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THE CONSERVANCY TURNS 25 • PREHISTORIC MUSIC • A PASSPORT TO THE PAST

a quarterly publication of The Archaeological Conservancy Vol. 8 No. 4

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A Tale ofConflictIn Texas

A Tale ofConflictIn Texas

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archaeological toursled by noted scholars

superb itineraries, unsurpassed service

For the past 30 years, Archaeological Tours has been arranging specialized tours for a discriminating clientele.Our tours feature distinguished scholars who stress the historical, anthropological and archaeological aspects of the areas visited. We offer a unique opportunity for tour participants to see and understand historically important and culturally significant areas of the world.

Professor John Henderson in Tikal

MAYA SUPERPOWERSThis tour examines the ferocious political strugglesbetween the Maya superpowers in the Late Classicalperiod. At the heart of these struggles was a bitterantagonism between Tikal in Guatemala and Calakmulin Mexico. New roads will allow us to visit these ancientcities, as well as Lamanai, the large archaeologicalproject at Caracol in Belize, Copan and Edzna andKohunlich in Mexico. The tour also provides opportunitiesto experience the still-pristine tropical forest in the MayaBiosphere Reserves. Our adventure ends in Campeche, aUNESCO World Heritage Site.MARCH 5 – 21, 2005 17 DAYSLed by Prof. Jeffrey Blomster, George Washington U.

NOVEMBER 11 – 27, 2005 Led by Prof. John Henderson, Cornell University

GREAT MUSEUMS: Byzantine to BaroqueAs we travel from Assisi to Venice, this spectacular tourwill offer a unique opportunity to trace the developmentof art and history out of antiquity toward modernity inboth the Eastern and Western Christian worlds.The tourbegins with four days in Assisi, including a day trip tomedieval Cortona. It then continues to Arezzo, Paduaand Ravenna, where we will see churches adorned withsome of the richest mosaics in Europe. Our tour endswith three glorious days in Venice. Throughout we willexperience the sources of visual inspiration for athousand years of art while sampling the food and drinkthat have enhanced the Italian world since it was thecenter of the Roman Republic and Empire.MARCH 2 – 13, 2005 12 DAYSLed by Prof. Ori Z. Soltes, Georgetown University

ANCIENT EGYPTSpecially Designed for Grandparents and Their

Grandchildren

While traveling to the major sites with our scholar,grandparents will be sharing the irreplaceableexperience of discovery with their grandchildren.Highlights of the tour include a five-day Nile cruise, theGreat Pyramids and Sphinx, the Egyptian Museum,Cairo’s Islamic monuments and bazaars, camel ridesand many other exciting events. Our fun-filled days willalso include special events shared with English-speaking Egyptian children and their grandparents.MARCH 9 – 20, 2005 12 DAYSLed by Prof. Lanny Bell, Brown University

MALTA, SARDINIA & CORSICAThis unusual tour will explore the ancient civilizationsof these three islands.Tour highlights include immensemegalithic temples on Malta, Sardinia’s uniquenuraghes, and the mysterious cult sites on Corsica, aswell as the ancient remains of the Phoenicians,Romans, Greeks and Crusader knights. The islands’wild and beautiful settings and their wonderful cuisineswill enhance our touring of these archaeological sites.MAY 4 – 21, 2005 18 DAYSLed by Dr. Mattanyah Zohar, Hebrew University

SILK ROAD OF CHINAThis exotic tour traces the fabled Silk Road from Xian toKashgar and includes remote Kuqa, famed for the KizilThousand Buddha Caves, Ürümqi, and the fascinatingSunday bazaar at Kashgar. We will explore the caravanoasis of Turfan, Dunhuang’s spectacular grottoes ofsculpture and murals, the Ta’er Tibetan monastery,Buddhist caves at Binglingsi, the extraordinaryarchaeological sites around Xian and Lanzhou’sexcellent museum, ending in Beijing.MAY 4 – 25, 2005 22 DAYSLed by Prof. James Millward, Georgetown University

CHINA’S SACRED LANDSCAPESwith an Optional Yangtze River Cruise

This very special new tour brings us into the China ofpast ages, its walled cities, vibrant temples andmountain scenery. Visiting three regions, each distinct incharacter and landscape, touring includes the ancienttemples of Wutaishan and Datong, the Buddhist grottoesat Yungang and Tianlongshan, as well as Mount Tai inShandong, which offers China’s most sacred peaks andthe enduring shrines to Confucius. Lastly, Hangzhou, longa premier spot of beauty, offers us rolling hills, waterwaysand peaceful temples and pagodas. The tour ends withShanghai’s exceptional new museum.MAY 15 – JUNE 4, 2005 21 DAYSLed by Prof. Robert Thorp, Washington University

TUNISIABased in Tunis for four days, we will spend a day atPhoenician Carthage, and visit Roman Dougga, ThuburboMajus and the unique underground Numidian capital atBulla Regia. We will tour one of the largest Roman sites inTunisia at Sbeitla, the Islamic monuments in Kairouan andTunisia’s major Byzantine sites. We will spend two daysexploring oases in the Sahara Desert plus Berbertroglodyte villages and exotic bazaars.MAY 20 – JUNE 5, 2005 17 DAYSLed by Prof. Pedar Foss, DePauw University

EASTERN TURKEYRemote and unspoiled Eastern Turkey is one of the mostinteresting areas of the country. Our tour features Antakya(Antioch), Harran, Nemrut Dag, the Armenian andUrartian sites around Lake Van, the Armenian churches ofAni, the Black Sea coast and the Hittite sites of Altintepe,Karatepe, Alaca Höyük and Hattusa — ending in Ankara.MAY 29 – JUNE 17, 2005 20 DAYSLed by Dr. Mattanyah Zohar, Hebrew University

ETRUSCAN ITALYExamining the art and culture of the Etruscan people, wewill visit the great Etruscan collections in Rome, Florenceand Bologna and explore the medieval hill towns ofPerugia, Cortona and Orvieto. Our touring will encompassEtruscan necropolises and cities, including Volterra,Marzabotto, Chiusi, Sovana, Cerveteri and Tarquinia.Throughout our tour we will dine on regional specialtiesand enjoy the tranquil settings of these fascinating sites.JUNE 11 – 25, 2005 15 DAYSLed by Prof. Larissa Bonfante, New York University

CYPRUS, CRETE & SANTORINIThis popular tour examines the maritime civilizationslinking pre- and ancient Greek and Roman cultures withthe East. After a seven-day tour of Cyprus and a five-day exploration of Minoan Crete, we sail to Santorini tovisit Thera and the excavations at Akrotiri.The tour endsin Athens, from which we visit the fascinating ancientcities Mycenae and Tiryns.MAY 22 – JUNE 9, 2005 19 DAYSLed by Prof. Robert Stieglitz, Rutgers University

SICILY & SOUTHERN ITALYTouring includes the Byzantine and Norman monumentsof Palermo, the Roman Villa in Casale, unique for its 37rooms floored with exquisite mosaics, Phoenician Motyaand classical Segesta, Selinunte, Agrigento andSiracusa — plus, on the mainland, Paestum, Pompeii,Herculaneum and the incredible "Bronzes of Riace."MAY 28 – JUNE 13, 2005 17 DAYSLed by Dr. Robert Bianchi, Archaeologist

IRELANDOur new tour explores Ireland’s fascinating prehistoricand early Christian sites. Our touring will span thousandsof years as we study Neolithic and Bronze Agemonuments and artifacts, Celtic defensive systems andstone forts. Some of the tour highlights include prehistoricNewgrange and Knowth, the dramatic dry-stone fort, DunAenghus, on the Aran Island of Inishmore, the Ring ofKerry, fascinating Ogham Stones, the enigmatic carvedfigures on White Island and the museums in Dublin andBelfast. Traditional music and dance performances andspecial lectures by local archaeologists and historians willenhance this exciting tour.JUNE 30 – JULY 16, 2004 17 DAYSLed by Dr. Mattanyah Zohar, Hebrew University

PERUOur in-depth tour studies the vast Inca Empire that oncereached from Chile to Colombia. Touring begins withLima’s museums and includes visits to the Moche tombsof Sipan, Trujillo, the adobe city of Chan Chan and othercoastal sites, plus a flight over the Nazca Lines. Additionalhighlights include Caral, a newly excavated city believedto be 5,000 years old, a four-day visit to Cuzco and thesacred Urubamba Valley and two days at Machu Picchu.AUGUST 5 – 21, 2005 17 DAYSLed by Prof. Daniel H. Sandweiss, University of Maine

ADDITIONAL TOURSLibya, Egypt, Japan, Ethiopia, Maritime Turkey, Jordan,Mali, Prehistoric Caves of Spain & France...and more.

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american archaeology

american archaeology 1

a quarterly publication of The Archaeological Conservancy Vol. 8 No. 4

COVER FEATURE20 LIFE UNDER SIEGE

BY ELAINE ROBBINSThe difficult tale of near constant conflict

is being told by the investigation of an 18th-century Spanish presidio in Texas.

12 MAKING PREHISTORIC MUSICBY JOANNE SHEEHY HOOVERResearch indicates that the Anasazi played an amazing variety of instruments, and that music played an important role in their culture.

27 CELEBRATING 25 YEARS OF PRESERVATIONBY KATHLEEN BRYANTThe Archaeological Conservancy has saved numerous sites since its modest beginnings.

33 RESISTING REMOVALBY CLIFF TERRY The federal government removed many Native Americans from their lands in the early 19th century. But some NativeAmericans resisted removal. Archaeologist Mark Schurr is discovering how they did it.

39 A PASSPORT TO THE PASTBY SUSAN G. HAUSERThroughout the country, volunteers are taking part in archaeological investigations as a result of the Forest Service’s Passport in Time program.

44 new acquisitionA SITE WITH UNUSUAL POTTERYBy preserving the Cary site, the Conservancy will allowresearchers the opportunity to examine its curious ceramics.

45 new acquisitionGALISTEO BASIN SITES DONATED TO THE CONSERVANCYNorthern New Mexico sites may have been part of an extensiveprehistoric network.

46 new acquisitionCHANGING NOTIONS OF MOUND BUILDINGThe Hedgepeth Mounds have contributed to a betterunderstanding of this ancient tradition.

47 new acquisitionWHAT BECAME OF THE MONONGAHELA?The Squirrel Hill site in western Pennsylvania could answerquestions regarding the fate of this culture.

48 point acquisitionMAJOR 16TH-CENTURY IROQUOIS VILLAGE PRESERVEDThe Conservancy acquires the Eaton site in western New York.

winter 2004-05

COVER: Though conflict was routine at Presidio San Sabá, the huge crack in the fort's northwest bastion is due to shoddy reconstruction work.Photograph by Timothy Murray

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2 Lay of the Land

3 Letters

5 Events

7 In the NewsBooks Banned at NPS Stores • DNAFrom 65,000-Year-Old HairSequenced • Remarkable Mesa VerdeWater Management

50 Field Notes

52 Reviews

54 Expeditions

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MARK MICHEL, President

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Lay of the Land

ment and Jay’s was in business. Weknew we would be unsuccessful if wesought a solution based on govern-ment control of private property.What we needed was an American so-lution that worked within the contextof our experience. The answer wasobvious. If we acquired title to the pri-vately owned sites, we could protectthem. Everyone understands that.

After 25 years, we have nowcompleted almost 300 acquisitionprojects—purchases, bargain sales,bequests, and donations. More sitesare being protected by the many landtrusts around the country, but we re-main the only one that seeks andprotects archaeological sites. One by

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EIt seems like only yesterday that in-ventor/businessman Jay Last and I,with the support of many others,

got together to form The Archaeolog-ical Conservancy. We were growingmore alarmed by the day at the rapiddestruction of significant archaeolog-ical sites all around the country. Themore we investigated, the morealarmed we became. In the Missis-sippi Valley the main problem was bigagriculture with its big machines. Onthe East and West coasts it was urbansprawl that was paving over our her-itage. Everywhere it seemed therewere looters willing to destroy thepast for quick profit.

My background was in govern-

A Practical Solution to a Vexing Problem

one we are protecting this rich her-itage. In the years to come we expectto pick up the pace and protect evenmore. Thanks to the help of our loyalsupporters, the past 25 years havebeen challenging and rewarding. I ex-pect the next 25 to be even more so.

Archaeology learning adventures for all ages!Excavation andTravel programs in the Southwest and the world beyond.Cliff Dwellings & Rock Art:Hiking in Colorado’s Ute BackcountryAn in-depth exploration in Ute Mountain Ute Tribal Park,in the shadow of Mesa Verde.April 24–30, 2005

Chaco Canyon & the Keresan WorldExplore one of the most influential sites in Southwestern history.May 15–21, 2005

Adult Research ProgramWeek-long summer dig programs

Mesa Verde Black-on-White Pottery WorkshopCreate your own replica vessel using tools and techniques of the ancients.June 19–25, 2005

For information and reservations or for a Free 2005 program catalog 1-800-422-8975/www.crowcanyon.org

AmA CCAC’s programs and admission practices are open to applicants of any race, color, nationality, or ethnic origin. CST 2059347-50

Near Mesa Verde in Southwestern CO

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Editor’s CornerIn the late 1700s, the southern end ofLake Michigan was populated by a num-ber of Native American communities. Dur-ing the early to mid-1800s the Potawatomitribe was subjected to the federal govern-ment’s “civilization” policy, which was de-signed to assimilate Native Americans intoEuro-American society.

By the 1820s the governmentdeemed its policy a failure in the East, andit opted to, by one means or another, re-locate the Potawatomi west of the Missis-sippi. This decision was promulgated bythe Chicago Treaty of 1833. By 1837, themajority of the Potawatomi were removedfrom the southern Lake Michigan area ei-ther voluntarily or forcibly.

It’s commonly thought that contactwith Euro-Americans, which resulted inassimilation or removal, led to the declineof Native culture. But recent evidence in-dicates some of these Native Americansmaintained their culture while selectivelyadopting Euro-American customs. One ofour feature articles, “Resisting Removal,”tells how adopting these customs proved,in at least a few cases, to be an effectiveway to thwart the government’s efforts torelocate them.

Historian Ben Secunda calls this prac-tice “adaptive resistance.” He believes thatthe Pokagan band, a Potawatomi groupthat resisted removal, resorted to adap-tive resistance in order to convince thegovernment that they, the Pokagan, wereindeed “civilized” and therefore should beallowed to remain on their land.

Through his investigations, archaeol-ogist Mark Schurr is revealing the variousstrategies, ranging from living in cabins topracticing Catholicism, that defined adap-tive resistance.

Letters


Sending Letters to American ArchaeologyAmerican Archaeology welcomesyour letters. Write to us at

5301 Central Avenue NE, Suite 902, Albuquerque, NM 87108-1517, orsend us e-mail at [email protected]. We reserve the right to edit and publish letters

in the magazine’s Letters department as space permits. Please include your name, address andtelephone number wit all correspondence, including e-mail messages.

STATEMENT OF OWNERSHIP, MANAGEMENT, AND CIRCULATION Publication Title: American Archaeology. 2. PublicationNo.: 1093-8400. 3. Date of Filing: September 30, 2004. 4. Issue Frequency: Quarterly. 5. No. of Issues Published Annually: 4. 6. AnnualSubscription Price: $25.00. 7. Complete Mailing Address of Known Office of Publication: The Archaeological Conservancy, 5301 Central AvenueNE, Suite 902, Albuquerque, NM 87108-1517. 8. Complete Mailing Address of Headquarters or General Business Office of Publisher: same asNo. 7. 9. Names and Mailing Addresses of Publisher, Editor, and Managing Editor: Publisher—Mark Michel, address same as No. 7. Editor—Michael Bawaya, address same as No. 7. Managing Editor—N/A. 10. Owner: The Archaeological Conservancy, address same as No. 7. 11.Known Bondholders, Mortgagees, and Other Security Holders Owning or Holding 1 Percent or More of Total Amount of Bonds, Mortgages, orOther Securities: None. 12. Tax Status: Has Not Changed During Preceding 12 Months. 13. Publication Title: American Archaeology. 14. IssueDate for Circulation Data Below: Spring 2004. 15. Extent and Nature of Circulation: Average Number of Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12Months: (A) Total No. Copies (net press run): 32,475; (B) Paid and/or Requested Circulation: (1) Paid/Requested Outside-County MailSubscriptions Stated on Form 3541 (Include advertiser’s proof copies and exchange copies): 19,944; (2) Paid In-County Subscriptions (Includeadvertiser’s proof copies and exchange copies): 0; (3) Sales Through Dealers and Carriers, Street Vendors, Counter Sales, and Other Non-USPSPaid Distribution: 4,804; (4) Other Classes Mailed Through the USPS: 900. (C) Total Paid and/or Requested Circulation (Sum of 15B (1), (2), (3),and (4)): 25,648; (D) Free Distribution by Mail (Samples, complimentary, and other free): (1) Outside-County as Stated on Form 3541: 0; (2) In-County as Stated on Form 3541: 0; (3) Other Classes Mailed Through the USPS: 70; (E) Free Distribution Outside the Mail (Carriers or othermeans): 685; (F) Total Free Distribution (Sum of 15D and 15E): 755; (G) Total Distribution (Sum of 15C and 15F): 26,403; (H) Copies notDistributed: 6,073; (I) Total (Sum of 15G and 15H): 32,475. Percent Paid and/or Requested Circulation (15C/15G x 100): 97.14%. 15. Extentand Nature of Circulation: Number Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: (A) Total No. Copies (net press run): 32,600; (B) Paidand/or Requested Circulation: (1) Paid/Requested Outside-County Mail Subscriptions Stated on Form 3541 (Include advertiser’s proof copiesand exchange copies): 19,216; (2) Paid In-County Subscriptions (Include advertiser’s proof copies and exchange copies): 0; (3) Sales ThroughDealers and Carriers, Street Vendors, Counter Sales, and Other Non-USPS Paid Distribution: 4,127; (4) Other Classes Mailed Through the USPS:1,470. (C) Total Paid and/or Requested Circulation (Sum of 15B (1), (2), (3), and (4)):24,813; (D) Free Distribution by Mail (Samples, compli-mentary, and other free): (1) Outside-County as Stated on Form 3541: 0; (2) In-County as Stated on Form 3541: 0; (3) Other Classes MailedThrough the USPS: 45; (E) Free Distribution Outside the Mail (Carriers or other means): 1,200; (F) Total Free Distribution (Sum of 15D and 15E):1,245; (G) Total Distribution (Sum of 15C and 15F): 26,058; (H) Copies not Distributed: 6,542; (I) Total (Sum of 15G and 15H): 32,600. PercentPaid and/or Requested Circulation (15C/15G x 100): 95.22%. 16. This Statement of Ownership will be printed in the Winter 2004 issue of thispublication. 17. I certify that all information furnished on this form is true and complete. Michael Bawaya, Editor.

Why Not a Bureau of Antiquities?Pursuant to the article“Budget ShortfallsThreaten Archaeology”in the Fall issue, theproblem was looming onthe horizon about the same timefederal and some state deficits weremade public a few years ago. Underthese circumstances it always seemsthat historical and archaeologicalpreservation must go on the wane.

This opens a window of oppor-tunity for vandals and looters, andscariest of all, the ventures of bigbusiness with schemes to bulldozeand develop large tracts of land forprofit.

The upshot of this becomes ev-ident in colleges where archaeologyis on the curriculum. It’s dismaying

that professors nowneed political skillsin order to obtainfunding/grants forsurveys, excava-

tions, salvage, lab work, cre-ation of computer-generated slidepresentations, etc. Then come theusual responsibilities—press con-ferences, scholarly meetings/dis-courses, and of course, teaching inthe classroom plus in the field.

Our government has a Bureauof Indian Affairs (a division of theDepartment of the Interior), butno Bureau of Antiquities. Some na-tions do. A debate on the pros andcons of this idea would be worth-while to any of us preservationists.

