!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !Who are “We”?

Polish Nationalism and National Identity by Andrew Shaffer !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

HIST 3334 Dr. Elizabeth Clark

April 26, 2012

Shaffer !2

One of the most important forces at work in Europe during the nineteenth century was

nationalism. Nationalism meant more than just establishing the independence of nations; it was a

way of life that identified people. Two types of nationalism exist: civic and ethnic. Civic

nationalism is based upon shared cultural and political values (i.e. citizenship, flag, legal system,

symbols). In comparison, ethnic nationalism stems from common ethnic backgrounds such as

race and language.

These ideologies permeated throughout much of Europe, and traced their origins to the

French Revolution. The most successful year for nationalism was undoubtedly 1848, more

commonly known as the Spring of Nations. One need not look far to realize that in many

historical textbooks addressing nationalism, a crucial nation is often overlooked. That nation is

Poland. Some argue that Poland experienced a civic nationalism movement, whereas others

contend that it was ethnic nationalism that stirred the hearts of the Poles. In reality, Poland

experienced both forms almost equally.

The embodiments of Polish nationalism range from political thinkers and nobility to

musicians and artists. Roman Dmowski and Joseph Pilsudski represent ardent nationalists. They

also happened to be rivals because of the differences in their beliefs. The primary musician for

Polish nationalism was Frédéric Chopin (sometimes spelled Frederyk). One of the most

renowned painters of nineteenth century Poland was Jan Matejko. He often painted scenes that

glorified the hauntingly beautiful Polish past. Another artist was Jan Styka, who painted a work

that some believe to be the quintessence of Polish nationalism. Lastly, Prince Adam Czartoryski

was a noble who wrote of his desires for independence and urged his fellow Poles to never lose

sight of such a lofty goal. These sources provide an incredible look into the Polish world, the

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struggles of the Poles, nationalism’s use and types, and they are also the foundation of today’s

Poland.

The history of Poland is the story of hardship and injustice. Many partitions led Poland to

follow the ideals of nationalism. In all, Poland was partitioned three times (1773, 1793, and

1795) . Poland also became a “playground” for the other rulers of Europe. From the Duchy of 1

Warsaw to the Kingdom of Poland, the nation was often under the leadership and guidance of

foreign nations. Such problems perpetuated the hope for a Poland that was actually Polish in

every aspect. These aspirations would not come easily, as Poland had the grave misfortune of

being a neighbor to three of the most dominant powers of that time: Austria-Hungary, Germany

(Prussia), and Russia. However, they would not give up on their dreams without a fight. They

rebelled several times, and eventually experienced a revolution. These actions finally let the

white eagle soar from the ashes, and sit majestically in the heights, proclaiming to all that this

was Poland, and that nobody could take that away from them!

In order to better understand Polish nationalism, several primary sources were evaluated.

The first source is the Imperial Manifesto on Poland proclaimed by Tsar Nicholas I. This is a

primary source as it was delivered after a Polish uprising, and while nationalism spread in

Poland. It is also a primary source because it was delivered and produced by Tsar Nicholas I

himself. It could have been spoken or written, although based on the way it read, I believe it is

more likely to have been a speech.

This source was produced for an audience of Russian people and government officials. It

was intended to evoke pride in Russia, and to eliminate the idea of freedom from the minds of

Davies, God’s Playground: A History of Poland Volume II 1795 to the Present, 581.1

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Poles and any sympathizers. The manifesto exemplifies the time because it shows Russia’s

power and its desires for expansion and control. Authenticity can be confirmed as the source was

taken from the Modern History Sourcebook and its section on nationalism. This is an online

collection of primary documents published by Fordham University. I chose this source as it

illuminates some of the reasoning behind nationalism in Poland. The article is filled with the idea

that Russians were to rule and watch over Poland: “Our faithful subject”; “Providence has

entrusted to Our care” (the union and guidance of the two nations); “Our Empire...Our Kingdom

of Poland.” Most importantly, the document states “[t]hey ceased not one moment to dream of a

separation between the two nations...they dared to abuse the favors of the restorer of their

country, by employing for the destruction of his noble work...” Tsar Nicholas also said that

Poland would get what it wanted through a Russian administration, an idea that is preposterous

to any nationalist! 2

This source helped better my understanding of the subjection of Poland to its more

powerful neighbors. It helped to re-establish the reasons for nationalism as well. This source

would be very useful to anyone writing a research paper on nationalism or Russian foreign

policy. This source could also be used to write about nationalism on a larger scale by evaluating

other manifestos of the Tsar, and looking at Polish reaction to the manifestos. The source is

invaluable to the history of nationalism, Poland, and Russia because it comes directly from the

century in which nationalism was prominent.

