WHITE EVE IN THE "PETRIFIED GARDEN": THE COLONIAL AFRICAN HEROINE

IN THE WRITING OF OLIVE SCHREINER, ISAK DINESEN, DORIS LESSING

AND NADINE GORDIMER

By

ROBIN ELLEN VISEL B.A. The C i t y C o l l e g e of the C i t y U n i v e r s i t y of New York, 197

M.A. The U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1977

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

i n

THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES

Department o f E n g l i s h

We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s as c o n f o r m i n g

t o the r e q u i r e d s t a n d a r d

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

November 1987

© R o b i n E l l e n V i s e l , 1987

In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced

degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it

freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive

copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my

department or by his or her representatives. It is understood that copying or

publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written

permission.

Department

The University of British Columbia 1956 Main Mall Vancouver, Canada V6T 1Y3

DE-6(3/81)

i i

ABSTRACT

O l i v e S c h r e i n e r , w r i t i n g i n the t r a d i t i o n of George E l i o t

and the B r o n t e s , was an i s o l a t e d y e t o r i g i n a l f i g u r e who opened

up new d i r e c t i o n s i n women's f i c t i o n . I n her n o v e l s , The S t o r y

of an A f r i c a n Farm (1883) and From Man t o Man (1926) she

develo p e d a f e m i n i s t c r i t i q u e of c o l o n i a l i s m t h a t was based on

her own coming-of-age as a w r i t e r i n South A f r i c a . S c h r e i n e r ' s

work i n s p i r e d and i n f l u e n c e d Isak D i n e s e n , D o r i s L e s s i n g and

Nadine Gordimer, who have pursued t h e i r v i s i o n s of the c o l o n i a l

A f r i c a n h e r o i n e i n changing forms which n e v e r t h e l e s s c o n s c i o u s l y

hark back t o the "mother n o v e l . " Dinesen's Out o f A f r i c a ( 1 937),

L e s s i n g ' s Martha Quest (1952) and Gordimer's The L y i n g Days

(1953) a r e i n a sense r e v i s i o n s o f S c h r e i n e r ' s S t o r y of an

A f r i c a n Farm. These t e x t s , t o g e t h e r w i t h l a t e r n o v e l s by

L e s s i n g and Gordimer (such as S h i k a s t a and B u r g e r ' s Daughter,

1979) and key s h o r t s t o r i e s by t h e f o u r w r i t e r s , form a body of

w r i t i n g I c a l l t he " A f r i c a n Farm" t e x t s . W r i t t e n i n d i f f e r e n t

c o l o n i a l c o u n t r i e s — S o u t h A f r i c a , Kenya and R h o d e s i a — i n

response t o d i f f e r e n t h i s t o r i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s , from d i f f e r e n t

i d e o l o g i c a l and a e s t h e t i c s t a n c e s , t h e " A f r i c a n Farm" f i c t i o n s

d e p i c t the p r o b l e m a t i c s i t u a t i o n o f the w h i t e A f r i c a n h e r o i n e

who i s a l i e n a t e d both from w h i t e c o l o n i a l s o c i e t y and from b l a c k

A f r i c a . Through her own r e b e l l i o n a g a i n s t p a t r i a r c h a l mores as

she s t r u g g l e s t o d e f i n e h e r s e l f as an a r t i s t i c , i n t e l l e c t u a l

woman i n a h o s t i l e e n v i r o n m e n t , she uncovers t h e c o n n e c t i o n s

between p a t r i a r c h y and r a c i s m under c o l o n i a l i s m . She b e g i n s t o

i d e n t i f y w i t h the b l a c k A f r i c a n s i n t h e i r o p p r e s s i o n and t h e i r

i i i

i n c i p i e n t s t r u g g l e f o r independence; however she cannot shed her

w h i t e i n h e r i t a n c e o f p r i v i l e g e and g u i l t . J u s t as c o l o n i a l

s o c i e t y ( t h e w h i t e " A f r i c a n Farm") becomes f o r her a d e s e r t , a

cemetery, a f a l s e , b a r r e n , " p e t r i f i e d garden," so b l a c k A f r i c a

becomes i t s i d e a l i z e d c o u n t e r p a r t : a f e r t i l e r e a lm o f harmony

and p o s s i b i l i t y , t h e t r u e Garden o f Eden from which she, as

White Eve, i s e x i l e d . I t r a c e the " A f r i c a n Farm" theme and

imagery t h r o u g h t h e work of o t h e r w h i t e Southern A f r i c a n

w r i t e r s , such as J.M. C o e t z e e , whose s t a r k , p o e t i c , p o s t ­

m o d e r n i s t n o v e l s can be read as a coda t o t h e r e a l i s t i c f i c t i o n

of the f o u r women w r i t e r s . F i n a l l y , I lo o k a t the p o s t - " A f r i c a n

Farm" t e x t s of such t r a n s i t i o n a l w r i t e r s as B e s s i e Head, whose

n o v e l s of b l a c k A f r i c a p r e s e r v e a s u g g e s t i v e l i n k w i t h

S c h r e i n e r .

i v

T a b l e of C o n t e n t s

Page

A b s t r a c t i i

T a b l e of C o n t e n t s i v

Acknowledgements v i

Chapter One - I n t r o d u c t i o n : S t o r i e s of an A f r i c a n Farm .... 1

A Mother Novel and I t s Daughters 1

The C o l o n i a l H e r o i n e i n the C o n t e x t of the Female Bildungsroman 12 The C o l o n i a l H e r o i n e i n the C o n t e x t of White A f r i c a n L i t e r a t u r e 19

Chapter Two - O l i v e S c h r e i n e r : Eve D i v i d e d 37

The S t o r y of an A f r i c a n Farm 37

From Man t o Man 53

Chapter Three - Isak D i n e s e n : Eve as Adam 69

Out of A f r i c a 69

Shadows on the G r a s s 79

Dinesen and S c h r e i n e r 81

Chapter Four - L e s s i n g and Gordimer: Two C o n t e m p o r a r i e s and a P r o b l e m a t i c I n h e r i t a n c e 90

Chapter F i v e - D o r i s L e s s i n g : Eve i n E x i l e 97

L e s s i n g and Her P r e c u r s o r s 97

The Grass i s S i n g i n g 106

Martha Quest 110

To S h i k a s t a and Beyond 126

The Problem of " E x i l e " i n L e s s i n g ' s F i c t i o n 136

V

Chapter S i x - Nadine Gordimer: Eve Bears W i t n e s s 146

The L y i n g Days 153

The C o n s e r v a t i o n i s t 169

B u r g e r ' s Daughter 179

Chapter Seven - C o n c l u s i o n : From the " A f r i c a n Farm" t o A z a n i a 205

"Dream L i f e and R e a l L i f e " 207

" K i t o s c h ' s S t o r y " 210

L e s s i n g and Gordimer 212

"The Old C h i e f Mshlanga" and

The Myth o f White Eve 214

" I s t h e r e Nowhere E l s e Where We Can Meet?" 223

On the B l a c k A f r i c a n Farm: J u l y ' s P e o p l e 226

A S p o r t of N a t u r e : A z a n i a U n f u r l e d 236

R e p l a n t i n g the " P e t r i f i e d Garden": Recent Developments i n S o u t h e r n A f r i c a n F i c t i o n 240

Works C i t e d and S e l e c t e d L i s t o f Works C o n s u l t e d 251

Acknowledgements

I would l i k e thank P r o f e s s o r P a t r i c i a M e r i v a l e f o r her

c o n t i n u e d a d v i c e and s u p p o r t , w i t h o u t which I c o u l d not have

s u c c e s s f u l l y completed t h i s p r o j e c t . I am a l s o i n d e b t e d t o

P r o f e s s o r s Diana Brydon and C r a i g Tapping whose p e r c e p t i v e

comments improved the f i n a l v e r s i o n .

