Manuscripts and Miscellaneity, c. 1450-17203-4 July 2008

A conference organised by Scriptorium: Medieval and EarlyModern Manuscripts Online, and

hosted by the Faculty of English, University of Cambridge

Why these Texts?Structure and Purpose of an 18th Century

Icelandic Miscellany

Introduction

In this talk I will discuss an Icelandicmiscellany from the 18th century. The manuscriptis preserved in the National Library of Iceland,and has the shelf-mark JS 612 4to. First I willtalk briefly about the scribe, whose name wasTyrfingur Finnsson, then I will talk about thecontent of the manuscript, firstly how it isarranged and then give you some idea of the mainsections. Thirdly I will discuss illuminationsand finally I shall talk about the purpose of themanuscript. My chief conclusions are that eventhough the manuscript is defined as a miscellanyin the catalogue its structure is very thoroughand the illuminations play a vital role insymbolizing its purpose and structure. The aim ofmy PhD project1 is in fact to show thatmiscellanies that were collected by one or tworelated scribes have a specific purpose andstructure.

1 Guðrún Ingólfsdóttir. 2011. „Í hverri bók er mannsandi.“ Handritasyrpur – bókmenning, þekking og sjálfsmynd karla og kvenna á 18. öld. Studia Islandica 62. Reykjavík.

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The scribe

Tyrfingur Finnsson was born at the farm Akrar inMýradistrict in the west part of Iceland.According to the 1703 census Akrar was arelatively large farm. Tyrfingur studied at thecathedral school in Skálholt in the southern partof the country, from 1728 until 1735. In 1737 hebecame a vicar at Staður in Súgandafjord, in theVestfjords. In 1740 he was removed from officewhen he in drunkenness made some folly in themass. After that we know little of his doings orhis whereabouts, but we know that he died fromexposure. He is not mentioned in the census from1762, so it can be assumed that he died beforethat, but there his wife is said to live withtheir son at the farm Hraun in Skálabay in theVestfjords. Because Tyrfingur was from arelatively wealthy family it is unlikely that hehad become destitute after he was removed fromoffice.

Not many manuscripts are preserved inTyrfingur’s hand. We know of two that are withoutdoubt in his hand; he is a co-scribe to two moreand two other are considered written in a similarhand as Tyrfingur’s. These manuscripts mainlycontain sagas (Icelandic sagas, King’s sagas andlegendary sagas), poems, a book on medicine andTheatrum viventium a book on natural science thatwas first printed in Amsterdam in 1672, and themiscellany that I am going to discuss here today,JS 612 4to. As you can see, Tyrfingur’s hand isfair and clear, and all his manuscripts show thathe was a skilled scribe.2

2 Pictures are at the end of this paper.

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Content

Structure

Tyrfingur’s manuscript was most likely bound inthe present binding and repaired sometime in the19th century. At the same time a blank leaf wasadded as a part of a quire in the middle of themanuscript, at the end of section 4. Because ofthis the manuscript seems to fall into two parts.The material before the blank leaf could beclassified as geographical, but what comes afteris ethical. But there is also another way toclassify the content of the manuscript. Sections1 to 5 are either biblical or religious, butsection 6 to 8 is both ethical and classical. Thelast section (nr. 9) is a riddle, but there arealso riddles in the 5th section.

Tyrfingur’s manuscript is divided accordingto custom, i.e. the religious material is at thebeginning. One can however say that the wholemanuscript is edifying.

The first part of the manuscript, i.e. beforethe blank leaf, is arranged in a hierarchy.Surprisingly the scribe decides to end this partwith the most important section, although onecould have expected him to start with it. Thesecond part, on the other hand, starts with theweightiest section. The scribe deliberately seemsto have put the most significant sections in themiddle of the manuscript. There they form thecore of the manuscript while less importantsections are arranged in a hierarchical order,where the manuscript starts and ends with theleast important sections. The structure resembles

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the sun low in the sky (the core of themanuscript) and its rays that shine fainter as wemove further away from the sun itself. TheIcelandic sunset is like this picture, where therays form a horizontal stribe.