The next set of sources are from two of Poland’s political thinkers of the time, Roman

Dmowski and Joseph Pilsudski. According to secondary sources, Roman Dmowski represented

“Tsar Nicholas I: Imperial Manifesto on Poland, March 25, 1832,” Modern History Sourcebook, accessed April 17, 2

2012, www.fordham.edu/Halsall/mod/1832poland.asp.

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the National Democrats, whereas Joseph Pilsudski was one of the founders of the Polish Socialist

Party. Dmowski was more willing to turn to Russia for help, and was a known anti-Semite.

Dmowski’s anti-Semitism was a significant difference when compared to Pilsudski. Pilsudski did

not see ethnic identifications as a problem; he saw a diverse Poland that would unify under the

banner of revolutionary independence. Pilsudksi was also different from Dmowski because he

advocated for total revolution and independence. The men would be rivals who sought the

support of the various people of Poland (elite, worker, peasant). 3

The source used for Dmowski is an excerpt from his Thoughts of a Modern Pole. The

excerpt comes from an online website of primary sources on Poland. Pilsudski’s views were

found in his Memories of Joseph Pilsudksi, a memoir.

The source I obtained for Roman Dmowski is both primary and secondary. I say this

because it came from a website (secondary). On the other hand, what I have pulled from the

website quotes the direct words and thoughts of one of Dmowski’s works (primary). This source

was produced for people interested in Poland. During Dmowski’s life, it was produced for a

Polish audience that strove for an independent Poland. The intended effect was to stir the hearts

and minds of the people to nationalism, and to inspire action establishing Poland as a nation. It

would be read by any supporter of the National Democrats party, citizens, other political

thinkers, and people of the same mindset as Dmowski.

From the hindsight of 1902, the source describes what all Poland had gone through:“[t]he

consequences of an overpowering foreign influence, resulting primarily from the Partitions...” 4

Reddaway, et al, ed., The Cambridge History of Poland: From Augustus II to Pilsudski (1697-1935), 395-397.3

“Primary Source Readings: From: Roman Dmowski, Thoughts of a Modern Pole, 1902,” Memphis University, 4

accessed April 25, 2012, cassian.memphis.edu/history/dunowksy/4050/czaykowski.html.

Shaffer !6

To escape those troubles, Poland needed to “strengthen national foundations” and gain a

“national identity that is firmly rooted in the idea of statehood.” Thus, it exemplifies the time 5

well. Authenticity was confirmed as the excerpt was under a primary source readings website;

although this is not nearly as effective as an actual copy of Thoughts of a Modern Pole. I chose

this source as it was the only primary source I found on Dmowski. For the most part, my

research on him only turned up secondary sources. As mentioned before, the source comes from

a website produced by the University of Memphis. This source taught me the roots of

nationalism in the minds of this Polish political thinker, and reaffirmed some of the reasons why

nationalist movements took place in Poland. It also taught me the subtleties of ethnic

nationalism, especially the nation-state concept. This source alone would be very difficult to use

to write a larger paper on as it is a brief excerpt. However, if one had access to a complete copy

of the work, that would be of much more help. It is useful in a larger context because it features

Dmowski’s personal thoughts and writings, and that is why it is valuable when studying history.

As mentioned before, primary sources about Dmowski were hard to come by. If that is a

common issue, then this source becomes invaluable to the historian.

Memories of Joseph Pilsudski is a primary source that is in essence a brief memoir of

Pilsudski. As such, it is in his own words, and was originally published while he was alive,

making it a primary source. This source was produced by translators of Pilsudski’s written

thoughts, and Pilsudski himself. It was produced for and read by any audiences interested in

Pilsudski and Poland, the leftist party, and the Polish people. Its intended effect was to clarify the

thoughts, views, and actions of Pilsudski. The source very much exemplifies the era as it breaks

Ibid. 5

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each section down into specific dates, discussing what happened during that set time.

Authenticity is easily confirmed because Pilsudski refers to himself as I, rather than in third

person. I chose this source as it was a suitable primary source on him, and it worked much better

for this paper than the biography written by his wife. The book can be found at the library on

campus. This source taught me of Pilsudski’s actions as a socialist party member, and some of

his strong beliefs. I was most impacted by one particular quote from Pilsudski. He said,

“Let us learn from our sad experience in the past in order to forestall disasters in the future...Let us realize that no one will give us our independence or the conditions in which our struggle against exploitation could be fought out in a West European manner; no one will fight this battle for us. Let us all understand that we must fight for our aims, both Polish and social; the weapons of this fight will not be our tongues, or printed bibula in our hands. The revolution for which we are preparing will be an armed struggle between the army of the people and the army of the Tsardom.” 6

!Such a strong quote epitomized the central difference between himself and Dmowski. While they

both looked toward the past and wanted to avoid it, their proposed methods were different.