T h i s t h e s i s i s d e d i c a t e d t o my p a r e n t s , J onathan and E l s i e

V i s e l , and my husband, Yorgos Papatheodorou.

1

Chapter One

I n t r o d u c t i o n : S t o r i e s of an A f r i c a n Farm

A Mother Nov e l and i t s Daughters

O l i v e S c h r e i n e r ' s S t o r y of an A f r i c a n Farm has shaped the

w h i t e c o l o n i a l l i t e r a r y v i s i o n o f A f r i c a . S c h r e i n e r ' s A f r i c a n

farm i s a s e t t i n g f o r human b r u t a l i t y amid h a r s h n a t u r a l b e auty,

a s e t t i n g o f open v i s t a s which oppress the s p i r i t and i m p r i s o n

the body. I t i s a d e s p o i l e d P a r a d i s e which s y m b o l i c a l l y r e j e c t s

i t s c o l o n i s t s .

Through her a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l h e r o i n e s S c h r e i n e r c h a l l e n g e s

the i n e q u i t i e s of c o l o n i a l s o c i e t y from a f e m i n i s t s t a n c e ,

becoming c o n s c i o u s i n her l a t e r work of the r a c i a l s u b t e x t of

the " A f r i c a n Farm" s t o r y . Her s u c c e s s o r s , i s a k D i n e s e n , D o r i s

L e s s i n g , and Nadine Gordimer, d e v e l o p the p r o b l e m a t i c of the

w h i t e woman i n b l a c k A f r i c a : the h e r o i n e who r e j e c t s the

p a t r i a r c h a l and r a c i s t p r e m i s e s of c o l o n i a l s o c i e t y o n l y t o f i n d

h e r s e l f d o u b l y e x i l e d , from what she p e r c e i v e s as the f a l s e

P a r a d i s e of the w h i t e s and the t r u e Eden of the b l a c k s .

S c h r e i n e r , D i n e s e n , L e s s i n g and Gordimer d e s c r i b e d i f f e r e n t

c o l o n i a l s o c i e t i e s from the p e r s p e c t i v e of t h e i r d i f f e r e n t

n a t i o n a l i t i e s , g e n e r a t i o n s , c l a s s e s , p o l i t i c a l views and

l i t e r a r y s t y l e s . S c h r e i n e r , L e s s i n g and Gordimer, who grew up

i n what were, r e s p e c t i v e l y , the Cape C o l o n y , the C olony of

S outhern R h o d e s i a , and the Union of South A f r i c a , can be

c l a s s i f i e d as w h i t e A f r i c a n w r i t e r s . D i n e s e n , who spent

2

s e v e n t e e n y e a r s i n the P r o t e c t o r a t e / l a t e r the c o l o n y , of

B r i t i s h E a s t A f r i c a or Kenya, i s an e x p a t r i a t e w r i t e r whose

v i s i o n of A f r i c a r e f l e c t s her European o r i g i n s .

The c o n n e c t i o n among t h e s e f o u r w r i t e r s i s t h e r e l a t i o n of

Dinesen's Out o f A f r i c a (1937), L e s s i n g ' s Martha Quest (1952),

and Gordimer's The L y i n g Days (1953) t o S c h r e i n e r ' s a u t o ­

b i o g r a p h i c a l m a s t e r p i e c e , The S t o r y of an A f r i c a n Farm (1883).

S c h r e i n e r , D i n e s e n , L e s s i n g and Gordimer s h a r e a g e o g r a p h i c a l ,

h i s t o r i c a l , and l i t e r a r y c o n n e c t i o n w h i c h , I hope t o p r o v e , i s

more s i g n i f i c a n t than t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s . Each of them i s w h i t e

and f e m a l e , and l i v e d i n a B r i t i s h c o l o n y or t e r r i t o r y i n

A f r i c a , o r — i n t h e case of Nadine G o r d i m e r — c o n t i n u e s t o l i v e i n

the R e p u b l i c of South A f r i c a , a c o u n t r y s t i l l s t r u g g l i n g t o

emerge from i t s c o l o n i a l p a s t . Each of them began t o w r i t e i n

g e o g r a p h i c a l i s o l a t i o n and i n some degree o f c u l t u r a l i s o l a t i o n

from the mainstream of E n g l i s h l i t e r a t u r e ; each s t r o v e t o

d e s c r i b e a l a n d s c a p e and a s o c i e t y f i r s t d e s c r i b e d by O l i v e

S c h r e i n e r i n A f r i c a n Farm, from a female p o i n t of view f i r s t

e x e m p l i f i e d i n S c h r e i n e r ' s h e r o i n e , L y n d a l l .

I t i s g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d i n f e m i n i s t l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m

t h a t the r e l a t i o n s h i p between female w r i t e r s o f d i f f e r e n t

g e n e r a t i o n s i s l e s s f r a u g h t w i t h j e a l o u s y and h o s t i l i t y than i s

the r e l a t i o n between male w r i t e r s . Whereas th e male w r i t e r

s u p p o s e d l y b a t t l e s t o o v e r t h r o w h i s p r e d e c e s s o r i n o r d e r t o

a s s e r t h i s i d e n t i t y and t o c r e a t e something new, the female

w r i t e r i s more l i k e l y t o f i n d i n her p r e d e c e s s o r a mentor whose

work i n s p i r e s and encourages her own e f f o r t s . ! R a t h e r than

3

f e e l i n g o ppressed by the weight of the l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n from

which she s p r i n g s , she f e e l s h e a r t e n e d by t h e example of t h a t

s m a l l body o f women who have stepped o u t s i d e t h e i r a l l o t t e d

r o l e s t o become c r e a t i v e a r t i s t s . Thus the emphasis i n women's

l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y i s l e s s on d i s r u p t i o n than on c o n t i n u i t y , l e s s

on n e g a t i v e than on p o s i t i v e i n f l u e n c e . 2

T h i s emphasis on the c o n t i n u i t y of women's l i t e r a t u r e i s

a l l t he more a p p r o p r i a t e when we a r e d e a l i n g w i t h a s m a l l group

of r e l a t e d a u t h o r s who have i n common a m o t h e r - n o v e l , a

p r o t o t y p e f o r t h e i r w r i t i n g about A f r i c a . Each of the e a r l y

a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l n o v e l s and t h e memoir w i t h which t h i s t h e s i s i s

c h i e f l y concerned b e a r s a d i r e c t r e l a t i o n t o t h a t f i r s t s t o r y of

an A f r i c a n farm; each of the l a t e r w r i t e r s pays t r i b u t e t o and

acknowledges the i n f l u e n c e of S c h r e i n e r ' s p i o n e e r i n g t e x t , which

i s both a c o r n e r s t o n e of f e m i n i s t f i c t i o n ^ and the f o u n d i n g t e x t

of S o u t h e r n A f r i c a n f i c t i o n i n E n g l i s h . 4 The S t o r y of an A f r i c a n

