e s in connection w i t h the International Women's

Year. Convenor of the committee was Indira Ramakrishna

Pillai.

Under the auspices of t h e district level committees seminars

and symposium were organised at various levels to bring home to

women, their rights and privileges and the necessity to bring

about an attitudinal change towards their problems. It was

decided to compile a Pho is Who$ of Women in Kerala with

outstanding achievements. The All India Radio gave wide coverage

of t h e programmes connected with the International Women's Year.

The Regional ~ivision of the field publicity unit arranged

exhibitions depicting the various facets of Indian women. The

state government opened a college f o r women at Malappuram in

1975. The programmes and f u n c t i o n s in connection with the

International Women's Year succeeded in creating an awareness and

self-confidence among women.

When 1975 was declared as International Women's Year, a

meeting of women was held in Trivandrum and was attended by women

activists and academicians. Later the period between 1975-35 was

declared as International Wo-men's Decade. The celebration of

1975-85 as International Women's Decade by the United Nations was

well received in Kerala. Seminars, conferences and Rallies

organised in different parts of the state helped to spread an

awareness about women's status among women and the public in

general. Newspapers, journals and the media in general gave more

attention to women's issues. Also women's studies became a

subject of study at the academic level and research on women also

got a momentum. Academic disccussions, research and writings gave

an impetus to t h e women's movement in t h e state.

Shah Bano Case and the discriminatory Muslim Women

Protection of Rights (on Divorce) Act -1986 passed by t h e

government of India raised heckles in Kerala.

The ~ u s l i r n League of Kerala supported the new law while a

section of Muslim women joined the struggle against the Supreme

Court's verdict. However many women's organisations and women's

wing of l e f t parties raised their voice against the

discriminatory law and organised protest meetings and rallies

throughout Kerala.

The case of Mary Roy of Kottayam is one of t h e best

examples of individual women who came forward and fought a long

battle to secure her rights and thus the rights of women of her

community.

T i l l 1985, Christian women of Kerala were under a

discriminatory law regarding the property rights. According to

the Travancore Christian Succession A c t , a daughter's right to

family property ended when s h e was given Stridhan (dowry) on

marriage. And that too is an amount fixed at Rs. 5,000/- or one

f o u r t h of t h e value of the son's share which ever is l ess . 57

This l a w continued till recent ly wi thout any protest what so

ever. This A c t deprived the natural right of t h e Christian

women. The only woman who showed the courage to fight and get

back her right through the highest C o u r t of the land is Mary

R o y . She approached the Court for equal right i n share and t h e

Court upheld t h a t right by giving equal right to Christian w o m e n

with her brothers in the share if the father dies w i t h o u t leaving

a will, with retrospective effect from 1956-

Mary Roy was alone in her path. She had to fight a long

battle and had to face protest from her own family, religious

leaders and even from the Kerala S t a t e Government. In February

1986 t h e Supreme Court passed a landmark judgment over t h e

Christian Succession Act and declared that all Syrian Christians

would be governed by the Indian Succession A c t . Immediately after

this, t h e state government filed an appeal in the Court in order

to reconsider the verdict and to strike o f f t h a t portion which

gave retrospective effect to the decree. But the C o u r t refused to

accept t h e appeal.

The verdict created tremendous impact on the Christian

Community. Many petitions were filed by Christian women to get

equal property. But there is a trend in Christian families to

overcome this law. With the fathers making their wills in favour

of their sons much earlier than usual . It is said that religious

leaders are also supporting this trend.

In the meantime some Christian women formed an organisation,

'Forum of Christian Women for Women's Rights', w i t h the objective

of fighting against discriminations and injustices towards women

in the community. 58 They organised vigorous campaign against the

government's intended move to invalidate the retrospective effect

of Supreme Court verdict on 'Mary Roy case'. By way of seminars,

processions and such type of campaign, they are trying to

concientise women.

Besides, t h e forum is fighting aqainst all types of

discriminatory stand of churches against women. ~hristian women

who had prior experience with democratic and socialist political

movements, women members of economical movement and nuns who a re

working in people's movement for social justice, joined hands

with this organisation acting as a united front, arranged protest

meetings in front of the secwetariate. They studied in detail all

aspects of t h e Christian Succession Laws and submitted a

memorandum to t h e government. Some women's groups in Kerala

joining with other progressive groups protest against recent

trend of increasing dowry murders and rape cases in t h e state.

But these reactions were only issue based.

A movement among fisher women community was developed

through years of the organisational efforts of the voluntary

groups, mainly concentrated in ~rivandrum. It later become an

organised movement as many women came to the front taking

leadership and effectively fighting f o r their r i g h t s . A major

shift in its perspective can be observed after 1980 when t h e

women's group s tarted questioning partriarchal value system, and

trying to make a space f o r women in a l l organisations. The

movement was initially based on Trivandrum, but after 1985

ripples of it covered t h e e n t i r e fishermen community in t h e

S t a t e .

The fishermen community in the state is very backward,

socially and economically. In the case of women, they were

subject to poverty and malnutrition. Various social taboos ,

illiteracy and o t h e r hardships l i k e wife-beating make t h e i r l i v e s

miserable. Besides household duties they have to walk miles to

sell f i s h . As the mothers go for work, girls are often denied

education, to look after younger ones. Strict taboos of the

community curtail the freedom of girls.

The Community work started i n 'Marianadu' i n t h e ear l ier

period under t h e control of Church. Later it became an autonomous

organisation. The team of social workers who actively engaged in

social welfare activities in Marianadu include two foregin

nationals Racel, Senaphine and Nalini, ~ u g i n e culas, and

John Kurian all from Kerala. There w a s Sheela from Veli in the

period 1977-82. Later many from the community also j o ined the

team,

A t first these workers did not 'concentrat' on women's

upliftment. Later due to the request from t h e women of the

fishermen community they took up women's i s sue and helped them to

form their own organisations. Once they became organised, they

took up responsible undertakings and began to take up women's

issues independently. Initially they took up small i s s u e s like

t h e quality of teaching in t h e i r local government school and

demanded t h e regular attendance of teachers. They tried to

respond to individual problems of the members too, Then they went

to more complex problems like exposing the corruption in the

r a t i on shops. Later they succeeded in getting one fair price shop

exclusively f o r them. All these experiences enhanced their

confidence and they demanded representation in the church

committees. I n those days church committees had only male

members, but as the parish in ~arianadu w a s only in t h e formation

stage, this was accepted. 59

T h u s women of the fishing community succeeded i n entering

into decision making bodies, including church committees. During

1979-80 t h e team of workers withdrew from the village as the

villagers themselves were able to take up and tackle their

problems. An official organisation 'Programme f o r Community

OrganisationsJ ( P C O ) was registered with its headquarters at

Trivandrurn city and continued as an effective organisation to

organise, lead and to give training to village people.

Meanwhile the women's movement in Marianad spread to other

villages also. Women's organisations were s t a r t e d in those

places; commonly they began to discuss problems and issues. One

of the major issues take up was 'the transport problem of women

fish vendors1. For a long time women fish vendors had been

smarting under lack of transport facilities to take fish to t h e

market. They were not permitted to utilise public transport.

This problem was taken seriously by the women in 1979. T h e

organisations j o i n t l y campaigned for it. Women fish vendors w i t h

their baskets marched to the secretariat demanding their right to

travel on t h e public buses or to get special facilities. As a

result of the intense struggle organised and lead by women, they

were given special transport buses.

When, in 1980 t h e 'Swathanthra Malsya Thozhilali Federation'

w a s formed to agitate for the entire fishing community, women

formed a core group in it to press f o r their own demands. T h e

women's wing is known as 'Theeradesa Mahila Vedi' (Coastal

Women's Front). It has branches in almost all districts.

However while engaging in general struggles during 1980's, a

major shift occured in the women's movement, in terms of i t s

attitudes, perspectives and modus of action. From 1980 onwards

feminist elements dominated the scene and patriarchy was

challenged by the members. Till then, the movement never

considered, the specific oppression women were suffering in t h e

society, because of their gender. This change marks the beginning

of t h e end of first phase.

The movement tried to analyse t h e position of women in

society, their sufferings, oppression, t h e discriminations etc.

and began conscientising women about t h e situation. They

accepted their prime aim as fighting for more space to women, in

a l l f i e l d and to end all discriminations. The women activists

studied t h e organisational efforts of women's movement in various

par t s of the country and consulted members working in trade'.

unions to evaluate their attitude to the partriarchal system.

The methods adopted by the movement in the e a r l y years were

personal sharing or discussing their issues with their close male

friends. They invited feminists to their informal meetings to

generate greater awareness of their work.

A group of women from Kerala v i s i t e d central India to

consult other women involved in similar movements. The visit gave

them a feeling that they are part and parcel of t h e larger

women's movement in the country and it gave them much confidence

to face courageously their future better . T h e seminars,

exhibitions, plays, t h e women's day celebrations, and the monthly

meetings of t h e group- a l l strengthened t h e movement. A s a

result, t h e less educated or even illiterate women of t h e

community got a chance to part ic ipate i n discussions and got

experience in conducting meetings and organising seminars. A mass

consciousness of women about their place in society and rights

was the great impact of the movement. The movement helped women

t o learn that individual problems are not simply individual

problems b u t , they some how have links with other people, and

general social problems. The movement now takes up major i s s u e s ,

namely f i s h scarcity due to over fishing etc . They successfully

link the exploitation of women w i t h the over-exploitation of

nature.

In 1985 the women's wing of the fish workers union protested

against the violence and the mass rape of women by the police at

Thankamani i n central Kerala. A group of w o m e n rushed to t h e

spot and extended their support to the victims. They organised a

march to the secretariate. Again in 1987 t h e women's front

jointed the demonstrations to protest against s a t i . In t h e same

year, the women's day celebrations were organised j o i n t l y by the

CPH Mahila Federation and the Coastal Women's Front. A s Nalini

Nayak remarks 'it was women who first mobilised women and went

out for demonstrations to submit representations to t h e

government before men d i d 1 . In the following years when t h e

large fish workers struggle took place, women were not only in

the forefront of t h e demonstration but a l s o in the actual

engineering of the agitation.

The names of the prominent women leaders of Fisher Women's

Movement deserve mention here. The most prominent among them are

Thankam and Baby from Marianad, Mercy from Vettuthura, Fresca

from Thumba, Margaret from Pallithura, Maglin in Veli,

Aleyamma and Grecy. There are two groups of religious sisters

who settled in the fishing community in mid 7 0 ' s and collaborated

with movement. They are the sisters of the Divine Saviour from

Pulluvila and the Medical Mission sisters in the north of the

district, in Anjengo.

A large number of w o m e n participated in the state wide

agitations against mechanised trawling during 1981 ,1984 ,1985

and in 1993. Indeed their militant participation in the struggle

at trac ted wide publicity. Women took to indefinite fasting

Sr-Alice in Malabar, Kuttamma in Alappuzha, Sr. philamin Mary,

Patritia, Theramma, Josaphine, Mercy Alexander, Margaret and

Sr.Elsi in Trivandrum played an active role. N o w in a l l the

major struggles by fishing community, women are at the forefront

and often lead the campaigns. The Cos ta l Women's Front as an

autonomous body is acting as a pressure group to obtain justice

within the fish workers union. I n s p i t e of a l l the challenges to

its autonomy, the women's f r o n t has now became a great power.

They raise protests loud and clear when they find discrimination

against women. They also demand greater role in the leadership.

There is spirited participation by women in the prohibition

movement in Kerala. The prime factor which turned the satyagraha

movement against a liquor shop in Azhimavu, northern Kerala into

a great success, was the women of the village. The sathyagraha

was led by the well known Gandhians Prof. M. P . Hanmadhan and

Prof. G. Kumara Pillai.

The entire village was in the fray to remove an unauthorized

liquor shop situated in the heart of the village. The government

did not yield easily; at least it was forced to satisfy the

satyagrahis by removing the shop. Women participated actively in

the movement and courted arrest. Even the harassment from the

people of liquor shops and the police could not prevent them.

Women and who become victims of the alchoholic husbands and

their children spearheaded the anti-liquor agitation at Pozhiyoor

in Trivandrum district. This agitation was a great success. As a

result Pozhiyoor has become liquor-free and t h e brewers were

rehabilitated.

In Harippadu an eighty year old woman Achamma heads t h e

women's movement against a liquor shop; arming themselves with

red chilly solution and brooms they picketed the liquor shop. The

agitation is a month old and is still continuing. The women in

hooch-haunted Vypeen have been staging a month long stir in

Pallathankulangara. Here the struggle is intensive and the women

are determined to free Vypeen from liquor. 6 4

In Chellanum as in various other places across the state,

the women have been seen sitting patiently in 'dharna' shouting

themselves hoarse against a liquor vendor, braving the sun and

rain. In the year 1995 they celebrated Onam festival on t h e

street as they sat in 'dharnal before liquor shops. Such was

their determination and dedication.

However t h e police and liquorshop owners are trying all

means including torture and character assassination to suppress

the fight of the women. Recently children including six girls who

were participating in an agitation against liquor shop in

Mananthavady were stripped and incarcerated , food and water

denied by the police on 14 May 1994. denying them food and

water. 6 5

These agitations got wide media publicity and generated a

renewed awareness through-out Kerala. B u t when compared to Andhra

Pradesh where the women's determination nearly wiped out a Rs.600

crores liquor industry, in literate Kerala the women are

comparatively too docile to effectively banish the intoxicated

brew.

According to Prof. M.P. Manmadhan the foremost leader of the

prohibition movement in Kerala, Kerala women were seemed

aggressive in the prohibition movement. He cites the instance of

the women in 'Edakkomkanaravayal Panchayath~'.~~~n that region,

the bread winners are mostly women. But it is a common sight to

see them being beaten up by their drunkard husbands. Inspired by

the movement spreading throughout Kerala, woven of this

panchayath organised themselves under the leadership of

Kartyayani Amma against the liquor shops. They marched towards

the shops and destroyed everything in it. Such was the enthusiasm

and militancy showed by women there. The instances cited s h o w a

general trend: The women do take their destiny in their hands.

nore battle will follow.