Daniel F. Drzewiecki

Toledo, Ohio

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American Archaeology (ISSN 1093-8400) is published quarterly by The Archaeological Conservancy, 5301 Central Avenue NE,Suite 902, Albuquerque, NM 87108-1517. Title registered U.S. Pat. and TM Office, © 2004 by TAC. Printed in the UnitedStates. Periodicals postage paid Albuquerque, NM, and additional mailing offices. Single copies are $3.95. A one-year mem-bership to the Conservancy is $25 and includes receipt of American Archaeology. Of the member’s dues, $6 is designated fora one-year magazine subscription. READERS: For new memberships, renewals, or change of address, write to The Archaeo-logical Conservancy, 5301 Central Avenue NE, Suite 902, Albuquerque, NM 87108-1517, or call (505) 266-1540. For changesof address, include old and new addresses. Articles are published for educational purposes and do not necessarily reflect theviews of the Conservancy, its editorial board, or American Archaeology. Article proposals and artwork should be addressed tothe editor. No responsibility assumed for unsolicited material. All articles receive expert review. POSTMASTER: Send addresschanges to American Archaeology, The Archaeological Conservancy, 5301 Central Avenue NE, Suite 902, Albuquerque, NM87108-1517; (505) 266-1540. All rights reserved.

American Archaeology does not accept advertising from dealers in archaeological artifacts or antiquities.

5301 Central Avenue NE, Suite 902Albuquerque, NM 87108-1517 • (505) 266-1540www.americanarchaeology.org

Board o f D i rectorsVincas Steponaitis, North Carolina, CHAIRMAN

Cecil F. Antone, Arizona • Carol Condie, New Mexico

Janet Creighton, Washington • Janet EtsHokin, Illinois

Jerry EtsHokin, Illinois • W. James Judge, Colorado

Jay T. Last, California • Dorinda Oliver, New York

Rosamond Stanton, Montana • Dee Ann Story, Texas

Stewart L. Udall, New Mexico • Gordon Wilson, New Mexico

Regiona l Of f ices and D i rectorsJim Walker, Vice President, Southwest Region (505) 266-1540

5301 Central Avenue NE, Suite 902 • Albuquerque, New Mexico 87108Tamara Stewart, Projects Coordinator • Steve Koczan, Site-Management Coordinator

Amy Espinoza-Ar, Field Representative

Paul Gardner, Vice President, Midwest Region (614) 267-11003620 N. High St. #207 • Columbus, Ohio 43214

Joe Navari, Field Representative

Alan Gruber, Vice President, Southeast Region (770) 975-43445997 Cedar Crest Road • Acworth, Georgia 30101

Jessica Crawford, Delta Field Representative

Gene Hurych, Western Region (916) 399-11931 Shoal Court #67 • Sacramento, California 95831

Andy Stout, Eastern Region, (301) 682-6359 717 N. Market St. • Frederick, MD 21701

Conser vancy Sta f fMark Michel, President • Tione Joseph, Business Manager

Lorna Thickett, Membership Director • Sarah Tiberi, Special Projects Director

Shelley Smith, Membership Assistant • Valerie Long, Administrative Assistant

Yvonne Woolfolk, Administrative Assistant

american archaeology ®

PUBLISHER: Mark MichelEDITOR: Michael Bawaya (505) 266-9668, [email protected]

ASSISTANT EDITOR: Tamara StewartART DIRECTOR: Vicki Marie Singer, [email protected]

Editorial Advisor y BoardScott Anfinson, Minnesota Historic Preservation

Ernie Boszhardt, Mississippi Valley Archaeological Center • Darrell Creel, University of Texas

Jonathan Damp, Zuni Cultural Resources • Richard Daugherty, Washington State University

Linda Derry, Alabama Historical Commission • Mark Esarey, Cahokia Mounds State Park

Kristen Gremillion, Ohio State University • Richard Jenkins, California Dept. of Forestry

Trinkle Jones, National Park Service • Linda Mayro, Pima County, Arizona

Jeff Mitchem, Arkansas Archaeological Survey • Douglas Perrelli, SUNY-Buffalo

Janet Rafferty, Mississippi State University • Judyth Reed, Bureau of Land Management

Ann Rogers, Oregon State University • Joe Saunders, University of Louisiana-Monroe

Donna Seifert, John Milner Associates • Art Spiess, Maine Historic Preservation

Richard Woodbury, University of Massachusetts • Don Wyckoff, University of Oklahoma

National Advertising OfficeMarcia Ulibarri, Advertising Representative

5301 Central Ave. NE, Suite 902, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87108;(505) 344-6018; Fax (505) 345-3430; [email protected]

he Archaeological Conservancy is the only national non-profit organization that identifies, ac-quires, and preserves the most

significant archaeological sites in theUnited States. Since its beginning in1980, the Conservancy has preservedmore than 295 sites across the nation,ranging in age from the earliest habita-tion sites in North America to a 19th-century frontier army post. We arebuilding a national system of archaeo-logical preserves to ensure the survivalof our irreplaceable cultural heritage.

Why Save Archaeological Sites? Theancient people of North America left vir-tually no written records of their cul-tures. Clues that might someday solvethe mysteries of prehistoric America arestill missing, and when a ruin is de-stroyed by looters, or leveled for a shop-ping center, precious information is lost.By permanently preserving endangeredruins, we make sure they will be here forfuture generations to study and enjoy.

How We Raise Funds: Funds for the Conservancy come from membershipdues, individual contributions, corpora-tions, and foundations. Gifts and be-quests of money, land, and securities arefully tax deductible under section 501(c)(3)of the Internal Revenue Code. Plannedgiving provides donors with substantialtax deductions and a variety of benefici-ary possibilities. For more information,call Mark Michel at (505) 266-1540.

The Role of the Magazine: AmericanArchaeology is the only popular maga-zine devoted to presenting the rich di-versity of archaeology in the Americas.The purpose of the magazine is to helpreaders appreciate and understand thearchaeological wonders available tothem, and to raise their awareness of thedestruction of our cultural heritage. Bysharing new discoveries, research, andactivities in an enjoyable and informa-tive way, we hope we can make learningabout ancient America as exciting as it is essential.

How to Say Hello: By mail:The Archaeological Conservancy, 5301 Central Avenue NE, Suite 902, Albuquerque, NM 87108-1517; by phone: (505) 266-1540; by e-mail: [email protected]; or visit our Web site: www.americanarchaeology.org

WELCOME TO THE ARCHAEOLOGIC AL

CONSERVANC Y!

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Events


Museum exhibits • Tours • Festivals

Meetings • Education • Conferences

� NEW EXHIBITSMuseum of Indian Arts & CultureSanta Fe, N.M.—The traveling exhibition“Roads to the Past: Fifty Years of High-way Archaeology in New Mexico” cele-brates the history of highway archaeol-ogy. New Mexico initiated the nation’sfirst highway archaeology program in1954 when the Museum of New Mexico,the New Mexico Department of Trans-portation, and the Federal Highway Ad-ministration began a historic collabora-tion to document, study, and protectarchaeological sites within highwayright-of-ways across the state. The pro-gram became the model for similar pub-licly funded programs in other states,and the collaboration resulted in thedocumentation of over 10,000 years ofNew Mexico prehistory and history.(505) 476-1250, www.roadstothepast.org(Through January 2, 2005, then travelingto New Mexico State University in LasCruces January 15–March 15)

Canadian Museum of CivilizationGatineau, Quebec, Canada—“The Black-foot Way of Life: Nitsitapiisinni” tells thestory of the Blackfoot People from theirown perspective. Created by the Glen-bow Museum in Calgary, the exhibition

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explores fundamental belief systems,traditional stories, sacred places,dances, and ceremonies throughvideos, soundtracks, and more than140 objects. The exhibit also examinesrelationships with governments andthe importance of ensuring the survivalof the Blackfoot legacy. 1-800-555-5621,www.civilization.ca (Through February13, 2005)

Guggenheim MuseumNew York, N.Y.—The spectacular newexhibition “The Aztec Empire” exam-ines the extraordinary civilization ofthe Aztecs through more than 440works drawn from public and privatecollections, including archaeologicalfinds of the last decade never beforeseen outside of Mexico. Organized bythe Guggenheim in collaboration withthe Consejo Nacional Para la Cultura yLas Artes and the Instituto Nacional deAntropología e Historia of Mexico, theexhibit is the most comprehensive sur-vey of the art and culture of the Aztecsever assembled, and the first major ex-hibition devoted to the subject in theU.S. in more than 20 years. (212) 423-3500, www.guggenheim.org (ThroughFebruary 13, 2005)

American Museum of Natural HistoryNew York, N.Y.—“Totems toTurquoise: Native NorthAmerican Jewelry Arts of theNorthwest and Southwest” is alandmark new exhibition ofmore than 500 examples ofstunning historic andcontemporary Native Americanjewelry and artifacts. The exhibitcelebrates the beauty, power,and symbolism of Native jewelryarts and includes more than100 objects from the museum’sextensive collection of NativeAmerican artifacts such astotem sculptures, masks, andphotographs and videos ofNorthwest and Southwestrituals that are stronglyconnected to cosmologicalbeliefs. (212) 769-5100,www.amnh.org (Through July2005)

Mexican Fine Arts Center MuseumChicago, Ill.—The extraordinary exhibition “Treasures of Ancient Veracruz: Magia de la risa y el juego” features 60 archaeological artifacts from Veracruz, the cradle of Mesoamericancivilization. Among the collection is a four-ton,3,000-year-old colossal stone Olmec head. All of the exhibit’s ancient figures demonstrate the fundamental human need to play. (312) 738-1503, www.mfacmchicago.org (Through February 6, 2005)

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Events

6 winter • 2004-05

Orlando Museum of ArtOrlando, Fla.—Due to popular de-mand, the museum is extending “An-cestors of the Incas: The Majesty ofAncient Peru, Selections and Giftsfrom the Dr. and Mrs. Solomon D.Klotz Collection.” Never before ex-hibited, the collection includesmore than 210 objects made by an-cient cultures of the Central Andesregion, including the Chavín, Nazca,Moche, Chimú, Huari, and Inca, be-tween 1400 B.C. and A.D. 1530. High-lights from the exhibit include ce-ramic portraits of Moche rulers, goldand silver royal vessels, delicate in-laid wooden boxes, colorful textiles,and stunning jewelry. (407) 896-4231,www.OMArt.org (Through June 2005)

North Dakota Heritage Center Bismarck, N. Dak.—“‘This GrandScene’...North Dakota from thePalette and Pen of George Catlin” of-fers five original paintings by GeorgeCatlin on loan from the SmithsonianAmerican Art Museum in Washing-ton, D.C. The quotation is fromCatlin’s notes and refers to the ex-hibit’s signature image, “Big Bend onthe Upper Missouri, 1900 MilesAbove St. Louis.” Catlin (1796–1872)painted this magnificent landscapeduring his 1832 journey up the Mis-souri River at a point southwest ofpresent-day New Town, NorthDakota. The Blue Buttes looming inthe background can be seen todayfrom the same perspective. (701)328-2666, www.DiscoverND.com/hist.(Through September 2005)

� CONFERENCES,LECTURES & FESTIVALSCelebrating Culture Sundays Winter ProgramThrough April 16, Alaska Native Heritage Cen-ter, Anchorage, Alaska. Watch Alaska Nativedances, learn about traditional art and lan-guage, listen to storytellers, and explore newexhibits and village sites. Themes vary eachweek. (800) 315-6608, www.alaskanative.net

15th Annual World Championship Hoop Dance Contest

February 5–6, Heard Museum, Phoenix, Ariz.Top Native hoop dancers from the UnitedStates and Canada compete for cash prizesand the World Champion title. (602) 251-0255,www.heard.org

Trail of the Lost Tribes Archaeology Speaker SeriesMonthly beginning February 12 at various loca-tions in Florida. The theme of this year’s seriesis “Stories Buried in the Ground: How Archae-ology Strengthens Florida’s Communities.” TheTrail of the Lost Tribes is a Florida non-profitnetwork of three heritage tour operators and21 public sites that promote a greater apprecia-tion of the ancient cultures of Florida. The se-ries is free and open to the public. ContactMarty Ardren at (941) 456-6128, [email protected] for the series schedule.

Arizona Archaeology & Heritage Awareness Month

March 1–31 at numerous locations throughoutthe state. Events, activities, demonstrations,exhibits, lectures, and tours provide informa-tion about Arizona’s archaeological, historical,and cultural resources. This year’s theme is“Respect Heritage.” Contact Ann Howard at(602) 542-7138, [email protected],www.azstateparks.com

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Portland Art MuseumPortland, Ore.—The firstmajor museum exhibition tofocus specifically on the artand culture of the NativeAmericans who lived alongthe Columbia River from themouth of the Snake River tothe Pacific Ocean, “People ofthe River: Native Arts of theOregon Territory” includesstone sculpture, beadwork,and basketry. The exhibitionis drawn from the collectionsof the Portland Art Museum,the Smithsonian Institution,and the National Museum ofthe American Indian, as wellas from private collections. (503) 226-2811,www.portlandartmuseum.org(January 22–May 29, 2005)

Colorado History MuseumDenver, Colo.—“Ancient Voices: Stories ofColorado’s Distant Past” represents the firstphase of a new 6,500-square-foot AmericanIndian exhibition that explores the complexcultures of Colorado’s earliest inhabitants. Thesecond phase to follow in 2006 will examinehow these cultures changed as a result ofcontact with Europeans, among other influences.(303) 866-3682, www.coloradohistory.org(Opens January 28, 2005)

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The Pecos Conference, themajor group of Southwesternarchaeologists, has con-

demned the exclusion of selectedbooks from National Park Servicebookstores. At the annual meeting inBluff, Utah, on August 14, scholarscomplained about the exclusion ofbooks from Mesa Verde National Parkand Petroglyph National Monument.“This form of censorship is detrimen-tal to the dissemination of knowledgeand adversely impacts both (archaeo-logical) professionals and the inter-ested public,” stated the Conference’sresolution. “Interested readers areprohibited from reading examples ofthe best professional research.”

Most of the criticism was directedat Mesa Verde National Park, whichhas perhaps the busiest American ar-chaeology bookstore in the country.Mesa Verde bans books that identifythe ancient inhabitants of Mesa Verdeas “Anasazi,” including such popularworks as The Anasazi of Mesa Verde

and the Four Corners by William M.Ferguson and Understanding the

Anasazi of Mesa Verde and Hoven-

weep by David Grant Noble. Accord-ing to reliable sources at the park, Su-perintendent Larry T. Weise orderedthe books banned because of con-cerns expressed by some Pueblo peo-ple. Weise did not respond to numer-ous requests for comment.

The use of the word “Anasazi” todescribe the ancient Puebloan peo-ple of the Four Corners has becomecontroversial in recent years becauseof its Navajo origins, and Mesa Verdeand other parks are replacing it with“Ancestral Puebloan.” Both Navajosand Puebloans have claimed to be

descendants of the Anasazi in orderto control human remains from MesaVerde and influence the archaeologi-cal work on related sites, many ofwhich are on Navajo lands. Accord-ing to Mary A. Willie, a linguist at theUniversity of Arizona and a Navajo,Anasazi is “a conglomerate of twoseparate words meaning ‘non-Navajo’and ‘ancestor.’” A reasonable transla-tion of Anasazi would thus be“Puebloan ancestors,” ironically con-firming the Puebloans’ claim.

At Petroglyph National Monu-ment in Albuquerque, park officialshave barred books that contain pho-tographs of petroglyphs to whichPueblo people object, includinghuman figures, masks, and four-pointed stars. They also object tothe term “rock art,” because “it con-notes leisure time activity,” according

to Diane Souder, supervisory parkranger. Books that interpret themeaning of specific rock art symbolsare also unwanted at the park book-store. “It’s a terrible infringement onintellectual freedom,” according toPolly Schaafsma, whose classic rockart studies, Rock Art in New Mexico

and Warrior, Shield, and Star, areamong the scholarly tomes bannedfrom the park.

Because of the economic powerof the park bookstores, publishers inthe Southwest are struggling to con-form, but their efforts are hamperedby ambivalent policies. A spokesmanfor one of the biggest publishers in theregion said, “I’m not quite sure whatthe park superintendents are tryingto achieve, but I know I had better notsend them a book with “Anasazi” onthe cover.” —Mark Michel

Books Banned atNational Parks’BookstoresScholars accuse the parks of censorship.

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NEWSin the

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8 winter • 2004-05

NEWSin the

Attention, Teotihuacán ShoppersWal-Mart opens a store near famous prehistoric ruins.

Bodega Aurrera, a division of Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. opened itsstore near Teotihuacán despite

protests and a lawsuit. The store isvery near the 2,000-year-old ruins ofTeotihuacán, one of Mexico’s most fa-mous archaeological sites.

Though a number of Mexicans,from local merchants to artists, haveprotested the encroachment of big-box commerce on their cultural treas-ure, Wal-Mart officials said the storeposed no threat to the ruins and is infact welcomed by many people inthe community. According to WalfredCastro, manager of communicationsfor Bodega Aurrera, around 7 a.m. onNovember 4, the day the storeopened, there were roughly 300 peo-ple waiting to shop. He said therewere only a few people protesting.

According to earlier reports, alawsuit was filed with the federal At-torney General’s office to prevent thestore from opening. There were alsoallegations that an altar that was un-covered during the construction ofthe store’s parking lot was damaged.

“I know there are some lawsuits,but I don’t know who filed them,”said Alejandro Martinez Muriel, thedirector of archaeology for the Na-tional Institute of Anthropology andHistory (INAH). “Nothing was dam-aged during construction,” he added.

Martinez Muriel described theconstruction of the store as “more apolitical problem” than an archaeo-logical problem. He said the store ismore than a mile away from the ruinsin a commercial area that includes ahotel, auto dealership, and other

businesses. INAH reviewed the ar-chaeological and architectural impli-cations of the construction projectand found them to be satisfactoryand that no laws have been violated.

At one point, INAH stopped con-struction for four days to assess thepossible threat to buried archaeologi-cal resources. Martinez Muriel saidINAH conducted a ground-penetrat-ing radar survey, dug approximately120 test units, and extensively exca-vated three areas, one of which waswhere the altar was discovered. Dur-ing this time they found no further ev-idence of archaeological resources.Once construction resumed, INAHhad archaeologists on the site moni-toring the work. Martinez Muriel saidthe altar was documented and care-

fully reburied where it was found. Thearea is now covered with grass and isno longer part of the parking lot.

Wal-Mart officials said they werenot familiar with any lawsuits thatwere filed concerning the store.“They couldn’t sue our company be-cause everything was legal,” Castrosaid. The governor of the State ofMexico and the International Councilon Monuments and Sites, an organi-zation based in Paris, also reviewedthe plans for the store.

“It’s going to be a Mexican-typestore employing Mexican people,”said Bill Wertz, a Wal-Mart spokesper-son. He said the store would employabout 150 people. Wal-Mart is thelargest private employer in Mexico.

—Michael Bawaya

The opening of a Wal-Mart store near the magnificent ruins of Teotihuacán has created controversy.

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NEWSin the

A team of researchers recentlysequenced mitochondrial DNAfrom 12 hair samples, the old-

est of which is at least 65,000 yearsold. This achievement could playan important role in informing ar-chaeologists about the peopling ofthe New World.

The researchers, led by TomGilbert of the University of Arizona,sequenced shafts of hair from bison,as well as horses and humans. Ra-diocarbon dating of the bison hairsamples indicated they are roughly65,000 years old. Gilbert said thesesamples could actually be older, asradiocarbon testing can’t determinedates beyond this age. The humanhairs, which are thought to be sev-eral hundred years old, are theyoungest of the samples.

The research shows “how farback you can push DNA evidence,”said archaeologist Robson Bonnich-sen, the director of the Center forthe Study of the First Americans atTexas A&M University. Several yearsago Bonnichsen sequenced anddated hair samples from an 11,000-year-old sheep. “Hair is the artifactthat humans produce most of intheir lifetimes,” he added, explainingthat people shed a lot of hair. “It’s anenormously interesting material forarchaeology.” Ancient DNA analysisof hair could inform researchersabout the movement of peoplethrough time and space. Hair, Bon-nichsen said, can yield informationabout race, gender, and even diet.