Behind section 4 (Itinerarium Sacre Scriptura), inthe middle of the manuscript, there is a pictureof a king with a scepter in his hand. There is noobvious reason why this picture is placed herebut at various places in section 4 there is adiscussion of those who ruled the cities. In theMiddle Ages and up to the French revolution, theidea of the king as the sun was however well knowin European legal language, he was on earth whatthe sun was in heaven. The picture of the kingsymbolizes the structure of the manuscript. Thepicture is located at the core of the manuscript,between the two most significant sections. Theking faces forward, in the same direction as weturn over the leaf, and the Earth revolves aroundthe sun. The idea of the king as the sun seems tohave been known in Iceland already in the 13thcentury and used as a constructive part in theIcelandic saga called Egils saga. John ofSalisbury is thought to be the source for this.

The main sections

To give a better idea of Tyrfingur’s manuscript,I will now look closer at its content, and startwith section 2 and 3.

Despite the fact that it is not explicitlystated the episode on the Sami people is atranslation of a chapter in Peder Claussøn’s(Friis) (1545–1614) book on Norway, printed inCopenhagen in 1632. A translation of this work is

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preserved in one Icelandic manuscript from the17th century, AM 331 4to. The episode inTyrfingur’s manuscript is not a copy of thismanuscript, and I have been unable to find asource for it. It is most likely an independenttranslation of this one chapter in Claussøn’sbook, and it is rather exact even though thetranslator leaves something out here and there.

The first modern anthropological andgeographical description of Lapland and the Samipeople is Iter Lapponicum from 1732 by Carl vonLinné. Before that time Lapland was an aliencountry and few had paid it a visit or writtenabout it. An increasing interest could however befelt late in the 17th century, and there are acouple of books on Lapland older then Linnésbook.

Due to the great land discoveries in the 16thcentury and increased journeys in the 17th andthe 18th centuries, Europe saw a blossoming timeof travel descriptions and stories from distantcountries. These travel descriptions are full ofpeculiarities and wonders. The purpose was ofcourse to describe all the strange things thetraveller experienced and to make the storiesentertaining. Many such stories were writtenabout Iceland and Icelanders.

Claussøn’s description of the Sami people isrelated to the travel descriptions and thestories of Iceland and Icelanders from the 16thcentury. Emphasis is laid on the Sami people’sstrange behavior and appearance and exaggeratedstories are told about their sorcery. And eventhough they are said to be Christians, they aredeceitful and their faith is weak. Right afterthe episode on the Sami people there is an

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account of the Essenes, pre-Christian Jews wholived a monastic life. Both these nations, i.e.if you can call the Essenes a nation, stand atthe outskirts of Christian community, but onopposite ends, complete contrasts. But what isthe purpose of these episodes in Tyrfingur’smanuscript? As I said before, Tyrfingur wasremoved from office. It is not unlikely that themanuscript was written after that, when he stoodhimself at the outskirts of Christian society.

Section 4 is Itinerarium Sacre Scriptura by HeinrichBünting, first published in Helmstedt 1581. InTyrfingur’s manuscript the main focus is on thegeographical part of this work, the religious oneseems to be less important.

In Disticha Catonis and the poem Hávamál Catonis,i.e. section 6 to 7 that are preceded by A fewinstructive questions and entertaining topics, we get anoverview of all factors of human life andknowledge. And as could be expected God is thesupreme truth and the core of life.

In the year 1620 a schoolbook with edifyingwritings and aphorisms was printed at the Hólar-press (at that time the bishop at Hólar had theonly printing press in Iceland). The book wascalled Hólar Cato, and it contained a translationof Disticha Catonis and the poem De civilitate morum byJohannes Sulpicius Verulanus (De moribus et civilitatepuerorum). According to the church decree afterthe Reformation, Disticha Catonis was supposed to betaught in the youngest classes. Although thetranslation of Disticha Catonis was printed in 1620,most students had to transcribe a copy forthemselves with the help of the teacher.