Women's wings of various political parties in Kerala

represent a major current in the women's movement. Political

parties are mainly concentrating on mass mobilization of women

especially the working class and low caste women of Kerala.

Autonomous women's groups and women's wings of political parties

fight each other on various issues and on ideology and naturally

they are not willing to share a common platform.

Though working w i t h i n certain constraints these women's

wings of p a r t i e s take up women's issues along w i t h other general

issues. They also influence government policies and programmes to

a great extent. These groups play a crucial role in the decision

making on issues concerning women.

Almost all political parties in Kerala have their own

women's wing, They are working inside the party. However they are

helping to develop in women's organising capacity and leadership

quality. Most women M u ' s and HP's w e r e products of women's

organisations working under political parties. Mahila Congress is

the women's wing of Congress party (CON-I) and Democratic Women's

Association is that of CPI(M). Kerala Mahila Sangham (KMS) and

Kerala Aykya Mahila Sangham (KAMS) are the women's wings of CPI

and RSP respectively.

P r i o r to attainment of Indian independence a women's wing

was functioning within the Congress under the name, Congress

Mahila Sangh. In 1970's when the Congress party split, Mahila

Congress was formed as the wing of Congress (I), under t h e

leadership of Leela Damodara Menon, Responding to the question

why a separate wing of the Congress f o r women, Leela Damodara

Menon says nToday more and more women are accepting jobs in t h e

of f ices and i individual concerns, and are participating in

activities which were hitherto confined to men. This is h u n d to

increase as the transformation from a feudal order to a highly

industrial society takes place. T h e fact that women play an

increasing part in these activities raises t w o problems. Firstly,

women have problems different from those of men. The struggle for

social equality has to be carried on. The question of family

welfare and child welfare concerns women more than men. Secondly,

women have to help solve the common social problems facing t h e

country as they affect them more. These t w o a c t i v i t i e s have to be

carried on simultaneously. While working within an organisation

pledged to preserve and develop the democratic way of life they

have also to function separately within that organisation, to

discuss and find out ways of tackling their own problems. in

their own exclusive set up, they can focus better attention on

their particular difficulties. his is indeed the justification

for the women's wing in the Congress organisations". 67

Democratic nahila Association is the women's wing

functioning in the state under the banner of CPI (M). In the

early years t h e women's wing of the anti congress party was

Kerala Mahila Sangh which fought militantly many historic

struggles. Thus split in the CPI (M) 1964 caused the formation of

a new women's wing in 1968 under the leadership of K R G o w r y .

It came to be known as 'All India Democratic Women's Association'

(AIDWA) thus claiming a national charactoer. Kerala Democratic

Women's Association is the womensf wing of CPI (M) funct ionj .ng in

the state. T. Devi, Sarojini Balanandan and Devaki Warrier

are the leaders of this movement today. Vice-president of the

Association Devaki Warrier is the daughter of Arya Pallom who

is one of the pioneers of women's movement in Kerala. She says

that their stand is against today's social organisation which

hinder women's freedom. So they strongly believe that the

destruction of this system and the formation of a new one only

can bring forth a society which gives equal status for women. 68

Democratic Women's Association is one of the active women's

associations functioning in the state. The issues which the

Association took up and fought for, in recent times include

against Muslim Women's Rights Bill, Thankamani issue6' Movement

against price rise, Arabi Marriages and increase in Dowry deaths.

In the Shah Bano case7' when the government started

arrangements for passing 'Muslim Women's Rights sill' which in

turn cuts t h e rights of divorced women getting maintenance from

their husbands, the Association strongly protested over the

issue,

It organised meetings, rallies and other mass activities to

protest the move. On the day of the presentation of the Bill,

Association with other organisations arranged a great march in

D e l h i . Members from Kerala also took part. To mobilize public

opinion, women of Kerala collected signatures from all over the

state and sent to the Prime Minister. And at last Suseela

Gopalan, the secretary of AIDWA and the member from Kerala filed

a petition in the court to nullify it as unc~netitutional.~~ But

inspite of their efforts the bill became law.

In the 'National Committee on t h e Status of Women*

constituted in 1971, and also in both the houses of parliament

A l l India Democratic Women's Association demanded a Uniform Civil

Code. In 1984 the members of the Association conducted a

signature campaign for this; they had to face stiff resistance

from fundamentalists. From Kerala about three lakhs signatures

were

The Association is seriously engaged in another fight

against what euphemistically known as 'Arab Marriages'. This is

now becoming an epidemic in the state of Kerala particularly

among Muslims. R i c h Arabs come to Kerala apparently for

business, stay here for some time and they marry young girls

mostly below the age of eighteen in exchange for a sum of money

paid to t h e i r parents. It is said that , these Arabs at the time

of marriage itself make the gir l s sign on the divorce notice. And

after their stay in Kerala they divorce these g i r l s . These

marriages are conducted w i t h the connivance of the religious

leaders, hotel a u t h o r i t i e s where t h e Arabs stay and a l s o the

police. Abject poverty and ignorance of the girls and, their

parents, h e l p of Brokers and Khasis and above a l l , with the

nuslim personal law in India provide these Arabs ample scope to

marry and divorce young girls with impunity. Recently one such

marriage was reparted in the papers and caused much hue and cry.

(Ameena's Case). But very often such incidents go unreported.

Membars of Democratic WomenOs Association are working among

these poor people to conscientise them and to make them aware of

the tragedy. The Association is also trying t o settle some of

these issues by forcing (compelling) these Arabs to give

maintenance to girls. The secretary of the Association says that

when the Judiciary, Police, and in a way the other authorities

are an the side of Arabs, the ~ssociation is not able to do

much. 73

According to its leaders the Association is functioning

well. They strongly raised their protest against the increasing

dowry deaths in the state, All India Democratic Women's

Association discussed seriously the National Perspective Plan

for and put forward an alternate plan explaining the

defects of the proposal and giv ing more praspects and strategies.

In Kerala too the Association organised several meetings and for

a to discuss National Perspective Plan for Women. They all had

sent their comments and recommendations to the government.

Kerala Hahila Sangham (KHS) is the women's wing of CPI

(Communist Party of India). Its National level organisation is

known as National Federation of Indian Women (NFIW). This

organisation in many cases fought jointly with AIDWA. In issues

of common interests such as inflation, unemployment, atrocities

on women especially dowry related harassment, they fought

together. And from 1979 onwards, the International Women's Day

(March 8 ) is celebrated jointly by the left organisations of

women.

Kerala Aikya Hahila Sangham (KAMS) is the women's

organisation of Revolutionary Socialist Party ( R S P ) . The right-

wing women's organisations also have led some short-lived

agitations. Their major issues of struggle have been dowry,

unemployment, prohibition etc,

Kerala Vanitha Congress is t h e women's organisation of

Kerala Congress. The KVC organised a short-lived agitation

against the Vypeen ~iquor Tragedy of 1982, while the ~ a h i l a

Congress organised a similar one in connection with the Punalur

Liquor tragedy of 1 9 8 1 . Resolutions against dowry and for

prohibition find an important place in their meetings. 7 5

The formation of some autonomous women's groups in some

parts of the state is a welcome development. Though there were

several hundred women's organisations in Kerala from the 1970 ' s

itself, Kerala saw the emergence of such groups recently -mostly

around m i d eighties. These groups came into existence w i t h t h e

single minded objective to f i g h t against oppression,

exploitation, injustice and discrimination against women.

To name some groups: Prachodana at Trivandrum, Bodhana at

Calicut, Hanushi a t Pattambi, Hanavi at Palghat Chethana at

Trichur , Prabudhatha at Payyannur , Graneen Vanitha Prasthanam at

Thiruvalla and Sahaja at Kottayam, It seems that Manushi, Bodhana

and Manavi are outstanding in their activities and their

immediate response to women's issues. Prachodana formed with its

centre of activities at Trivandrum has already disappeared from

the scene after two to three years of functioning. Some groups

are active, while others exist on paper.

One of the pioneer organisations of women in Kerala is

Wanushi. Prof.Sara Joseph, Prof.Sumangalakutty, Prof,Indira and

Prof,Parvathi were the founders of this group. They tried to

propagate feminist ideology in the state and actively engaged in

working against the increasing dowry deaths i n Kerala. The group

is very much engaged in conscientising the people. The

innovative action programme of street plays act as a powerful

instrument to touch the hearts and minds of even illiterates and

the rural masses.

Hanushi organised a camp in Pattambi in 1986 where all

members of feminist groups and like minded women gathered. It

was the first of its kind on an a l l Kerala basis. Hore than

hundred women participated in the camp. The camp succeeded to a

great extent in raising a feminist consciousness among them.

They discussed the problems which women of Kerala face and about

the ways and mea,ns by which it can be fought. However as a result

of the camp the idea of organising i n t o groups emerged among

women activists. It lead to the foxmation of many such feminist

groups in the state.

As far as their activities are concerned, 76 Manushi is

taking up both social and individual issues of women. When in

'Thankamanit a place in Kerala) mass rape of women by the

police was reported, they strongly protested against the

inc ident . Also the members visited the place, extended their

support to the harassed women and demanded action against the

policemen. In 1987, Manushi reached out to \3alamanii who was a

rape victim in Trichur. They organised an agitational committee

also for getting justice to Balamani, and bringing the rapists to

book. The group has its own Journal published from 1986. It

tries to spread their message and expose the discrimination

against women.

The women's group Hanavi was formed in March, 1987, as a

result of an ideological split within the group Manushi. Many of

the members of this group expressed a strong desire to join hands

with mass movements like that of Mnvoor Rayons agitation. 77

The issue of joining with other political as well as other

mass movements of the downtrodden lead to a controversy in the

group. Some members disagreed to j o i n other general struggles.

They were of the firm belief that if they joined such mass

struggles, they had to take some political stand which might

directly harm the group itself and would make it difficult to

concentrate on women's specific issues. Since the two sides could

not give up their principled stand and make a compromise, they

decided to go seperate ways. Prof.Sara Joseph, Sumangalakutty

and Parvathi with their followers left t h e parent group and

founded 'Manavi' in 1987 with the aim of working totally as an

independent women's group. O t h e r s remained in Manushi, and joined

t h e Havoor Rayon's agitation. Hanavi has its headquarters at

Palghat. It joins other groups in fighting for some of the issues

of women and in staging 'dharna* for awareness building; one such

event of co-operation is given below.

Some poor illiterate women were cheated by a Granasevakan

and some other officers of DWCRA loan programme of Palghat

district. These unfortunate women were to be the beneficiries

of a loan scheme. Large loans were taken out in the name of these

women. They did not know that they were being taken for a ride.

The fraudulent officers got the money and started an industrial

unit. It functioned for six months. The women worked there for

wages which were not given to them. Then the unit was closed and

the industrialist absconded. After some time the loaner Bank

began proceedings against these women, because the loans were

outstanding against their names. Manavi interfered at this

junture. The fraud was reported in the media. Manavi helped the

women to approach the court of law for justice.

T h e womenf s group Bodhana was started in 1986 at Calicut.

Its objectives include fighting all forms of oppression. The

foremost leader of 'Bodhana' is Ajitha who once actively

participated in the Naxal Bari movement in the state. She

explains the rationale behind their movement: the attrocities

against women throughout the country, the secondary position of

women in the society, her own bitter experiences as a woman, the

Shah Bano case in which even the government showed its bias

against women and the uneqal Laws for men and women in different

religions, the increasing violence against women all these need

to be addressed. More than anything, the new wave of women's

movement that had already spread through out the country prompted

her to form this feminist group. 78

Bodhana is a group which is actively functioning in the

state. They are very much engaged in taking cases of domestic

violence and dowry harassments. For those women in need the group

extends legal assistance and counselling facilities.

In 1987, members of the group agitated for an enquiry into

'Kunjeebi case'. Kunjeebi d i e d on the 10th Sept. 1987 when she

was in police lockup in Calicut. Bodhana conducted an enquiry

about it and published their report and circulated it among the

people of the city. They organised an agitation demanding an

enquiry against the lockup death of the woman. They conducted a

protest march also by organising the women of that locality.

The group members submitted a memorandum to t h e District

Collector and to the Chief Minister of Kerala. After a prolonged

agitation, the government ordered Collector level enquiry into

the case. And the policemen found guilty were suspended.

Another issue in which the group actively involved itself

was that of India's sports- star the golden girl P.T. Usha.

When she l o s t a medal in the seuol Olympics, the media blamed her

and many people attempted character assassination. This pained

her very much. Bodhana came forward and extended their support to

the harassed Usha. They organised meetings and rallies and

distributed pamphlets among the people to support Usha.

In June 1987 a policeman raped a dumb girl at Edavanna,

Bodhana reacted against the incident and filed a case. They also

submitted a memorandum to the District Collector. The collector

made an enquiry about the case and the policeman was suspended.

Bodhana joined the worker's struggle of Mavoor f a c t o r y

during 1988. They organised a women's committee to actively

involve themselves in the agitation. During the struggle two

members of the group - Ajitha and Suhara- went on hunger strike for fourty eight hours.

The women's group Prabudhata was started in 1987 at

Payyannoor. P r o f . Mary and Devi were leaders of t h e group.

Chethana yet another group was started in 1989 at Trichur. Their

major objective is conscientising the society. Active members of

this group to be singled o u t for mention here are Usha Mohan

Kumar and Sheena Jose. But now these groups are n o t functioning

actively. Limited membership, personal problems of the members

and also t h e absence of full time members for the groupaffect its

functioning adversely. Prachodana which s tarted at Trivandrum in

1980 has ceased functioning. Grameen V a n i t h a Prasthanam is

actively functioning in Thiruvalla. But their concern is not

women's specific issues only.