Hair strands are sometimesfound at ancient sites, but they were

DNA From 65,000-Year-Old Hair SequencedThe analysis of ancient bison hair has important implications for archaeological research.

Anew obsidian hydration dating technique was recentlyused in the analysis of artifacts made of obsidian, a vol-canic glass, from the Hopewell site and Mound City in

central Ohio. Using secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS)to measure the amount of water, a team of researchers, led byarchaeologist Christopher Stevenson of the Virginia Depart-ment of Historic Resources, concluded that artifacts fromthese sites are approximately 1,400 to 2,200 years old. Thesedates were corroborated by recent radiocarbon testing of as-sociated materials.

Obsidian hydration has been used to date obsidian arti-facts for many years. When an artifact is fashioned from rawobsidian, the outer layers are chipped away, exposing the newsurface to the air. Once the new surface is exposed, water be-gins to diffuse into the glass from the air, or from the soil inthe case of buried material. By measuring the extent of thisdiffusion, an estimate of the age of the artifact can be made.

The traditional approach is to take a thin cross-section ofthe artifact and measure the thickness of the hydrated layerwith an optical microscope. The SIMS technique uses an ionbeam to drill a tiny hole in the artifact that allows researchersto more accurately measure the hydrated layer.

Hopewell Artifacts Dated By New TechniqueImprovement could mean more accurate obsidian artifact dating.

thought to be of little analyticalvalue because they contain tinyamounts of DNA. “Right now, every-one is using bone and tooth,”Gilbert said, referring to the type ofremains that are most often ana-lyzed for DNA.

Extracting DNA from bone andtooth requires drilling a small holein them, which damages the sam-ple. “It’s much less destructive tak-ing a small hair sample,” he said.“We’re literally using a single hairshaft,” and that shaft is less than aninch long.

Though DNA analysis is prom-ising, it’s limited by the numberand quality of the samples. DNA is achemical that degrades, especiallyin warm conditions.

—Michael Bawaya

“It’s clear it’s a better way to go than the old way,”Steven Novak, a member of the research team, said ofthe SIMS technique. “As time goes on it will be usedmore and more.” —Michael Bawaya

Researcher Steve Novak operates an ion mass spectrometry device.

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10 winter • 2004-05

NEWSin the

T his fall, the American Society of Civil Engineersdesignated the four prehistoric reservoirs atMesa Verde National Park in southwestern Col-

orado as Historic Civil Engineering Landmarks inrecognition of their remarkable engineering. Investiga-tions of the Mesa Verde water management features bymultidisciplinary teams of researchers have identifiedfour large reservoirs, feeder and irrigation ditches,check dam systems, terraces, and stone alignmentsthat were built and used between A.D. 750 and 1180 byinhabitants of the valley and mesa-top dwellings.

“The Ancestral Puebloans that populated the river-less mesa top conquered the impossible by creating awater system to sustain their domestic and agriculturalneeds,” said Patricia Galloway, president of the AmericanSociety of Civil Engineers. “They are truly civil engineer-ing pioneers.”

While earlier researchers recognized the large de-pression on Chapin Mesa, formerly known as MummyLake, as a prehistoric reservoir, later investigators pro-posed that the feature may have served as a dancearena or other type of group assembly feature. Ken-neth Wright of Wright Paleohydrological Institute andhis colleagues recently conducted extensive multidisci-plinary investigations of this and other water controlfeatures on the mesa, substantiating the feature’s func-tion as a reservoir and putting to rest the long-standingdebate. As a result, the feature has been renamed FarView Reservoir.

Morefield Reservoir, the largest and oldest of thefour Mesa Verde reservoirs, was also thought to be a cer-emonial dance platform or ancient terrace remnant untilWright’s research proved different. “Although the fea-tures had been studied during the 1960s and 1970s,there was not scientific agreement on their original func-tion because there was no identifiable proven water sup-ply to furnish water for storage,” said Wright. “As a result,

Prehistoric Reservoirs Designated Civil Engineering Landmark Research sheds light on Mesa Verde water management systems.

in 1996 I sought and received a permit to excavate the reser-voir. Once the reservoir trench was opened, there was no fur-ther doubt that it was a water storage facility.”

Morefield Reservoir was built as early as A.D. 750 andheld up to 120,000 gallons of water. The spoil from centuriesof routine dredging of the reservoir formed a mound 16 feettall and 200 feet in diameter. Fifty years later, a similar reser-voir was built in Prater Canyon. It was discovered followingthe Bircher Fire in 2000. From A.D. 950 to 1100, Far View andSagebrush reservoirs provided water for the Mesa Verdepeple when their population was at its peak. “The AncestralPuebloans knew more about water harvesting than modernengineers,” said Wright. “They collected and stored waterwhere modern engineers would say there was none.”

—Tamara Stewart

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The Morefield Reservoir mound of Mesa Verde was trenched in 1997. The

trench exposed the centuries of sediment deposition that contained

potsherds and tools of the Pueblo I and II periods.

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Tracking PrehistoricHuman Migrationin MesoamericaStrontium isotope analysis provides a tool for researchers.

NEWSin the


Researchers are learning aboutprehistoric human migrationin Mesoamerica by using stron-

tium isotope analysis. Researchersfrom the University of Florida andRutgers University recently publishedthe results of strontium isotope analy-sis at 216 sites throughout the Mayaregion in the Journal of Archaeologi-

cal Science. Their study representsthe first attempt to assemble a com-prehensive strontium isotope data-base in the Maya region.

Strontium isotope ratios can bemeasured in the ground from whichhumans obtained food and water.Strontium is a metallic element that’sabsorbed into bones and teeth.Analysis of teeth is especially reveal-ing, as the intake of strontium frombirth to about age four forms a den-tal signature that remains unchangedthrough life. By matching the stron-tium ratios found in an individual’steeth with those of a geographicarea, researchers can identify the in-dividual’s birthplace.

Two strontium isotopes, strontium87 and 86, are relatively abundant, andtheir ratios vary slightly across theMaya region. Because the two isotopeshave different masses, their ratio ingeological, biological, or water sam-ples can be precisely measured.

The researchers sought to deter-mine whether the sources of dietarystrontium in humans do indeed re-flect the strontium ratios of exposedbedrock, and to see if the ranges ofratio values are sufficiently distinctamong the principal Maya geocul-tural areas to infer past migration.

“We discovered that the stron-

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tium isotopic signature of plants andwater in each subregion of the Mayaarea generally reflected the ratio inthe local soils and rock, and that theratios for different subregions couldoften be distinguished,” said MarkBrenner, one of the researchers. “Wewere not surprised to find a latitudi-nal change in strontium ratio pro-ceeding from the north coast of Yu-catan to the southern lowlands ofPetén, Guatemala, because surfacelimestone in the north is geologicallyyoung, whereas exposed limestonein the south is much older.”

“Future studies can use the stron-tium isotope approach to test whetherancient leaders were locals or out-siders, and can be used to evaluatewhether mass migrations may have oc-curred in response to inferred climatechanges, environmental disasters, or

social upheavals,” Brenner said.Strontium analysis of skeletal re-

mains excavated at Teotihucán in theValley of Mexico was done by T. Dou-glas Price of the University of Wiscon-sin and several colleagues, revealingthat immigrants probably played alarge role in sustaining the massivecity’s rapid growth. Based on archi-tecture, artifacts, and burial patterns,two residential areas within the cityappear to be distinctive ethnic com-pounds. Indeed, individuals buriedwithin those areas exhibit large varia-tions in strontium isotope ratios oftooth enamel, but little differenceamong bone samples, indicating thata number of the individuals migratedto the city after childhood. The tech-nique has been applied to the Ameri-can Southwest and Europe as well.

—Tamara Stewart

Tourists view the ruins of Chichén Itzá from the top of the pyramid El Castillo. Strontium isotope

analysis could help researchers determine how Maya cities like Chichén Itzá were populated.

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12 winter • 2004-05

The world of the Anasazi has been a major researcharea for archaeologists of the Southwest, who haveexamined the nature and evolution of these prehis-toric people from many angles. Emily Brown, a Na-tional Park Service archaeologist stationed in Santa

Fe, New Mexico, is taking a fresh approach to theAnasazi: she is studying the instruments that were usedto make music.

Music would seem the most evanescent of sources,vanishing as soon as it is produced. If a thousand yearsfrom now, a cache of Jimi Hendrix guitars or the remains ofYo Yo Ma’s cello were uncovered, what would archaeolo-gists infer? Would they see the instruments simply as a toolfor entertainment? Or would they be able to trace the po-litical and social impact of Hendrix and his guitars within anemergent counter-culture in the Vietnam War period? Orthe social and cultural influences across half the world asYo Yo Ma combined his cello with instruments and musi-cians from lands along the ancient Silk Road?

For Brown, combining archaeology and music was analmost inevitable life path. Her bachelor’s degree is a dou-ble major in music and anthropology, and her master’sand doctorate degrees are in archaeology. She classifiesherself as an archaeomusicologist, a subdiscipline so re-cent that the term is unfamiliar even to many within thefield. As David Hurst Thomas, curator of anthropology atNew York’s American Museum of Natural History, com-mented, “It’s certainly not a term that’s on the lips ofevery archaeologist.” Brown finds music a natural gatewayinto the world of the past, pointing out that no society hasever been found that did not have music. Instruments area primary source of music, which she views as a frequentcomponent of ritual, which in turn was used for social andpolitical ends.

She has studied 1,300 Anasazi instruments from thegreater Four Corners area where the Anasazi once lived.The time period of her research goes from A.D. 200, thefirst period from which Brown was able to find instru-

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An archaeologist believes

that music played an

important role in Anasazi

culture. In addition to shedding

light on the Anasazi, her

research could pioneer a new

method of examining the past.By Joanne Sheehy Hoover

Instruments p12-19 11/17/04 2:50 PM Page 12

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ments, to 1540, when the Spanish first entered the region.The majority of these instruments are found in museumcollections on the East Coast and in the Southwest, andsome are in National Park Service collections. Thoughthe items from more recent excavations havebetter documentation, she found thatthose recovered from earlier excava-tions and now housed at the Smith-sonian in Washington, D.C., theAmerican Museum of Natural His-tory in New York, and the twoPeabody Museums in Bostonhad the more unusual instru-ments.

What she discovered is a sur-prising range and variety of bothmaterials used and the kind ofsounds that could be produced.Falling into the basic percussion andwind categories, the instruments yield asonic picture that in its own way is asvaried as the modern orchestral worldof strings, winds, and percussion. Ar-chaeologist Stephen Lekson, an author-ity on the Anasazi culture, was surprisedby the great number of instrumentsthat Brown studied.

“I’m not aware of anyone who’s done a comprehen-

sive study like this before,” said Lekson, who first heard ofBrown’s work through a paper she delivered this pastsummer at the Pecos Conference, an annual event that fo-

cuses on Southwest archaeology. “You can learn a lot bylooking at these kind of artifacts. There’s

enough of them, they’re distributed acrossenough space and enough time that you

can wind up saying some pretty inter-esting things.” Her research, he noted,examines “classes of evidence thatwe didn’t customarily or convention-ally consider.”

Building on the four-partmethodology for the analysis ofmusical instruments developed byDale Olsen, an ethnomusicologist at

Florida State University, Brown firstmeasured the instruments, noted any

features of form or decoration, andchecked museum records or otherpublications for information. Setting upa computer database, she developed ty-pologies and noted where and whenthe instruments were used. The secondstep dealt with iconology. She exam-ined anything depicted on the objectsthemselves as well as musicians por-

trayed in rock art, kiva murals, and on pottery. The rock

This fragment of a decorated wooden flute was found in the ruin of Pueblo Bonito at Chaco Canyon in northwest New Mexico. It was in a room that was

thought to be used for storage of ceremonial items. With its flared end, it is similar to flutes used by the Hopi.

Rattles made by stringing hoofs together and attaching a wooden handle were first used at least as early as A.D. 500, and they were played by members of

Zuni Pueblo as late as the 1890s. Found in 1895, this object is in good condition. Sinew, yucca, and human hair were among the materials used to make it.

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Great care was taken in the decoration of this

gourd rattle from Canyon de Chelly in northeast

Arizona. The design was created by painstakingly

peeling back the outer skin of the gourd to

expose the lighter color underneath.


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art, for example, included a number of male flute playerswho were engaged in copulation with female figures, sug-gesting a connection between music and fertility.

The third and fourth steps involved researching his-torical and ethnographic sources. These included Spanishaccounts of Puebloan music that also yielded informationon the places, such as plazas and kivas, where ritual per-formances took place. Then she added a fifth step of ana-lyzing the material in archaeological terms: looking at dis-tribution, provenience, and contextual information foreach site. Architectural features of a site were of particularinterest since they might offer clues about where and howthe instruments were used.

She did not actually play any of the instruments. “Cu-rators would frown on the hot, moist air and vibrationsgoing into objects in their care,” said Brown in referenceto the wind instruments she studied. But she found that agreat deal of sound information was gained simply by gen-tly examining them, turning over small bells, for example,or handling a kiva bell made out of a resonant volcanicrock called phonolite.

Her inventory conjures up a vivid sound world that in-cludes flutes and whistles made of wood, reed, and a widevariety of bones from birds like turkey, Canada geese,whistling swans, and eagles, and animals like fox and bob-cat. Bells ranged from the small copper and clay variety tothe larger kiva bells. Rattles were divided up into twobroad categories—tinklers and rattlers. Tinklers referredto objects that could be strung on a string, like seashells,

walnut shells, pieces of petrified wood, or hooves. Rattlersreferred to cases with things inside to shake, like gourdswith dried seeds and leather cases stretched aroundwooden frames filled with seeds or small stones. She alsostudied delicate, small-scale rattles made of cocoons and

Clay bells such as this one are rarely found at sites other than Pecos

Pueblo (where this bell was found), near Santa Fe, and Awatovi, a Hopi site

near the Hopi Mesas in northwestern Arizona. However, they are fairly

common at these two sites.

An examination of this

walnut rattle reveals the

ingenuity of its maker.

Each yucca cord was

carefully twined, then

threaded through a native

Arizona walnut shell. The

ends were then bound

together in such a way as

to make a handle. There

are many rattles made by

suspending hoofs or other

objects in a similar way,

but Brown found only two

walnut rattles in the

collections she researched.

Both came from Canyon

de Chelly.

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the tube-shaped nests of trapdoor spiders that could befilled with little seeds. Rasps, two pieces of wood or bone,one with a serrated edge, which yielded a percussivesound when rubbed together, were also examined.

Curiously, her inventory does not include drums,which are ubiquitous in Pueblo culture today. Are they theas yet unseen sound elephant that some feel must havebeen there? Brown answered the question with more ques-tions. “Is there a long tradition and we archaeologists justaren’t seeing it? Or are they really a much more modern in-vention or introduction, and, if so, how did that happen?”

Apart from foot drums, the term given to trenchesfound in kivas that were covered with a board that wasdanced on, no drums have ever been found in the prehis-toric Southwest. Brown has checked various sources inthe archaeological record including rock art. She hasfound many images of the little flute player popularlyknown as Kokopelli, and depictions of people carrying rat-tles and wearing shell tinklers, but she has never found animage of a drum.

Having documented and classified this large body ofinstruments, Brown then applied that data to questions ofauthority and leadership among the Anasazi. Would the in-struments and the settings in which they were used yieldpossible connections between music and ritual, politicaland social life?

The earliest instruments, wood and reed flutes of theBasketmaker period (A.D. 400–700), were few in numberand most of them came from small village sites in north-eastern Arizona. The sites contained rock art depictingflute players with shamanic characteristics like flying orwobbly legs. She concluded that a few shamans within thesociety probably used the instruments.

Brown found less than a dozen instruments dating tothe Pueblo I period (A.D. 700–900). These instrumentswere found primarily in the Mesa Verde region in south-western Colorado. It was a period when people were set-tling down, becoming more agricultural, and it marked thefirst appearance of foot drums. Brown theorized that inthe process of settling down, questions of land tenure andaccess to resources would arise and that it might be usefulto have connections to the land in your mythology and rit-uals, of which dancing was a part. In the 1980s archaeolo-gist Richard Wilshusen interpreted foot drums as repre-senting sipapus, the holes where Pueblo ancestorsemerged into this world according to the origin myth.There is also ethnographic evidence that dancing on thefoot drums was viewed as a way of communicating withthe underworld.

The Pueblo II period (A.D. 900–1150) marks a fluores-cence of Anasazi culture, epitomized by the civilization atChaco Canyon in northwestern New Mexico. Designated aUNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987, Chaco containsmany spectacular sites, some with vast plazas and greatkivas. According to archaeological interpretations, Anasazi

Complete turtle shells, like the one used to make this rattle, are rare finds

for archaeologists due to their fragility. Deer or antelope hoofs were strung

along the shell’s exterior to create sound.

The handle of this unique basketry ladle is hollow and contains small

pebbles or seeds that make a rattling noise when it is moved.

Based on depictions in kiva murals, archaeologists know shell tinklers such

as these were sewn onto clothing. The shells made a pleasing sound at the

slightest movement of the wearer.


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social organization and relationships became more com-plicated, a development that Brown finds reflected in a flu-orescence of new instruments. Their sonic power or visualappeal led her to theorize that they were used for publicritual spectacle as well as in the kivas.

Some, like conch shell trumpets and small copperbells and shell tinklers imported on trade routes from Mex-ico, were valued items. Based on the volume of modernshell trumpets played by Tibetans, Pacific Islanders, andother cultures, Brown surmises the shell trumpets couldhave sent loud waves of sound across the plazas, while thecopper bells, sometimes found attached to beads, and shelltinklers were eye-catching musical additions to costumes.

There were also elaborate versions of earlier instru-ments, notably the wooden flutes. At Chaco they are dec-orated with paint and carving instead of feathers like someof the Basketmaker flutes, and one example was morethan three feet long. They were visually arresting, both intheir size and their decorations, such as carved animalsand painted geometric designs, though their pitcheswould have been low and relatively quiet.

Brown also theorizes that these flutes could have beenused to enrich the spectacle and also to invoke the past andthus add the weight of tradition to the Chaco rituals. Footdrums, which the Anasazi continued to use, could haveserved a similar purpose.

Brown noted that the Chaco burials in which instru-ments were found contained more grave goods than anyother burials uncovered in the Southwest. They included“thousands and thousands of pieces of turquoise, lots ofpottery, and carved wood staffs that modern Hopi recog-nize as being ritual objects,” she said. Brown posits a closecorrelation between the people buried with so many lux-ury and ritual items and the music, which might have beeneither for secular or ritual performance. “Chaco was a lotabout spectacle,” explained Brown. “It’s the people at thetop who are putting these things on and they have eitherthe power or the means to. And that’s what these [instru-ments] are being used for.”

Early in the Pueblo III period (A.D. 1150–1300) Chaco

The rectangular, stone-lined vault visible in the floor of this ceremonial chamber once had a covering of wooden planks, which made for a foot drum.

Researchers studying the Southwestern Pueblo peoples early in the 20th century watched them dance on similar “drums” in ceremonies meant to communicate

with their ancestors. Brown was surprised to discover that these are the only kinds of drums archaeologists have discovered in the Southwest so far.

The hollow in the bottom of this mug held small pellets of clay that made it

rattle when someone drank from it.


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and its outliers were abandoned due to an apparent ex-tended drought. The disruption is reflected in the instru-ments. Wooden flutes disappear altogether and shell trum-pets and copper bells vanish from Chaco and places whereChacoan influence spread. Brown theorizes that since theseinstruments had been significant components of ritual spec-tacle at Chaco, their absence points to a rejection of theChacoan ideology. In her view, “Whatever rituals and ideol-ogy were in place at Chaco ultimately didn’t meet people’sneeds during the great drought.”

Commenting on these assumptions, Lekson noted,“I, and many archaeologists, consider Chaco to be a majorturning point in Pueblo history, and if that’s reflected inmusic and the way music is produced—that’s very in-triguing.”