Farm has had such a p o w e r f u l i n f l u e n c e on o t h e r w r i t e r s because

i t i s an o r i g i n a l and courageous work o f a r t p o i g n a n t l y f l a w e d

by t h e young a r t i s t ' s unashamed p a s s i o n and h e r — o n l y p a r t l y

d e l i b e r a t e — i g n o r a n c e o f the f i c t i o n a l c o n v e n t i o n s . V i r g i n i a

Woolf d e s c r i b e d S c h r e i n e r as "one h a l f of a g r e a t w r i t e r ; a

diamond marred by a f l a w " ( " O l i v e S c h r e i n e r " ) . 5 A f r i c a n Farm i s

a n e a r - g r e a t n o v e l , w h i c h , f a r from b e i n g a d a u n t i n g p r e c e d e n t ,

i n v i t e s improvement, e m b e l l i s h m e n t , r e w r i t i n g . I s a k D i n e s e n , i n

d e s c r i b i n g i t s a t t r a c t i o n , q uotes from t h e n o v e l i t s e l f : " t h e

whole o f the s t o r y i s not w r i t t e n h e r e , but i t i s sug g e s t e d "

( I n t r o d u c t i o n v - v i ) . She, L e s s i n g and Gordimer have t a k e n up

4

t h a t s u g g e s t i o n , and have w r i t t e n t h e i r own s t o r i e s , f o r which

S c h r e i n e r ' s S t o r y o f an A f r i c a n Farm i s t h e germ.

S c h r e i n e r ' s n o v e l i s the s t o r y of the i n t e l l e c t u a l

awakening of two c h i l d r e n — t h e i r s e a r c h f o r knowledge, work, and

f r e e d o m — a n d the b r u t a l e x t i n g u i s h i n g of t h e i r i d e a l s , indeed of

t h e i r v e r y l i v e s . I n a p a t t e r n s i m i l a r t o t h a t of Wuthering

H e i g h t s (which t h e r e i s no p r o o f t h a t the b o o k - s t a r v e d young

au t h o r had read) th e r o l e of t h e h e r o i n e i s s p l i t between the

female main c h a r a c t e r , L y n d a l l , and her male a l t e r ego, Waldo.

Whereas L y n d a l l ' s f a i l e d quest i s f e m i n i s t , Waldo's i s a r t i s t i c ;

t o g e t h e r t h e y enact the t o r t u o u s death of the young female

a r t i s t i n c o l o n i a l South A f r i c a , k i l l e d by human c r u e l t y and

i g n o r a n c e , p h y s i c a l i s o l a t i o n , c u l t u r a l s t a r v a t i o n , and f i n a l l y ,

by t h e h a r s h d e s e r t s e t t i n g which p r o v e s i n i m i c a l t o t h e i r

f l o w e r i n g . U l t i m a t e l y , i m p l i e s S c h r e i n e r , i t i s the s o i l of

a n c i e n t A f r i c a i t s e l f which r e f u s e s t o s u p p o r t t h e s e t r a n s ­

p l a n t e d f l o w e r s of an a l i e n , European c u l t u r e .

I t i s a n o v e l f u l l of s u g g e s t i o n about the r o l e of t h e

female a r t i s t - i n t e l l e c t u a l a t odds w i t h the n a t i v e l a n d and

c u l t u r e . However, I s a k Dinesen i n her memoir Out of A f r i c a

chooses not t o e x p l o r e t h e s e c o n f l i c t s suggested by S c h r e i n e r ,

but r a t h e r t o t r a n s f o r m them i n t o myth. Out of A f r i c a i s as

e s s e n t i a l l y n o v e l i s t i c as A f r i c a n Farm i t s e l f ; f o r A f r i c a n Farm

i s a n o v e l i n which f i c t i o n i s j o s t l e d by p o l e m i c , a l l e g o r y and

a u t o b i o g r a p h y . D inesen's i s the s t o r y of the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f

t h e D a n i s h b r i d e Karen B l i x e n i n t o t h e world-renowned

5

s t o r y - t e l l e r I s a k D i n e s e n . I n t h e p r o c e s s , she t r a n s f o r m s her

o f t e n l o n e l y , b i t t e r , and f r u s t r a t i n g e x p e r i e n c e i n t o a

t r i u m p h a n t p a s t o r a l i d y l l , i n I s a k Dinesen's A f r i c a , "Ralph

I r o n ' s " t i n y , s t u n t e d p l a n t s of beauty and p o s s i b i l i t y f l o u r i s h

l u x u r i a n t l y . D inesen d i s c o v e r s , i n her g l o r i o u s l y imagined

s e t t i n g , the freedom and power t o r e c r e a t e h e r s e l f as h e r o i n e

and a r t i s t . By t h e same t o k e n , however, she r e c r e a t e s , t h a t i s ,

d i s t o r t s , her s e t t i n g and i t s i n h a b i t a n t s t o f i t her m y t h i c

s e l f - c o n c e p t i o n .

S c h r e i n e r ' s t r a g i c d e l i n e a t i o n o f c o n f l i c t and Dinesen's

m y t h i c r e s o l u t i o n , S c h r e i n e r ' s awkward r e a l i s m and Dinesen's

w e l l - w r o u g h t romance, S c h r e i n e r ' s r a d i c a l i d e o l o g y and Dinesen's

c o n s e r v a t i s m , p r o v i d e d i f f e r e n t models f o r D o r i s L e s s i n g . We

w i l l see t h a t she has been i n f l u e n c e d by both of them, but

p r i m a r i l y , i n t h e e a r l y p a r t of her c a r e e r , by S c h r e i n e r . Her

d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e i n f l u e n c e of The S t o r y of an A f r i c a n Farm

upon her own c a r e e r echoes Isak D i n e s e n ' s . I t was " t h e f i r s t

' r e a l ' book t h a t I'd met w i t h t h a t had A f r i c a f o r a s e t t i n g " ;

"the book became p a r t of me", a c t i n g "on t h e rawest and most

workaday l e v e l , l i k e earthworms making new s o i l where t h i n g s can

grow" ("Afterword t o The S t o r y o f an A f r i c a n Farm" 98-99).

L e s s i n g ' s second n o v e l , Martha Quest, i s e s s e n t i a l l y a

r e w r i t i n g of L y n d a l l ' s s t o r y , t o l d from th e more i r o n i c , s e l f -

c o n s c i o u s p o i n t of view of a c h i l d of the n i n e t e e n - t h i r t i e s .

Martha b o l d l y embraces Freud and Marx, p s y c h o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s

and s o c i a l i s m . However, her i n t e l l e c t u a l and moral r e b e l l i o n

a g a i n s t t h e mores of her e l d e r s ends more o r d i n a r i l y than does

6

S c h r e i n e r ' s uncompromising t r a g e d y . U n l i k e L y n d a l l , Martha

compromises her i d e a l s by t e m p o r a r i l y c o n f o r m i n g t o c o l o n i a l

s o c i a l norms. U n l i k e L y n d a l l , she s u r v i v e s — t o f i l l f o u r more

volumes of the C h i l d r e n of V i o l e n c e s e r i e s .