Bodhana, Manushi and Manavi have their awn publications

through which t h e y spread their views and ideologies. All these

wclmenfs groups lay much emphasis on awareness building. They

organise camps and symposia for house wives and conduct group

discussions for students in colleges. According to these groups,

the major problems which women of Kerala face are dowry, rape,

domestic violence (wife beating), unequal divorce rules and the

discriminatory laws in religions.

Ideologically, t h e majority are socialist feminists. The

groups Manushi and Bodhana have the firm belief that women's

problems cannot be seen and tackled seperately from other social

problems. They have a holistic approach to women's problems.

These women's organisations in Kerala have links w i t h other

womenrs organisations functioning in the coun t ry . Many of them

are aware of the women's liberation movement in the West and were

inspired by it, B u t they are not ready to imitate the strategy of

the western women's movement. They want the movement to be Indian

Women's Movement. In Kerala the womenOs movement is not an anti-

men struggle . They are trying to get support from a l l sections

of society and that includes men. On 2 9 and 3 0 December 1990,

all women's group in Kerala jointly hosted the IVth National

Women's Conference at Calicut. The conference was attended by

about thousand participants from a l l parts of India. Both

scholars and activists in the field assembled there. This

conference become a golden opportunity f o r t h e women's

organisations in Kerala to come together on the same platform to

discuss their problems. It helped to spread the ideas and

objectives of the women8s movement in Kerala. Men were supportive

and helped in organising the conference.

Women's groups help highlight and bring to light, many

issues that otherwise go unnoticed. They vehemently criticise the

recently held beauty competitions in Kerala. And also express

their protest to the media for giving wide coverage to the Mis

Universe and Hiss World Competitions. Some of the women activists

effectively use the media to discuss women's writing

(Pennezhuthu), women's journals etc.

The women's movement under women's own leadership is a

recent development in Kerala. These autonomous women's groups

play a great role in strengthening the women's movement in Kerala

which is still in its infancy.

REFERENCES

Quoted in R.N. Yesudas, Historv of Women's Education in -&South Indian Social Centre, Trivandrum, 1988, p.44.

Kerala AdrmnJstration Report. . .

1 9 5 6 - 5 7 , Trivandrurn, 1 9 5 8 , p.41

Government of Kerala, Women in Kerala, Department of Economics & Statistics , Trivandrum, 1984, p.27; Government of Kerala, Nomen in m, Department of Economics & S t a t i ~ h c s , Trivandrum, 1989, p.17; Government of Kerala, Women in Ke-, Department of Economics & S t a t i ~ k i c ~ Trivandrum, 1994, p.19.

During 1901 - 1951 Male Literacy rate increased from 19.15 to 4 9 . 7 9 in Kerala. and female literacy from 3.15 to 31.41. Table I.

Muslim Women have not been able to take full advantage of education largely due to the dominance of social, cultural and institutional factors in Islam such as early marriage, polygamy, unilateral divorce, segregation, veiling e t c . There was strong belief against female education prevailed among the community.

im Women i n India M. Indu Menon, Status of MusL , Uppal Publishing House, N e w - D e l h i , 1987, p.25.

Government af Kerala, n . 3 , p,27; Table.11.

The state was declared totally literate on 18th April 1991. A s per the NLM (National Literacy Mission) and UNESCO guidelines, any state achieving 90 percent literacy can declared cent percent literate. The 1991 census has put Kerala's literacy percentage at 90.59. An HLM review has ind i ca ted that it was only Kerala that covered all those in the 5-60 age group* In almost all the o the r states, t h e target population covered was in the 15-35 age group.

C. Venugopal, 'Kerala Attains total literacy', Pecan Herald Daily, Bangalore, 28 April 1991.

Government of Kerala, n.3, Pp. 93-95; Table 111.

Government of Kerala, ~ssemblv Elections s i n c e 1951, Department of Public Relations, 1989, Trivandrum;

ress D u , 6 March 1994; Various reports of general Elections to Assembly. Table X.

Vina Majumdar (ed.), -01s of Pnwer, Allied publishers Pvt. L t d . , Bombay, 1979, p.235; Table XI.

J.K. Chopra, Women in e n t , Mittal Publications, Hew elh hi, 1993, p.174.

Government of I n d i a , ~ t i o ~ l Perspective Plan For mmen 1988 2000 A-L? - , Ministry of Human Resources Department of Women and Child Development, New D e l h i , 1988, p.97.

Number of females per thousand males.

Gavernment of Kerala, n.3, p.1; m m , Malayala Manorama Company Ltd:, Kottayam, 1994; Dr.S.Radha, Wornen Men m v e l - n Kerala, Institute of Management in Government, Trivandrum, 1994, Pp.7-8; Table I V .

Government of India, Department of Social Welfare, TOW- itv, Report of the committee on the status o f women in

India . Ministry of Education and Social Welfare. D e c e m b e r 1974. p.359; Government of Kerala, n.3; Table V.

Government of Kerala, n.3; Table VI.

Government of India, 11.14, p.319.

Government of India, Ce- of India, 1991, Bureau of Economics & Statistics, Trivandrurn, 1981;

n -lonalultation Report. Institute of Management in Government, Trivandrum, 1990, p.2.

In Kerala especially among Muslim Comlnunity of Malabar Region child marriages are reported recently. Two alleged attempts of child marriage in Pathanamthitta district w e r e thwarted by the timely intervention of Democratic Women's Association activists. The marriage of Jameela Bevi, aged 15, daughter of Madamaruthikkal AMul Khader fixed for February 14 for a middle aged man. On a complaint from the Women's Association Chittar police came on the scene when the marriage ceremony was about to begin and prevented it.

In another incident the marriage of a girl Hayarunnisa, aged 15 in Koodal prevented by the Association. T h e girl had been betrothed to a widower from Konni and the marriage was to take place on Feb. 11th. On instructions from the superindent of police, Pathanamthitta, police prevented it on the strength of the Chi ld Marriage A c t .

Several such marriages are taking place in the state which are often not reported.

an Express D U , 16 February 1988.

S . Radha, Women, Men and Development in Kerala, Institute of Management in Government, p.56; Table VII.

Government of Kerala, -1 Child in, Department af Economics, Trivandrum, 1990, p . 6 ; Table VIII.

Pa*, Cochin 1988. Table IX.

National Perspective Plan fo r Women 1988-2000 A . D , n.11, p.135.

Government of Kerala , ternational Women ' s Year, Trivandrum, 1976, Pp. 25-26.

Prof. M. ~rishnan N a i r , Lay, Vol I, The Academy of Legal Publications, Trivandrum, 1 9 8 5 , p.242.

Becent w a e s in J a w s relatinu t n W-, Lawyers collective publication, Bombay, 1985, p.13 .

National perspective Plan for Women, n. 11, Pp.138-139.

Government of Kerala, n.24, p.27

National perspective Plan for Women, n. 11, p . 1 3 8 .

fi-, Bombay, 28 January 1990, p.16.

National Perspective Plan for Women, n.11, p.137.

Ibid.

sslon B111. 1999, (background materials), the Secretariat of the Kerala Legislature, Trivandrum, p.62.

National Perspective Plan for Women, n. 11, p.141.

Ibid

National Perspective Plan for Women, n. 11, p. 142.

Government of Kerala, n.24, p.28.

Ibid.

National Perspective Plan for Women, n 11, p. 143.

. h Government of India, Five Y ~ l a n 1990-95, Report of Task force on Women%%&tate Planning Board, Trivandrum, 1989, p.28; Refer Table XII.

P a m Par- (Halayalam) , Social Welfare Board, Keralam, 1991, p.5.

These working women's hostels are for those women who earn a monthly income of Rs 1500.

Government of Kerala, n.45, p.29; Table XIII.

Government of Kerala ,m UJ Ke-, Department of Economics and Statistics , Trivandrum, 1984, p . 3 .

Government of Kerala, n.45, p.30; Table X I V .

w, p . 3 4 ; Table XV.

Meera Velayudhan, 'The crisis and women's struggles in India ('1970-77)', Social Scientist, June 1985, New-Delhi, p . 5 8 .

K. Sreedhara Varriar, IndiernEmilv Lo1 11, Janatha Book Stall, Trivandrum, 1987, p.197.

Annamma Joseph, 'Stree Virudha Niyamangal Noottandilude 1916-1995', g a Studies Vol 11, A.K.G. Centre for Research and Studies, Trivandrum, 1994, p. 175.

Nalini Nayak, A Struggle Witkin the S t r u g a k , Programme for Community Organisations, Trivandrum, 1986, 1992, p.17.

Personal Interview conducted w i t h ~ a l i n i Nayak on 12 February 1995, at Trivandrum.

61. Nayak, n.59, p.47.

6 2 . Personal Interview Conducted with Mercy Alexander on 17 February 1995.

63. Jose J Kalikal, at al, Our Sw-a Ka- (Malayalam), Kerala Swathanthra Halsya ~hozhilali Federation Publication, Trivandrum, 1988, Pp.96-97.

6 4 . 'Government insensitive to anti- liquor st irs' , Indian ess D-, 8 July 1995.

6 6 . Personal Interview conducted with Prof. M P Manmadhan, on I2 &ORCL 139) .

6 7 . Leela Damodara Menon, 'Why Congress Women's Wingt, Sovenier , All In* Conaress W Q P L ~ ~ ' w J96O,Trivandrum, p.143.

68. Personal Interview conducted with Devaki Vsrriar on 5 May 1992 at Trivandrum.

6 9 . Thankamani:- A place in High range of Kerala were a number of women were subjected to molestation and rape by the police

Hohamed Ahemed Khan vs . Shah Bano Begum ( A I R 1985 S . C . 9 4 5 )

The appllant an advocate by provision was married to the respondent in 1932. Three sons and two daughters were born of that marriage. In 1975, the appellant drove the respondent out of the matrimonial home. In A p r i l 1 9 7 8 , the respondent filed a petition against the the appellant under S, 1 2 5 under C r . P.C. for mainteinance at the rate of Rs, 500 per month. On 6 November 1978 the appellant divorced the respondent by an irrevocable Talaq. The defence to the petetion for maintenance was that she had ceased to be wife by reason of the divorce granted by him, that he was ther fore under no obligation t o provide maintenance for her , that he had already paid maintenance to her a t the rate of Rs.200 per month for about two years and that he had deposited a sum of Rs.3000 at the court, by way of dower during the period of \Iddatf, In August 1979 the Hegistrate granted Rs.25 per month as maintenance,

In a revisional application filed by the respondent, the Madhya Pradesh High Court enhanced the amount to Rs.179.20 per month.

The Superme Court held as follows.

".. ........ It would be wrong to hold that the Muslim husband, according to his personal law is not under on obligation to provide maintenance beyond the period of ' Iddatl,to h i s divorced wife who is unable to manitain herself ......... The true position is that, if the divorced w i f e is able to maintain herself, the husband's liablity to provide maintenance for her cease with the experation of the period of Iddat. If she is able to maintain herself,she is entitled to recourse to S-125 of the code ".

The Supreme Court took the view that the 'Mahar' not being payable on divorce, does not fall within the meaning of the *'Sum which is payable on divorceM under S.127 (3)(b).

Thus the Supreme Court's decision has made bold step in advancing the l a w as needed far making a just and fair 'I

provision for divorce women. But their came protest against this verdict from a small section of Orthodox Muslims and the Congress Government without considering the views and arguments raised by learned scholers and social reformers bowed before the fundementalist nearly by presenting and passing the Muslim Women Protection of Rights on Divorce A c t , 1986, by which t h e responsibility of paying maintenance is taken away from the husband and vested upon the relatives of the wives and if they are n o t , the Wakf Board.

Prof : M. Krishnan Nair, m l v J,aw Vol I, The Academy of Legal Publications, Trivandrum, 1985, p.242.

71. T. ~ e v i , '~uthiya Prabhathathilekku', n, September- October-1988, p.33.

73. T. Devi, 'Kannerum Karuthum', m y a t h a , September-October, 1988, p . 3 .

74. National perspective plan for women is an evaluation report of t h e impact of developmenta1 plans and programmes on Indian Women. The plan was formulated by a core group constituted by the Department of Women and Child Development, Government of India.

75. P.M. Mathew & M.S. Nair, Women's Ora-tions - and Women's s Indian Institute for Regional Development Studies, Kottayam, 1984, p.145.

76, Personal Interview conducted with Prof. Sara Joseph, Victoria College, Palghat, on December 1990.

'7. Due to worker's struggle for more wages and ameneties Mavoor Gwalior Rayons Factory at Mavoor was closed i n July 1985. But the agitation continued which resulted in disappointment and poverty in the homes of the workers. Unable to face the tragic situation some committed suicide a l so - i t says.

7 8 . Personal Interview conducted w i t h Ajitha on 29 Dcecember 1990, at Calicut.

Starting from nineteenth century, the women's movement in

India has waxed and waned as times changed and emphasis shifted.

Changes have occurred in its objectives, strategies and

perspectives. It has notched up many victories to its credit.

Hany specific problems were solved; equality under the

constitution was accepted; various committees and commissions

w e r e formed, and they did commendable work; International Women's

Year and International Women's Decade promised much and achieved

much; but much remain undone, Legal reforms were made through

general and special laws. And yet, after more than a cen tu ry of

its functioning, women still do face many handicaps. Women's

movement also faces many challenges. Various factors directly or

indirectly affect the progress of the women's movement in India.

The vigorous movements in Kerala stagnated without functioning

properly. Here is an attempt to analyse ,the factors that hinder

the movement.

Today the women's movement has grown so much, that it tries

to view every issue in a woman's perspective and to struggle to

solve women's specific problems. However, inspite of the growth

of the movement, the problems of an average woman, are very much

alive. The movement has not yet succeeded in its attempt to solve

the problems of the masses where the primary question is not

equality but survival. Their theories and ideologies are not

easily digestible to the masses,

Though the efforts of the women's movement could influence

government policies and strategies to a certain extent, and legal

reforms could be made, they remain ineffective at t h e

implementation level. Political participation and political power

still elude the majority of women. Inadequate participation in

politics and near total absence in the committees for policy

making, put women in a disadvantageous positian. The apolitical

nature of the women's groups keep them away from power. Women in

the political parties face various limitations as there is male

domination in the parties. To sum up: there is unequal power

sharing.