By A.D. 1400 the Anasazi had regrouped along the Rio

Grande Valley, western New Mexico, and eastern Arizona,where their modern Pueblo descendants live. Brown theo-rizes that a surge in the number and types of instrumentsand the expanded variety of materials from which theywere made reflect the rise of a new ideology. Rasps, claybells, kiva bells, eagle bone flutes, and certain kinds of rat-tles and whistles appear for the first time. Some instru-ments, like rattles and tinklers, would have been easy tomake and play. Others, like eagle bone flutes, were moredifficult to play or construct, or the materials they weremade from were hard to obtain. Elaborate kiva murals withpeople carrying instruments offered additional indicationsof an efflorescence of ceremony.

Brown also noted architectural differences betweenthe Pueblo IV pueblos and those from previous times, par-ticularly a shift in the kivas, which overall are much re-

Mimbres vessels are known for their detailed depictions of humans, animals, and otherworldly creatures. This drawing (left) based on a Mimbres vessel shows

a man swinging a decorated triangular object that is probably a bullroarer. Bullroarers (right) were a relatively late invention for the Anasazi. A string was

placed through this instrument’s hole and it was swung to make sounds.

The Anasazi made bone whistles and flutes. Bone flutes, such as the one shown at the top of the photograph, were not particularly common until A.D. 1250.

Most of them were made from the wing bones of eagles. The smaller whistles were made from the bones of fowl ranging from eagles to turkeys. Brown found

more bone whistles than any other type of instrument.

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duced in number. Whereas before communities werecomposed of roomblocks that were near, and thereforeseemed to be associated with, both great and small kivas,there are now big, rectangular plazas surrounded by largeroomblocks that don’t appear to be associated with kivas.It was an arrangement where certain very public dancestook place in the large plazas and a tradition of secrecysurrounded the most sacred knowledge of rituals per-formed in kivas.

Brown theorizes that community leaders used kiva fra-ternities with specialized ritual knowledge, including use ofcertain instruments, as a means of organizing and knittingtogether these large communities. In her view, these lead-

ers “acquired and maintained their personal, social, andpolitical power by keeping their sacred knowledge very se-cret and by having, for example, only certain people beable to play these eagle bone flutes. Whereas some of theseother rattles and things that are pretty easy to make andplay—many more people could use them in the publicdances in the plazas.”

Brown’s work has not yet, in her words, been “broad-cast too widely.” Few archaeologists, she added, “feelcomfortable dealing with the subject matter of music justbecause they don’t know much about it.” She views hertheoretical connections between music, ritual, and socialand political leadership as her most significant contribu-

(Left) Conch shells are used for trumpets in many parts of the world. The Anasazi’s version of this instrument was unusual in that they added mouthpieces

to the ends. What the shell trumpets lacked in melodic variety, they made up for in volume. The sound likely echoed off the stone walls of Pueblo Bonito

at Chaco Canyon, where this trumpet was found. (Right) This is the mouthpiece of a shell trumpet that has been decorated with a mosaic of turquoise.

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Rasps such as these were played by scraping a stick across the ridges carved into the bones. Rasps were usually made from the shoulder blades of deer and

antelope, like the large one at the top of this photograph, but they were also made from ribs and long bones. Brown examined one made from the leg of a dog.


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tion to the field of archaeomusicology. Though the fieldemerged in the mid-1980s, most of the studies, she ex-plained, were done in Europe, with little in the Americasother than some research on the Incas, Aztec, and Mayacultures and a few other groups. “Apart from empires orcultures that have some sort of written record that youcan relate this stuff to, it’s been viewed as a dicier propo-sition. People haven’t come up with a theory that linksthe performance or experience of music in the past toanything else, so that’s what I’ve tried to do.”

Though disagreements may arise with Brown’sanalysis, she is clearly expanding the archaeological tool-box. The scope and thoroughness of her research hasproduced a body of new data for the field and helpedput the infant discipline she champions on solid ground.

“To have somebody who has a feel for archaeology,literally from the ground up, a feel for musicology theway she does as a performance musician—I can’t imag-ine that’s happened before. The third component isher expertise with the museum collections because shedid come and study our collection here in New York,”said Thomas. “I really think she’s blazing new groundhere.”

“Certainly no one has done anything like this proj-ect in the U.S. or, as far as I know, anywhere else ei-ther,” said Nan Rothschild, a Columbia University ar-chaeologist who knows Brown’s work. “It provides anew dimension to the archaeological understanding ofthe prehispanic Southwest.”

Brown also hopes that her work will benefit thepublic at large. She foresees that her research couldflesh out displays of prehistoric instruments in placeslike visitor centers and give a more vivid sense of

Anasazi life. She would like to break through the si-lence of the past, make its music come alive in theimagination. Or, as Shakespeare put it, give to “airynothing a local habitation and a name.”

JOANNE SHEEHY HOOVER has been a music lecturer for the SmithsonianAssociates and a music critic for The Washington Post and the AlbuquerqueJournal.

Brown measures a bone whistle with a pair of calipers.

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Abreeze riffles the emerald sur-face of the San Sabá River inMenard,Texas, a small town ofshuttered Main Street store-fronts and roadside cafes.

Roughly 250 years ago the Spaniardscame here to pursue their contradictorygoals of bringing guns and God to thefrontier. Evidence of that conflicted mis-sion is turning up on a golf course on theoutskirts of town, where Texas Tech Uni-versity archaeologists Tamra Walter andGrant Hall are excavating Real Presidiode San Sabá, the largest Spanish-erafrontier fort in Texas.They hope to dis-cover how 100 Spanish soldiers and theirwives and children—a total of 300 to 600people—survived here at the northern-most edge of the Texas frontier. Confined

Life Under

Siege

to a stone fort about the size of a base-ball field, they formed “a lonely island ina sea of Indian hostility,” according tohistorian Robert S. Weddle, author ofThe San Sabá Mission.

The Spanish had already been in Texasfor 50 years by the time the presidio wasfounded in 1757 along with Mission SantaCruz de San Sabá, the mission it wascharged with protecting. But this far-flungoutpost was 100 miles—a five to seven-day journey—from the established net-work of Spanish missions in San Antonio.“The mission was the primary reason forthem being down in this country,” saidHall. “There was a group of Franciscanpriests who for a long time had beenwanting to Christianize the Lipan Apachewho lived in this area of central Texas.”

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While some Spaniards had wanted tobuild the mission 70 miles to the east,where gold and silver had been found inthe Llano Uplift, in the end the priestswon out.

Like the best-laid plans, though, theSpaniards’ dreams of converting theApache quickly gave way to a harsher re-ality.The Lipan Apache feigned interest inthe mission but never really took thepriests’ outreach efforts seriously. Mean-while, the Apaches’ many enemies—in-cluding the Comanche and other north-ern tribes the Spanish called Norteños—so resented the Spaniards’ friendship withthe Apache that they formed their own al-liance.Ten months after the mission wasestablished, a force of 2,000 Norteños at-

tacked, killing eight Spaniards and burningthe mission to the ground.The survivorsfled to the presidio, where they desper-ately held on for 10 to 12 years.

“Because of the nearly constant In-dian threat, the people were basicallyconfined to this area for all that time,”said Hall, pointing to the presidio com-pound. “And so they left a tremendousarchaeological signature out here.”

Now the archaeologists are examiningthat signature.With the help of nearly 450volunteers from the 1,500-member TexasArchaeological Society (TAS), one of theoldest archaeological societies in the UnitedStates, they are undertaking the mostextensive excavation of a Spanish presidioin Texas to date. Comparing evidence in

The excavation of a Spanish fort

is uncovering clues to how

soldiers and their families

clung to survival at the edge

of the Texas frontier.

By Elaine Robbins

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the ground to historical records, they hope to get a morecomplete picture of life in a presidio that had the unwel-come job of serving as a human buffer against Indian at-tacks on San Antonio.

“What were their daily activities like? How did theylive under such miserable conditions? I don’t reallyhave much to compare it to,” said Walter. “It’s the firstopportunity we’ve had to look at a site like this to thisextent. We can compare it to missions, but the missionswere religious endeavors, while the forts are military in-stallations.”

Guns, Food, and LodgingOn a hot summer day at the edge of town, green andwhite shade tarps flutter festively in the breeze around the8th hole of the Menard Country Club golf course, wherethe presidio dig is taking place. Under the tarps, teams ofTAS volunteers work steadily, excavating units against abackdrop of evocative ruins of the 1936 reconstruction ofSan Sabá built in conjunction with the Texas Centennialcelebration.

Inside the country club, more volunteers sit at long ta-bles and clean animal jawbones with toothbrushes. A fewof this week’s finds are arranged on one table: sherds ofMexican majolica (blue-on-white pottery), fragments ofgreen lead-glazed earthenware, decorative appliqués forgun muskets, animal bones, and a large groundstone. “This

year we’re actually finding some perishable materials thatare a surprise to me,” said Walter. “We found silver threadand some cloth—probably from an officer’s uniform.”

Although limited testing of the presidio site had beendone as far back as 1934, extensive excavation at San Sabábegan with the rediscovery of the mission in the early1990s. Mark Wolf, a San Antonio architect who over thecourse of one eye-opening day traced his ancestry directlyback to mission soldier Juan Leal, recruited Hall and histo-rian Kay Hindes to help him search for the lost missionsite. A historical document noted that the mission was on“the old Hockensmith place.” Hindes traced deed recordsto an alfalfa field a few miles east of Menard, and in 1993the threesome surveyed the field. “The first thing we didwas a metal detector pass,” said Wolf. “We found beer tabsand goat tags. Then we pulled a Spanish medallion of St.Anthony out of the ground. The hair just stood up on myneck. I thought, ‘Could Juan have actually held this?’”

After confirming that the field was indeed the missionsite, an excavation of the mission ensued that was com-pleted in the summer of 1997. After that, the next logicalarchaeological project for Hall was the presidio. Excavationof the presidio began in 2000, when Hall brought the TexasTech University archaeological field school to the site.

Their first challenge was to uncover the fort’s originalfootprint, which lay underground beneath rubble from acollapsed wall of the reconstructed fort. The archaeolo-

This mural depicts an exchange between the Franciscan friars and Lipan Apache Indians. The stone fort is seen in the background. Walter questions the

accuracy of this work, given that, due to the threat posed by the Indians, the original wooden fort was replaced by a stronger stone structure. Once the fort

was rebuilt of stone there was little interaction between the Spanish and the Lipan Apache.

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gists got the help of farmers and ranchers, who broughttheir trucks and moved the rocks off the archaeologicalsite, arranging them in numbered piles so they can beused in any future reconstruction.

Work started in the northwest corner of the fortthat, according to historical maps, once housed achapel, a large bastion, and two-story officers’ quarterscomplete with an interior patio. Excavations revealednot only large foundation stones of the type that wouldhave supported a two-story structure, but the remainsof cobble flooring-stones that probably paved a highlytrafficked interior plaza.

In the summer of 2003, the archaeologists under-took broad testing of the presidio site. They laid a gridacross the interior courtyard and excavated a checker-board of 50 two-by-two-yard squares. They identifiedseveral “hotspots” that revealed a concentration of arti-facts. Last summer the archaeologists focused on thosehotspots, which they hope will reveal where activitiessuch as cooking and blacksmithing took place.

With the inhabitants living in a state of siege, feed-ing the fort’s 600 residents became a critical issue.“How were they making a living here? What kinds offood were they eating?” asked Walter. “We know thatthey were having trouble getting supply trains cut offfrom San Antonio. Indians would often raid the supplytrains if they knew they were coming through. So theywere often short supplied. It must have been a veryhard life.”

Clues to the Spaniards’ diet are being found in sev-

eral deep trash middens, where thousands of animalbones—primarily from cows, but also from goats andsheep—are turning up. “Another really interesting thingwe’re learning is that they were manipulating theirbreeding stock,” said Walter. The butchered bones ofyoung animals—so young their bones hadn’t fusedyet—indicates that the Spanish were butchering ani-mals before they reached breeding age. “It suggeststhat they were at times desperate for food and werewalking a fine line with their breeding stock,” said Wal-ter. “They were having to kill these animals a littlesooner than they would have liked in order to feedthemselves and were therefore putting their breedingstock at risk.”

Bones of deer, gar, and other wildlife in the trashmiddens confirms that the fort’s inhabitants also huntedand fished when they could. But it was often risky toleave the confines of the fort. According to The San Sabá

Mission, “On February 29 [1767]...Lieutenant JoaquinOrendain and three soldiers disregarded a standingorder and left the fort to hunt turkeys. Hostile Indiansambushed them, and all four were tortured and killed.”

The archaeologists had hoped to find a cemeterythat historical records indicated was located inside thefort. “Having skeletal remains would certainly tell us agreat deal about mortality, disease, and general livingconditions endured by the resident occupants,” saidWalter. But no graves have yet been found. “The ceme-tery is said to have been moved. Fear of desecration byhostile native groups may have prompted the move.”


Members of the Texas Archeological Society field school dig inside the presidio ruins. The society’s field school ran for a week and during that time several

hundred people were working at the site. Their efforts resulted in the recovery of a tremendous number of artifacts.

San Saba p20-26 11/23/04 10:54 AM Page 23

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24 winter • 2004-05

How were the inhabitants getting supplies? The richvariety of ceramics found at the site—from Mexican ma-jolica to Chinese porcelain—may provide some clues.To Walter, this unusual range of pottery is evidence ofsupply shortages. “They’re making use of everythingthey can because they know it’s going to be a long timebefore they can replace anything. They’re also recyclingmetal. We’re finding a lot of copper patches that wereprobably used on cooking pots and the like.”

As is typical at Spanish colonial sites in Texas, themost common pottery type found at San Sabá is Mexi-can majolica. This attractive ceramic, originally im-ported from Spain, was by the 18th century made inMexico City and Puebla. Mule trains delivered ceramicsfrom Mexican towns to Spanish settlements in Texas.The archaeologists have also found small amounts ofChinese and Japanese porcelain-pottery that was im-ported into Acapulco and distributed throughout Span-ish Texas. The excavation is also turning up sherds ofSpanish olive jar, a thick ceramic jug filled with wine,olives, or olive oil that was shipped from Spain to theNew World and reused as storage containers.

Fortress MentalityThe archaeologists’ other main research goal is to revealthe original architecture of the fort. With the residentsin a state of near-constant siege, they want to know howthe fort was strengthened over time. “Originally therewas a wooden stockade fort with gun platforms andadobe housing,” said Walter, citing historical records.“Later they replaced it with the stone fort. There are dif-ferent theories about where that original wooden fortwas.” Walter and Hall surmise that the original woodenfort was enclosed within the stronger stone structure,but they haven’t yet found any proof of this.

This architectural information concerning the stonefort will be useful to the town of Menard, which hopesto eventually build an accurate reconstruction that willserve as a tourist attraction and point of historical inter-est. The original walls of the stone fort were “still intactuntil around 1895, when Menard started growing,” ex-plained Hall. “They were going to build a courthouseand a bank and some commercial buildings downtown.Rather than go out in the hills and quarry their ownlimestone, they said, ‘We’ll just go out and load up therock out there.’” The fort’s limestone blocks are said tohave sold in town for 50 cents a wagonload.

Walter also wants to learn what improvements weremade after a 1767 inspection tour of frontier settle-ments ordered by the Spanish viceroy, when Presidiode San Sabá received an unfavorable report. A mapmade during the inspection by Spanish military engi-Volunteers excavate in a large trash pit in the northwest section of the fort

where the skull of a horse was uncovered, as well as Spanish Colonial trash

such as cattle bones, colonial ceramics, nails, gunflints, lead shot, and

broken wine bottle glass.

A member of the field school sketches a large bifacial knife recovered from

the excavations.

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neer Nicolas de Lafora shows bastions in the northwestand southeast corners, each of which housed severalcannons. “I’m wondering if they didn’t add another bas-tion in the southwest corner after the inspection,” saidWalter. “We’re seeing some architecture show up therethat could indicate a bastion.”

Numerous rooms were discovered along the southwall, which borders the San Sabá River. “At many Span-ish forts and missions rooms were built along the outerwalls of the site; at Presidio San Sabá rooms were indi-cated on the 1767 map along the north, east, and westwalls only. However, we found evidence for structuresalong the south wall during our excavations. Thesestructures were probably added after the 1767 map wascreated,” said Walter. About 50 tiny 12-feet-by-15-feetapartments lined the perimeter of the nearly squarestone fort. Most of these rooms served as living quar-ters for soldiers and their families. A few were probablyused as workshops or storage rooms.

Excavations yielded burned rocks, ashy soil, andcharcoal, indicating that the residents made kitchenfires directly on the rooms’ earthen floors. Sherds ofpottery and gunflints were also found, along with per-sonal effects such as trade beads, earrings, and a rosarybead. In one room they found a pair of glass cufflinkswith a picture of a thistle set under glass.

The End GameBy the winter of 1767, the situation inside the presidio

reached a crisis point. Indians managed to drive off theSpaniards’ entire herd of cattle. They harassed thefort’s inhabitants, trying to lure the soldiers out of thesafety of the garrison.

“The commander of Presidio de San Sabá [FelipeRábago y Terán] made frantic appeals for help,” wroteWeddle. “These failing, he sought permission to aban-don this spot, which he had begun to think was ac-cursed. He himself was ill, and had been for severalmonths. His men were dissatisfied and insolent.”

Finally, with an epidemic—probably scurvy—ragingthrough the presidio, Rábago decided to take actionwithout waiting for permission from the crown. He or-dered the fort abandoned, moving the men, women,and children south to the relative safety of Mission SanLorenzo. Although the crown would not officially aban-don the fort until 1772, the move marked the begin-ning of what Weddle calls “the Spanish pivot in Texas.”In the following years, the Spanish would continue toretreat south, eventually abandoning the whole notionof civilizing the Texas frontier.

The fort was abandoned to the lizards, but over theyears, travelers took shelter within its walls. Spanish ex-plorers camped there while searching for the legendary


Tamra Walter, the codirector, inspects a posthole feature.

Grant Hall, the project’s codirector, stands in front of the west entrance to

the presidio. Hall has been working on the project since 2000.

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riches of the Lost San Sabá Mine (at last check it wasstill lost). German settlers used it as a Comfort Inn asthey searched for silver and cheap land. Now the ar-chaeologists have the difficult job of sorting throughover 200 years of human presence.

Thanks to the huge volunteer workforce, the exca-vation has turned up a staggering number of artifacts tocatalog and study. “We’re talking tens of thousands ofartifacts coming through,” said Walter. “We have an en-tire room full of bone alone.” Only then will the analy-sis begin, offering a clearer picture of life in a state ofnear constant siege.

These artifacts conjure up the complexity and con-tradictions of Spanish aspirations on the Texas frontier.Said Wolf, “Last year we found multiple crucifixes here atthe presidio.” He laughs loudly. “Finding a crucifix nextto a musket ball; there’s something very interestingabout that relationship.”

ELAINE ROBBINS is a freelance editor and writer based in Austin. Her article“The World Wide Web of Antiquities” appeared in the Fall 2004 issue ofAmerican Archaeology.

For more information about Presidio De San Sabá, visit the Web sitewww.texasbeyondhistory.net and select the Presidio De San Sabá site.

This iron artifact found at the site may have been part of a horse bridle.

This decorative piece of copper may have adorned a chest or the butt of a

rifle. Several of these types of artifacts were found at the site.

Children also participated in the field school, learning excavation and

laboratory methods. Here several of them observe the washing, labeling,

and cataloging of artifacts in the field laboratory.

San Saba p20-26 11/23/04 11:43 AM Page 26

What do the following have in common: aCivil War battlefield near the MississippiRiver, a Mesa Verde Anasazi pueblo com-plex, the remnants of a 16th-centurybarrio in Arizona’s Sonoran Desert, and

a Pleistocene-era bison bones site in north-central Okla-homa? Though the items on this list might sound as alikeas oranges and orangutans, you’ve probably guessed thecommon thread that links them all is The ArchaeologicalConservancy. They areamong the nearly 300 ar-chaeological sites theConservancy has pre-served, all of which con-tain valuable informationabout our country’s past.