W hile Martha's s t o r y was c l e a r l y i n s p i r e d by S c h r e i n e r ' s

S t o r y of an A f r i c a n Farm, we can a l s o note c l e a r p a r a l l e l s w i t h

Dinesen's Out of A f r i c a . F i r s t of a l l , L e s s i n g ' s r u r a l R h o desia

i s v e r y s i m i l a r t o Dinesen's East A f r i c a : i t i s p o r t r a y e d as a

m a g n i f i c e n t p h y s i c a l s e t t i n g i n which European e c c e n t r i c i t y ,

g e n i u s and n o b i l i t y of s p i r i t can f i n d a home, i n c o n t r a s t t o

the cramped s o c i e t y of the c o l o n i a l towns. I t i s a l s o s i g n i f i ­

c a n t t h a t Martha Quest and a l l of L e s s i n g ' s subsequent f i c t i o n

was w r i t t e n , l i k e I s a k D i n e s e n ' s , " i n e x i l e " from A f r i c a . So i t

i s not s u r p r i s i n g t h a t d e s p i t e her r a d i c a l p o l i t i c s we can t r a c e

a movement i n her work towards the d i s t i l l e d , i d e a l i z e d ,

n o s t a l g i c A f r i c a of D i n e s e n . Nor, i n l i g h t of L e s s i n g ' s move­

ment toward Dinesen's v i s i o n , i s i t c o m p l e t e l y s u r p r i s i n g t h a t

i n her r e c e n t "space f i c t i o n " v e r s i o n of the A f r i c a of her y outh

she embraces a h i e r a r c h i c a l i d e o l o g y t h a t resembles D i n e s e n ' s .

There i s no such movement toward a m y t h i c a l or m e t a p h o r i c a l

European v i s i o n of A f r i c a , nor toward a c o n s e r v a t i v e i d e o l o g y ,

i n the f i c t i o n of D o r i s L e s s i n g ' s contemporary, Nadine Gordimer.

Gordimer, whose f i r s t n o v e l The L y i n g Days i s a t e n t a t i v e ,

r a t h e r t i m i d v e r s i o n of The S t o r y of an A f r i c a n Farm and Martha

Quest, has developed a complex, s o p h i s t i c a t e d r e a l i s m which

extends the p r e m i s e s of S c h r e i n e r ' s , L e s s i n g ' s , and her own

e a r l y f i c t i o n . A l t h o u g h her o b v i o u s h i s t o r i c a l and t h e m a t i c

7

l i n k s a r e t o O l i v e S c h r e i n e r r a t h e r than t o Isak D i n e s e n , t h e r e

a r e some i n t e r e s t i n g p a r a l l e l s between her w r i t i n g and

D i n e s e n ' s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e redemptive r o l e t h a t b l a c k

c h a r a c t e r s p l a y f o r the w h i t e p r o t a g o n i s t s . For Nadine

Gordimer's f i c t i o n has a r o m a n t i c s t r e a k as w e l l , which i s

m a n i f e s t e d i n a deep s e n s u a l a t t r a c t i o n t o A f r i c a and A f r i c a n s ,

much l i k e D i n e s e n ' s .

For Gordimer's f i c t i o n , t h e n , as w e l l as f o r L e s s i n g ' s , we

can f i n d models i n S c h r e i n e r and D i n e s e n . And y e t , j u s t as

L e s s i n g ' s l a t e r f i c t i o n has grown beyond the b o u n d a r i e s of the

e a r l i e r w r i t e r s , so has G o r d i m e r ' s , except t h a t whereas L e s s i n g

has g r a d u a l l y become an E n g l i s h w r i t e r , i n whose f i c t i o n A f r i c a

i s i n c r e a s i n g l y s y m b o l i c , Gordimer c o n t i n u e s t o p o r t r a y

contemporary South A f r i c a n s o c i e t y . When she does use myth and

metaphor (as i n The C o n s e r v a t i o n i s t , 1974) her r e f e r e n c e s a r e

i n c r e a s i n g l y A f r i c a n r a t h e r than European. Thus we can see i n

her major n o v e l s of the s e v e n t i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n B u r g e r ' s

Daughter ( 1 9 7 9 ) , b o t h t h e c u l m i n a t i o n of t h e e s s e n t i a l l y

European themes and forms of t h e o t h e r t h r e e w r i t e r s and t h e

f i l t e r i n g of t h e s e themes and forms through her i n c r e a s e d

awareness of the b l a c k p o l i t i c a l and l i t e r a r y p e r s p e c t i v e .

I n summary, t h e n , S c h r e i n e r ' s S t o r y of an A f r i c a n Farm i s

the o r i g i n a l of t h e s e subsequent f i c t i o n a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s of

A f r i c a by D i n e s e n , L e s s i n g and Gordimer, w h i l e Dinesen's Out of

A f r i c a has p r o v i d e d a second model f o r L e s s i n g and Gordimer.

S c h r e i n e r o f f e r s s u r r e a l i s t i c t r a g e d y a g a i n s t a r e a l i s t i c

background and s e t t i n g w i t h i n a l o o s e , i n c l u s i v e s t r u c t u r e ; her

8

n o v e l , a p a s s i o n a t e argument f o r freedom, l o o k s toward t h e

f u t u r e . I n c o n t r a s t , Dinesen o f f e r s an a r t f u l l y e d i t e d f a i r y

t a l e o f A f r i c a which l o o k s backward t o an i d e a l i z e d f e u d a l

Europe o f brave n o b l e s , l o y a l s e r v a n t s and consummate s t o r y

t e l l e r s . For a l l of her c o n s e r v a t i s m , however, Dinesen i s more

r e c e p t i v e than S c h r e i n e r t o the A f r i c a around h e r ; i t s s m e l l s ,

i t s s k y , and above a l l , i t s p e o p l e — w h o f o r S c h r e i n e r a re

obscured by her own i n n e r drama. Dinesen m y t h o l o g i z e s but a l s o

i d e n t i f i e s w i t h her A f r i c a n s e r v a n t s who had so r e c e n t l y been

d i s l o d g e d from t h e i r s o v e r e i g n t y over "her" l a n d . T h i s

i n t u i t i v e empathy e n r i c h e s her work, as Gordimer's empathy f o r

A f r i c a n s e n r i c h e s h e r s a g e n e r a t i o n l a t e r .

The A f r i c a n n o v e l s of L e s s i n g and Gordimer which f o l l o w t h e

a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l p a t t e r n of the growth and e d u c a t i o n of an

i n t e l l e c t u a l and a r t i s t i c h e r o i n e make e x p l i c i t a theme which i s

f o r the most p a r t i m p l i c i t i n S c h r e i n e r and Di n e s e n . T h e i r

s u b j e c t i s t h e h e r o i n e ' s predicament as a w h i t e g i r l or woman

who r e j e c t s her g i v e n p l a c e i n c o l o n i a l s o c i e t y , and who, i n her

r e b e l l i o n a g a i n s t her l i m i t e d r o l e as daughter and w i f e ,

i d e n t i f i e s w i t h t h a t mass o f d i s l o c a t e d , oppressed p e o p l e among

whom she l i v e s : t h e b l a c k A f r i c a n s . Of c o u r s e , her empathy w i t h

the A f r i c a n s and her l o v e f o r t h e i r s p a c i o u s and b e a u t i f u l

l a n d s c a p e i s p r o b l e m a t i c , because by v i r t u e of her w h i t e s k i n

she i s an a l i e n , and i n D o r i s L e s s i n g ' s words "a d e s t r o y e r " i n

A f r i c a . I n t h e books which form a s e t w i t h The S t o r y of an

A f r i c a n F a r m — O u t o f A f r i c a , Martha Quest ( a l o n g w i t h the

C h i l d r e n of V i o l e n c e s e r i e s ) and The L y i n g D a y s — t h e w h i t e

9

h e r o i n e i s e x i l e d i n some way from her A f r i c a n "home". I t i s

o n l y i n Nadine Gordimer's B u r g e r ' s Daughter t h a t the h e r o i n e

s o l v e s t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s of her a l l e g i a n c e and r e t u r n s t o South

A f r i c a t o t a k e up a r o l e i n the b l a c k s t r u g g l e . Even B u r g e r ' s

Daughter, however, i s , as we s h a l l see, a r e c o g n i z a b l e v e r s i o n —

a g r a n d d a u g h t e r — o f The S t o r y of an A f r i c a n Farm.