Women's movement has n o t been strong enough to break the

unholy alliance between religion and the state existing for

years. All the personal laws in religions are against the

interests of women. The Muslim Women's Protection of Rights (on

Divorce) A c t which w a s passed by the government to overcome the

Supreme Court verdict on 'Shah Bano' case was a serious set back

to the movement.

To establishing linkage between the women's movement and

broader socio-political movement is the major challenge faced by

women's groups.' They have to address themselves to q u e s t i o n s

like casteism, class issue, communalism and find how they affect

women's lives. Such questions are most important for women

activists and groups who have to make crucial decisions

concerning these issues. Differences of views moreover cause

serious tensions or conflicts among these groups. The women

leaders in various walks of life share the view that, language,

literature, religions, media and the mast important of factor,

the executive, the judiciary, and the legislatures disseminate

male-oriented values and pose great challenges to the women's

movement.

The sociologists are bound to observe that the women of

Kerala have a high standard of living, socially and culturally.

They indeed have a high level of education, and receive good

health care; the male-female sex ratio is favourable, the life

expectancy at birth is high, the age of marriage is also

demographically acceptable; the life standard index a l so is

high.

But to conclude that women of Kerala have equality with men,

economically and socially is erroneous. Prof.Saradamony says:

"these demographic indicators cannot be taken as a true indicator

of women's position in p era la".' projection of the above

mentioned demographic indicators in one way hide the t rue picture

and create a feeling among the public outside and inside Kerala

that women's condition is far better in Kerala.

High literacy among women in Kerala is doubtful of producing

desired results in t e r m s of their knowledge and awareness of

their rights. A literate person is one who can write h i s name

and put h i s signature. So mere literacy may not bring forth

knowledge. And in literacy too, women are behind men.

The statistics show that the percentage of girls in schools

are almost salne as that of boys. In colleges they outnumber

boysm3 But when it comes to technical and professional courses

their rate decreases. This may be due to various reasons. In

Kerala there is discrimination in educating girls and boys. Quite

a large nuslber of parents still do not consider higher education

and employment as a necessity to girls , They consider marriage as

important in a girls1 life. Hany girls and their parents still

continue to hold this belief and consider their education as a

t i m e pass up to marriage. F o r marriage of their daughters,

parents usually prefer boys with high educational qualification

and a job, If the girls go in for higher education the chances of

getting a bay with the same education or higher education

becomes difficult. This element also works against girls1

education at a higher level, High value placed on dowry is

another factor. This along with the general belief that a girl

child will not be helpful for their parents after marriage,

prevents them from spending more money on girls' education.

Finding and securing a suitable placement is a difficult

proposition for the youth of Kerala. Unemployment is one of the

major problems and the s ta te has the highest level of

educationally trained man power resources. Moreover Kerala does

not have the necessary industrial infrastructure to absorb

educated men and women. Highly educated women accept jobs which

do not commensurate with their qualifications. The number of

women in the executive cadre is less in comparison with men.

Their employment helps them, but it requires them to take double

burden. The belief that women should do all household duties

prevails here and this restricts the number of women seeking and

taking up employment. Host of the employed women do not get help

from the male members of the family in their donestic duties.

This double burden affects their health, success in profession

and in me overall performance. This force them to be away from

joining organisations or engaging in other outside activities. As

a class women, do take a second place in employment, under

constraints stated above.

Many a time, due to possibilities of continual transfers

women generally avoid promoticins. It is a custom in all

government controlled services, to transfer an employee and

promote him to the higher cadre. Promotion without a transfer is

a rarity. This is usually seen in banking sector where men go

for higher positions and women do not try for it due to family

related issues such as education of children. In all these cases

women are the losers. Moreover, women who earn their salary have

to get the permission of the husband to spend the money for

personal purposes. The patriarch controls purse, no matter who

puts money in it. Leela 14enon4 -a woman journalist says:-

''Education conferred jobs on women but not an economic identity.

They are made mute by cultural compulsions, confined to secondary

roles sans any decision making powers, they confirm to female

stereotypes, social status and security rather than power.

Spinsterhood is an enduring nightmare far the women in Kerala.

And scandals are her nemesis. n5

The female work participation rate in Kerala is lower than

that of Indian average.6 Discrimination in wages exists in the

agricultural sector which employs a large number of women.

"Average daily wages for agricultural labour although higher than

elsewhere in the country is much less than that of males. lm7 With

the introduction of new technologies and mechanisation, women's

employment chances in this sector are being reduced.

It is quite true that Kerala has achieved high levels in the

field of family planning, Programmes are promoted not with the

real welfare of women at heart but as population cont ro l

measures. Thus ironically while the right of abortion is a battle

cry for women in the West, the leqalising of abortion for women

in India is not necessarily liberating women when it does not

come from their choice but due to pressure from government and

more aften from families. But here again women have to take

greater responsibility than men do. The burden of controlling the

family size falls on women generally. It is her duty. Official

reports show that the number of women who undergo tubectomy -the

operation for women- is much higher than that of men who undergo

vasectomy -the operation for men, which is relatively simpler

than t h e f~rrner .~ Many women are n o t at a l l aware of the side

effects of contraceptives they use, and yet they do, as men would

not take that responsibility.

Most people of Kerala are re.ligious-minded and religion

influences private lives to a very great extent. Thus the mores

of the main three religions- The Hindu, the Muslim and the

Christian have great bearing on t h e private lives. The

patriarchal value- systems of these faiths put women in a

subservient ambiance. Of women, Hanu, the law-giver says: 'women

have no right to enjoy freedom as the father protects her in the

childhood, husband in the youth and son in the old age'.

The two epics of Hinduism - Rarnayana and Hahabharatha -have

references to women's duties. They describe woman as secondary

citizen or as one who should devote herself to her husband and

suffer anything and everything f o r him and h i s family. In

Hahabharatha, women's duties are descr ibed as almost same as

those of sudras9 (The servant caste or people who do menial

jobs). A s religious t ex t s , these books have immense influence on

the life style and customs of t h e people. And this religious

literature passes from one generation, to the other without

modifications; the role-models remain unaltered.

Women are prohibited from becoming Poojaris (priests) in

temples. Widows are not given a prominent place during holy

occasions such as marriage ceremonies. But widowers are not

treated likewise. This discrimination against women, is not a

feature of rural life alone, but of urban life too. Religious

t e x t s of Christians and Muslims are no exceptions.

christianity also gives women only a secondary position. In

India, dowry is prominent among Christians and it looks as if

churches here too support this system. Till recently Christian

inheritance laws discriminated against women. According to

Travancore Christian Succession A c t , a daughter's right among

Travancore Christian family property ended when she was given,

Stridhan {dowry) on marriage. The amount being fixed at Rs 5000/-

or one fourth of the value of son's share. The widow has only a

life interest in her husbands property. This ends with her life.

Though this was challenged by Hary Roy of Kottayam and she got

a favourable verdict from the Court, she had to undergo threats

from her relatives, religious leaders and even from other women.

The Supreme Court verdict was held in ridicule by some educated

women of Kerala also. The Kerala state filed an appeal in the

court, put it rejected in due course. The interesting thing is

t h a t even after s i x or seven years of t h e verdict , the S t a t e

Government is trying to introduce a bill to bypass the judgment

and to remove the retrospective effect of the verdict.

In Christianity women have no right to become P u r o h i t a

(Priest) . Recently some sects s t a r t e d allowing the same to women

amidst s t r o n g protests from the members, The Indian Divorce Act

1869 is extremely hard to Indian Christian women. As such there

is no provision for mutual consent like t h a t of Hindu Marriage

Act of 1955. Although under the Indian Divorce A c t both husband

and wife c a n obtain a divorce, inflicting much strain on wife.

The grounds provided in the A c t , far dissolution of marriage are

very limited. The couple must r e l y on differing grounds for

divorce. The wife can seek divorce on the grounds of i )

incestuous adultery, ii) bigamy with adultery iii) rape, sodomy

or bestiality iv) adultery and cruelty v) adultery and desertion

vi) conversion from Christianity and marriage w i t h other women. A

wife has to prove more than one ground, if she has to succeed in

her petition f o r divorce. If she proves only one charge, namely,

adultery or cruelty or desertion, the Court is competent ta grant

her a judicial separation and not a divorce decree. In order to

get t h e marriage dissolved, the w i f e has to prove c r u e l t y and

adultery. A husband's only ground for divorce is adultery. lo so

a Christian woman has to tolerate her husband even if he has many

vices.

Participation of women in the administration and other

activities of the churches on terms of equality with men, is not

common. In Protestant churches women's participation in decision

making bodies as well as in liturgical services is being allowed.

Women's ordination into priesthood is sanctioned and encouraged

by some Protestant churches, of late, whereas in the Orthodox and

Catholic churches women are not considered for elections to any

of the decision making bodies. They are not considered equal with

men.

The following case of a professor, who was actively engaged

in activities related to church, is an illustrative case. She is

a retired professor of sociology. Besides she is a recognised

national and international church leader, a dynamic community

organiser and an effective public speaker.

She had been the execut ive secretary of the Women's

Commission of t h e Kerala Council of Churches, a regional

council of the National Council of Churches. She had the

privilege of registering the honour of the women of the Orthodox

Church in India as well as Global Ecumenical Movement. Her

struggle with the church started when s h e was nominated by the

Nomination Committee of the World Council of Churches t o its

Central Committee at its seventh assembly meet in Canbera,

Australia.

When her name appeared in the nomination list the leader of

the church delegation wanted her to withdraw the nomination in

favour of a male priest from India. Knowing that it was a seat,

for the women of the Orthodox Churches in India, she refused to

obey. She got elec-ted to the Central committee of the World

Council of Churches. She attended t h e first meeting of tile

Central Committee and established thereby for t h e f irs t t i m e i n

the history of the Orthodox Church in India, women's position in

the central decision making body of the World council of

Churches. On returning home, she was pressurised and compelled to

resign the position in the central committee, by the synod of t h e

Orthodox Church at the instigation of the leader of the

delegation who ordered her to withdraw the nomination in favour

of a male priest. She was even threatened with excommunication if

she did n o t comply with their order.

Arab marriages constitute an alliance of convenience. The

g i r l s are married of f to Arabs (who v i s i t Kerala for a short

t i m e ) ; The parents of girl take cash from the bride groom- In

many cases these girls are discarded and the husbands return to

their homeland after a short period of honeymoon. T h e girls do

not get maintenance from their erstwhile husbands. These

marriages take place in Kerala, with the indirect connivance of

the religious leaders .

It may be due to deep -rooted taboos and practices like

child marriages that women's education has not gathered momentum

in the Muslim community. Thus it is seen that the stranglehold

of religion hinder women's progress. The women's movement in

Kerala has not yet succeeded in liberating women from the

shackles of age-old beliefs and customs. It was never able to

lead a serious campaign against personal laws in religions.

Media - both electronic and print, hardly give a woman t h e

treatment she deserves. T h e stories, novels, plays and features

coming through the media negatively affect women and resurrects

the old images of women. The programmes on television and radio

invariably depict woman as inferior to man. The house wife/mother

image of woman is getting prominence in both print and electronic

media, They are largely portrayed as home-bound, ritualistic and

superstitious, self negating and passive, decorative, powerless

and acquesceing to battering and violence, Advertisements on

television and radio are also exploitative of women's bodies. The

female body, often scantly clad, is used to advertise all kinds

of products ranging from shaving cream and drinks to automobiles.

This further degrades the image of women. Cinema - one of the

m o s t influential of medias, is not an exception. Sex and violence

is on the increase in cinema.

A large number of Walayalam weeklies indirectly encourage

violence against women; the increasing rate of suicides among

women in Kerala, l1 is attributed to such violence and sex. The

sensational weeklies in Halayalam, with an eye on the till,

exploit the soft feelings of the neoliterates as well as

literates by publishing tens and hundreds of pynkili novels,

depicting women as sex objects and t h e worst sufferers of the

society. The theme of almost all of them is the same, whatever

men may do, the female folk of the family must suffer. In Kerala

where most of the people are literate, these sob stories can have

a powerful impact on them.They surely produce some brainwashing

effect, feminist group leaders feel.

Women in decision making roles are very few, Politics does

not attracting women in the post-independence period. Even women

who took part actively in the political activities in Kerala

before independence are seen to quit the f i e l d . Statistics show

that women contesters and those elected are comparatively less

with reference to the total number of seats. This happens in a

state where women outnumber men. Hany a time, Kerala cabinet

lacked a woman minister.l2 Commenting on low participation of

women in the assembly and parliament, Leela Damoodara FIenonl3

once remarked that, political parties assigned to women

constituencies where an easy victory w a s impossible. Even when

elected, women were not given their due in responsible positions.

Huch blame must be assigned to the nature of politics now.

It is increasingly an area of fierce competition and corruption.

Women who are not inclined to corruption are hesitant to enter

politics. Character assassination, threats, harassment etc. are

not rare i n recent politics. As M.T Padma - the Fisheries

Minister of Kerala from 1995 onwards says : "No women in politics

remains untained by scandalsM .14 They do not want to loose their

fair image by entering in to politics - riddled with immorality,

corruption, intrigues, dishonesty and patronage. Many times women

political w o r k e r s were mentally tortured and threatened.

According to Simi Rosebell John - the state youth congress

secretary :- "women cannot rise in politics except through

reservationsw. 15

Thus in Kerala political power is far away from women. It is

men who make laws, plan and implement policies and programmes

intended to promote women's development. Hence the lacunas are

many, A woman's perspective is lacking a l l the t i m e . Commenting

about the lack of political power for women in Kerala, Leela

Menon - a famous journalist says "of the 2 . 9 crores population 53

percent are women, who have no share in political power. And, of

the one hundred and forty one members in the assembly there are

just s i x women. Only 11 percent of the one thousand two hundred

elected members of local bodies are women. And there is just one

woman among the twenty five members of parliament from Kerala.