Pilsudski was willing to fight, whereas Dmowski sought change by diplomatic and political

means. This valuable source would be incredible for a historian to use on a larger research paper

or work about Pilsudski, Poland or nationalism. I think this is true because of its invaluable

insight into his life and actions as a socialist revolutionary in Poland.

The next group of sources come from the music and art of Poland. Frédéric Chopin, Jan

Matejko, and Jan Styka were all Polish born and their works reflect that. They also have a

national element to their works, and evoke the memories of the way Poland used to be. The

Gillie, trans. and ed., Joseph Pilsudski: The Memories of a Polish Revolutionary and Soldier, 181.6

Shaffer !8

sources for Chopin were two books on his collected letters, and one of his musical pieces. For

Matejko and Styka, one painting by each was selected.

In several of the secondary sources, the authors contend that Chopin was the foremost

national composer of Poland. Without fail, his letters and works both confirm such strong

depictions of him. The two books of his letters and correspondences are primary sources, as they

were written by him and people to whom he wrote. This source was produced in a book format

by translators. The letters were originally produced for the people he talked to; whereas the

collections were produced for people interested in Chopin’s life. Its audience was the people who

received the letters. It was intended as a form of communication between friends, and was

mostly “small talk.” People who would read it today include Chopin enthusiasts, archive

workers, and people interested in learning about the life of a composer.

This source exemplifies the time period through the dates of the letter, the context (i.e.

when he was performing), and the reactions to the problems that plagued Poland. In a letter to

Julian Fontana written on April 25, 1839 Chopin appeared to be an ethnic nationalist, “Bloody

Germans! Jews, rogues, swine, sharks, etc.” He is seen as resentful, bitter, and angry towards 7

minorities and those who “harm” Poland. In another nationalist themed letter to Fontana (dated

April 4, 1848) Chopin said, “If you want to do the right thing, stay quietly where you are and

don’t come back until something really starts moving in Poland...Czartoryski [Prince Adam] was

the first to arrive, but God knows what course events must take before Poland may arise again.” 8

Chopin defends his heritage in a letter to John Matuszynski when he said, “When dining to-day

Hedlery, trans. and ed., Selected Correspondence of Frederyk Chopin, 177.7

Ibid., 311.8

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at the Italian restaurant, I heard someone say, ‘God made a mistake in creating Poland.’ Is it any

wonder that my feelings are more than I can express? Somebody else said, ‘There is nothing to

be got out of Poland,’ so you ought not to expect anything new from me who am a Pole.” 9

Chopin was also very firm in the difference between Polish music and imitations of it (Jewish),

asserting that Polish music is better and more worthy of being called Polish.

I chose these collections because they were primary sources on Chopin, and I wanted to

use text as well as music. They are both part of published collections of letters found in the

university library. These sources taught me about the nationalism that Chopin espoused and his

undying passion for Poland. They would be useful for a musical historian writing on Chopin, and

what inspired his works. A historian could use them and see when Chopin’s letters corresponded

with events in Poland, and make connections between his home’s history and his views. They are

useful in a larger context for the insight into Polish nationalism of Chopin, and because they are

primary sources. The value is beyond compare as the letters illustrate this period of strife in

Poland, with the accompanying desire for Polish statehood.

The musical work of Chopin that I chose was his “Revolutionary Study (or Etude)” in C

Minor (Op. 10, no. 12) because I believe it best represents Polish nationalism. The music itself is

a primary source because it was written by Chopin. The performance is obviously secondary. The

producer of the composition was Chopin, and the performer was Bubin. It is a musical

performance found on YouTube. It was produced by Chopin for the people of Poland (his 10

audience) after they were defeated in the Russo-Polish War. Its intended effect is to summarize 11

Hill, trans., Frederic Chopin: His Life and Letters, 195. 9

See annotated bibliography. 10

Davies, God’s Playground: A History of Poland Volume II 1795 to the Present, 21.11

Shaffer !10

the bitter taste of defeat, and spark anger and discontentment. It could also be used to increase

the nationalists numbers, and make Poles more revolutionary. The piece itself is very fast paced,

loud, and brash. It evokes the pain, anger, and fiery passion of the Poles.