Not o n l y a r e the f o u r p r i m a r y works so s t r o n g l y c o n n e c t e d ,

but so a r e l a t e r t e x t s by S c h r e i n e r , D i n e s e n , L e s s i n g and

Gordimer. O l i v e S c h r e i n e r , f o r i n s t a n c e , f o l l o w e d The S t o r y of

an A f r i c a n Farm w i t h From Man t o Man (1926). Begun b e f o r e

A f r i c a n Farm and c o n t i n u e d l o n g a f t e r w a r d s , From Man t o Man was

l e f t u n f i n i s h e d and p u b l i s h e d posthumously. D i s m i s s e d as an

u n s u c c e s s f u l work o f f i c t i o n , a c u r i o s i t y , i t was l o n g out of

p r i n t and p r o b a b l y had l i t t l e or no i n f l u e n c e on l a t e r a u t h o r s .

A l t h o u g h t h i s a m b i t i o u s l i f e - w o r k o f a n o v e l i s uneven and a t

time s t e d i o u s , i t n e v e r t h e l e s s c o n t a i n s passages of b r i l l i a n c e

and i s of g r e a t importance as a companion and, i n e f f e c t , a

s e q u e l t o S c h r e i n e r ' s e a r l y m a s t e r p i e c e . I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h i s

n o v e l of i d e a s c l a r i f i e s and d e v e l o p s the c o n n e c t i o n s between

fem i n i s m and c o l o n i a l i s m which the auth o r began t o e x p l o r e i n

The S t o r y o f an A f r i c a n Farm.

I s a k D i n e s e n f o l l o w e d Out of A f r i c a w i t h a second A f r i c a n

memoir, Shadows on the Gra s s (1961), which u n l i k e S c h r e i n e r ' s

second major n o v e l adds l i t t l e t o the f i r s t work. Dinesen's

A f r i c a remains p e r f e c t , f i x e d f o r e v e r i n the g l o w i n g a r c h e t y p e s

and luminous p r o s e of Out of A f r i c a . The s t o r i e s which form the

main body of her f i c t i o n a r e not about A f r i c a . They a r e g o t h i c

10

t a l e s s e t i n an i m a g i n a r y Europe of t h e p a s t . Some of the

s t o r i e s i n her f i r s t volume, Seven G o t h i c T a l e s ( 1 9 3 4 ) , had been

o u t l i n e d i n A f r i c a , but t h e main c o n n e c t i o n between A f r i c a and

her s t o r i e s i s t h a t her e x p e r i e n c e i n K e n y a — r i c h , t r a u m a t i c ,

f a n t a s t i c as i t w a s — e n a b l e d , even c o m p e l l e d , her t o w r i t e ; i t

made Karen B l i x e n i n t o I s a k D i n e s e n . Or, t o put i t another way,

Karen B l i x e n became a c h a r a c t e r i n I s a k Dinesen's f i c t i o n .

D o r i s L e s s i n g l e f t R h o desia i n 1949, r e t u r n e d f o r a v i s i t

i n 1956 ( t h e j o u r n a l of her t r i p was p u b l i s h e d as Going Home,

1957), then because of her p o l i t i c a l a f f i l i a t i o n s was banned

from r e - e n t e r i n g e i t h e r R h o d e s i a or South A f r i c a . D u r i n g t h e

f i f t i e s and s i x t i e s she p u b l i s h e d n o v e l s and s t o r i e s based on

her c h i l d h o o d and yo u t h as t h e daughter of w h i t e s e t t l e r s i n the

t h i r t i e s and f o r t i e s .

D o r i s L e s s i n g , l i k e I s a k Dinesen w r i t i n g i n the t h i r t i e s

about t h e t e n s and t w e n t i e s , p r e s e n t s a p i c t u r e of an e a r l i e r

t i m e . However, her v i s i o n o f c o l o n i a l s o c i e t y , u n l i k e

D i n e s e n ' s , i s not s t a t i c , but r a t h e r r e f l e c t s her M a r x i s t

a n a l y s i s t h a t w h i t e s e t t l e r d o m must g i v e way t o A f r i c a n

s o c i a l i s m . She c o n c l u d e s i n Going Home t h a t w h i t e s c o u l d have

no permanent home i n what she c o r r e c t l y p r e d i c t e d would be the

s h o r t - l i v e d F e d e r a t i o n of C e n t r a l A f r i c a .

I n c o n t r a s t , Nadine Gordimer, who has remained i n her

n a t i v e South A f r i c a , has a r r i v e d more g r a d u a l l y a t a r a d i c a l

c r i t i q u e of w h i t e hegemony, i n i m a g i n a t i v e response t o the

p o l i t i c a l changes i n her s o c i e t y from t h e f o r t i e s t o the

e i g h t i e s .

11

Both w r i t e r s have had l o n g , p r o l i f i c , and s u c c e s s f u l

c a r e e r s , d e v e l o p i n g — a s d a u g h t e r s o f O l i v e S c h r e i n e r — i n v e r y

d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n s a f t e r Martha Quest and The L y i n g Days. One

barometer o f the changes i n L e s s i n g ' s use of her a u t o b i o ­

g r a p h i c a l A f r i c a n m a t e r i a l i s t h e development of t h e C h i l d r e n o f

V i o l e n c e s e r i e s (Martha Quest, A P r o p e r M a r r i a g e , 1954; A R i p p l e

from the Storm, 1958; L a n d l o c k e d , 1965; The Four-Gated C i t y ,

1969). The n o n f i c t i o n Going Home p r e s e n t s a p o i n t of comparison

w i t h Dinesen's memoirs, w h i l e The Golden Notebook (1962) i s a

d i s t i l l e d v e r s i o n o f the m i d d l e volumes of C h i l d r e n of V i o l e n c e

i n the complex f i c t i o n a l , p o l i t i c a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l c o n t e x t of

Anna's notebooks. The young Martha f i g u r e appears a g a i n i n The

Memoirs of a S u r v i v o r ( 1 974), w h i l e S h i k a s t a (1979) and o t h e r

Canopus i n A r g o s : A r c h i v e s n o v e l s demonstrate how the themes of

L e s s i n g ' s c o l o n i a l A f r i c a n g i r l h o o d have c o n t i n u e d t o appear i n

her space f i c t i o n .