Women have registered only a 0.39 percent increase in t h e work

force. In the IPS cadre there are two women officers while in the

one hundred and sixty strong I A S force only thirteen are women.

The fact that women form 60 percent of the faceless teachers in

the sta te is no slave to feminist egos. And women entrepreneurs

are either making pickles or stitching garments. Their motto

seems to be "No high tech for us please, w e are womenn. 16

Women's wings of political parties are undoubtedly a s t rong

current in the women's movement which can influence the

governmental bodies ta improve the status of women. But t h e

members and leaders of these women's wings frankly admit that

they are unable to find more space for women in the party. The

woments membership in the party is not much. The women's wing is

controlled by the party and so cannot always take an independent

stand on women's specific issues, The attitude of the parties to

these wings had always been nYou are free and autonomous but you

refuse my permission to 'say sow.

Political parties have no definite outlook on women's

issues. Meetings on important matters are convened late at night.

Women cannot attend these meetings and so crucial decisions are

taken in their absence. This view is shared by t h e m e m b e r s and

leaders of many other (professional) organisations also.

Another tendency which prevails in the state is the

animosity of the politically sponsored women's organisations

against the independent women's groups - Feminists allege t h a t

their a i m is to propagate the ideology of their political party

among the poor women rather than propagate the ideas of free

thinking and equality and sense of rights and privileges among

them. Their organisation has their own well organised political

machinery behind them and hence in each conflict of ideas the

political organisations are the winners. Feminists allege that

t h e political parties fear - the spread of free thinking and

large scale awakening among women as that may ruin them. The

leaders of the independent women's organisations are very much

fearfu l and critical about this suppressive and destructive

attitude of women's organisations of t h e leftist parties in

Kerala. A strong spokes person of a feminist group in Kerala,

~jithal' - once a strong l e f t i s t , vehemently condemn the

'Janadhipatya Hahila Association', sponsored by the Communist

party of India (Marxist).

However Gabriela Dietrich of Tamil Nadu Theological

Seminary - an outstanding person in the f i e l d of women's studies

opine that women's wing of political parties have an important

place in the emancipation of women in Kerala. Though they may be

against autonomous feminist groups - as feminists allege, they are responsible f o r the mass organising of women in Kerala. She

adds that Kerala's culture, its customs and beliefs which are

passing from generation to generation may be the prime f a c t o r

which prevents t h e emergence of a strong women's movement.

Various laws were made before and after independence for

the sake of women. But at the implementation level m o s t af them

did not measure up to their expectations. A majority of women are

unaware of the laws which are enacted solely for their well-

being. Laws against dowry, rape and child marriage, sometimes

become ineffective due to various reasons. Economic dependence on

others hinder women from approaching courts; litigation consumes

much money and time. Plaintiffs influencing the witnesses and

even the judges are not rare. Threats against women force them to

withdraw cases. It is very common that political parties that

have to raise funds, use their influence to save the criminals

involved in violence against women. Moreover, existing laws are

altered by the organs of the state. Existing rights also get

snatched away by the government. This is borne out in the famous

'Shah Bano Case' where the central government legislated against

t h e interest of women and in *Mary Roy Case* where t h e state

government is trying to.

Many laws framed to help women seem to be ineffective for

they are ill-made. In many cases there was a wide disparity

between the initial demands raised by the women's movement and

the recommendations of the law commissions and final enactment.

The activists and experts who initiate the movement cannot

participate in the process of drafting the b i l l s . Almost every

single campaign against violence on women in the eighties

resulted in new legislations aimed at protecting w o m e n . However,

these have had little impact on the society,

T h e campaign for reforms in Rape Laws (1983) is a clear

example of ineffectiveness. As a result of the anti-rape campaign

a Law amm mission was constituted to study the demands. T h e Law

Commission's recommendations included both the demands raised by

the campaign, i e , regarding onus of proof and womenf s p a s t

sexual history. The commission also recommended certain pre-

trial procedures - women should not be arrested at night, a

policeman should not touch a woman when he is arresting her, and

statements of woman should be recorded in the presence of a

relative, friend or a representative of women's organisation. It

a l s o recommended that a police official's refusal to register a

complaint of rape should be treated as an offence.

However, t h e bill which was presented to the parliament in

August 1980 d i d not include any of these positive recommendations

regulating the police power. The demand that a women's past

sexual history and general conduct should not be used as

evidence in a rape trial, was excluded from the bill.

Another disturbing trend in the s t a t e is the increasing

violence against women. Dowry, social discrimination and sexual

harassment are rampant and on the increase. Wife beatings are not

rare though media coverage is scanty. *Dowry deaths were unheard

of in the past, they are however very much a social reality at

present. There have been many instances of dowry related suicides

in the last few years. L i t e r a t e women have chosen to end their

lives rather than be burdens on their parents who were unable to

pay the unconscionable dowry demands. 18

One incident to be singled out for mention here is the

tragic suicide of an engineer working in the engineering research

u n i t , Trichur. The demand for dowry by her husband who was a co-

worker in the institution and his torture ultimately led to the

suicide of that woman w i t h two small children. l9 Another

incident related to dowry occurred in Palghat district (1989).

Four sisters committed suicide not to become a burden on their

parents. They were aged between eighteen and twenty f i v e and w e r e

much worried about their plight, They learned how the marriage of

their eldest sister, nearly had ruined the family financially.

Hence their tragic end,*'

Recently news papers reported the dowry harassment of a

woman named 'Beenat at Kottayam by her in-laws and husband. She

was admitted in hospital with serious injuries and the newspapers

reported t h e incident. Many women's organisations of Kottayam

protested against the incident and extended support to her . Many

such incidents often go unreported or unnoticed. All These

reveals the prevalence of dowry related harassment and dowry

deaths in Kerala,

In Kerala no dowry death was reported in 1983 and 1984 but

there were five cases in 1985 and now it is on the increase . 2 2

Rape cases are also increasing in Kerala. Even though men are

responsible for rape and molestation, society generally stands

against women and tha t adversely affects her future. In 1990 the

number of rape cases reported was one hundred and ninety seven.

It increased to two hundred and eleven in 1991. Statistics show

that Kerala is not far behind other states of India in the case

of rape. 23

The framing of uniform civil code to overcome a l l personal

laws in religions is one of the long existing demands of women's

movement. Recently in an epoch-making judgment, the Supreme Court

on 10 Hay 1995 asked the Prime Minister to take a I1Fresh lookmt

at Article 4 4 of the constitution mandating t h e state to secure a

Uniform Civil Code for the citizens through out the territory of

India. This was in a case where a Hindu husband had misused the

absence of a Uniform Civil Code to convert to Islam and marry a

second w i f e without dissolving the first marriage. 24 However,

the Prime Minister of India and Chief Minister of the state

Kerala emphatically declared that there is no mave from the part

of government to constitute the Uniform Civil Code as it never

wanted to hurt the feelings of the religious people by changing

personal laws. From this it is crystal clear that the government

is least moved by women's concerns or womenf s movement, even if

there is direction from the apex court of the country.

The National Commission for Women is also facing

criticisms.25 The NCW from its inception is doing commendable

work including inquiries on around one thousand cases concerning

women, conducted major studies on family court system, women in

the unorqanised sector and so on, and appealed to the President

not to give assent to the Kerala bill denying Christian women the

right to succession. However many women's organisations criticize

the functioning of the commission as it is biased in favour of

the party in power. Disappointment is widespread among women in

general about the appointments made in the commission that the

government filled the commission with its supporters. Thus noted

academicians and activists of the women's movement have n o t got a

place in the commission.

Feminism is often a misunderstood term in Kerala. People

consider it as western and t r y to neglect and oppose anything

connected with feminism. Feminists are o f t e n ridiculed even by

eminent men and women and also the media in general. During mid

eighties when feminist groups were formed, the apposition came

from a l l corners - said a feminist group leader in Kerala.

Feminism is considered as anti-Indian and against the country's

culture. T h i s adversely affects women's groups. Even the

educated, freedom loving women hesitate to say that they are

feminists. They may speak, write and work for wonen but add at

the same time tha t they are not feminists. This hesitancy also

negatively affect the growth of feminist groups in the state.

"Women in Kerala lack couragew, says Sugatha Kumari. 26 She

adds: "women in Kerala wear an inner purdahf4. Most women leaders

share this idea and add that women of Kerala lack initiative.

They are always afraid of society. This is a general tendency of

the middle-class. Lower class people are very different and have

some courage to come forward.

According to ~ r . ~ l i c e , ~ ~ "unmarried g i r l s of Kerala usually

would not come forward to join a rally or a protest meeting. They

never wanted to be assertive or dominating as they fear that it

may affect t h e prospects of their marriage. They consider

marriage as the m o s t important event in their l i f e and axe ready

to sacrifice their jobs, education and even their individuality

to that end. All these beliefs shared by majority of women is the

stumbling block in the growth of women's movement*.

Unity and contradiction -positive and negative- the recent

developments in Kerala women's movement scene may be summed up in

these terms. As the society grows and literacy become universal

the women's question get momentum. Many t a l k and writs about

equality and the new autonomous feminist groups do much for the

upliftment of women. Still there are problems, which impede the

functioning of t h e woaenfs organisation. The disappearance of

'prachodanar - a feminist group which actively functioned i n

Trivandrum indicates that challenges to women's groups are high

in the state. It is said tha t the strong opposition from

political parties and the mental torture of members in the group

are among the factors for its disappearance. This is not a single

case. Almost a l l organisation are facing strong challenges.

A close look at the situation in Kerala reveals that many

feminist groups which started during 1980's are now inactive due

to lack of s t r o n g leadership and membership. And, even after the

years o f emergence of various groups they have not at a l l

succeeded in organising a united front to effectively Eight and

react to the issues concerning women. A t t e m p t s are made to bring

the different groups together, but all their discussions end up

in arguments on ideological or theoretical grounds. Unity has

been elusive.

Various criticisms are levelled against women's movement

that they are fragmented, l acks a clear orientation, direction or

an efficient organisation. They are in their initial stage and

.

are far from organising intense struggles. However the great

victories, the movement has made, are clear examples to i t s

progress to success. It is quite clear that day by day, the

number of individuals supporting women's emancipation is

increasing. General public and media are becoming more and more

conscious. Women's studies are a l s o growing in volume and

quality. The diffusion of education, the passing of social

legislation, and the defence of oppressed women are the products

of these women's movements, The movement has contributed to the

transformation of the mind set of the people to a great extent.

I t influences the government policies on women also.

T h e movement today is undergoing various changes and

comprises different trends in its fold. Host of the groups

developed links w i t h far left working class, tribal and anti-

caste organisations. Women increasingly begin.to take part in

other social movements like ecological and civil rights movement.

Unlike the early years of its functioning, the women's groups,

generally the women's movement earned much confidence through

their activities and received much support from the public.

Though western feminists' ideologies w e r e discussed in detail,

the groups here never went to extremities like violent protests

as in the West,

The movement in the pre-independence period was for getting

legal reforms including right to education, right to employment,

right to franchise, right to divorce etc, Whereas the present day

women's movement has gone much ahead in realizing the importance

of viewing every issue in women's perspective. It began to f iqht

against everything which tries to oppress or discriminate women.

The movement by this time has got strength through protest, and

pressurising, as well as research and basic net working among

women's groups. The activism has spread even to the rural areas.

Women's high participation and even leading roles they assume in

various struggles such as fish workers movement and prohibition

movement, bear this out.

One of the major charges raised by the women's movement

against the l e f t political parties is tha t they do not at all

take women's issues seriously and are working against the

interest of women's movement; now a change of heart has taken

place in the left parties. With the initiative and leadership of

AKG Centre, Trivandrum, a Women's Conference - "Women in Kerala, Yesterday, Today" - inviting academicians and women activists of

all women groups, was orqanised recently at Trivandrum. (

February 11 to 13, 1995). Around one hundred and eighty papers

relating to women and their movements were presented in t h e

conference. The seminar revealed the changed attitude of left

political party towards women's movement in which E.M.S

Namboothirippad talked about the immediate necessity of the

emergence of a strong women's movement in Kerala. Besides he

admitted the low position and participation, women have in t h e

party and other mass based organisations and wanted a conscious

effort to replace this situation. Tbe incessant struggle by the

women members af the party against male domination may be one of

the major reasons f o r this attitudinal change.

The most remarkable development of recent times in the state

is the governments decision to reserve 3 3 . 3 percent seats in

Panchayat Raj institutions which aims at the political and

economical empowerment of women. In l i n e with the constitution

(73rd Amendment) A c t 1992, the Kerala Panchayat Ra j Act 1994 has

passed as a measure to secure a greater participation of people

in the planned development and in local Governmental a f f a i r s , by

constituting Village, Block and District level Panchayats. 2 8 The

A c t which reserved one third of the total number of seats f o r

women, has also reserved for them in the same ratio for executive

posts. According to the A c t (Chapter XIV, Sec. 153(3) (b) (ii) of

extraordinary gazette of Kerala Government) one third of the

total n u m r of offices of village panchayats, black panchayats

and district Panchayats, will be reserved for women.

Accordingly in Kerala a h u t f o u r thousand five hundred and

fifty three women will get power including three thousand eight

hundred and eighty one members in Village panchayats, five

hundred and sixty eight members i n Block panchayats and one

hundred and four members in District Panchayats. Women will be

the presidents of three hundred and thirty one Village

panchayats, fifty one Block panchayats and five District

Panchayats. Also women get the presidentship of about eighteen

Municipalities and one Corporation. This reform c a n be

considered a great success as far as women's movement is

concerned.

The establishment of National Commission for Women in 1992

offers a bright prospect for women all over the country. Under

the National Commission for Women Act, 1990, the commission is

empowered to take "suo motton notice of matters relating to

deprivation of women's rights and non-implementation of laws

enacted to provide protection to women and to take up issues

arising out of these with the appropriate authorities.