Battery D, near He-lena, Arkansas, marks thelocation where Confeder-ate troops struggled un-successfully to capture aMississippi River portfrom Union defenders.The Joe Ben Wheat SiteComplex in Colorado’sMontezuma Valley in-cludes 90-plus rooms and14 kivas dating to the 13thcentury. The Barrio deTubac is the southern por-tion of Arizona’s first per-manent European settle-ment, established bySpanish colonists in the

1750s. Among the Pleistocene bison bones uncovered atthe Burnham site, archaeologists found flakes of stonethat could be tools made by humans as long as 40,000years ago—a discovery that could affect the First Ameri-cans debate, one of the most controversial topics in Amer-ican archaeology.

Preserving the rich and varied past of our continent,from Paleo-Indian campsites to historic battlefields, hasbeen The Archaeological Conservancy’s focus for the past

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american archaeology 27american archaeology 27

OF PRESERVATIONA small organization with big ambitions, The Archaeological Conservancy

has accomplished much over a quarter of a century.

By Kathleen Bryant

Celebrating25 Years

Conservancy president Mark Michel, board member Stewart Udall, and Southwest regional director Jim Walker.


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25 years. It all started when a small group ofpeople working together to enact theArcheological Resources ProtectionAct of 1979, which empowersfederal agencies to prosecutepeople who lootpublicly-ownedsites, decided totake their successeven further.

Inspired by the NatureConservancy, they formed The Ar-chaeological Conservancy in 1979,with the goal of protecting cultural re-sources on private land. The Ford Founda-tion and Rockefeller Brothers Fund contributedstart-up grants, and by the end of 1980, the Conservancyacquired its first sites, including the Hopewell Moundsnear Chillicothe, Ohio. That acquisition is now part ofHopewell Culture National Historic Park, which is admin-istered by the National Park Service. According to co-founder and president Mark Michel, the Conservancy’smission is “to preserve a good sample of all archaeologicalsites left in the U.S. so that future generations are ensureda research base of various kinds of cultures that have ex-isted on this continent for the past 13,000-plus years.”

Preserving a varied research base is like building aportfolio of archaeological stock, leveraged to gain fromadvancing technology. Michel cites as a “classic example”the Borax Lake site in California, first excavated by ar-chaeologist Mark Harrington in 1941. Harrington un-earthed large, fluted obsidian points he attributed to theFolsom culture.

When Harrington declared the site to be at least10,000 years old, others scoffed at the idea of human pres-ence in northern California that long ago. In the 1950s andagain in 1964, archaeologists returned to Borax Lake, test-

ing Harrington’s findings as well as their own. Theyused a new technology, obsidian hydration, that

was introduced as an archaeological datingmethod in 1960. Eighty obsidian hydration

readings obtained from man-made toolsfound at the site confirmed Harring-ton’s dates, shifting perceptions abouthow early human populations ex-panded in the New World.

Obsidian hydration, now relativelycommon, continues to be refined as even

newer technologies emerge. Borax Lake, aConservancy site since 1989, continues to be

preserved and studied. And as past meets fu-ture, archaeologists using emerging technologies

may glean even more from Borax Lake and other sites,answering questions that continue to concern humanitytoday such as plant uses, social structure, population pres-sure, or climate change, to name a few.

Archaeologists conducting research on Conservancy

sites employ some of the most sophisticated technologies,such as remote sensing and laser scanning. Three-dimen-sional computer models were used to produce a CD-ROMthat allows people to “tour” Sherwood Ranch Pueblo, anArizona preserve, even though the great majority of its ap-proximately 100 rooms have been backfilled.

“One of the main reasons I wanted to make sure siteswere preserved was because of the technologies being de-veloped over new generations,” says Conservancy co-founder and board member Jay Last. No stranger tochanging technology, Last helped start industry-shakingFairchild Semiconductor, which developed the first practi-cal integrated circuits.

Important research is routinely conducted on Con-servancy preserves. A four-year limited excavation at Al-bert Porter Pueblo in southwest Colorado by the CrowCanyon Archaeological Center yielded new informationabout the relationship between the Mesa Verde and

Establishing a preserve is hard work. In the case of Parkin Mounds in

eastern Arkansas, the Conservancy had to move people and their homes

off of an 18-acre mound. Parkin is now a state park.

Sterile fill dirt is placed over geotextile material that covers archaeological

resources at Madera Reserve in Green Valley, Arizona. These measures

ensure that the resources are protected while the land serves as an open

space preserve.

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preserve surrounded by homes.POINT acquisitions can proceed

very quickly. Consider, for example, theDePrato Mounds site, purchased in2004. According to Michel, someonedriving through the countrysidearound Ferriday, Louisiana, spotted ahand-painted “FOR SALE” sign andturned down a lane to investigate. Theadvertised home stood atop a moundsite. After a phone call to the Conser-vancy, a deal to purchase the propertywas sealed within the week.

The DePrato site is part of a five-mound complex on a natural riverlevee, incorporating features that datefrom A.D. 400 to 800. It’s an acquisitionthat especially pleases Vin Steponaitis,a University of North Carolina archaeol-ogist, who has a longstanding interest

in the archaeology of the Lower Mississippi Valley. Stepon-aitis, who also directs the archaeology research laborato-ries at the university, has been a member of the Conser-vancy since its early days. He joined the board in 2000,

delighted to be associated with an organ-ization he terms “essential.” He nowserves as the Conservancy’s chairman.

Steponaitis explains, “On both stateand federal levels, the legal structure inthe U.S. is set up to protect sites on pub-lic lands. In the face of developmentpressure, the only way to save sites onprivate land is to purchase the land.”

Though the POINT program hasadded speed and maneuverability to theConservancy’s acquisitions, slow andsteady sometimes still wins the race. An-drews Ranch, a Chacoan outlier about 25miles south of the great houses alongChaco Wash, was acquired in 1993 afternearly 13 years of negotiations, provingthat persistence pays.

So does diplomacy. The most com-plex acquisitions, according to Michel, often involve multi-ple owners who don’t get along. More than once, the Con-

Chaco Canyon Anasazi. At the Barton site in northwestMaryland archaeologist Bob Wall has discovered a hearthand stone tools that may be approximately 16,000 yearsold. Should further research confirm these findings, Bar-ton would be one of the oldest knownsites in the country.

It still surprises Last “how quicklymajor sites are on the verge of disap-pearing.” He decided to do somethingabout it, launching one of the Conser-vancy’s most successful ventures, theProtect Our Irreplaceable National Trea-sures program or POINT. In fall 2000,Last pledged a million-dollar challengeamount for emergency acquisitions,specifically for those projects in whichhaving cash on hand would make thedifference between preserving a site orlosing it to development. For example,the Smokes Creek site, a 17th-centuryIroquois village south of present-dayBuffalo, New York, would have beenswallowed by suburbia if cash-poor de-velopers hadn’t agreed to a deal with the Conservancy.Today, thanks to POINT funds, the village is a seven-acre

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1980 1994

2000

2001

TAC beginsoperations

Opening of firstregional office

POINT is established

100th site,Lamb Spring,

is acquired

American Archaeologymagazine launches

200th site,Maddox Island,

is acquired

1987 1997

Volunteers often play an important role in the Conservancy’s efforts. Several of them stabilize a stone

wall in this photograph taken at Atkeson Pueblo on Oak Creek in Arizona.

Jay Last helped found the Conservancy. He

continues to play an important role in the

organization.

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servancy has played a peacemaker role amongfamily disputes. Conservancy staffers also knowtax and property laws, and occasionally need to re-solve challenges that are less about legalities and moreabout logistics.

One site, a Mississippian village mound in easternArkansas, was inhabited by a small community. The pres-ence of people and homes on top of the mound actuallypreserved it over the years, keeping it from being looted.Lot by lot, the Conservancy acquired the mound site.

One owner, however, was particularly reluctant to sellher home despite Michel’s many visits, featuring hoursspent rocking on the owner’s front porch and talking toher about the site. “You know, I don’t think there’s any-thing here,” she confided. At last, she agreed to sell, with

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30 winter • 2004-05

one condition—that the Conservancy relocate her…andher house. “The house needed to be moved across a bigfield, and it got stuck in the mud,” Michel remembers. “Itwas touch and go for awhile, but it worked out well in theend for everyone.”

The former owner still lives in her beloved home,now located in town across from a community center forseniors. When archaeologists began working at the sitewhere her house once stood, they recovered burials con-taining two effigy pots shaped to resemble human heads.

“That was an interesting project,”Michel says, “and one of my favorites inthat we were able to acquire the land for apark 30 miles from Memphis.” The 17-acresite, likely the village of Casqui mentionedin Hernando de Soto’s 1541 expeditionrecords, is known today as Parkin MoundArcheological State Park. The park, whichnow serves as a research station of theArkansas Archeological Survey, also in-cludes an interpretive exhibit area.

Acquiring sites can be the result of care-ful planning or of fortuitous opportunity.The Conservancy’s vice president and direc-tor of the Southwest regional office, JimWalker, describes the systematic acquisitionprocess, used in the mid-1980s to acquireSinagua culture sites in the rapidly growingVerde Valley area of central Arizona. “The

The Conservancy’s

Stallings Island preserve had to be

cleared of thick vegetation in preparation for a

University of Florida dig in June of 1999. The logistics

were complicated. The site is in the middle of an island with

no dock or boat landing and there are no barges on that part of

the Savannah River, so we couldn’t move a tractor and bush mower

to the island. High voltage lines that cross the island prevented us

from moving this equipment by helicopter. Two nearby municipal drink-

ing water intakes precluded using herbicides. We tried clearing the site

by hand in March, but progress was too slow. So we resorted to goats.

Goats will eat any vegetation. I purchased a herd of goats and

transported them through downtown Atlanta during the morning rush

hour. SCANA Energy employees provided a boat and their goat wran-

gling skills to help me move the herd to the island. The job proved to

be too big even for the goats, and we ended up clearing a lot of

the site by hand. The goats became a novelty to the field school

students and occasionally a nuisance. On several mornings

the crew would arrive and find a goat stuck in an

excavation unit.

—Alan Gruber, Southeast Regional Director

University of Florida researchers investigate the Stallings Island site. The Conservancy resorted

to a novel, but not entirely successful, approach—using a herd of goats to clear the land.


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Conservancy begins by asking archaeologists working in aregion or state to provide a list of what they consider to besignificant sites on private land,” he says.

Based on this, the Conservancy will create a prioritylist of as many as 20 sites and begin researching owner-ship. Property owners are contacted and asked if they areaware of the archaeological resources on their land. TheConservancy will then request a meeting and go out onthe property with the landowner to view the site. “When Isee a feature or resource that has been undisturbed forthe last 20 or 30 years, I know that property owner hasthought at least once about who will protect the resourceafter he or she is gone,” explains Walker. “These are thelandowners I really like to meet.”

Walker joined the Conservancy in 1981, with “a newlyminted” MBA, an undergraduate degree in anthropology,and experience selling real estate. “I didn’t understandthen the motivation of those people who’d been protect-ing sites on their land. I was surprised the first time alandowner donated property. Now I’m surprised whenthey don’t.” Most of the Conservancy’s 300 acquisitions in39 states have been partial or total donations, the “perfectsolution,” according to Walker, for those who want to seetheir legacy of protection continued.

Sometimes acquisitions are the result of opportunityrather than planning. The Conservancy often works withdevelopers who’ve discovered archaeological resourcesand who need solutions that will help them satisfy federalpermitting requirements, or who seek alternatives to miti-gation through excavation. “I can prove to a developer thatif he is dealing with a complex site, one with habitations or

In 1984 a developer friend of

mine was grading a new street for a subdi-

vision he was building when human bones were

unearthed, halting construction. Archaeologists dis-

covered a well-preserved burial mound from which they re-

covered the remains of 125 individuals. They estimate that

more than 1,000 individuals could be buried in the mound. The

subdivision, which consists of million-dollar homes situated along

the Sacramento River, was subsequently built around the mound.

I lived down the street from the site so I frequently drove by it,

pondering its fate as I passed. In 2001 I became the Conservancy’s

Western regional director, and in 2003 I found myself negotiating

with the developer to acquire the site. The developer, who is very suc-

cessful and is involved in numerous projects, apparently forgot

about the small lot on which half of the mound is located. At my

behest, he agreed to donate the land to the Conservancy.

Another developer owns the other half of the site,

which now known as Souza Mound. I’m now working

to acquire that portion of the mound.

—Gene Hurych, Western Regional Director


other features, it is cheaper to donate the property forpreservation than it is to excavate,” says Walker. The solu-tion is often creative and innovative—preserving a site aspart of the rough in a golf course, for example. For devel-opers who hesitate, Walker jokes that he keeps a copy ofSteven Spielberg’s movie Poltergeist in his briefcase.

Typically, the Conservancy will enter into a one- or two-year-option agreement with the landowner, and then seekfunding. Where option agreements aren’t possible, POINTfunds are used. Once a site is acquired, the property isfenced. If there is existing damage, the site is mapped and

Denis and Marcia Boon donated Boon Pueblo in southwestern Colorado’s

Montezuma Valley. Boon is a Pueblo I (A.D. 700–900) site, which are rarely

found in this area.

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think anyone predicted how strong the response wouldbe in other parts of the country.”

Membership, now more than 20,000, tripled since thedebut of American Archaeology in 1997. The magazinepublishes articles about archaeology in North America aswell as the Conservancy’s latest acquisitions and researchtaking place on its preserves. The magazine also has infor-mation about archaeological tours—ranging from Missis-sippian mound complexes to Maya cities to Peruviantombs—that the Conservancy organizes and leads.

During its early years, The Archaeological Conser-vancy managed to preserve about four sites annually. Re-cently it’s saved about 30 sites a year. “We hope to expandthat in the future. Over the next 10 years, we’d like tomore than double the number of sites under our protec-tion, adding 500 or more,” says Michel. “While we willcontinue to add sites in the Southwest, we are adding em-phasis to other parts of the country.” The plan is to targetareas where the Conservancy’s presence isn’t yet felt, par-ticularly the Plains and New England states.

In 2004, the Conservancy added its first site in NorthDakota. The Biesterfeldt site is an 18th-century village be-lieved to be Cheyenne, though researchers have notedMandan and Arikara influences, including a large ceremo-nial lodge. Because the site’s future is now assured, ar-chaeologists will be able to investigate how and when theCheyenne, a settled horticultural Eastern Woodlands tribe,pushed west and took to hunting bison.

The peopling of this continent, from Clovis huntersto Plains tribes to Euro-American settlers to African-Amer-

ican slaves, is a story that continues to unfold. TheConservancy is determined that that story be told.

KATHLEEN BRYANT is a freelance writer whose work has appeared in Arizona Highways, Plateau Journal, and Sunset.

In July of 1995, I re-

ceived a call from David Pancake of

Capon Bridge, West Virginia. Pancake, whose

name suggested a character in children’s fiction, was

a man grappling with an ominous fact. Capon Bridge was

the site of Fort Edwards, a key defensive work on the Virginia

frontier during the French and Indian War. Hampshire County, for

which Pancake served as economic development director, hoped to

acquire and develop the land as a historical park, but the property had

been sold to a developer who was planning to make it a mobile home

community. However, the developer was willing to sell the three-acre prop-

erty for $30,000 if the deal could be completed in 45 days.

Apparently Pancake had spent a long, unsuccessful morning cold-call-

ing foundations in a desperate attempt to raise the money. When told that

buying endangered archaeological sites on short notice was a specialty of

ours, he could only manage an incredulous “What?” After traveling to

Capon Bridge, I concluded we should buy the site. The Conservancy

acted so expeditiously that the 45-day deadline was met with over a

month to spare.

In 1999 the Conservancy transferred ownership of the site

to the Fort Edwards Foundation, and in 2001 I attended

the opening of the Fort Edwards visitor center.

—Paul Gardner, Midwest Regional Director

32 winter • 2004-05

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backfilled to protect it. The cost is hours, weeks, sometimeseven years of work, and of course, money.

The Conservancy’s annual budget runs about $3 mil-lion. “This is not a whole lot of money as far as things go,”Michel says. “We pride ourselves on getting a lot donewith the resources we have. Of course, with more funding,we could accomplish a great deal more.”

Funding comes mostly from member contributions.The Conservancy also receives support from a wide rangeof foundations all over the country, and from governmentsources. Much of this money is targeted for specific proj-ects. Raising needed money during the past couple ofyears has been tough, Michel admits, and yet the Conser-vancy continues to expand.

From a small group of people with a common pur-pose, the Conservancy has grown into “a large, stable,widely recognized organization, reflecting a lot of hardwork on the part of many,” says Last.

The Conservancy currently has regional offices inSacramento, Atlanta, Albuquerque, Columbus, and Wash-ington, D.C. The board encompasses business leaders,professional archaeologists, and conservationists, includ-ing Stewart Udall, Secretary of the Interior under presi-dents Kennedy and Johnson. Udall says that he haswatched with “delight and amazement” the Conservancy’sgrowth from a small, Southwestern-based organization tothe national organization it is todayss, adding, “I don’t



The Collier Lodge site is located about 10 milessouth of Valparaiso in northwest Indiana. Thesite is close to, and named after, the now-dilapi-dated Collier Lodge, which was built in 1898. Inits glory days, the lodge hosted hunters who

came from as far as Europe to shoot waterfowl. On a per-fect summer day a group made up overwhelmingly of vol-unteers was busily excavating this site in search of evi-dence of its former inhabitants—the Potawatomi NativeAmericans who were dislocated in an ominous-soundingera known as the Removal Period.

“One of our goals has been to understand the diversestrategies that Native Americans used toresist or adapt to removal,” saidMark R. Schurr, an archae-ologist with the Uni-

versity of Notre Dame who directed the investigation. “Ini-tially, I thought all the Native Americans had been re-moved from the area. But I started to find out that therewere a lot that resisted removal.”

“After the War of 1812, a lot of the veterans werepromised land,” said Ben Secunda, a graduate student inAmerican history at Notre Dame who is writing his disser-tation on the Potawatomi and providing historical infor-mation for Schurr’s investigation. “Consequently, the gov-ernment wanted to take the Indians’ land and move themwest of the Mississippi River. They wanted to make Kansasand Oklahoma one big Indian reservation.”

The federal government consideredthe tribes to be sovereign na-

tions, Schurr said, andtherefore the


RESISTING REMOVALIn the early 19th century the federal government removed many Native Americans from their lands. But some were able to resist the government’s effort. Archaeologist Mark Schurr is discovering how some Native Americans successfully resisted removal.

By Cliff Terry

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The Potawatomi probably camped in traditional wigwams, but government land payments made it possible for them to buy many manufactured goods, such as

kettles, rifles, and cloth. Their selective blending of new ways with old ones is reflected in the archaeological remains found at these sites.

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government tried to effect removal by methods other thanforce. The Removal Period started in 1795 with the Treatyof Greenville, the first major treaty in which local NativeAmerican tribes started to cede land in what was thenknown as the Old Northwest (now Indiana, Michigan, Illi-nois, Wisconsin, Ohio).

“We know a lot about the people who voluntarily par-ticipated in removal or who were unsuccessful in resistingit,” Schurr explained. “But we know almost nothing aboutthose who were successful in their resistance. And therewere quite a large number of these. Reviews of treaty andland records show they were peppered across the land-scape. The big question is, how did they do it? How couldthey resist what most people think of as the unstoppabletide of American expansion?

“One thing we have learned is that there was no onestrategy. Instead, there were many, some very successfuland some not. We’ve become very interested in learningmore about these diverse strategies. And because most ofthose who were successful are largely invisible in historicalrecords, we are using archaeological methods to help us ex-plore this complex topic and try to answer our questions.”

S I N C E 1 9 9 6 , S C H U R R H A SWORKED AT SITES OF NATIVEAmericans who successfully resisted removal,such as the Bennac Village in the PotawatomiWildlife Park in north-central Indiana, andthe Pokagon Village in southwest Michigan,

and these investigations have resulted in theories abouthow different strategies are reflected in material culture.