G o rdimer's remarkable development from The L y i n g Days t o

B u r g e r ' s Daughter can be t r a c e d t h rough her c o l l e c t i o n s of

s t o r i e s and her n o v e l s , i n c l u d i n g O c c a s i o n f o r L o v i n g ( 1 9 6 3 ) ,

A Guest of Honour (1970), and The C o n s e r v a t i o n i s t . The

f u t u r i s t i c r e a l i s m of J u l y ' s P e o p l e (1981) as compared w i t h

L e s s i n g ' s f u t u r i s t i c a l l e g o r y , demonstrates t h e d i f f e r e n t

agendas of t h e s e two w r i t e r s , who are such c l o s e c o n t e m p o r a r i e s

and whose p o i n t s o f o r i g i n a re so s i m i l a r . J u l y ' s P e o p l e , which

i s s e t i n the t h r o e s of a b l a c k r e v o l u t i o n i n South A f r i c a , can

be seen as a p o s t s c r i p t t o t h e " A f r i c a n Farm" s t o r i e s , w h i c h ,

d e s p i t e b e i n g c r i t i c a l of the c o l o n i a l system, a r e based on the

12

assumption of w h i t e dominance. With A S p o r t of Nature (1987),

which i s p r e d i c a t e d on the t r i u m p h o f the n a t i o n a l l i b e r a t i o n

movement, Gordimer has embarked on a new i m a g i n a t i v e c o u r s e ; i n

H i l l e l a Kgomani she has c r e a t e d a w h i t e h e r o i n e who i s " a t home"

i n , r a t h e r than a l i e n a t e d from, b l a c k A f r i c a . However, i n

t r y i n g t o t r a n s c e n d the p o l i t i c s o f an i n c r e a s i n g l y p o l a r i z e d

South A f r i c a , Gordimer compromises her v e r i s i m i l i t u d e ; one

hundred y e a r s a f t e r S c h r e i n e r i t i s s t i l l i m p o s s i b l e f o r a w h i t e

South A f r i c a n w r i t e r t o escape her a l i e n a t e d p o s i t i o n .

The C o l o n i a l H e r o i n e i n the Co n t e x t of the Female Bildungsroman

The c o l o n i a l women's v i s i o n embodied i n t h e A f r i c a n f i c t i o n

o f S c h r e i n e r , D i n e s e n , L e s s i n g and Gordimer has i t s c l o s e s t

p a r a l l e l i n E n g l i s h l i t e r a t u r e i n f i c t i o n by w h i t e women s e t i n

such c o l o n i a l or p o s t - c o l o n i a l o u t p o s t s as B r i t i s h I n d i a and the

C a r i b b e a n . Two n o t a b l e examples a r e Ruth Prawer J h a b v a l a ' s

Heat and Dust ( 1 9 7 5 ) 6 and Jean Rhys' Wide S a r g a s s o Sea (1966).

But we can a l s o t r a c e a wider c o n n e c t i o n between a l l of t h e s e

c o l o n i a l Bildungsromane and t h a t key t e x t of female r a g e ,

a l i e n a t i o n and e v e n t u a l s e l f - a c t u a l i z a t i o n , C h a r l o t t e B r o n t e ' s

Jane E y r e .

Rhys' r e v i s i o n o f Jane E y r e , Wide Sarg a s s o Sea, which b e a r s

s t r i k i n g s i m i l a r i t i e s t o t h e " A f r i c a n Farm" t e x t s , o f f e r s a

c l e a r l i n k between the w h i t e A f r i c a n women w r i t e r s and B r o n t e .

Rhys t e l l s t h e u n t o l d s t o r y of A n t o i n e t t e Cosway ( B e r t h a Mason),

the C a r i b b e a n g i r l whom R o c h e s t e r m a r r i e d and brought t o

En g l a n d , where she was n e g l e c t e d , d e c l a r e d i n s a n e , and f i n a l l y

13

consumed i n the f i r e of her murderous r a g e — w h i c h m i r r o r s the'

f i r e s s e t by the r e b e l l i o u s s l a v e s on her n a t i v e i s l a n d . i n

f a c t , G a y a t r i S p ivak d e s c r i b e s B e r t h a as a v e r s i o n of

A n t o i n e t t e ' s b l a c k s e l f . Thus, "Rhys makes A n t o i n e t t e see her

s e l f as her o t h e r , B r o n t e ' s B e r t h a " ("Three Women's T e x t s and a

C r i t i q u e of I m p e r i a l i s m " 2 69).

I t i s s u r e l y s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t "the madwoman i n the a t t i c "

who, as G i l b e r t and Gubar have shown, i s such a c e n t r a l f i g u r e

i n t he women's l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n , i s a w h i t e c o l o n i a l . Her

p a r t i c u l a r agony, and i t s m a n i f e s t a t i o n i n an o v e r t , v i o l e n t

form d e n i e d t o the good h e r o i n e s of the n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y

n o v e l , i s t h a t of an o u t s i d e r i n England who has no s t a k e i n the

s t a t u s quo, no p l a c e i n p o l i t e s o c i e t y , no reason f o r good

b e h a v i o r . A n t o i n e t t e / B e r t h a i s a l o s t s o u l , caught between two

c u l t u r e s , s c o r n e d both by the e x - s l a v e s who have ta k e n c o n t r o l

of her i s l a n d and the E n g l i s h t o whose r e l u c t a n t bosom she has

r e t u r n e d . Her s i t u a t i o n resembles t h a t of Baby B e r t i e i n From

Man t o Man; she a l s o becomes a p r i s o n e r i n a d a r k , d r e a r y house

i n a l i e n E n g l a n d . A n t o i n e t t e / B e r t h a ' s r e b e l l i o n i s a k i n t o

L y n d a l l ' s , and t o Magda's i n J.M. Coetzee's I n the Heart of the

Countr y (1977). She appears t o Martha Quest as her t e a c h e r and

soulmate i n the form of Lynda C o l d r i d g e , the madwoman i n the

basement i n The Four-Gated C i t y .

I t i s , t h e n , t h rough t h e i r a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h A n t o i n e t t e /

B e r t h a , which may be suggested i n S c h r e i n e r ' s use of the name

" B e r t i e " and c l e a r l y i s i n t e n d e d i n L e s s i n g ' s Lynda C o l d r i d g e ,

t h a t t h e s e " A f r i c a n Farm" t e x t s connect most s t r i k i n g l y t o the

t r a d i t i o n o f the female Bildungsroman i n the E n g l i s h n o v e l .

14

T h i s t r a d i t i o n i s d i s c u s s e d i n The Voyage i n : F i c t i o n s of

Female Development, a c o l l e c t i o n o f e s s a y s on the female

B i l d u n g s r o m a n , i n which t h e a u t h o r s d e s c r i b e a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

p a t t e r n of t h e "awakening t o l i m i t a t i o n s . " T h i s i s t h e

h e r o i n e ' s r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t her i n n e r development w i l l not be met

by the complementary development i n the s o c i a l w o r l d t h a t i s

a v a i l a b l e t o her male c o u n t e r p a r t . In t h e s e n o v e l s of female

development, the h e r o i n e c r e a t e s a r i c h i n n e r l i f e which has

l i t t l e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w i t h t h e c h o i c e s o f f e r e d her by her f a m i l y

and s o c i e t y , and thus i m p l i c i t l y c h a l l e n g e s e s t a b l i s h e d v a l u e s .

Marianne H i r s c h sees A n t i g o n e as a p r o t o t y p e f o r such h e r o i n e s

as Maggie T u l l i v e r i n The M i l l on the F l o s s , Edna P o n t e l l i e r i n

The Awakening, and R a c h e l V i n r a c e i n The Voyage Out. H i r s c h

argues t h a t , "Maggie's v a l u e s , l i k e A n t i g o n e ' s , p r o f o u n d l y c h a l ­

l e n g e t h e v a l u e s of her c u l t u r e " as w e l l as " t h e v e r y v a l u e s of

B i l d u n g i t s e l f , as i t has t r a d i t i o n a l l y been und e r s t o o d . . ."