With the determination to check the increasing violence

against women, the commission has formulated a number of

recommendations. 29 Some of the relevant provisions are :

i) setting up / strengthening, of monitoring bodies in every

district and every state. The committee usually consists of

police officers and magistrates in some states, in-charge of

the area, legal a id workers, representatives of women's

organisations, counselling experts etc.

ii) recognizing t h e strength and capabilities of v o l u n t a r y

organisations for generating public response to violence and

social mobilisation, the commission has recommended that

t h e existing schemes of assistance to non governmental

organisations be modified to inc lude a specific component

for combating atrocities against women,

iii) the commission has recommended to s e t up women's cells or

women police stations on an urgent basis all over the

country as a special mechanism to deal with violence against

women.

It is of the view that a gender sensitisation programme

should be incorporated in a l l the training programmes for t h e

entire administrative machinery including police, the

prosecutors, magistrates, the forensic and medico-leqal personnel

and judiciary.

The Women's Commission has also come to the conclusion that

the only effective remedy for dowry deaths is financial i . e . ,

confiscation of the property of the husband or in-laws of the

deceased and it has been recommended that a legal provision

should be made to do this in all cases of dowry deaths.

The proposal of the National Commission for Women for 30

percent reservation for women in a l l government job is

conspicuous. Recently the Department for Women and Children in

the Ministry of Human Resource Development has supparted this

proposal. The recommendation has been cleared by the ministry of

Human Resource Development and is doing t h e rounds of the

ministries of laws and welfare and the department of personnel. 30

In her meeting with HRD minister Madhavarao Sindia, Mohini Giri

- Chairperson of the National Commission for Women has pointed out that the money spent by the commission would be wasted i f

this recommendation is n o t accepted.

In Kerala, t h e political empowerment of women was first

attempted when 30 percent of seats of District council were

reserved for women in 1990. Now the new legislation will surely

be a great advancement towards granting political power to women.

Studies show that women in top jobs are very f e w . Even at

the lower level, they hold just 4 to 15 percent of various

categories of government jobs. The recommendation for reservation

for women is significant, as it does just before the 3eijing

Conference of women and the release of the 1995 Human Development

R e p o r t of the UNDP in which Mahbub-ul-Haq, author of the report

has mooted the 5 O / 5 O job proposal for women and men. Beginning

with 30 percent jobs in the organised sector for women, Haq says

government should work towards sopercent jobs for women31

The UN secretary-general Boutros Ghali, is also pushing

for 5 0 percent of t h e top UN jobs (assistant secretary-general

and above) far women. The dead line to achieve the target is 2000

AD.

Meanwhile the Karnataka Government on 23 September 1995

decided to reserve 25 percent of posts in government service for

women in future recruitment, 32 Briefing on the cabinet decisions,

Law Minister H.C. Nanaiah said henceforth the government would

ensure that 3 0 percent of beneficiaries far various welfare

programmes drawn by the government shall be women.

The fourth National Conference on Women: Action f o r

Equality, Development and Peace to be held at Beijing, China from

4 - 5 September 1995. It became a stage for the world w i d e

women's movement to discuss women's issues to share their

experiences and to formulate strategies f o r the future. Convened

by the UN General Assembly, the confence adopted a 'Platform for

Actionf , concentrating an "critical areas of concernmt, issues

identified as obstacles to the advancement of women in the world-

The first United Nations Conference on women, held in

Mexico city in 1975, led to the declaration by the UN General

Assembly of the United Hations Decade for Women 1975-1985. The

second conference, held in Copenhagen in 1980, adopted a

Programme of Action for the second half of the Decade for Women.

The third conference in Nairobi in 1985 adopted the Forward-

Looking strategies.

The orw ward-Looking strategies provide a frame work fo r

action at international, national and regional levels to promote

greater equality and opportunity for women. They are based on the

three objectives of the UN Decade for Women 'Equality,

Development and Peacer. The 'Platform for Action' which will

recommend further concrete steps to be taken by policy makers and

by women and men world wide is intended to speed up the process

of making the strategies a reality.

Despite the widespread movement towards democratisation in

the past decade, women have made little progress in attaining

political p o w e r in legislative bodies or achieving the target of

30 percent in decision making levels set by the United Nations.

With a reservation of 3 3 . 3 3 percent of seats in local bodies for

women, India has more than fulfilled the target and in the l a s t

local bodies e lec t ion mare than 4 0 percent elected

representatives in some states like Karnataka and Maharashtra

were women.

Gender equality, politics and decision making are

identified as one of the twelve major thrust areas which the

Bei jing Conference would focus its attention. It was at India's

initiative that the issue of girl child was included as one of

t h e thrust areas that the conference would focus. The other areas

ihcluded women and poverty, literacy and education, women's

health, women in the global aconomy, violence against women,

women and the environment and women at war and peace.

Five hundred Indian delegates headed by Human Resources

Development Minister Hadhavarao Scindia participated t h e

conference. About twentyfive thousand delegates including

activists and leaders representing various types of women's

groups from one hundred and eighty UN member states participated

the conference, which may act as a springboard for renewed work.

A parallel NGO Forum on Women 1995 held from 30 August to 8

September 1995. The two themes the Forum had focussed are i) to

influence 'Platform for Actiont t h a t WN member states will adopt,

ii) to highlight the women's vision for the world in the twenty

first century. The theme of the Forum is to nlook at t h e world

through women's eyesn.

Though these conferences can work no miracle, they will help

women to reach an understanding about women's common problems and

to chalkout ways to solve these at global level. They also help

women to know about the women's movement in different countries

and to instill in them a feeling that they are not alone in the

path of struggle for liberation, which may inturn raise their

confidence to work with renewed vigour and enthusiasm.

The present study already revealed that w h e n of Kerala is

better placed in terms of health, education etc. Though they

share many problems with t h e women of t h e rest of t h e country,

their progress in the f i e l d of education is noteworthy. The old

concept about women, as duty h u n d to remain at home and men as

the bread-winners (earning members), is already broken. Now it is

a fact that in many of the households in Kerala, bread-winners

are women. This to a certain extent empowers them ecanomically.

Though employed women faces many problems, their status and

dignity in society as well as at home is increasing.

The National Women's Commission's proposal to reserve 3 0

percent jobs to women, if implemented, may create a silent

revolution in the state. The economic and political empowerment

are the two key components which can liberate women from the

clutches of subordination. The recent move to reserve 3 3 . 3 3

percent seats in the local bodies is sure to yield good results

as it will empower women politically and economically. If the

Panchayat Ra j is allowed to function properly, the democratic

process and institutions w i l l be strengthened, people (both men

and women) will receive a political education as well as a better

sense of themselves as citizens; the internal democracy of the

voluntary sector may improve and women may participate in the

decision making bodies as well as i n the general functioning of

the local government as full-fledged citizens. With this the

concept that the public-realm is solely for men, began to

rupture.

Increasing violence against women is seriously taken into

consideration by the state under the direction from the National

commission for Women. Hore women police stations are started and

measures have been taken to s t a r t more family courts to help

women. According to Administration Report of Police Department,

Kerala, 1990, there were twenty women's police stations already

functioning in the state. In order to ensure more s e c u r i t y and

protection to women and to take up their complaints twenty more

women's police stations are to be established in various places

of ~ t a t e . 3 ~

Attention was g iven ta employed women to lessen their

difficulties regarding children by opening more Creches and Day-

care Centres. Assistance is given to 'Mahila Samajams' to

function properly and to take up economically beneficent schemes.

Recognition of women in government policies can be observed in

the case of IRDP where the direction is that 30 percent of its

beneficiaries should be women. With the efforts of courageous

women, the government and judiciary under pressure to reform

discriminatory legislations as in the case of Travancore

Christian Succession A c t and the Christian Divorce A c t .

Entry of more women writers to the field of literature is a

new trend in the state. They g e l wider acceptance and are

gradually breaking the monopoly of men in t h e field of

literature. The women's writing (feminist writing) has become an

emerging area in literature which owes much to t h e women's

movement in the state . The acceptance of women's studies, as an

academic discipline at the University level and the starting of

women's centres or cells in many colleges and Universities in

Kerala, offers a bright prospect to the women's movement.

The women's movement in Kerala so far was able to create a

psychological impact on women and also to create a change in the

attitude of the public towards women's issues and status. It has

led to a rethinking about the present social order and values.

This trend inturn influences the government and its programmes.

Changes are taking place; the women's movement has the

responsibility to accelerate the change.

1. Neera Desai, A d e c a d w f women 's movement in India, Himalaya Publishing House, Bombay, 1988, p.177.

2. K.S. Sarada Hony, 'Kerala Hathrukayum Streekalum' Kerala (Halayalam), July-September 1993, p.241.

3 . Government of Kerala, Women in K w , Department of Economics & Statistics, Trivandrum, 1984, P p . 5 9 - 7 3 ; Government of Kerala, Women in Kerala, Department of Economics L Statistics, Trivandrum, 1989, Pp.25-27.

4 . Reporter, Indian Express, Kottayam.

5. Leela Menon, *The Meeker S e x f , m a n -ess n a u , Cochin, 6 March 1 9 9 4 .

6. Government of Kerala, Womer! b K e r m , Department of Economics and Statistics, Trivandrum, 1989, Pp.39-40.

7 3- Re-, Institute of Management in Government, Trivandrum, 1990, p.3.

8. During the year 1991-92 87497 cases of tubectomy was done as against 1049 cases of vasectomy. Dr. S Radha, Woglen. Men and nevel-ent in Kern, Institute of Hanagement in Government, Trivandrum, 1994, p. 77.

9 . Thunjathu Ezhuthachan, Sree . . 1 w t * . u

(Malayafam), HC Stores, Kunnamkulam, 1962, 1976 (xpt.), p.407.

10. On 2 4 February 1995, the full bench of Kerala High Court squashed the words @lIncestuous Adulteryn, "Adultery coupled with crueltym, and "Adultery Coupled with desertionn contained in section 10 of the Indian Divorce Act. 'High Court Squashes words and Divorce A c t ' , The u, Madurai, 25 February 1995.

11. -ress DajJy , Cochin, 27 April 1994.

12. During 1960, 1970, 1971 though women were elected to the assembly, none of them were appointed as ministers.

Leela Menon, 'Will Panchayath Polls Herald Women Power1, an E X p r e w , cochin, 18 May 1994.

Ajitha : - Actively participated in Naxal B a r i movement in Kerala during 1960's. Now a famous feminist group leader of 'Bodhana'.

, Cochin, 11 March 1988.

The -, Hadurai, 29 January 1989.

ss D-, Cochin, 3 February 1994.

K . Govinthan Kutty, 'Grooms prices and Manusmriti', Indian ess D a i L y , Cochin, 2 3 November 1 9 8 7 .

Government of India, I n a a . 1993, National Crime Records Bureau, Ministry of.Home Affairs, Hew Delhi, 1994, Pp. 258-263; a . .

' , National Crime Records Bureau, H e w Delhi, 1993; . . Government of Kerala, -ation Report ~f m e Pouce De-ent for: m e year 1990, Trivandrum, 1994, ~ ~ 1 5 7 .

Supreme Court insists government to enforce Uniform Civil Code; -rxow u, Cochin, 11 May 1995.

Usha R a i , 'Disappointing Appointments', m n Wress Cochin, 26 July 1995; 'NCW Lacked Teeth' , u, 8 February 1995.

Sugatha ~umari -Famous Poet and a Social Worker.

A Christian Sanyasini and a feminist who led many agitations in support of fisher women folk.

- Government of Kerala, S e r a l a , The Kerala Panchayath Raj A c t , 1994 (Act 13 of 19941, Trivandrum 1995.

Indira Misra, 'Amelioratiating Crimes Against Womenf, m, April 1995, N e w Delhi, p.41.

an Express Dailv, Cochin, 16 August 1995.

32. -wreress D w , Cochin, 24 September 1995.

3 3 . T h e Platform f o r Action aims to accelerate the removal of the remaining obstacles to women's full and equal participation in all spheres of life, including economic and political decision-making; to protect women's human rights throughout the life cycle, and to mainstream women in all areas of sustainable development so that men and women can work together for equality, development and peace. For this purpose, the International Community, Governments, Non- governmental organisations and the Private Sector are called upon t o undertake strategic action to implement the Nairobi Forward- looking strategies for the Advancement of Women in critical area of concern. Towards R e 1 7-

. . . United Nations U n i e s , Fourth World

Conference on Women 38th session 1994, Draft, Platform f o r ~ction, Annex to resolution 38/10 of the commission on the 'Status Of Women, 18 March 1994.

. A

3 4 . Government of Kerala, W a t i v e w t of the Police t for the year 19=, Trivandrum, 1994, p.117.

Women's movement in Kerala, as in other parts of India, are

confronted with two major challenges- social attitudes and gender

anomalies i n the various family laws.

Concerning social attitudes which contribute to the distress

of women in India, Pratima Asthsana writes: 'The feminist ideals

of the West are foreign to the spirit of Indian women's movement,

whose leaders always kept in mind the ancient ideals and values

of Indian culture, the high spirituality and the s p i r i t of

service and devotion that women symbolisef. This is practically

true as many of the womenfs leaders while arguing for women's

rights and working for women's upliftment respect and perpetuate

the old values and concept about women and while demanding

education and more opportunities for women, hold the view that a

women's primary and most important duty is that of a w i f e and

mother and consider women as inferior to men.