It exemplifies the time period, as it was written right after the loss of the war, at a time

when Poles were most upset. I can confirm its authenticity through secondary sources, and

through a list of Chopin’s works. By conferring with secondary sources, this musical piece taught

me about the Russo-Polish War. This source would be useful primarily to musical scholars

writing on the works of Chopin. I do not believe it would be used for a longer research paper

because of how short it is, and how necessary context is for it to be fully understood. It is useful

to a musical scholar more than anyone because it is Chopin’s work and is very distinct to the

time and the composer himself. The value of it is less than other sources used as it does not have

the clout of typical historical sources.

The last two artistic sources are Jan Matejko’s Rejtan’s Defiance, and Jan Styka’s

Polonia. Both paintings are primary sources as the Polish men painted them in Poland during the

1800s. Rejtan’s Defiance was produced and painted by Matejko. I found the painting online

while searching for his works. Jan Styka produced and painted Polonia. The painting was found

online, but originally I found it in a secondary source. Both paintings were produced for a 12

Polish audience: citizens, nationalists, historians, and others. The intended effect of Rejtan’s

Defiance was to remind the audience of the partitions of Poland and all that the nation had gone

through. Polonia, on the other hand, inspires awe, national pride, and the vision for Poland’s

future predicated by its past.

See annotated bibliography for links to both paintings, and the paintings themselves. 12

Shaffer !11

Matejko’s painting is driven by the past, and symbolizes one of the partitions. As a

result, it best exemplifies tragedies that befell Poland. In Rejtan’s Defiance, one sees a large

group of nobles, an army, and a man sprawled on the floor. The men and army undoubtedly

represent the nation partitioning Poland, with the possibility that some people were Polish

onlookers. The man on the floor represents Poland. He, like Poland, is defeated. The most

symbolic element is his refusal to fall. He is willingly laying with his shirt open for the death

blow, presenting himself as the last ultimate sacrifice for Poland. This evokes the determination

and spirit of the Poles.

Styka’s painting includes several nationalist figures and symbols which exemplify the

movement toward independence through revolution. Polonia is symbolic of the martyrs of

Poland, and the desire to see a return to those brave values. It includes several figures who

served the nation: Chopin, Matejko, Grottger, etc. Kornel Ujejski said it best,

“Everything that hurts and soothes, enlivens and brightens is there. A thick book, written by a masterly hand, would be needed to give a picture of what the painter conveyed in the one word of his canvas; one does not need to append to the painting any commentary. It itself will speak to the living Polish soul clearly and impressionably like no other word, and he who looks lifelessly at this painting can no longer be enlivened by anything.” 13

! The authenticity was confirmed by researching the pieces on the internet. I chose Rejtan’s

Defiance because it seemed to be the most nationalist of all of Matejko’s historical paintings. I

chose Styka’s Polonia because of its later view of past Polish nationalism, the characters

portrayed, and its powerful symbolism. Matejko’s was found on the website Culture.Pl, and

Styka’s was from Blogspot. Research on the paintings suggest that Matejko’s work can be found

in the Royal Castle in Warsaw. Styka’s painting location (museum) was not found. These

Dabrowski, Commemorations and the Shaping of Modern Poland, 105-106.13

Shaffer !12

sources taught me more about the Polish past: wars, revolutions, and key figures. These sources

are invaluable and extraordinarily useful to historians writing a longer research paper on Polish

nationalism or the artists. They both evoke the past of Poland and why it is so important that the

nation become independent (i.e. avoid being subject to foreign rule). These sources are also

useful in the larger context of Polish history. They allude to events and people not addressed by

this paper, which are important to Poland’s history.

The last primary source is from the Memoirs of Prince Adam Czartoryski. It is a primary

source as it was the self-written memoirs of the prince. This source was possibly produced for

family records, as a way to commemorate him. It may have been produced for the people to see

exactly what he did. The audience was more than likely family members, and maybe common

citizens. It is a memoir that would be read by anyone interested in him, Poland, and studies of

nobility.

The source exemplifies the time period through letters relating to the partitions, and

rebellions in Poland. This is primarily exemplified at the end of the memoirs, when Czartoryski

expresses his nationalist sympathies. The authenticity was confirmed by him referencing himself

in the first person, and by the multiple letters written, with corresponding dates. I chose it

because it was one of the few memoirs of Polish figures at the library. It is part of the Eastern

Europe Collection, and includes two volumes of his writings. It came from Cornette Library.