(27) .

However, i n s e t t i n g up a c o n t r a s t between the female

Bildungsroman and t h e t r a d i t i o n a l male Bildungsroman (as

d e s c r i b e d i n i t s o r i g i n a l German form by M a r t i n Swales and i n

i t s E n g l i s h form by Jerome B u c k l e y ) , ? A b e l , H i r s c h and Lan g l a n d

o v e r s i m p l i f y t h e v a r i e d p a t t e r n s of both t h e male and female

s t o r i e s . They c o n t r a s t the p r o b l e m a t i c m a t u r a t i o n o f the

h e r o i n e w i t h t h e hero's r e l a t i v e l y smooth accommodation t o h i s

s o c i e t y ; when h i s v a l u e s d i f f e r p r o f o u n d l y from h i s s o c i e t y ' s ,

he can a v a i l h i m s e l f of t h e K i i n s t l e r r o m a n p a t t e r n , i n which h i s

f r u s t r a t i o n s a r e c h a n n e l l e d i n t o a r t i s t i c accomplishment. I n

15

f a c t , f o r Swa l e s , "The g r e a t Bildungsromane i n h a b i t the awkward

m i d d l e ground between p o s s i b i l i t y and a c t u a l i t y " ( 1 5 7 ) , and,

"Over and over a g a i n , the n o v e l s . . . pose the q u e s t i o n o f

whether the hero has a c h i e v e d any k i n d o f w o r t h w h i l e g o a l or

i n s i g h t " ( 3 0 ) . C e r t a i n l y L e s s i n g and Gordimer have c o n s c i o u s l y

p l a c e d themselves i n the l a r g e r t r a d i t i o n of n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y

r e a l i s m , h a v i n g s i m i l a r l y d e s c r i b e d t h e themes o f C h i l d r e n of

V i o l e n c e and B u r g e r ' s Daughter as the r e l a t i o n between p r i v a t e

and p u b l i c l i f e , and as an e x p l o r a t i o n of what t h e i n d i v i d u a l

owes t o the c o l l e c t i v e . 8 Both w r i t e r s have downplayed and a t

ti m e s even d e n i e d t h e f e m i n i s t a s p e c t of t h e i r f i c t i o n . ( I

d i s c u s s t h e i r v i e w s on fe m i n i s m i n Chapter Four.) Y et t h e i r

s u b j e c t s , themes, c h a r a c t e r s and imagery a re t o a l a r g e e x t e n t

gender-based. The problems o f development f a c e d by t h e i r

h e r o i n e s a re s p e c i f i c t o t h e i r i d e n t i t y as c o l o n i a l d a u g h t e r s :

r e l u c t a n t or r e b e l l i o u s i n h e r i t o r s who cannot e a s i l y disavow

t h e i r p i o n e e r f a t h e r s and homeward-looking mothers. These

h e r o i n e s r e l a t e s p e c i f i c a l l y as females t o A f r i c a n s and A f r i c a :

t h ey a re a t t r a c t e d t o and t h r e a t e n e d by b l a c k s and b l a c k n e s s i n

terms t h a t a r e e x p l i c i t l y or i m p l i c i t l y s e x u a l . T h i s i s o b v i o u s

i n L e s s i n g ' s f i r s t n o v e l , The Gra s s i s S i n g i n g , as w e l l as i n

Gordimer's most r e c e n t n o v e l , A S p o r t of N a t u r e .

I s a k Dinesen wants t o be bound by t h e c a t e g o r y of women's

l i t e r a t u r e no more than do L e s s i n g and Gordimer. N e v e r t h e l e s s ,

w h i l e she i s not o v e r t l y i n S c h r e i n e r ' s s t r o n g f e m i n i s t t r a d i ­

t i o n , she w r i t e s as a woman, r e l a t e s t o A f r i c a as a woman. Her

r e v o l t a g a i n s t n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y m i d d l e - c l a s s European v a l u e s

16

i s p h y s i c a l and s e x u a l as w e l l as i n t e l l e c t u a l . 9 She p l a c e s

g r e a t v a l u e on t h e freedom she d i s c o v e r s i n A f r i c a (which i s of

c o u r s e s p e c i f i c t o her s i t u a t i o n as a w h i t e s e t t l e r ) , i n c l u d i n g

t h e freedom t o t a k e on male r o l e s w h i l e not r e l i n q u i s h i n g her

woman's i d e n t i t y .

The " A f r i c a n Farm" t e x t s , a l o n g w i t h Wide S a r g a s s o Sea,

e x p l o i t t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y p o t e n t i a l of t h e female Bildungsroman

by b u i l d i n g upon the angry madwoman-in-the-attic s u b t e x t of Jane

E y r e as w e l l as t h e e x p l i c i t m i s e r y , i s o l a t i o n , p a s s i o n and

p r i d e of B r o n t e ' s h e r o i n e . Yet t h e s e c o l o n i a l t e x t s a l s o e n r i c h

t h e female Bildungsroman by s t r e t c h i n g i t s b o u n d a r i e s from th e

p r i m a r i l y domestic and p e r s o n a l domain of the voyage inward t o

the wider h i s t o r i c a l and p o l i t i c a l domain of t h e voyage outward.

S c h r e i n e r ' s s o c i a l and i n t e l l e c t u a l i s o l a t i o n i n South A f r i c a

e n a b l e d her t o r e t h i n k r e l i g i o n , male-female r o l e s and s e x u a l

mores. Whereas L y n d a l l and Waldo's m i s e r a b l e l i v e s and e a r l y

d e a ths are a d e v a s t a t i n g commentary on t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of female

B i l d u n g i n her s o c i e t y , Rebekah's q u a l i f i e d s u c c e s s i n From Man

t o Man i s an example of how t h e inward j o u r n e y of s e l f - d i s c o v e r y

and the outward j o u r n e y of s e l f - a c t u a l i z a t i o n can mesh. Rebekah

succeeds at both w r i t i n g and m o t h e r i n g . She a l s o succeeds i n

i n t e g r a t i n g what i s European w i t h what i s d i s t i n c t i v e l y A f r i c a n

i n h e r s e l f . S i g n i f i c a n t l y , i t i s her budding i d e n t i f i c a t i o n

w i t h t h e w o r l d of the A f r i c a n s t h a t f r e e s her from her husband

and the o p p r e s s i v e — j o i n t l y p a t r i a r c h a l and i m p e r i a l i s t — m o r e s

t h a t he r e p r e s e n t s .

For I s a k D i n e s e n , A f r i c a o f f e r s a s e t t i n g i n which i t i s

p o s s i b l e t o r e a l i z e the w o r l d of her i m a g i n a t i o n , t o t r a n s f o r m

17

i n n e r v i s i o n i n t o f l e s h and e a r t h . Her voyage inward blossoms

i n t o a voyage outward: a b r i e f d e l i c a t e harmony between f a n t a s y

and r e a l i t y i n which she too r e w r i t e s the female r o l e , g i v i n g

h e r s e l f a freedom and power u n a t t a i n a b l e i n Europe.