This historical photograph of Collier Lodge indicates what a popular destination it once was. The location on the edge of the marsh, on the main channel

of the Kankakee River, allowed sportsmen to travel by boat from the lodge to their favorite hunting or fishing spots. This area was also an attractive spot for

prehistoric and historic peoples who wanted to use the abundant wild resources.

Leopold Pokagon and his followers resorted to Christianity and economic

self-sufficiency to resist removal.

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But he wanted data from a site where the Native Ameri-cans were removed to test his theories against, and CollierLodge, which he learned of from the Kankakee Valley His-torical Society, a local organization, fit that description. “Itmay be, even if they tried to resist removal, they didn’tsucceed,” said Schurr. “However, we still need more infor-mation. We need to see if we can find records that wouldlocate specific Native Americans at a specific date. Was it aseasonal camp, or did some Potawatomi actually live onthe site for a while? The artifacts suggest more than just abrief occupation.”

“Teddy Roosevelt reputedly hunted at Collier Lodge,and it seems, so did Lew Wallace, who wrote Ben-Hur andwho had property here,” said John Hodson, president ofthe historical society, which plans to restore the structure.“We have a statement that Grover Cleveland hunted here,and we know that Benjamin Harrison was here after hewas elected President. He came out and got lost. A localfarmer found him and took him in for the night. After that,he received seeds from the White House for 20 years.” Inits not-so-glorious days, after the hunting died out, the

lodge was turned into a store, motorcycle club hangout,and even a brothel.

On this morning in the second week of the three-week dig, about 30 volunteers were outfitted with shovels,trowels, root clippers, brushes, and dustpans. Schurr usedremote sensing to locate what were presumed to be ar-chaeological deposits. Schurr’s crew then dug a series ofsmall holes at 15-foot intervals, examining the soil profilesand screening the excavated dirt for artifacts that werelater taken to a nearby barn that served as a field lab. En-ergetic and enthusiastic, Schurr was a patient teacher, dis-pensing advice and an occasional admonition, as in thecase when one volunteer started digging into a featurethat obviously was supposed to be left intact.

Last year Schurr conducted a two-day survey of theCollier Lodge site. He and his crew found historic ceram-ics dating to the Removal Period, which seemed to be con-centrated in a relatively small area. The site had neverbeen plowed, so there were some relatively deep archaeo-logical deposits and the chance to find intact features.

“We’ve found a lot of pottery that was imported from


Judy Judge and Tom DeCola prepare to check the depth of their excavation unit with a line level. Their unit contained a prehistoric trash pit dating to about

A.D. 1350. Animal bones from that trash pit will be compared with the kinds of animals consumed by the Removal Period Potawatomi.

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England dating to the 1820s and 1830s,” he said. “At thattime, Native Americans were pretty wealthy. They weregetting annuities, or annual payments, for land cessation.It’s all stuff that was imported from the Staffordshire pot-teries, which gives us the right time period. Staffordshirewas responsible for all the fine earthenware (plates, bowls,cups, etc.) that was available during the Removal Period.Their styles were distinctive, and American potteries werenot producing similar quality wares.” They also found Na-tive American artifacts similar to those found at other re-moval sites such as scrap brass (probably from producingclothing decorations), small round beads that were alsoused to decorate clothing, and a fragment of hand-carvedsandstone pipe identical to one found at Pokagon Village.

SCHURR CONCLUDED THAT THEPOTAWATOMI AT POKAGONVillage who had successfully resisted re-moval were all living in fairly substantial logcabins with brick fireplaces and glass win-dows. He found large amounts of brick frag-

ments, window glass, and nails that he at first assumedwere from a later pioneer occupation. However, the ar-chaeological evidence—the ceramics predated the pio-

neers—corroborated by historical records, indicate thatsome Native Americans did indeed live in cabins. Thosewho resided in the traditional wigwam weren’t as success-ful in resistance. Wigwams were serviceable for a migratorysociety practicing some farming and living off of wild gameand other resources. But this way of life became increas-ingly less viable as other settlers moved in to the area andthe game diminished. The notion of finding better huntingwest of the Mississippi was a major incentive for thePotawatomi who voluntarily participated in removal.

It appears that the Potawatomi were living in tradi-tional housing at Collier Lodge. Though brick was discov-ered at the site, it seems to be associated with potterystyles from the 1840s, which is after the Removal Periodand during a time when white settlers occupied the site.

“The difference between living in a cabin versus a wig-wam is actually an indication of how deeply they were em-bedded in the traditional subsistence system, which wasmigratory with the seasons,” he said. “Those who lived ina cabin had the resources to stay tethered to one areaprobably almost all the time, and, for whatever reason,

Mark Schurr sprays a light mist of water on an excavation floor to bring

out subtle soil colors. Because the site was occupied off and on for at

least 2,500 years, careful excavation is necessary to isolate Removal

Period features from those of other eras.

Many of the volunteers who worked at the site were very experienced. Art

Geary, Chrissina Burke, and Charlotte Cable all have degrees in anthropolo-

gy and prior field experience that they put to good use to map a feature.

The feature is a brick layer that was probably part of a previously undocu-

mented structure.

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that made it possible, or easier, for them to resist removal.This is something I’m still working out, and will be a bigpart of future work at the site.”

A faunal expert will identify the numerous animalbones that were recovered during the excavation. Schurrbelieves that if the Potawatomi were practicing traditionalsubsistence, evidence of wild, rather than domesticatedanimals such as cows, pigs, and chickens, should predom-inate, as it does at other Native American sites from thistime period. Once the bones are identified and quantified,assumptions about diet can be made. For example, at Pok-agon Village, it’s thought that the residents ate mostlypork and beef. There’s virtually no evidence of wild ani-mals like deer and fish being consumed.

Schurr’s teams found evidence of two different strate-gies to prevent removal at the Pokagon and Bennac sites.Leader Leopold Pokagon and his followers developed tiesto Christian missionaries—first Baptists, and then RomanCatholics after the Baptists became pro-removal. “Theyseem to have consciously used these ties to develop eco-nomic self-sufficiency, adapting to traditional farming prac-tices and division of labor,” Schurr noted. “They claimed aspecial status as the Catholic Potawatomi as a reason thatthey should not be removed, and used economic self-suf-ficiency to free themselves from dependence on govern-ment treaty payments.

“At Bennac, it appears that this band’s leader, StephenBennac, emphasized the French portion of his mixed eth-nic identity—he was mixed Potawatomi and French—tomake himself appear less Indian. His daughter, Mary Ann,briefly married a white American interpreter namedJoseph McCartney, who worked for the government dur-ing the removals, and she and her father were able to gettitles to several sections of land. Unlike Pokagon, the resi-

dents of Bennac’s village were removed or dispersed, andBennac used the land solely for his own family.”

Having recovered abundant collections of British ce-ramics from Pokagan and Bennac, they compared thequality of the respective assemblages in order to assess theeconomic status of the sites’ occupants. The Bennac sitehad the better pottery, suggesting that Bennac and hisfamily enjoyed a relatively affluent lifestyle, a conclusionsupported by historical records. “Of course, we are look-ing forward to plugging the Collier Lodge ceramics intothis comparison to see where they will fit—providing agood clue as to the economic status of unsuccessful re-sisters,” Schurr said.

The faunal assemblage at Pokagon was dominated bydomesticated animals, a discovery that, at the time, sur-prised them, as it was a sharp contrast to the assemblagesof other known Native American sites that consisted pri-marily of wild animal remains. Further historical researchinto the ecology and economics of life at Pokagon sug-gested that they were keeping livestock; there are histori-cal accounts of annuity payments in the form of hogs andcattle, and of treaty provisions such as having fences built.“That explained the unusual faunal assemblage verynicely,” Schurr pointed out. “Pokagon also produced someother interesting artifacts, including fragments of slatewriting boards. Apparently, they were attempting to im-prove their level of literacy.”

At Bennac, they found evidence of one cabin and per-haps a number of wigwams that were occupied seasonallyfor a short period of time; at Pokagon there was evidenceof at least two cabins and one chapel, and two separatemiddens in different parts of the site, the contents ofwhich apparently accumulated over perhaps two decades.“Based on that data, it appears that the inhabitants of


Removal Period artifacts like the blue shell-edged plate rim sherd (far left) and a ribbed white clay pipe bowl fragment (center) were imported from Europe

and show that the Potawatomi could afford to buy luxury goods. The other artifacts are prehistoric sherds and stone tool fragments that would have been

manufactured on or near the site. They are very similar to the types of things used by the Potawatomi several centuries before European contact.

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Pokagon were much more sedentary, and that Pokagonmay have been a more effective leader at holding hiscommunity together for a longer period of time,” Schurrsurmised. “As our research continues, we assume we willsee strategies other than these that succeeded, and somethat were tried and failed.”

THE “TERMINAL INCIDENT” OF THEREMOVAL PERIOD, accordingto Schurr, took place at a Potawatomi settle-ment outside of Plymouth in north-central In-diana after 1837. Frustrated by the mixed suc-cess it had in removing the Native Americans,

the federal government resorted to force. Secunda saidthe Potawatomi “were literally rounded up by ropes, lassos,and taken right out on a Sunday morning during churchservices.” In 1830, Congress passed the Indian Removal Actthat stripped Native Americans of title to their lands east ofthe Mississippi in exchange for ownership of lands west ofthe river. Removal thereby became mandatory, but Schurrsaid it took approximately 10 years to implement the law.

Around noon at Collier Lodge, everyone broke for a hotdog and potato chip lunch, then resumed work. But by lateafternoon, the number of volunteers dropped off consider-

ably. “We peak around the lunch hour,” Schurr said with awry smile. “Only the diehards are left at the end of the day.”

The Collier Lodge artifacts are being analyzed at a labat Notre Dame. “It will probably take the next year just toorganize everything, let alone really understand the com-plex archaeological record of the site,” he said. “At thePokagon Village site, domesticated animals provided mostof the meat in the diet, and fish were virtually absent. Thepattern at Collier Lodge seems to indicate much more re-liance on wild animals. It will be interesting to see if thatworks out when the fauna are analyzed. The relative im-portance of wild versus domesticates is clearly a key issuein how people adapted to their environment.”

Schurr hopes to return to the site to find more evi-dence of Removal Period structures such as postholes andfloors. “We have sampled only a small portion of the site,”he said. “We have a lot of work ahead of us.”

CLIFF TERRY is a Chicago-based free-lance writer and former staff writerfor the Chicago Tribune.

For more information about Mark Schurr’s Removal Period investigation, visit the Web site www.nd.edu/~mschurr/Removal_Project.htm.

Schurr’s crew works at the site. The building that was once the renowned Collier Lodge is seen in the background. Schurr said scholars know a good deal

about the Native Americans who agreed to be removed, but very little about those who successfully resisted removal.

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Fran Crawford and Karen Scott sat side by side inthe forest, the bottom edge of their two-leggedscreen propped against their knees. Crawford’shand swept over the dirt still remaining on theone-eighth-inch mesh after a vigorous sifting.

Her fingers deftly brushed aside small clods and pebblesto reveal the glint from a small obsidian projectile point.“Wahoo!” she cried.

After congratulating her neighbor, Scott returned to in-

tently screening her bucket of dirt until she too found asmall point and could erupt in a “Wahoo” while exuberantlypumping the air with her fist. For a moment, with amateurarchaeologists acting as if they had just won the jackpot atthe slots, the site seemed more like a Las Vegas casino thana remote forest campground in southern Oregon.

But they were miles away from the bright lights of anycity, spending a midsummer week at the Apple CreekCampground, which was closed to the public for the two-


(Left) The PIT crew excavates a unit at the Apple Creek Campground. In the background people are screening excavated dirt for tiny artifacts. (Right)

Volunteer Everett Peterson works in a deep unit. It’s believed that the site once served as a hunting camp.

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A Passportto the PastThe USDA Forest Service’s Passport in Timeprogram offers volunteers an opportunity toparticipate in archaeological investigationsthroughout the country. By Susan G. Hauser

Passport P39-43 11/17/04 3:44 PM Page 39

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week duration of an excavation. The campground, whichwas established 70 years ago, is covered by the shade of firand pine trees on the shore of the scenic North UmpquaRiver. Millennia ago, this site also served as a campgroundfor the earliest inhabitants of the North Umpqua Basin.

Crawford and Scott were among 10 women and menparticipating in Passport in Time (PIT), a volunteer ar-chaeology and historic preservation program of the USDAForest Service, in which members of the public can workin various projects across the country, including digs con-ducted by Forest Service archaeologists. There is no fee toparticipate, but transportation and lodging is at the volun-teers’ expense. At Apple Creek Campground, two groupsof PIT volunteers, each working for five-day sessions,stayed at the campsites.

The archaeologists and volunteers were excavating testunits in a section of the site on which the Forest Serviceplanned to build a new toilet. In accordance with the Na-tional Historic Preservation Act, the Forest Service evaluatesprospective construction sites on its lands to determine ifarchaeological resources will be disturbed by a constructionproject. The archaeologists proposed recommendationsthat included building the toilet where it will have the leasteffect on those resources.

Archaeologist Gordon Peters thought that the public would gladly

participate in Forest Service projects. His belief led to the creation of PIT.

These volunteers conducted test excavations at the Anton Chico Hacienda to learn about life on the Pecos River in New Mexico in the late 19th and early

20th centuries. The hacienda was a 10-12-room structure built of sandstone and limestone blocks. The volunteers also stabilized the deteriorating structure.


PIT


Isaac Barner, an archaeologist onloan from the Bureau of Land Manage-ment, directed the Apple Creek proj-ect. To ensure adequate supervision,PIT projects typically have one archae-ologist per three volunteers. JohnDraper, another archaeologist in-volved in the project, was watching asthe volunteers painstakingly removedlayers of dirt from the four adjacenttest units, two of which were nearlyfour feet deep. Crawford was the mostexperienced of the volunteers. In1991, she and her late husband de-cided that traveling throughout theWest to participate in PIT projectswould become their new hobby. Theyvolunteered for two or three projectsa year until his death four years ago.After a two-year absence, Crawfordhad recently returned to PIT. This washer second project of the year. “I con-tinue doing the things we loved to dotogether,” she said. “I like the feeling that I’ve contributedand helped.”

Indeed, PIT’s National Coordinator, Jill Osborn, saidthat without the volunteers—24,000 since PIT’s 1989 in-ception—Forest Service archaeologists would have hadneither the time nor the budget to accomplish all thework that’s been done during the program. The ForestService estimates the value of PIT volunteer work at $17.7million, but Osborn thinks the real value of the program ishard to measure. “The fact that we have a public out there

that is interested in what we do and wants to help is hugefor us,” she said from her Boise office. “We simply wouldnot get the work done without them. But, it’s not just thework that gets accomplished, which is significant, but thevolunteers’ support of historic preservation—their advo-cacy—that is also valuable beyond measure.”

Passport in Time was the idea of Gordon Peters, a For-est Service archaeologist in the Superior National Forest inMinnesota. While he was working on a project next to abusy thoroughfare, many people stopped and asked a

multitude of questions about it. Itmade him wonder if there wasenough interest to get the publicinvolved in Forest Service archae-ological projects. In 1989 he ad-vertised for volunteers for the firstPIT project and was overwhelmedby the response.

Peters persuaded the agency’schief archaeologist to find some-one to turn his concept into a na-tional program. Osborn, an archae-ologist who was then working inthe Deschutes National Forest incentral Oregon, was hired. “I wasin the right place at the right timeand had long believed in the im-portance of involving the publicbecause of the fresh view theybrought to archaeology and be-cause we simply needed publicsupport of historic preservation.”


A PIT crew surveyed an area of shore line along the Prince of Wales Island via kayak. There is evidence that

humans occupied sites in this area more than 9,000 years ago. The crew monitored the conditions of

recorded sites and searched for indications of undocumented sites.

Volunteers documented severe looting at Ricketts Bluff Shelter in Arkansas’s Ozark-St. Francis National

Forest. The crew also documented rock art at various locations around the area. The work was part PIT’s

Rock Art Documentation and Bluff Shelter Stabilization project.


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In 1991 she took PIT national. “We knew there werelots of people interested in archaeology because, after all,Indiana Jones proved that,” she said. “But we were sur-prised at the sophistication of the public’s knowledge. Thevolunteers bring a huge amount of information, experi-ence, not to mention enthusiasm, to the projects.”

Over the years there have been nearly 2,000 PIT proj-ects of various types. Volunteers have restored 250 historicstructures, stabilized 42 sites, evaluated 620 sites for inclu-sion in the National Register of Historic Places, transcribedabout 100 oral histories, conducted archival research andlab work, developed interpretive materials, and monitoredwilderness areas for vandalism. PIT archaeological projectshave taken place at Civil War battlefields in the EasternU.S. and Gold Rush–era Chinese mining sites in the West.Prehistoric cliff dwellings, hunting camps, burial mounds,and pithouse villages have also been investigated. Volun-teers help with every phase of an archaeological project,from the excavation to the processing and curation of arti-facts. Volunteers are issued a dark green passport with thePIT logo embossed in gold. At the completion of eachproject, the passport is stamped and the hours arerecorded. To date, passport holders have racked up morethan 1.1 million hours of volunteer work.

More than 40 people applied for the two five-day ses-sions at Apple Creek. “We try to get a mix of people withand without experience,” said Barner. “We try to get somewith experience to help the new ones. Typically, the back-grounds are varied. There are families with kids, retirees,

and lots of teachers.” At Apple Creek Campground, onlyone of the volunteers, Karen Scott, was not a PIT veteranand she was there because her son, Brian, had invited herto join him on this, his eighth PIT dig.

While determining the best location for the new toilet,the crew also worked to learn more about the early occu-pation of the North Umpqua Basin. The stone projectilepoints and tools, as well as the flakes from their manufac-ture, provided information about activities carried out atthe site. About 10 years earlier, a small portion of the AppleCreek site had been tested in advance of a road construc-tion project. At that time, broad-stemmed and foliate pro-jectile points from a Middle Archaic component led ar-chaeologists to believe that the site was first occupiedabout 6,000 years ago.

“It probably wasn’t a village location,” said Draper. “Itwasn’t occupied continuously and there might have beenan occupation gap of a few thousand years.” More thanlikely, he said, it was a hunting camp, as evidenced by thenumber of broken points and scrapers, used for workinghides, that were found during the excavation. The numer-ous chert and obsidian flakes and the sharpened points in-dicated that this site was also used for making and sharp-ening tools. The crew also discovered a midden thatcontained a significant amount of debris. The middenraised the question of whether there was once a house as-sociated with it, but no evidence of a house was foundduring the project.

Although some of the stone used to make the tools

These small projectile points from the Late Archaic period, and larger dart points from the Middle Archaic, were recovered at Apple Creek Campground.


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could be quarried locally, there was no naturally occurringobsidian in the basin. Obsidian, a volcanic glass, is createdwhen lava cools quickly by coming in contact with water.The closest obsidian sources for the inhabitants of theNorth Umpqua Basin would have been nearly 100 milesaway. Therefore it was obtained for use at Apple Creek bytravel to the sources of the stone.

The source of the obsidian can be identified throughthe stone’s chemical “fingerprint” that is associated withdistinct geographic locations. X-ray fluorescence analysisis used to measure trace element concentrations in ob-sidian, which vary by geographic source. One of Draper’stasks was to send a sample of obsidian tools and flakesfound during the dig to a laboratory to determine itssource, which in turn can provide information abouttrade networks.

Volunteer Charles Beckerer was satisfied that he hadmade a few significant contributions to the project after daysof screening multiple buckets of dirt. He spied the glint ofobsidian and uncovered a dart point one day, and then an-other the next day. “It is luck, whoever gets the rightbucket,” he observed.

This was Beckerer’s third PIT dig. He applied for thefirst one at the suggestion of a friend. “Archaeology wasjust a curiosity, not an interest,” he said. Now, however, hereads extensively on the subject and is planning a trip toEgypt that will include archaeology classes and visits tomuseums and sites along the Nile.