But the emergence and proliferation of the new women's

groups in India which question a l l gender discrimination both in

family and society is a welcome trend. These women's

organisations took up many i s sues concerning women including

dowry deaths, rape cases, sexism in media, wife beating and

prostitution where justice is often denied to women. Besides, U

t h e y are fighting legal battles for womenOs cases. rl

The serious gender anomalies in the various family laws in

India were highlighted time and again by various organisations

and official reports. The Shah Bano case followed by the Muslim

Women Protection of Rights (on Divorce) Bill of 1986 turned the

lights forcefully on this issue. This, however, got dissipated as

communal passions were raised in Indian politics following the

demolition of Babri ldasjid at Ayodhya. In the debate over a

Uniform Civil Code itself opinions were divided and uncertain. In

opposition to the idea arrayed the leaders and ideologies of the

minority communities who viewed such efforts as attempts to

impose the wishes of the majority, thereby depriving them of k

their rights and identities. Ikis in the name of religion,

politics or communalism, women's rights are neglected all the

time.

However, over the last f e w months there has been a great

deal of concentrated activity, particularly among women's groups,

to deal w i t h this problem with a view to evolving a concensus for

reform. The issues taken up by the women's movements in other

parts of India have some impact on Kerala where the advancement

of women is remarkable in the fields of education, employment and

such other fields. However in accordance with the great

achievements made by women in the modern times, not much change

has taken place in their attitudes. Dowry- now have spread like a

wild fire even to those communities where the custom was not in

vogue in the early period. (Eg . Nair Community). he c p e d at tide,. 40waaAh

oblhe ,, women's roles, their duties and values remains more or less same, Women with high education are not always getting an

equal treatment with men either in home or in society. Their

house-wife- mother image is often valued more than anything and

the roles assigned to them in home is not changed much. The p o w e r

holders and decision-makers in most families are men. In passing

these old concepts to generations also, women play a major role,

This is not denying the fact that changes have came. But slowly

and not in accordance w i t h the great prqress achieved by women

of Kerala in many areas. Recently a great awareness spread

throughout Kerala by the efforts of the women8s movement. Reports

from an educationally backward area highlight these changes. The

report runs as follows: Malabar which prhaps houses the most

conservative sects among t h e Huslims in India, is witnessing

rather an unusual sight of Muslim women coming out of the harems

in legions to rub shoulders w i t h their male counterparts in every

sphere of social life.' Hany sects in Muslim community now

appoint women as teachers in Madrasas (Institutions where

religious education is given], which was unthinkable in earlier

periods. Another encouraging situation for the women's movement

i n the s t a t e is that more and more women are coning forward to

approach courts for justice. Legal a i d centres have started

functioning in some parts of Kerala w i t h the initiative from

women advocates and women's group leaders in order to provide

free legal help and even financial assistance to women in

distress who seek justice. Recently one of such centres w a s

started in Hanjeri, Malappuram w i t h the initiative of a women's

group. his centre has a panel comprising of fourteen advocates

which offers expert legal advice to aggrieved women and agrees to

appear on their behalf in various courts in the district.

Feminist writing is a recent trend which positively

contributes in portraying womenOs problems and act as powerful

instruments to remodel old concepts regarding women. T h i s may

strengthen the growth of the women's movement in the state.

The women's movement of the present period is very much

different in their aims and objectives and in the mode of

functioning. Earlier the movement never questioned patriarchy or

women's typical roles in society. They were satisfied with the

legal reforms and the right to education and employment. B u t

today the women's movement aims at a discrimination-free society.

They challenge all development strategies, the old concepts and

want a restructuring of gender relationships in creating a more

humane society for all. Women's issues are not women's issues

only, but of society as a whole,

Women's movement in Kerala is only in its i n i t i a l stage of

functioning* However they are now able to attract public

attention and more support. The response about the injustices

levelled against women w a s immediate. As discussed in the IVth

chapter, the recent developments - including the involvement of

more and more women in anti-liquor agitations, fish workers

struggle etc. is a positive development which could strengthen

the women's movement,

But as discussed earlier, t h e criticisms levelled against

the movement and the challenges they are facing are innumerable.

Today among the women's groups which are scattered throughout

Kerala some are really inactive due to the absence of full-time

members and efficient leadership. The groups usually seem to take

up only individual issues of women of their localities. Thus a

collective and organised struggle against common issues

concerning women is lacking in Kerala. This is due to t h e

absence of a united front incorporating a l l women's

groups--though ideologically different-having the major aim of

working for women's upliftment. Moreover, a change should come in

the mentality of the majority who view women's movement and

feminism as family destroying and man-hating. Feminists need to

take the great responsibility of changing the attitude of both

men & women. In Kerala, still only a minority is involved in the

movement, Their number is less in women's wing of political

parties too.

Compared to a l l other states in India, Kerala has certain

unique features and have the great advantage of its women,

registering much progress in many fields. Universal education is

an important factor. Womn activists should be able to change

these favourable factors concerning women in such a way to

strengthen the women's movemnt,

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--- t v Tr-

1806 - 1908 , Kerala Historical Society, Trivandrum, 1980.

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Supplimentary Volume, A.K.G. Centre for Research and

Studies, Trivandrum, 1994.

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1987.

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1987.

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D u (Malayalam), Cochin, 20 March 1990.

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=esst Cochin, 26 Hay 1993.

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(1970-77)*, Social S o c i u , N e w Delhi, June 1985.

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APPENDIX I

to provide for the constitution of a Women's Commission to

improve the status of women in Kerala and to enquire i n t o unfair

practices affecting women and for matters connected therewith or

incidental thereto.

Preamble - WHEREAS it is expedient to provide for the

constitution of a Commission to improve t h e status of women in

Kerala and to enquire i n t o unfair practices affecting women and

for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto;

BE it enacted in the Forty-first Year of the Republic of Ind ia as

follows:

1. Short title-extent and commencement - (1) This A c t may be

called the Kerala Women's Commission Act,1990. 2 . It

extends to the whole of the State of Kerala. ( 3 ) . I t shall

come i n t o force on such date as the Government may,by

notification in the Gazette, appoint.

2 . ~efinitions:- In this Act, unless the context otherwise

requires,-

(a). ''Commission" means the Commission constituted under

section 5 ;

( b ) . ttDirectori means the Director appointed under section

11;

(c). itmember" means a member of the Commission and includes

the Chairman;

( d ) . "personM shall include a firm, company, corporation, association of persons, or the Government and its

agencies receiving a i d from the Government;

(e). mprescribed" means prescribed by the rules made under

this A c t ;

(f). "public servant" means any employee of the Government

or a local body ar any Corporation owned or controlled

by the Government or of any Government agency;

( q ) . nregisteredt8 means registered with the Commission under

the A c t ;

(h) . "unfair practicew means any distinction, exclusion or

restriction made on the basis of sex for the purpose of

or which has the effect of impairing or nullifying t h e

recognition,enjoyment or exercise by women of

fundamental constitutional rights, or of human rights,

or of fundamental freedom in the political, economic,

social, cultural, civil or any other field.

3 . A c t not to apply in certain cases - This A c t shall n o t apply

to - (i) the Central Government: or

(ii) any public sector undertaking of t h e Central

Government, or any other institution owned ,controlled

or financed by the Central Government.

4 . Application of other laws not barred - Save as otherwise

provided, the provisions of this A c t shall be in addition to

and not in derogation of, any other law for the time being

in force,except to t h e extent the provisions of t h e other

law are inconsistent with the provisions of this A c t .

Constitution of the Commission - (a) For the purpose of this A c t , t h e state Government

shall, by notification in t h e official Gazette,

constitute a Commission to be known as the Kerala

Women's Commission which shall consist of a chairman

and not more than five other members to be appointed by

the Government.

(b) The Chairman of the Commission shall he a person,-

(i ) who holds or has held off ice as Minister in t h e Sta te ;

or

(ii) who is qualified to hold or has held office as a Judge

of aHigh Court; or

(iii)who is an officer not below the rank of a District

Judge or a Secretary to the Government of Kerala; or

(iv) who is an eminent woman committed to the cause of women

with sufficient knowledge and experience in dealing

w i t h women's problems.

The chairman of the Commission shall preferably be a woman.

( c ) he members of the commission shall be persons of

ability, intelligence and standing who have adequate

knowledge or experience or have shown ability in

dealing with problems relating to safeguarding and

promoting the interests of women and protecting their

rights.

6 . Term of office and condition of service of members-

(1) Every member shall hold office for a period of three

years.

(2) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (I),

a m e m b e r may-

(i) by writing under his hand and addressed to the

Government resign his office at any time;

(ii) be removed from his office in accordance w i t h the

provisions of section 10.

( 3 ) A vacancy arising by reason of resignation or removal

of any member of the of t h e Commission under sub-

s e c t i o n (2) or otherwise shall be filled up in

accordance with the provision contained in section 5:

Provided that a person appointed under sub-section ( 3 )

shall hold off ice for the remaining period of the term

of the person in whose place he is appointed.

( 4 ) The members shall receive such remuneration and other

allowances and shall be governed by such conditions of

service as may be prescribed:

Provided that such conditions of service shall not be

varied to the disadvantage of a member after h i s

appointment.

7. Quorum- The quorum for a meeting of the Commission shall be

three.

8 . Disposal of business- All questions at a meeting of the

Commission shall be decided by the majority opinion of the

members present and in case the opinions of the members

divide equally, the Chairman shall have a second or casting

vote.

9 . A c t s of the Commission not to be invalidated by infirmity or

any vacancy etc- Nw act or proceeding of the Commission

shall be invalidated by reason only of any defect or

irregularity in its constitution or on the ground of

existence of any vacancy in the office of any member.

10. Removal of members from office in certain circumstances- Any

member of the Commission may be removed from the office by

an order of the Government on the ground of misbehavior, if

in an enquiry conducted by such authority as may be

prescribed, the Government is satisfied that it is necessary

to remove him from off ice on that ground.

Appointment of Director and other staff of the Commission-

The Government may, in consultation w i t h the Cammission,

appoint a Director for making investigations for the purpose

of the Act and to carry out such directives given to him by

the Commission besides the functions conferred on him by

this Act. The Government may also provide the Commission

with such other staff as may be necessary and prescribe

their conditions of service.

12. Prov i s ion for sa lar ies , allowances etc.- The salaries and

allowances payable to the members and the administrative

expanses, including the salaries, and allowances and

pensions payable to, or in respect of, the Director and the

other staff of the Commission, shall be charged on the

Consolidated Fund of the State.

Registration of Women#s 0rganisations.-

(I) ~ n y Women's organisation governed by written rules,

regulations or bye-laws and working for the uplift,

development, welfare or promotion of the interests of

women f o r a continuous period of not less t h a n five

years may apply to t h e Director for registration of

such organisation with the Commission.

(2)The Director may, if satisfied after such enquiry as he

may deem f i t that the organisation is qualified to be

registered, by order, register the organisation.

(3)The Commission shall maintain a register of Women's

Organisation in the State registered with the

Commission.

( 4 ) The ~irector may,at any time, either on h i s on motion

or otherwise cancel the registration of a Women's

organisation, after giving an opportunity to be heard

and on being satisfied that it is no longer qualified

to continue as a registered organisation.

1 4 . Powers of the Cammission.- (1) The Commission shall, for the

purpose of any inquiry under this Act, have the same powers

as are vested in a civil court while trying a suit under

the Code of Civil Prcadure, 1908 (Central Act 5 of 1908), in

respect of t h e following matters, namely:-

(a) summoning and enforcing the attendance of any witness

and examining h i m ;

(b) requiring the discovery and production of any document;

(c) receiving evidence on affidavits;

(d) requisitioning any public records or copy thereof from

any public office; (e) issuing commissions for t h e

examination of witnesses .

( 2 ) A n y proceeding before the Commission shall be a

judicial proceeding within the meaning of sections 193

and 2 2 8 of the Indian Penal Code (Central A c t 4 5 of

1860) and the Commission shall be deemed to be a court

f o r the purpose of section 1 9 5 of the Code of Criminal

Procedure, 1973(Central Act 2 of 1974).

15, Functions of the Commission.- (1) The Commission shall

perform all or any of the following funct ions , namely:-

(i) inquire i n t o any unfair practice, take decision thereon

and to recommend to the Government the action to be

taken in that matter;

(ii) cause investigations to be made by the Director on

issues of importance concerning women and issues

concerning unfair practice and to report thereon to the

State Government on the corrective measures to be

taken ;

(iiilsubmit to the S t a t e Government annual reports an,-

( a ) the lacunae, inadequacies, or shortcomings in the laws

in force which affect the constitutional right to

equality and fair treatment of women and also on the

remedial legislative measures to be taken to meet t h e

situation:

(b) the monitoring of the working of laws in force

concerning women with a view to identifying the areas

where the enforcement of laws is not adequately

effective or has not been streamlined and recommending

executive or legislative measures to be taken;

( c ) monitoring the recruitment made to S t a t e public

services and public sector Corporations and promotions

within the sa id services and scrutinising the rules and

regulations governing such recruitments and promotions

with a view to reporting to the Government action, if

any, required to guarantee equal opportunity to women

in the matter of such recruitments and promotions.

(iv) ( a ) inspect or cause to be inspected, by the director or

any officer of the Commission authorised by the

Director in that behalf, police stations, lock-ups,

sub-jails, rescue homes, or other places of custody

where women are kept as prisoners or otherwise, or

shelters for women or o t h e r places run by the

Government ox any of its agencies for t h e purpose of

offering rescue or shelter to women and cause further

inquiries to be made about the treatment that women are

subjected to at such places and report to the

Government for taking remedial actions;

(b) in cases where the Commission is of the view that any

public servant has been grossly negligent or grossly

indifferent in regard to the discharge of h i s duties in

relation to the protection of the interests of women,

recommend to the concerned disciplinary authority to

initiate disciplinary action;

(v) recommend to government, the social welfare measures to

be adopted and implimented by the Government with a

view to ameliorating the conditions of women;

(vi) formulate a comprehensive and affirmative scheme for

securing equal opportunities to women and devise a

programme for implementing such scheme which shall be

forwarded to the Government for approval and on

obtaining approval thereof w i t h or without

modifications, implement the same;

(vii)empower the Director to recommend to the appropriate

authority ta take prosecution proceedings in respect of

offences commited against women under any statute

providing for penalty for violation of the provisions

of such statute;

(viii) maintain comprehensive Data sank relating to the

social, economic and political conditions af women

including comparitive study, updating the same from

time to time making available such data for use in

actions f o r vindication of the rights of women:

(ix) recommend to Government to initiate legislation f o r

removal of discrimination in the case of iheritance,

gaurdianship, adoption and divorce or for matters

relating to the safegaurding of the dignity of women

and the honour of motherhood,

( 2 ) The government shall cause the recommendation of the

commission under sub-section (1) to be placed before

the legislative Assembly during its next session and

cause action to be taken thereon by the authority

concerned within two months from the plac ing of such

recommendations.