This source taught me that even the nobility had nationalist sympathies and wanted the best for

Poland. In his last days, he gave a speech:

“‘Do not descend,’he said,‘from the elevation where nations and sovereigns must respect you. By firmly remaining there you will be safer and more certain in seeing your goal and continually approaching it. Though racked by bitter

Shaffer !13

suffering, though driven to despair by treason and violence, resist the temptation to fight your oppressors by meaner weapons. You shine above them by your virtues and goodness: these are the indomitable forces of Poland, and in them lie her hopes for the future.’” 14

! This source would be useful to a professional writing on a topic related to Czartoryski,

nationalism, or Poland. The end of the memoirs could be used by historians to write a longer

research paper on Polish nationalism. The downfall is the small amount written in the memoirs

about nationalism. It is useful on a larger scale because of its primary nature, multiple volumes

and time periods, content, and readability. The value is immense for the study of history because

of the aforementioned reasons.

In conclusion, the documents analyzed all pertain to Polish nationalism and national

identity in the nineteenth century. They each evoke the passion within the Poles to become

independent and define themselves. The importance of Pilsudski, Dmowski, Chopin, Matejko,

Styka, and Czartoryski is comparable to that of revolutionary trailblazers. These men all put forth

what they believed was best for Poland and its identity, and they all valiantly pursued their

objectives in different ways. Without these sources and men, it is possible that Poland’s course of

history would have been drastically altered. Perhaps because of them, and others like them, the

white eagle soars today. Poland and the Poles now know their identity because of their incredible

nationalist past.

!!!

! Gielgud, ed., Memoirs of Prince Adam Czartoryski, 360-361.14

Shaffer !14

Bibliography

Chopin, Frederic (Frederyk). “Revolutionary Study in C Minor Op. 10, no. 12.” Circa 1831.

-Note: Primary source-music written by Chopin. This work is also known as

“Revolutionary Etude, Op. 10, no. 12.” For a link: http://www.youtube.com/ watch?

v=Mk1JQk90UbY. - this can be seen as a secondary source as another musician other than

Chopin performs the piece.

Dabrowski, Patrice M. Commemorations and the Shaping of Modern Poland. Bloomington:

Indiana University Press, 2004.

-Note: Secondary source used for context.

Davies, Norman. God’s Playground: A History of Poland Volume II 1795 to the Present. New

York: Colombia University Press, 2005.

-Note: Secondary source used for context.

Reddaway, M.F., et. al., ed. The Cambridge History of Poland: From Augustus II to Pilsudski

(1697-1935). London: Cambridge University Press, 1951.

-Note: Secondary source used for context.

Gielgud, Adam, ed. Memoirs of Prince Adam Czartoryski Volumes I and II. New York: Arno

Press Inc., 1971.

-Note: Primary source.

Gille, D.R., trans. and ed. Joseph Pilsudski: The Memories of a Polish Revolutionary and

Soldier. London: Faber & Faber Limited, 1971.

-Note: Primary source.

Shaffer !15

Halsall, Paul. “Tsar Nicholas I: Imperial Manifesto on Poland, March 25 1832.” Modern

History Sourcebook. Accessed April 17, 2012.

http://www.fordham.edu/Halsall/mod/1832poland.asp.

Hedlery, Arthur, trans. and ed. Selected Correspondence of Fryderyk Chopin. London:

McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1963.

-Note: Primary source. The letters were collected and annotated by Bronislaw Edward

Sydow.

Hill, Emily, trans. Frederic Chopin: His Life and Letters. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood

Press, Publishers, 1970.

-Note: Primary source. The book was written, and the letters were collected by Moritz

Karasowski.

Matejko, Jan. Rejtan’s Defiance. Oil on canvas, 1866.

�

Shaffer !16

-Note: Primary source-painting. This painting is also known as and referred to as Rejtan,

and The Fall of Poland. Link: http://www.culture.pl/image/ image_gallery?

uuid=5499b7ee-db18-412c-8989-a5524fd15809&groupId=25779&t=1331134786333.

Styka, Jan. Polonia.

�

-Note: Primary source-painting. Appears to be oil on canvas, and likely from the late

1800s. Originally found while researching in, Commemorations and the Shaping of

Modern Poland. Link: http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-8CuNSUCOnEQ/TzY7Ng5ujZI/

AAAAAAAABLQ/oc1PpcAW9_Y/s1600/z7067920X.jpg.

University of Memphis. “Primary Source Readings: From: Roman Dmowski, Thoughts of a

Modern Pole, 1902.” Accessed April 25, 2012. http://cassian.memphis.edu/

history/dunowsky/4050/czaykowski.html.