In extant manuscripts, the translation ofDisticha Catonis from 1620 usually accompanies the

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translation of De civilitate morum, just as in theschoolbook Hólar Cato. Some of these manuscriptsare without doubt related to the schoolbook, butothers are transcriptions from other manuscripts.However we do not know if students transcribedsome of these manuscripts.

Disticha Catonis has been translated intoIcelandic three times. The first translation isfrom the second half of the 13th century. Thesecond is the one in Hólar Cato from 1620, and thethird translation was done in the second half ofthe 17th century, where only a small part of thecollection was translated.

The translation in Tyrfingur’s manuscript isthe one from the 13th century. The content of themanuscript, on the other hand, partly echoes thecontent of Hólar Cato and the manuscripts thatpreserve that translation. Section 7 inTyrfingur’s manuscript (the poem Hávamál Catonis),also contains edyfing material similar to DistichaCatonis. At first I thought I had discovered yetanother translation of Cato – the title at leastgives that impression and so does some of thematerial. Unfortunately I have not been able totrace the origin of this poem. However, it alsocontains similar material as can be found in Decivilitate morum by Sulpicius Verulanus. In the firststanzas the author claims that he will follow thetracks of the great philosopher Cato, so we canat least assume that the poem is a reconstructionof Cato’s work with influences from elsewhere.

Section 8 contains stories about classicalfigures. The first two stories are about thephilosophers Diogenes and Socrates, who bothstood at the social periphery. Diogenes becauseof his behavior, Socrates because of his

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appearance, and this is emphasised in theseepisodes. The stories about Marcus Curtius,Alexander the Great and Aristomenes Messenius alldeal with their failure or defeat in one way orthe other, but they too stood at the outskirts ofthe community, mainly because of their acts. Thelast story is about the tedious and sarcasticphilosopher Momus, who does nothing butcriticise.

It is common knowledge that Socrates was nota handsome man, but the description of him hereis so grotesque that it is funny. The anecdotesabout Diogenes are also very humorous. Nodefinite ideology is attributed to Digoenes whorather is known for his behavior. He argued for alife in harmony with nature, which meant e.g.asceticism and complete disdain for the rules ofsociety. Diogenes thought that man himself wasarmed with all that would make him happy. He alsolaid great weight on frankness in communication.Many stories were told of Diogenes’s wit, as canbe seen in Tyrfingur’s manuscript. In theepisodes on Diogenes and Socrates one can see howedification and entertainment are combined andthe same can be said about A few instructive questionsand entertaining topics, where it is stressed in thetitle.

The episodes on Diogenes, Socrates, MarcusCurtius, Alexander the Great, AristomenesMessenius and the tedious and sarcastic criticMomus all end with an aphorism, which emphasizesthat the reader should draw lessons from them, inspite of the fact that some of the episodes arefull of irony and humor which can make one laugh.

Irony is used in an edifying way inTyrfingur’s manuscript, above all to show man’s

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diversity to increase his self-knowledge. In the18th century, as we all know, great weight waslaid on education and self-knowledge. Each andeveryone had it in their own power to decide whatkind of life they would live. In the Age ofEnlightenment, this knowledge changed the natureof the outskirts of the world and made it thecentre of the universe; this is maybe one of thereasons why explorers now assembled at all theedges of the Earth. Modern man started tounderstand that "Life is where you are". Self-knowledge was however supposed to direct one onthe virtuous road to a moral life. Illuminations

Illuminations characterize many of Tyrfingur’smanuscripts. In JS 612 4to all initials aredecorated and many illuminated. Titles areusually illuminated or at least decorated and thequestions in A few instructive questions and entertainingtopics are rubricated. Tyrfingur uses green, redand brown colour.