16. Inquiry into 'unfair practices1.- (1) The Commission shall

inquire into any unfair practice,-

(a) on receving a written complaint from any wpmen alleging

t h a t she has been subjected to any unfair practices or

on a similar complaint from any regestered wornens'

organisations;

{b) on its own knowledge or information ;

( c ) an any request from the Government.

( 2 ) Where the complaint has been made under clause ( a ) of

subsection (11, the Commission may, before the issue ~f

any process to the person complaint against, cause

preliminary investigation to be made by the Director in

such manner as it may deem fit, for the purpose of

satisfying itself that the complaint requires tobe

enquired into.

( 3 ) Where the person against whom the complaint has been

made, appears and shows cause or fails to appear on the

day appionted for that purpose t h e Commission may

proceed to inquire into the matter in the complaint and

take a decision theron and if the Commission finds that

there is unfair practice it shall recommend to the

Government the action to be taen thereon.

( 4 ) the Government shall , within two months fron the date

of receipt of the recommendation of the Commission

under Sub- section ( 3 ) take a decision thereon and

intimate the'same to the Commission.

APPENDIX I1

TABLES

....... Census

....... 1901

1911

1921

1931

1941

1951

1961

1971

1981

1991 .......

Table I

Literacy Rates in Kerala - 1901-1991

....... Year

.......

.......

................ : Persons :

.:..*....*.....: 11.14

13.31

19.02

21.34

: N o t available:

40 .47

46 .80

60.40

70.40

8 9 . 8 0

....... Females

....... 3.15

4 . 4 3

10.26

11.99

-

31.41

3 8 . 9 0

5 4 . 3 0

65.70

8 6 . 2 0 .......

Source:- (1) Government of Kerala,Wom , Department of ~conomics & Statistics, T-, p . 27.

( 2 ) Government of K e r a 1 a . m in K P ~ , Department of ~conomics & Statistics, Trivandrum, 1989, p . 17.

( 3 ) Government of Kerala,Homen in Ker-, Department of Economics & Statistics, ~rivandrum, 1994, p. 19.

Table I1

Women Employees in Public and Private Sector in Kerala 1988-92

No. in Lakhs ..................................................... . Public Sector . Private Sector

Source : - [ 1 ) . Government of Kerala , m n in, Department of Economics & Statistics, Trivandrum, 1994, Pp.57-62.

Table I11

Women in Selected Occupation in Kerala -1981

............................ Occupation ; nalo

:.**.*......*.......:..*..*. : Public Instruction: 31503

: Agriculture : 4328

: Animal Husbandry : 2498

1 . . . . . * *

Female

........ : Total Females

as Percent : of Total :

....I*......:

50.42 :

17.39 :

13.11 :

2 0 . 0 0 :

2 4 . 7 9 :

12.53 :

19.53 :

1.95 :

6 . 0 5 :

51.34 :

2 . 7 4 :

15.18 :

3 0 . 4 2 :

50.12 : ............

: Civil supplies : 1292

: Collegiate Educat:: 2127

: Co-operatives : 1392

: Economics & ~tati:: 1141

: Excise

: Forests

: Health ~ervise

: Police

: Public Health & r : Engineering

: Social Welfare : 208 :...................:........ Source:- (1). Government of Kerale,llpmen ' , Department

of ~conomics & statistics, Trivand-4, Pp.93-95.

Table IV

Sex Ratio (Number of Females Per Thousand Hales)

Year : Kerala India : :.....*..........:..............:....

1991 : 1040 ............................. 929 .................: Source. (1) Government of Kerala - , Dept. of

~conomics and Stat i s t i c s , Tr- p.1

( 2 ) Year Book - 993 ' Malayah Hanorama Company, Kottayam, 1993.

( 3 ) Dr. S Radha, n ~e Institute of Ma 1994, Pp.7-8.

Table V

Expectation of Life at Birth (India)

: Decade : Wale Female :

Source:- (1) Government of Kerala, -a 1199, Department of Economics and Statistics, Trivandrum, 1989, p.13

( 2 ) Government of India, Towards E , Department of Social Welfare, R e p o r m t t e e on the Status of Women in India, N e w Delhi, 1975, p.16.

Table VI

Expectation of Life at Birth Kerala (Rural)

............................................... Period : Male Female :

.......I......... .............I .............. 1951-60 46.10 50.00 :

1971-73 60.60 62-10 :

1975-77 6 2 . 5 0 6 5 - 2 0 :

1976-78 63.60 66.20 :

1977-79 63.80 6 6 - 9 0 :

1978-80 64.20 67.90 :

1979-81 64.70 69.00 :

1980-82 66.30 70 .70 :

1981-83 6 6 - 0 0 71.80 :

1982-84 6 5 . 5 0 73.40 :

1903-85 6 5 - 7 0 7 2 . 5 0 :

1984-86 3 6 6 . 9 0 7 2 - 8 0 :

1985-87 67.10 73.10 :

1986-88 67.80 7 3 . 5 0 :

1987-89 6 7 . 6 0 7 3 . 9 0 :

1988-90 6 7 . 3 0 74 .70 :

1989-91 6 8 - 4 0 74.80 :

...............................*.....*........ : Source: (1) Government of Kerala, m e n inKerala, Department

of Economics & statics, Trivandrum, 1984, p.27. ( 2 ) Govern~ent of Kera$a, Department of Econolzllcs & Statlc~,'~::?~ r F i 9 8 9 , p . 1 7 . ( 3 ) Government of Kerala, Yomen , Department of ~conomics & Stat ics , T r i v a n d r u m m p . l 9 *

Table VII

Mean Age at Marriage of Hales & Females 1901 to 1981

..t*.......**..........~....*.~...."*,**..............*....

India Kerala

Year : Men : ohe en : Hen Women : . I . . . . . . . *...........*.,..***.......*...,,...**..,.......,..

1901 : 2 0 . 2 : 13.2 : 23.3 : 17.1

1911 : 20 .5 : 13.6 : 2 3 . 8 : 17.3

1921 : 18.4 : 12.6 : 2 3 . 3 : 17.8

1931 : 2 0 . 2 : 15.0 : 2 5 . 6 : 19.6

1941 : 19.8 : 1 5 . 4 : 2 5 . 6 : 19.3

1951 : 21.4 : 16.1 : 26.3 : 19.8

1961 : 21.3 : 16.7 : 23.8 : 2 0 . 0

1971 : 2 2 . 7 : 17.2 : 2 6 . 3 : 2 0 . 8

1981 : 2 3 . 4 : 18.6 : 2 7 . 2 : 21.8

Source:- (1) S . Radha, a m K-, Institute of Management in Government, Trivandrum, 1994, p.56

Table VIII

Birth Rate - Kerala 6 India

............................................... Year : Kerala India :

Source : Government of Kerala, f , Department of Economics, Trivandrum, 1990, p.6.

Table IX

Life Standard Index of Hale 6 Female

: State : Hale Female : * ...............................................

: Kerala : 93 .7 89.8

: Punjab : 6 7 . 7 56 .6

: Maharashtra : 64.0 5 5 . 9

: Haryana : 63.9 46.7 - : Tamil Nadu : 40.4 45.1

source : Mathrubhumi, ~ochin, 1988.

Table X

Representation o f Women i n Kerala State A s s d l y

.................................................................. Year : V m n elected : Tota l Seats : Percentage

: o f woeren : representation :

Source: (1 ) 1, sjnceepartslent o f Public Relations, Trivandrum, 1989.

(2 ) Indian b r e s s Daily, 6 March 1994.

( 3 ) Various Reports o f General Elect ions to AsseRlbly

Table X I

Women of Kerala in Lok Sabha

..*...................,.*.....C1..,........*..

: Year : Total : No. of women : Percentage : : seats : elected : of women . : elected

..........*.......................I.*..,....*....,

: 1957 : 18 N i l 0

: 1962 : 18 Nil 0

: 1967 : 19 1 5 . 2 6

: 1971 : 19 1 5 . 2 6

: 1977 : 20 0 0

: 1980 : 20 1 5

: 1985 : 20 0 0

: 1989 : 20 1 5

: 1992 : 2 0 2 10

Source:- Vina Hajumdar ( d ) Svnbols of Power, Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd., Bombay, 1979, p.235

Table XI1

Progress of so= of tbe lJolea & Child Welfare Scbew

:............,..:...........,.,..:................*:.........*......: : A : B : I I B : A : B h B :

........................ :.... ..:,,..... :...**,*:........:*.***...:........:***.....:.......: . . . . : 1 : : 1 0 : 204: 1 0 : 234: 1 0 : - : 10 : 190 : . . . . - . . . : 2 : After Care : :Ilo=forWoren: 1 : 12: I : 1 5 : 2 : 58: 2 : 6 U : . * . . . . . . 1 . . . : 3 : Day Carecenters : 10 : 1OOO : M : 1500 : 30 : 900 : -- : - : . . . rn . * . . * .

: 4 :Creches Under Social : :UelfareDept. r u b y 1 8 8 : 7520: 275 : 11W : 250 : lm: 125 : 6000: : : Vol. Oqmhtions: . . . . . . . . : 5 : I C D S : 13 : 9UW)O : 23 : 19UWX) : 61 : 16- : - : 610933: . * ........................ : . I ..... :. ...... :.......:........:..* ..... :...** ... :......**: ....... :

A = llurber of Institutions

B = %ruber of Beneficiaries

Swxce: Governrent of India Eim ~ i v e Y a r Plau 19W - M, aeport of tbe Task Force on Uom Developlent, State Planning M, TrivandrrP, 1389, p.28

Table XIII

: Year

............................................................. Scheme for promotion o f : Scheme for P a p n t o f F inancia l : Employment o p p e r t u n i t i e s : A s s i s t a n c e t o ~ n f o r s e l f : for women. : Employment.

.............................................................. : Amount :No: o f Orga-: b u n t : No: o f : Disbursed : -n isa t ion : Disbursed : Beneficieries : : (Fls.) : (No:) : (Rs.) (No:) .............................................................. : 300000 : 15 - -

: 500000 : 25 - -

N A NA 500000 2500

Source: Government o f India r Plan 1990 - 1995, Report o f the Task Force on

Women Development, State Planning Board, Trivandruw, 1989, p.29.

Table X I V

Kerala State Yomen's Industries Prograwe. Progress o f u n i t s established

................*...-..-. :1977-78:1978-79:1980-81:

............................................ : 1 :Trivandrua : g : 16 : 140 :

: 2 : Qui lon : 10 : 14 : 41 :

: 3 : Alleppey : 5 : 6 : 3 3 :

: 4 : Kottayam : 3 : 3 : 3 0 :

: 5 : Idukki : 5 : 1 0 :

: 6 : Pnthanamthita: - . - - . : 7 : E m a k u l a m : 4 : 14 : 60 :

: 8 : Trichur : 19 : 28 : 42 :

: 9 : Palghat : 8 1 0 1 9 :

: 10: Halappuram : 5 : 10 : I2 :

: 11: Calicut : 5 : 7 : 2 7 :

: 12:Cannannoor : 5 : 7 : 37 :

: 13: Uyanadu - : - : 14: Kasargod - - :...:"...*"......:.*.....:......*:......*:*

Tota 1 : 73 : 120 : 351 : :.........."""":"'-..*.*.:...~..:......*:.

Source : Governwnt o f India lggO - 1995, Report of the Task Force on

m i a t e P 1 ann l ng Board, T r i vandrum, 1989, p .30

Table XV

IRDP Assistance t o w m n i n Kerala

........................................................................ : Total : Women : Subsidy : Tota l : Families : Families : Granted t o : Subsidies

: Year :Assisted : A s s i s t e d :Women : Granted : Nos. : Nos. : Rs, i n lakhs : Rs. i n lakhs :

Source: Governmnt o f India, U t h Five Year Plan lqeO - 1995, Report of the Task Force on Women Development, State PlannSng Board, T r i vandrum, 1989, p .34

Table XVI

Comparative Study of Work Participation Rate in Kerala & India

................................................... Kerala India

: Year ......................................... H F : n : F

Source:-Government of Kerala, Women in m, Trivandrum, 1984, p.88.

Table X V I I

Crime against W m n during 1991,1992 and 1993.

................................................................. Year

: Crisle : 1991 : 1992 : 1993 :

: Rape : 203 : 212 : 168 :

:...'......*.............*.**...*.:*.-*.*..*:......*..:*..*.*...: : Kidnapping &

Abducat ion 75 : 72 : 145 : : . . . . . . . . . . . . .*.. . . . .*.***..*..*..: .*.. . .*-*:.~*.*..**:.*..*... . : : Dowry Deaths 13 : 18 : 10 :

:...................*....**...*..*:*..*.....:**.*..*..:...*..-..: : Molestation

................................................................. : Torture

( Cruelty by Husband) : 242 : 290 : 381 : :............."..~.**......*.*.**:.*.*..*..:...*.*.*.:.........: : Eve Teasing 5 : I 19 :

:..................*......*......*:.......*.:..***..*.:.*...*...:

source:- (1) Government of ~ndia, 1993, National C r i m e Records Bureau, Home ~f fa irs , N e w Delhi, 1994, Pp.258-263.

( 2 ) Government of India, & Sucues w, National Crime Re mlhi, 1993, 62-68.

( 3 Government of Kerala, -on port of tare for t h e Y W 1990, Government of , 1994, p.157.