Osborn said participants’ growing interest in archae-

ology is just one of the “intangibles” of the PIT programthat can’t be measured in dollars or hours. Enthusiasticvolunteers such as Beckerer and others like him helpspread the word about the importance of historic preser-vation. Furthermore, their excitement puts zing into thesometimes plodding and bureaucratic work of Forest Ser-vice archaeologists.

Osborn said, “I had a lot of archaeologists come to mein the first few years of PIT and say, ‘You know what? Wehad forgotten what great jobs we had. We had forgottenthat the archaeology is exciting, the discovery is exciting.We’ve got great jobs and the volunteers remind us of that.’”

Many of the volunteers plan their vacations to coin-cide with the projects and travel from state to state. Os-born said that although working on a PIT project is enjoy-able, no one should lose sight of the fact that thevolunteers’ work makes for a significant contribution tothe archaeological record. “Just because it’s fun doesn’tmean we’re not getting serious work done,” she said. “Andwe are. It’s not just entertaining the public. It’s a value tothe science.”

SUSAN G. HAUSER has written for The Wall Street Journal and theNew York Times.

To learn more about the Passport In Time program and the volunteeropportunities it offers, visit the Web site, www.passportintime.com. Theprogram also publishes the PIT Traveler, a biannual newsletter. To receivea free copy, call (800) 281-9176 or send an e-mail to [email protected]


Fran Crawford screens dirt in search of artifacts at Apple Creek Campground. Crawford was one of 10 volunteers working at the site. PIT’s many volunteers

make an important contribution to the archaeological record.

Passport P39-43 11/23/04 2:00 AM Page 43

A nyone familiar with agriculturein Mississippi knows that someof the state’s finest farm land is

located in the heart of the Yazoo Basinalong a former Mississippi River chan-nel called Deer Creek. This fertile landwas first exploited by the region’s earli-est farmers, the Mississippians, whobuilt mounds and grew corn, beans,and squash at places along DeerCreek’s banks like the Cary Moundssite, which is named after the west-cen-tral Mississippi town where it’s found.The landowner, David Klaus, recentlydonated the site to the Conservancy.

Originally, the site consisted ofthree mounds. The largest of the three,Mound A, which is approximately 22feet in height, is still visible. It is possi-ble that portions of the other twomounds remain, but are obscured bythick vegetation and a surroundingneighborhood.

Because of its location, Mound Ahas served as sort of a playground forlocals. Bicycle and ATV trails have

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A Site With Unusual PotteryBy preserving Cary Mounds, the Conservancy will allow researchers the opportunity to examine its curious ceramics.

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caused erosion. While the majority ofpeople living around the site are veryprotective of it, Klaus recalled that hisuncle, from whom he inherited theland, was concerned about rumors ofpeople removing human remains fromthe site. His uncle unsuccessfully ex-plored the possibility of donating theland to an organization that would pro-tect its resources.

Meanwhile, Mississippi’s formerState Archaeologist, Cliff Jenkins, for-tuitously remembered his father men-tioning a mound in his childhoodhometown of Cary. Jenkins visited themound and, realizing it would makean excellent preserve, he informed theConservancy. The Conservancy in turncontacted Klaus, who was happy to ful-fill his uncle’s desire to see the moundprotected and generously agreed todonate it.

Pottery samples from the CaryMounds site are certainly of the Missis-

Mound A at the Cary Mounds site is eroding due to bicycle and ATV traffic.

sippian Period (A.D. 1000); however,the clay used to make the pottery issomewhat different from that foundon the majority of sites in the area.The unusual clay has been docu-mented on a few nearby sites, but notin the quantity observed at CaryMounds, which suggests that it maycome from the site.

In his survey of the Yazoo Basin,published in 1970, Philip Phillips ob-served, “I suspect that what we havehere in the lower reaches of DeerCreek is a hitherto unrecorded lateMississippian complex but will have toleave it as a problem for the future.”Thirty-four years later, this problem re-mains unresolved, and the unusualpottery complex is still unstudied andunnamed. However, with the Conser-vancy’s acquisition of the Cary Moundssite, the answers will remain preservedfor future researchers to address.

—Jessica Crawford

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Glaring down the barrel of her 30-30, my colleague cowering undera nearby juniper, this tiny yet

fiercely determined woman de-manded to know what we weredoing on her property. I explainedthat we were conducting an archaeo-logical survey for the highway de-partment’s planned road-wideningproject. She lowered her gun as shelistened, scrutinizing our clipboardsand compasses and noting the ab-sence of shovels and other imple-ments that would suggest we were infact looters.

This was my first introduction toBillie Russell, a retired master ser-geant who 10 years later donated theLodestar archaeological sites to theConservancy for permanent preser-vation. Determined to protect thesites from looters, she has pulled hergun on other trespassers, some ofwhom she caught with bags of arti-facts taken from her property.

“In the beginning, local artifactcollectors would come around, but Iscared them off,” said Russell. “I lovethat land, and felt the ancients werethere from the time I first walked itin 1992. I made the land a promisethen to preserve it, and I’m sopleased that’s what’s happening.”

Located on a flat mesa top over-looking State Highway 14 in northernNew Mexico’s Galisteo Basin, one ofthe sites, which covers four acres,was first documented during the1994 survey conducted for the NewMexico State Highway and Trans-portation Department. It consists ofa rectangular, possibly two-storiedmasonry roomblock with an esti-mated 12 rooms, a smaller roomblockwith five estimated rooms, a circularmasonry depression, a circular fire-stained area, and an agricultural fea-ture along a terrace just below the


mesa. An abundance of ceramicsherds found at the site date it to be-tween A.D. 1200 and 1600, during theCoalition and Classic periods of thenorthern Rio Grande Valley. A verylarge metate, or grinding stone, wasdiscovered at the site, as well as nu-merous chips of turquoise that likelycame from the Cerrillos Hills just tothe north. Since Archaic times andpossibly earlier, prehistoric peoplesobtained turquoise from veins inthese hills, which they used andtraded with other local Puebloanpeoples, as well as with Plains peo-ples to the east and Mesoamericansto the south.

In addition to this residentialmesa-top site, the property donatedby Russell and her partner Loree Sut-ton contains another 2.5-acre sitethat consists of a long, possibly multi-storied masonry roomblock in thevicinity of a large circular depressionthat may be a pithouse or kiva cere-monial structure.

The sites are located within thecontext of numerous other smallmesa-top sites that are within clear


Galisteo Basin Sites Donated to the ConservancyNorthern New Mexico sites may have been part of extensive prehistoric network.

One of the Galisteo Basin sites features a two-story masonry roomblock with an estimated 12 rooms.

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view of one another, as well as mas-sive San Marcos Pueblo, anotherConservancy preserve located aboutsix miles up the road. If occupied si-multaneously, these sites may haveconstituted some form of prehistoricnetwork that involved visual commu-nication and mesa-top dwelling,while farming was done in the valleysand terraces below. As part of the do-nation agreement, the Conservancywill create a long-term managementplan for the sites, and will undertakelimited testing to better understandthe sites’ functional and temporal af-filiation. —Tamara Stewart

8.4.4 Win 04-5 pg 44-C4 11/17/04 5:27 PM Page 45

T hroughout the last 25 years, archaeologists exca-vated a series of sites in Louisiana that providedtantalizing clues that mound-building traditions

might have reached further back into the past than whatthe scientific orthodoxy suggested. Most Southeasternarchaeologists believed that the people of the MiddleArchaic period were loosely organized bands of no-madic hunter-gatherers. Such bands would not havehad the social complexity nor be sedentary enough tobuild monumental earthworks. Most archaeologists ar-gued that the very old dates obtained from otherLouisiana sites like Monte Sano, Banana Bayou, Hornsby,and the LSU Mounds had to be wrong.

In the midst of this debate, archaeologist Joe Saun-ders took over the new regional archaeologist positionfor northeastern Louisiana in 1989. Shortly thereafter hewas contacted by Elizabeth Thomas in the nearby town ofRuston. She told him that an Indian mound her familyowned had been excavated by “archaeologists” fromLouisiana Tech. Thomas said these people did not haveher permission to come onto her property, and that theyalso refused to backfill the deep trench they had exca-vated. Having informed her that there are no archaeolo-gists employed by Louisiana Tech, Saunders agreed totake a look at the mound.

“To tell the truth, I didn’t initially think it was amound. I thought it could be a natural rise,” he said. But,then Saunders found a stone adze three feet below thesurface in the mound fill. Intrigued by this site known asthe Hedgepeth Mounds in honor of the family whoowned the land (Hedgepeth is Thomas’s maiden name),Saunders set about excavating it in 1992.

He determined that it was in fact a mound. It wasconstructed overan ancient livingsurface and ahearth. A radiocar-bon date fromcharcoal recoveredfrom the hearth in-dicated it was ap-proximately 5,000years old. “I couldnot get a firm dateto prove earlymound construc-tion,” Saunderssaid. “But, there


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Changing Notions of Mound BuildingThe Hedgepeth Mounds have contributed to a better understanding of this ancient tradition.

was no evidence to disprove it either. The best dateswere coming from the submound surface, so I brought insoil scientist Thurmond Allen and geoarchaeologist RolfeMandel to look at the mound sediments. Their analysissupported the 3000 B.C. age of the mound. I think thiswas the first use of pedogenesis for estimating the rela-tive age of a mound in the Southeast.” Simply put, pedo-genesis deals with the formation of soils.

The following summer, Saunders worked at theFrenchman’s Bend Mounds and the next year at WatsonBrake. He obtained multiple radiocarbon dates fromboth sites indicating that pre-ceramic, Middle Archaicperiod mound construction dated to around 3500 to3000 B.C. The pedogenic analysis of those sites revealedsoil development consistent with that at the Hedgepethsite. Saunders presented his work in a paper to the ar-chaeological community in 1995. A short time later, thearchaeology textbooks would have to be rewritten.Saunders’ work confirmed that the mound-building tra-dition in the Southeast extended another 2,000 yearsinto the past.

The Hedgepeth site consists of about 10 acres con-taining two mounds, middens, and habitation areas.After years of wrestling with the question of how to pro-tect it, Thomas and her family decided to donate it tothe Conservancy, which then nominated it to the Na-tional Register of Historic Places. The Conservancy willwork with the Hedgepeth family, Saunders, and otherresearchers to ensure that the site will continue to yieldits secrets and advance our knowledge of the origins ofmound building in the Americas. —Alan Gruber

Mound A at Hedgepeth stands about 18 feet high. It was constructed around

3000 B.C., making it among the oldest earthworks in North America.

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The Monongahela period (A.D.1000–1600) is divided into differ-ent phases defined by different

type sites. The Johnston site is oneof these type sites and it defines thephase of the late Monongahela Cul-tural tradition of which Squirrel Hill,the Conservancy’s newest preservein Pennsylvania, is part. Squirrel Hillis on the Robert Jones ArchaeologicalPreserve located on the ConemoughRiver near the town of New Florance.Robert Jones, a longtime resident ofWestmoreland County who realizedthe need to preserve archaeologicalresources for future researchers, do-nated the site, which is approxi-mately two acres in size.

The Monongahela lived in smallhamlets that were usually near thebanks of large rivers throughoutwestern Pennsylvania, West Virginia,and Ohio. Though they practicedhunting and gathering, the Mononga-hela were the first large-scale agricul-turalists in western Pennsylvania, fo-cusing on corn, beans, and squash.They also grew tobacco, and pipesare frequently found at sites likeSquirrel Hill. As their populationgrew, many new technologies andcultural practices were adopted. Thebow and arrow became the weaponof choice for hunting and warfare.

Most Monongahela sites wereabandoned before European migra-tion into Pennsylvania. But SquirrelHill may have been inhabited until aslate as the early 1600s, which is afterEuropean contact. During this timethe Monongahela may have beenhighly influenced by invading Iro-quoian groups coming from presentday New York and Canada. As Euro-pean populations landed along theEast Coast of North America, Iro-quoian people moved west, cominginto contact with Algonquin peoples.One of these Algonquin tribes mayhave been the Monongahela. John-ston-phase sites have distinctive pot-tery exhibiting classic Monon-gahela styles mixed with anIroquoian style found innorthern Pennsylvania andNew York. This melding ofceramic styles seems to indi-cate contact between groupsduring the terminal Monon-gahela time period.

Recent research sug-



What Became of the Monongahela? The Squirrel Hill site in western Pennsylvania could answer questions regarding the fate of this culture.


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This drawing shows what a small Monongahelan village could have looked like. The Monongahela lived

near large rivers in Western Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Ohio.

Pottery from Squirrel Hill exhibits traits from both

the Monongahela and Iroquoian cultural traditions.

gests environmental changes couldhave adversely affected them. A se-ries of droughts or possibly a phe-nomenon known as the little Ice Age,which lasted from the mid–1400suntil the turn of the century, mayhave cause crop failures and endedthe Monongahela’s way of life.

Squirrel Hill is the Conservancy’sthird acquisition in western Pennsyl-vania in the last 12 months. It’s oneof the most important well pre-served, terminal Monongahela sitesin this part of the state and conse-quently it might harbor informationthat solves the mystery of their fate.

—Joe Navari

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Years of research at Iroquois vil-lage sites in the Niagara Fron-tier region of western New York

State have given archaeologists a re-markable understanding of 16th- andearly 17th-century Iroquois settle-ment and migration patterns. TheEaton site is located on a knoll aboveCazenovia Creek in West Seneca,New York, a suburb of Buffalo. It hasa long history of occupation thatbegan in the Early Archaic (ca. 7000B.C.) and continued through the his-toric period. The site’s major LateWoodland Iroquoian village occupa-tion dates to approximately A.D.1550. Ethnohistoric literature for theNiagara Frontier region indicates thatthe peoples occupying the area dur-ing this period were likely an easternextension of the Erie nation.

“In the 16th and early 17th cen-turies there were two large contem-poraneous communities in westernNew York,” explained William Engel-brecht, a retired archaeologist fromBuffalo State College who has con-ducted extensive research at theEaton site and in the region. “Thesecommunities periodically shiftedtheir location, leaving a series of vil-lage sites.”

The Eaton site and SmokesCreek, another Iroquois village re-cently preserved by the Conservancy(see “The Conservancy AcquiresEarly 17th-Century Iroquois Village”in the Fall 2004 issue), are two suchvillage sites. According to Engel-brecht, the people who lived atSmokes Creek are likely the directdescendants of those who lived atthe Eaton site, which was occupiedsome 50 years later. The area in

which the Eaton site is located wasincluded in the Buffalo Creek IndianReservation in the early 19th centuryand the site contains some artifactsthat date to this period.

Artifact collectors have known ofthe Eaton site since the turn of thecentury; it was then referred to as“Buffalo E” by local collector WardBenedict. The site was first mappedin 1954 by Marian White of the StateUniversity of New York (SUNY) atBuffalo and Charles Gilette of theNew York State Museum, and waslisted in the National Register of His-toric Places in 1979.

Despite farming on the site untilthe early 1950s, gravel quarrying in1967, and the construction of a nurs-ing home in the early 1970s, a signif-icant portion of Eaton remains intactand it has attracted researchers forthe past 30 years. Engelbrecht di-rected 17 field schools at the site be-

tween 1975 and 2000 for SUNY Buf-falo and Buffalo State College withassistance from the Houghton Chap-ter of the New York State Archaeo-logical Association. The field schoolsexcavated 257 units, revealing nu-merous burials, several trash mid-dens, three Iroquoian longhouses,and an apparent palisade consistingof an 18-foot line of wooden postsalong the northern edge of the vil-lage. An additional longhouse wasrecorded during the 1967 gravel

quarrying that took placein the northern portionof the site. The three

longhouses recorded by thefield schools all had similar

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Iroquois Village Preserved The Conservancy acquires the Eaton site in western New York.

Archaeologist William Engelbrecht at the Conservancy’s Smokes Creek site near Buffalo. The Eaton site

preceded Smokes Creek by about 50 years and was probably occupied by the same Iroquoian people.

This clay pipe is among the thousands of

artifacts recovered from the site.

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tremendous research potential.“Although the site has been plowed, significant data re-

garding site structure, group interaction, and resource ac-quisition remains,” said Roderick Salisbury, a graduate stu-dent at SUNY Buffalo who has conducted research atEaton. “Data from the site, when compared with data fromother village sites in the region, has and can continue toyield information about subsistence, settlement, demo-graphic, and technological change in western New Yorkand southern Ontario.”

The Conservancy, which is in the process of acquiringthe Eaton site, will create a long-term management plan toaddress site security, access, and any erosion control issuesrelevant to the site. —Tamara Stewart

N E W P O I N T- 2

a cq u i s i t i o n

features that include interior benches along each wall thatappeared to extend the entire length of the houses, endstorage areas, and apartment divisions, probably for nu-clear families. These longhouse components appear stan-dardized in shape and size and resemble those docu-mented at other Iroquoian proto-historic longhouses.

Artifacts recovered from the site include thousandsof pottery sherds, stone flakes from tool-making, triangu-lar projectile points, clay pipes, and stone tools used forgrinding plants. Unlike the Smokes Creek site, no Euro-pean trade goods have been found at Eaton, indicating itwas occupied before such items were common in thearea. Numerous studies have been conducted on the arti-facts recovered from Eaton, and the site still holds

POINT Acquisitions

The Protect Our Irreplaceable National Treasures (POINT) Program was designed to save significant sites that are in immediate danger of destruction.

Eaton

Bill Engelbrecht directs work at Eaton in this

1995 photograph. Between 1975 and 2000,

Engelbrecht directed 17 field schools at the site.

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Field NotesC O N S E R V A N C Y

50 winter • 2004-05

Walker Wins Stoner AwardSOUTHWEST—Jim Walker, theConservancy’s vice president andSouthwest regional director, wasnamed the 2003 winner of the Vic-tor R. Stoner Award at the PecosConference in Bluff, Utah. Theaward celebrates the promotion ofhistoric awareness and preserva-tion, and it’s given to someonewho brings Southwestern anthro-pology, archaeology, ethnology, orhistory to the public over an ex-tended period of time.

Walker was recognized for hisrole in preserving archaeologicalsites throughout the Southwest.His extensive education and expe-rience in real estate and culturalresource management has servedhim well during his 23-year tenurewith the Conservancy. Over theyears Walker has worked success-fully with landowners, developers,local governments, and land man-agement agencies to preserve nu-merous cultural resources.

The Conservancy Adds to itsTorres Blancas PreserveSOUTHWEST—The ArchaeologicalConservancy has taken title to a two-acre addition to the Torres BlancasVillage archaeological site, formerlyknown as Santa Rita Springs, inGreen Valley, Arizona. The addition

contains important structures andfeatures associated with the originalsite. The donation was made by de-veloper Eddie Leon, who is building a22-lot luxury golf course subdivisionknown as De Anza Links around thepreserve.

The addition is adjacent to theTorres Blancas site, which was do-nated to the Conservancy by theowners of the Torres Blancas GolfCourse in 1996. The new portion ofthe preserve will be landscaped withnatural vegetation and leased back tothe homeowners association to beused as open space. The adaptive useof a preserve as open space within a

housing development represents animportant cultural resource manage-ment experiment designed to inte-grate archaeological preserves intoneighborhoods. The Conservancyhopes that the preserve will be usedas a model by other developers seek-ing creative solutions to archaeologi-cal problems.

Torres Blancas Village was firstidentified in 1993 by archaeologistsconducting a survey for the SantaRita Springs development. In theearly 1980s a developer used heavyequipment to begin construction ofa golf course lake. This damaged thesite, making it impossible to define

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Jim Walker (left) holds his Victor R. Stoner Award plaque at the Pecos Conference. Linda S. Cordell and

R. Gwinn Vivian received the Byron S. Cummings Award.

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the site boundaries from the surface. In 1994, Old PuebloArchaeology Center conducted a subsurface testing pro-gram at the site, which identified over 60 intact structuresand features, some of them deeply buried. The site wasidentified as a Hohokam Classic period (A.D. 1100–1450)village. Part of the village extended into the planned TorresBlancas Golf Course. In 1996, just under an acre of the sitewas donated by the golf course owner to the Conservancy.The surface was leased to the golf course operator and isnow part of the rough off of the fairway.