Although the title page at the beginning ofthe manuscript only seems to be a title page forthe first section, it also serves as a title pagefor the whole manuscript. Here Tyrfingur usesred, green and brown colour. Besides the coloursand the partly decorated letters, the maindecoration on the page is a frame that surroundsthe text. The frame contains pictures of twokings facing each other on either side of thetext. At the bottom of the frame we have howeverpictures of a man and a woman, holding on todecorated arms or branches that stretch out froma head. Two ravens sit on the branches and seem

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to whisper into the ears of the head. Thispicture is undeniably similar to the picture ofthe God Óðinn and his two ravens, Huginn andMuninn. It is however worth noting that one ofthe eyes is not empty as in the head of Óðinn.Perhaps the two human figures are supposed toindicate that the wisdom contained in the book,not only appeals to men but also women. But thehead can also refer to the sun and the picture ofthe king in the middle of the manuscript. The sunsymbolizes wisdom and truth and it was a customto describe the king as the head and the state asthe body.

In the Middle Ages decorations were used todistinguish between sections and to underlinetheir importance. Each and every manuscriptdisplayed in fact "its own hierarchy ofdecoration".3 This is also the case inTyrfingur’s manuscript. The illuminations tellwhich sections he thought were most important.The central core of the manuscript is sections 1and 3–6, but the decoration and the joy of colouris at its peak in sections 4 and 5. This materialis all of religious or moral origin. Sections 7and 8 are next in the row: here the decorationsare of similar kind, i.e. decorated initials andilluminated titles. The titles in section 8, inthe episodes of Diogenes and Socrates, areilluminated and the initials are large andilluminated. These narratives describe thosephilosophers in a positive way. The titles in theepisodes on Marcus Curtius, Alexander the Greatand Aristomenes Messenius are however notdecorated, but these narratives all tell of some

3 Brown, Michelle P. Understanding Illuminated Manuscripts. A Guide to Technical Terms. London.

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misfortunes. In the story of the tedious andsarcastic critic Momus the initial is large andilluminated, but this narrative is similar tothose on Diogenes and Socrates, because Momus isa philosopher who does nothing but criticise.Despite that the title in section 9 is rubricatedand the initial filled and larger than ordinarytype, this section is less decorated than othermaterial because it is least related to othermaterials in the manuscript.

Conclusion

Finally, a few words on the purpose ofTyrfingur’s manuscript. The content ofTyrfingur’s manuscript should not surpriseanyone, given that he was a priest. The contentof the manuscript is homogeneous. It all serves areligious and moral goal. The riddles also arefine additions for sharpening the mind. Whathowever must attract attention are the sectionsdealing with nations at the outskirts of theChristian world and men at the social periphery.As I said before, Tyrfingur was removed fromoffice and stood himself at the outskirts ofChristian society. What all these narrations tellus is that there is a great diversity of peopleat the social periphery and we should not be tooquick to draw conclusions about those who livethere.

Tyrfingur’s manuscript can be classified as alifestyle book or self-help book of its age. Inspite of the fact that A few instructive questions andentertaining topics seems to appeal rather to men thanto women, its moral message must also haveappealed to women. It is not diminished by the

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Latin paragraphs in this subject; we know thatsome women learnt Latin. The illuminations on thetitle page encourage at least the thought thatthe manuscript was intended both for women andmen. The manuscript in fact touches upon allfactors of basic education of former times, i.e.religious upbringing, classical moral teachingand some knowledge of the places mentioned in theBible.

The illuminations play a significant role instressing the unequal importance of the content,but they also give an idea of the structure ofthe manuscript.

In Tyrfingur’s manuscript we can see how wellknown ideas, which sometimes served as astructural unit in old narratives, were also usedto structure manuscripts. His manuscript is abook of wisdom with the king, the metaphoricalsun, in the middle, but the sun, as I saidbefore, signals wisdom and truth. The picture ofthe king connects us however with Earth and man’ssearch for his own kingdom in the realm of themind.

Example of Tyrfingur’s hand

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Picture of the King

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Picture of Icelandic Sunset taken by HarpaJónsdóttir

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The Title page

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