Since the Torres Blancas site covered several acres ofexpensive Arizona real estate, Leon made the decision toexcavate over half of the site in anticipation of develop-ment and leave approximately two acres as a preserve.The excavation was done by Old Pueblo Archaeology Cen-ter in 1998, yielding significant information about the vil-lage. The areas to be preserved were covered with geo-textile cloth and fill dirt. Both lease agreements allow forarchaeological research to be conducted on the proper-ties in the future.

The Conservancy, when working with developers, triesto create preserves that make a positive contribution to theneighborhoods that surround them. By making the preser-vation of cultural resources a community issue, the resi-dents tend to embrace the preservation concept whole-heartedly by volunteering as site stewards and protectingthe preserves as if they were their own. Developers, Native

Americans, homeowners, and archaeologists must view ar-chaeological site preservation as a beneficial activity that en-hances the community, or it will be an action destined forfailure. The Conservancy uses the activity of creating a man-agement plan for the preserve as a vehicle for involving anduniting all entities that have an interest in the site.

Resuming the Search for Fort LouisSOUTHEAST—The search for the archaeological remainsof Fort Louis in Axis, Alabama, will resume as a result of a$33,400 grant from the National Park Service’s NationalCenter for Preservation Technology and Training. Once theheadquarters of the French colony of Louisiane, Fort Louiswas situated at the site of Old Mobile, the first permanentEuropean colonial town on the Gulf Coast. The DuPontcorporation donated an archaeological easement to a largeportion of Old Mobile to the Conservancy in 1994.

The search will be conducted by the University ofSouth Alabama (USA) Center for Archaeological Studies inconjunction with the Friends of Old Mobile, Inc., a non-profit organization that preserves, explores, and docu-ments the history of Old Mobile. In 1989, USA began along-term archaeological study of Old Mobile. Conse-quently, much of the town has been defined, though thelocation of Fort Louis has eluded researchers.

Gregory Waselkov, the director of USA’s Center for Ar-chaeological Studies, will again direct the search. Waselkovled the initial attempts to locate the fort in December2001. His crew used three remote-sensing technologies—earth conductivity, magnetometry, and thermal imaging.Because of the grant he will employ two additional remote-sensing techniques—electrical resistivity and ground pen-etrating radar—to comb areas covered three years ago. Inaddition to trying to locate Fort Louis, Waselkov will alsoevaluate the effectiveness of the five remote-sensing tech-nologies in conditions common to the Gulf coastal plain.

In recent years, Waselkov’s team has dug several ex-ploratory trenches in the area where they thought the fortmight be located, but the work was slow and tedious. “It’snot a very efficient way to do it,” he said. “We could missthe fort by an inch or two and not ever know. Instead ofblindly trenching, I thought it would be best to bring outthese other two technologies.”

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Lengths of geotextile material protects archaeological resources at the

Torres Blancas preserve. The material was then covered with sterile fill dirt,

which was planted with natural vegetation.

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Hero, Hawk, and OpenHand: American IndianArt of the AncientMidwest and SouthEdited by

Richard F. Townsend

(Art Institute ofChicago in association withYale UniversityPress, 2004: 299pgs., illus., $60cloth, $35 paper;www.artic.edu)

The editor of this stunning large-format book has assembled animpressive collection of 19 essays that cover the whole array ofNative American art and archaeology in the Midwestern andSouthern United States from about 3500 B.C. to European con-quest in the 1500s. Written by leading archaeologists, art histori-ans, and tribal scholars, these essays tell the dramatic story of afantastic artistic tradition that is little known in this country. Pro-duced to accompany a major exhibition now showing at theChicago Institute of Art and then traveling to St. Louis and Wash-ington, D.C., this is a beautifully designed book with 320 color and120 black and white illustrations, maps and drawings.

This is the story of the fabled moundbuilders and their art.Beginning around 3500 B.C. in northern Louisiana, American Indi-ans developed a succession of distinct cultures centered aroundthe building of mounds—burial mounds, platform mounds, effigymounds, and mounds built in circles, squares, parallels, and otherformations. Some were small and unobtrusive, but others toweredabove the forests or spread over hundred of acres. They oncenumbered in the tens of thousands, but sadly only a handful re-main, saved from the scourges of modern agriculture, urbansprawl, and looting.

A common world view is reflected in their works of art, whichwere crafted from stone, ceramics, shell, and a few pieces of sur-viving wood. There are realistic, symbolic, and abstract works in awide variety of shapes and decorations. They represent the cos-mic and social order of the ancients, including their view of theearth and sky. Domains of the hunt and animal powers are an-other important theme, and many of the pieces represent naturaland mythical animals. Gods, heroes, and ancestors are om-nipresent. The authors’ interpretations give added meaning to theextraordinary works of art, and place them in an historical and ar-chaeological context that covers the entire 5,000-year period.Hero, Hawk, and Open Hand is an outstanding addition to theliterature of ancient America.

52 winter • 2004-05

Reviews

Troweling Through Time: The FirstCentury ofMesaVerdeanArchaeology

By Florence C. Lister

(University of New Mexico Press, 2004; 288 pgs.,illus., $25 paper; www.unmpress.com)

No place is more symbolic of Americanarchaeology than the spectacular ruins of MesaVerde National Park in southwestern Colorado.Much of Southwestern archaeology got its startthere and in the thousands of nearby ruins of theFour Corners. Distinguished archaeologist andhistorian of archaeology Florencqse Lister hasproduced a delightful history of this era that isfull of anecdotes and humor.

Lister begins with archaeological pioneerslike the Wetherill family, William Henry Jackson,and Gustaf Nordenskiöld. Legends ofarchaeology like Sylvanus Morley, Edger LeeHewett, Earl Morris, and Alfred Kidder play animportant role as well. Lister weaves a tale ofinquiry and adventure in one of the world’s mostdramatic and interesting archaeological regions.It is also the story of how archaeology became ascience and how women gained acceptance inthe profession, including the author herself. Thestory continues today as new generations ofarchaeologists build on the successes andmistakes of the past. After a century ofexploration, much has been learned, but manyof the central questions remain as baffling asthey were 100 years ago.

8.4.4 Win 04-5 pg 44-C4 11/18/04 11:39 AM Page 52


Reviews

The Olmecs: America’s First CivilizationBy Richard A. Diehl(Thames & Hudson, 2004; 208 pgs., illus., $40 cloth;www.thamesandhudson.com)

Beginning about 1500B.C. a people emergedfrom the waterylowlands of the GulfCoast of Mexico andestablished the firstcities in theAmericas. Famousfor their colossalstone heads, the Olmecsdeveloped thefirst civilizationin the NewWorld. They builtpalaces, pyramids, and tombs, and theydeveloped writing, astronomy, and a calendar.They left a vivid artistic tradition that awes criticstoday. They are often called the “Mother Culture” of the Maya, Toltecs, and other Mesoamericancivilizations, and new discoveries about them come with each new field season.

University of Alabama archaeologist Richard A. Diehl has produced the first modern overview ofthis fascinating culture that was only discovered inthe 1940s. Sixty years of research has garneredmuch knowledge from an area that is difficult toaccess and explore, where virtually no skeletons ororganic materials survive in the acidic tropical soil.Diehl has pulled all of this information into areadable survey of what archaeologists know today.This volume is lavishly illustrated with photos ofOlmec exploration and art as well as diagrams andillustrations of the ruins. It is a must for students of ancient Mesoamerica.

In Search of Chaco:New Approaches to an ArchaeologicalEnigmaEdited by David Grant Noble(School of AmericanResearch Press,2004; 168 pgs.,illus., $20 paper; www.sarweb.org)

Since their modern rediscovery some 155years ago, the puebloan ruins in Chaco Canyon haveamazed, bemused, and bewildered laymen and archaeol-ogists alike. Located in a remote, desert canyon in north-western New Mexico, the ruins tower five stories high innumerous Great Houses with scores of subterraneankivas, some of which could hold several hundred people.Long, straight “roads” lead into the canyon, where stepsare cut into solid stone to make the steep decent. Itsplace near the center of the San Juan Basin is surroundedby dozens of “outliers,” communities that look a lot likeminiature Chacoan Great Houses.

Twenty years ago, archaeological interpreter DavidGrant Noble brought together leading Chaco scholars in awidely acclaimed volume that sought to explain the newestthinking on what has come to be called the “Chaco phe-nomenon.” But the Chaco culture remains an enigma, andNoble has once again called upon leading experts to helpunravel it. Old hands from the National Park Service ChacoCenter of the 1970s are joined by a new generation of ar-chaeologists. Native American scholars add new perspec-tives. Comparatively little in the way of basic research, i.e.excavations, has been added in the past 20 years, so thisbook is more a product of analysis and interpretation.

The enigma of Chaco Canyon has as much to do withwhat has not been found as with what has: massive multi-storied buildings, but very few signs of occupants. Greatarchitecture, but few resources to support it. Ample evi-dence of trade, but little evidence of local trade goods.Long straight roads, but no vehicles or beasts of burden.The authors seek a general theory of Chaco Canyon. Whydid it exist? What role did it play? How did it support itself?Why was it abandoned? This impressive volume gives usmany new ideas and directions for solving this riddle.

—Mark Michel

8.4.4 Win 04-5 pg 44-C4 11/18/04 12:57 AM Page 53

Monuments ofMesoamericaA Z T E C S , T O L T E C S , A N DT E O T I H U A C Á N O SWhen: March 15–24, 2005Where: Mexico City and

surrounding areaHow much: $2,395 per person

($250 single supplement)

A series of great cultures developedin Mesoamerica and constructedmagnificent temples and pyramids.Today these monuments of theAztecs, Toltecs, and Teotihuacánosremain a testament to the fascinatingpeople that built them.

On this tour you’ll visit a num-ber of sites, including those left bythe Olmec, a culture known through-out the region for its art. You’ll alsovisit the monuments of the Aztec, a

civilization that witnessed the arrival of the Spanish. You’ll explore Teotihuacán,once a great urban center with a population of 200,000. John Henderson, pro-fessor of anthropology at Cornell and author of The World of Ancient Maya,will lead the tour.

54 winter • 2004-05

T H E A R C H A E O L O G I C A L C O N S E R V A N C Y

Southeastern Mound-Building CulturesWhen: April 16–22, 2005Where: Georgia and AlabamaHow much: $1,195 per person


Join us in Alabama and Georgia for a tour of ancient earthen mounds and Civil Warbattlefields. We’ll visit many mound sites including Etowah Indian Mounds HistoricSite, which has the second-largest Indian mound in North America, andMoundville, which is the pinnacle of Mississippian mound construction in theSoutheast. We’ll also visit important Civil War battlefields such as Kennesaw Moun-tain National Battlefield Park. This trip offers an exciting opportunity to learnmore about both the rich and complex mound-builder cultures that flourished inthe Southeast and to catch a glimpse of soldiers’ lives during the Civil War.

Perched atop Mound B, Moundville’s largest structure,

is a reconstructed version of the paramount chief’s house. MO

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A day will be spent touring the extensive ruins at Teotihuacán.

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Effigy Mounds of the Upper Mississippi Valley C O N I C A L S , P L A T F O R M S ,A N D W A T E R P A N T H E R SWhen: June 9–13, 2005Where: Wisconsin and IowaHow much: $799 per person


In what is now Wisconsin, pre-historic Native Americans con-structed about 20,000 earthenmounds, more than in anyother area of comparable size.We’ll visit the best surviving ex-amples of these fascinatingconstructions with an empha-sis on the sites of the EffigyMound Culture, the character-istic mound-builder culture ofthe Upper Midwest. Among thesites we’ll visit are LizardMound Park, Nitschke MoundPark, and the Panther Intaglio.The tour will begin and end inMilwaukee.

Thirty-one of the 195 mounds in Effigy Mounds National Monument are effigies.

These mounds are known as the Marching Bear Group.

8.4.4 Win 04-5 pg 44-C4 11/17/04 5:33 PM Page 55

56 winter • 2004-05

Life Member Gifts of $1,000 or moreDavid T. Arthur, Illinois

Betty Banks, WashingtonRobert and Helene Beck, California

Donna Cosulich, ArizonaElizabeth Dice, MississippiJoan Griscom, Tennessee

Thomas and Marilyn Hudson, GeorgiaNeil E. Matthew, ArizonaPatricia A. Mead, ArizonaLois J. Paradise, Florida

William J. and Priscilla Robinson, ArizonaHarlan Scott, Delaware

Mary G. Sprague, Washington, D.C.Vincas P. Steponaitis, North Carolina

Catherine Symchych, WyomingRichard F. and Jean Weick, Oregon

Burton D. Williams, MontanaRichard Woodbury, Massachusetts

Since the inception of the Conservancy’s Living Spirit Circle in 2002, participation hasgrown to over 80 members. These dedicated members have included the Conservancy

in their long-term planning to ensure that America’s past will always have a future.

This elite group is open to those who wish to make a lasting contribution by includingthe Conservancy in their will or estate plans, or by making a life-income gift such as

a charitable gift annuity. The Conservancy would like to thank the following Living Spirit Circle members for their thoughtfulness and generosity.

Anonymous (2)Dee Aiani, Illinois

Carol M. Baker, TexasOlive L. Bavins, California

Earl C. Biffle, MissouriDenis Boon, ColoradoJean Carley, Oregon

Elva B. Cook, CaliforniaDonna Cosulich, Arizona

Richard W. Dexter, WisconsinPatricia H. Douthitt, Ohio

Professor and Mrs. Robert C. Dunnell, Mississippi

Hazel L. Epstein, CaliforniaPhoebe B. Eskenazi, VirginiaArthur and Mary Faul, ArizonaPreston Forsythe, Kentucky

Veronica H. Frost, OhioDerald and Bridget Glidden, California

Grace E. Hartzel, OhioBarbara J. Jacobs, Washington, D.C.

Joyce Kaser, New MexicoWalter and Allene Kleweno, New Mexico

Lavinia C. Knight, CaliforniaDerwood Koenig, Indiana

Jay Last, CaliforniaDeborah Leitner Jones, Maryland

Margaret A. Lussky, MinnesotaOsceola W. Madden, Florida

Laura Marianek, OhioRobin Marion, New Jersey Neil E. Matthew, ArizonaMark Michel, New Mexico

Janet E. Mitchell, ColoradoSandra Moriarty, Colorado

Lynn A. Neal, ArizonaJames A. Neely, Texas

David Noble and Ruth Meria, New MexicoJan and Judith Novak, New Mexico

Lee O’Brien, IndianaDorinda J. Oliver, New York

Margaret A. Olson, WisconsinPriscilla A. Ord, Maryland

Michael R. Palmer, New MexicoMargaret P. Partee, Tennessee

Tim Perttula, TexasMarguerite B. Peterson, FloridaDonald E. Pierce, New Mexico

Barbara A. Reichardt, CaliforniaCaryl Richardson, New Mexico

Jean L. Ring, CaliforniaJoy Robinson, California

Robert A. Robinson, CaliforniaSusan J. Rudich, New York

Beverly A. Schneider, TennesseeLorraine Schramm, Missouri

Walter Sheppe, OhioHarriet N. Smith, New York

Dee Ann Story, TexasPaula M. Strain, MarylandJerry M. Sullivan, Texas

Ann M. Swartwout, MichiganRon and Pat Taylor, VirginiaSteven Vastola, Connecticut

James B. Walker, New MexicoSteven L. Walkinshaw, Texas

Mark and Sandra Walters, TexasKarl and Nancy Watler, Colorado

Kathleen D. Wells, CaliforniaRon and Carol Whiddon, New Mexico

Katheryne Willock, ArizonaKathrin W. Young, Alaska

Robert D. Zimmerman, NevadaWendell E. Zipse, Arizona

Robert G. Zirkle, Texas

LivingSpiritCircle

The Archaeological Conservancy

Patrons of PreservationThe Archaeological Conservancy would like to thank the following individuals, foundations, and corporations for their generous support during the period of August through October 2004.

Their generosity, along with the generosity of the Conservancy’s other members, makes our work possible.

Anasazi Circle Gifts of $2,000 or moreBoo Heflin, Arkansas

Tom and Nancy Juda, CaliforniaSuzanne Rice, Colorado

Conrad and Marcella Stahly, New MexicoElizabeth and Frank Thomas, Louisiana

Frank G. Thomas, Louisiana

Foundation/Corporate Giftsof $1,000–$4,999

Fleischmann Foundation, OhioWestern Mapping Company, Arizona

Foundation/Corporate Giftsof $5,000–$9,999

Summerlee Foundation, Texas

BequestsJudith M. Musladin, California

Mary R. Thomas, Michigan

TO MAKE A

DONATION OR

BECOME A

MEMBER

CONTACT:

TheArchaeological

Conservancy5301 Central Avenue NE

Suite 902

Albuquerque, NM 87108

(505) 266-1540

www.americanarchaeology.org

8.4.4 Win 04-5 pg 44-C4 11/18/04 2:14 AM Page 56

MAYA POTTERYWORKSHOP

IN BELIZEAPRIL 21-MAY 1, 2005

with Clint Swink

Replicate and research Maya potterywith the master of replicationin a safe, exotic jungle venue.All experience levels welcome.

Information: [email protected]

970/563-4624

Coyote PressP.O. Box 3377

Salinas, CA 93912

Specializing in Archaeology, RockArt, Prehistory, Ethnography,Linguistics, Native American Studiesand anything closely related.

We stock thousands of new booksand reprints, used and rare books,and the back issues of many journals.

Browse or shop online at our newlyredesigned e-commerce website:

WWW.COYOTEPRESS.COM

E-mail: [email protected]

BOOKS

Proud sponsors of: www.californiaprehistory.com

ShowPride inAmerica’sArchaeological Resources!

To order, send your check to:

The Archaeological Conservancy5301 Central Ave. NE, Suite 902Albuquerque, NM 87108

NAME

ADDRESS

CITY

STATE ZIP

Archaeological ConservancyT-shirt: 100% cotton$12, plus $1.75 S&H

circle size: S M L XL XXL

8.4.4 Win 04-5 pg 44-C4 11/18/04 10:56 AM Page 57

MAKE YOUR MARK IN TIME.Some Conservancy members think theonly way to help save archaeologicalsites is through membership dues.While dues are a constant lifeline,there are many ways you can supportthe Conservancy’s work, both todayand well into the future. And by sup-porting the Conservancy, you not onlysafeguard our past for your childrenand grandchildren, you also may savesome money.

PLACE STOCK IN

THE CONSERVANCY.Evaluate your investments. Some members choose to make a differenceby donating stock. Such gifts offer acharitable deduction for the full valueinstead of paying capital gains tax.

GIVE A CHARITABLE

GIFT ANNUITY.Depending on your circumstances, youmay be able to make a gift of cash andsecurities today that lets you receiveextensive tax benefits as well as anincome for as long as you live.

LEAVE A LASTING LEGACY.Many people consider protecting ourcultural heritage by remembering theConservancy in their will. While providing us with a dependable sourceof income, bequests may qualify youfor an estate tax deduction.

Whatever kind of gift you

give, you can be sure we’ll

use it to preserve places

like Sugarloaf Pueblo and

our other 295 sites across

the United States.

Yes, I’m interested in making a planned-giving donation to The Archaeological

Conservancy and

saving money on my taxes. Please send more information on:

❏ Gifts of stock ❏ Bequests ❏ Charitable gift annuities

Name:

Street Address:

City: State: Zip:

Phone: ( ) -

OTTENS PUEBLO ONSUGARLOAF MOUNTAINA Conservancy preserve since 1991

Rooms with a view 600 years ago.

Part of our cultural heritage today.

Mail information requests to:

The Archaeological Conservancy

Attn: Planned Giving

5301 Central Avenue NE

Suite 902

Albuquerque, NM 87108-1517

Or call:

(505) 266-1540

JER

RY

JAC

KA

8.4.4 Win 04-5 pg 44-C4 11/23/04 1:59 AM Page 58

winter 2004-05 - The Archaeological Conservancy

Documents

Transcript of winter 2004-05 - The Archaeological Conservancy