However, i n s o f a r as Dinesen's f a n t a s y of autonomy becomes

f l e s h i t i s a t the expense of the i n d i g e n o u s men and women whose

autonomy she has usurped. She t r a n s c e n d s t h e European s e x u a l

h i e r a r c h y o n l y by assuming the p r e r o g a t i v e s of the w h i t e male

s e t t l e r , and t h u s becoming i m p l i c a t e d i n the c o l o n i a l system of

e x p l o i t a t i o n . Dinesen becomes an a p o l o g i s t f o r the f e u d a l

s t r u c t u r e based on r a c i s m which b u t t r e s s e s the w h i t e - s e t t l e r

o r d e r . Her r o l e as a p o l o g i s t f o r and r o m a n t i c i z e r of t h i s

n e o - f e u d a l s o c i e t y i s congruent w i t h her c l a s s background and

c o n s e r v a t i v e p r e d i l e c t i o n s , but i t i s a l s o c l e a r t h a t n e a r -

a b s o l u t e power over her b l a c k s e r f s and t h e i r l a n d i s an

e s s e n t i a l element of Karen B l i x e n ' s "freedom." S c h r e i n e r

l a r g e l y a v o i d s t h i s c o n f l i c t by c r e a t i n g c h a r a c t e r s who are

oppressed as opposed t o f r e e d by the p a t r i a r c h a l c o l o n i a l o r d e r ,

c h a r a c t e r s who d i s c o v e r t h e m s e l v e s , and i n a sense f r e e

t h e m s e l v e s , t h r o u g h an i n c i p i e n t r e v o l u t i o n a r y c o n s c i o u s n e s s

which i n c l u d e s an awakening i f h e s i t a n t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h the

mass of oppressed A f r i c a n s .

For L e s s i n g and Gordimer, the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c inward move­

ment of the female Bildungsroman i s e x p l i c i t l y l i n k e d t o a

c o r r e s p o n d i n g outward movement from the c o n s t r i c t i n g w h i t e

e n c l a v e i n t o the l a r g e r w o r l d of b l a c k n e s s . By e x p l o r i n g and

coming t o i d e n t i f y w i t h the r i c h e r , more a n c i e n t w o r l d of the

18

A f r i c a n s , t h e h e r o i n e ' s p e r c e p t i o n of h e r s e l f and her own

c u l t u r e i s deepened. Her c e n t r a l awakening i s t o an awareness

of t h e A f r i c a n O t h e r . How t o d e a l w i t h t h e consequences of t h i s

awakening i s the p r o t a g o n i s t ' s c e n t r a l problem, which o f t e n

l e a d s t o a second awakening: a r e v e l a t i o n o f her own o t h e r n e s s ,

her a l i e n a t i o n from the w h i t e c o l o n i a l and b l a c k A f r i c a n w o r l d s

as w e l l as from t h e European c u l t u r e of her p a r e n t s . For some

of the h e r o i n e s , f o r Mary Turner i n The Gra s s i s S i n g i n g and

p o s s i b l y f o r Maureen Smales i n J u l y ' s P e o p l e , t h i s n e g a t i v e

awakening l e a d s t o d e a t h , as i t had f o r L y n d a l l . But most of

them, l i k e Martha Quest, Rosa Burger and H i l l e l a Kgomani, f i n d

i n t h e i r sense of d i f f e r e n c e Rebekah's freedom t o t h i n k

o r i g i n a l l y , t o e n v i s i o n a new s o c i e t y — a n d t o t a k e t h e f i r s t

s t e p s i n a c h i e v i n g i t .

Thus, d e s p i t e the imagery of c l a u s t r o p h o b i a and s t e r i l i t y

t h a t s u r r o u n d t h e " A f r i c a n Farm" t e x t s o f S c h r e i n e r , L e s s i n g and

Gordimer, t h e i r p r o t a g o n i s t s , l i k e Karen B l i x e n , p a r a d o x i c a l l y

f i n d g r e a t e r f u l f i l l m e n t , more scope f o r c r e a t i v e work and mean­

i n g f u l a c t i o n , i n A f r i c a than i n England or Europe. For them,

t h e j o u r n e y "home" i s an e x i l e , a d e f e a t , a c l o s i n g r a t h e r than

an o p e n i n g . Her p r o b l e m a t i c p o s i t i o n i n A f r i c a , as White Eve

t r e s p a s s i n g i n t h e B l a c k Garden, f o s t e r s s t r e n g t h , achievement

and moral growth. The h e r o i n e ' s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h the A f r i c a n s

i n t h e i r o p p r e s s i o n and i n t h e i r l a t e n t power e n r i c h e s her

tre m e n d o u s l y ; the e x p l o r a t i o n of b l a c k n e s s e n a b l e s her t o expand

p h y s i c a l l y beyond t h e narrow b o u n d a r i e s of w h i t e s o c i e t y , as

w e l l as t o expand m e n t a l l y beyond a narrow f o c u s on her own ego.

19

The C o l o n i a l H e r o i n e i n the Co n t e x t of White A f r i c a n L i t e r a t u r e

The A f r i c a n s e t t i n g i n thes e t e x t s i s n o t , t h e n , s i m p l y a

background, but r a t h e r a key element of the h e r o i n e ' s d e v e l o p ­

ment. A c c o r d i n g l y , the " A f r i c a n Farm" l i t e r a t u r e o f S c h r e i n e r ,

D i n e s e n , L e s s i n g and Gordimer s h o u l d be seen w i t h i n the wider

c o n t e x t of c o l o n i a l A f r i c a n f i c t i o n . O l i v e S c h r e i n e r p r o v i d e d

t h e model and s e t the agenda f o r v i r t u a l l y a l l s e r i o u s w h i t e

Southern A f r i c a n w r i t e r s , who have c o n t i n u e d t o employ her

i r o n i c n a t u r a l imagery and t o update her tormented p r o t a g o n i s t s .

An i m p o r t a n t l i n k i n the c h a i n from S c h r e i n e r t o L e s s i n g i s

W i l l i a m Plomer, whose T u r b o t t Wolfe (1926) was as f a r ahead of

i t s time as were The S t o r y o f an A f r i c a n Farm and From Man t o

Man i n t h e d e p i c t i o n of r a c i a l and s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s , which

Plomer too saw as i n t e r c o n n e c t e d . T u r b o t t Wolfe i s an a t t a c k on

the most d e e p l y - h e l d views and c h e r i s h e d v a l u e s of "wh i t e

c i v i l i z a t i o n " i n A f r i c a . The p r o t a g o n i s t - n a r r a t o r i s i n t e n s e l y

a t t r a c t e d t o b l a c k c u l t u r e and goes so f a r as t o f a l l h o p e l e s s l y

i n l o v e w i t h a Z u l u woman, whom he i d e a l i z e s as the embodiment

of beauty and " h o l i n e s s . " I n t h e end, Wolfe l e a v e s A f r i c a ,

d e f e a t e d by t h e " o b s c e n i t y , " the decadence and s t e r i l i t y , of

w h i t e c u l t u r e t h e r e , w i t h which he f e e l s h i m s e l f t o be t a i n t e d .

W h i l e the w h i t e hero i s d e n i e d h i s b l a c k w i f e , however, Plomer

ends h i s n o v e l w i t h the m a r r i a g e o f a European woman t o a Z u l u

man. A c c o r d i n g t o Plomer, t h e n , the s e x u a l c o n n e c t i o n t h a t i n

the c o n t e x t of w h i t e m a l e / b l a c k female would be a symbol o f

c o l o n i a l e x p l o i t a t i o n i s i n the c o n t e x t of w h i t e f e m a l e / b l a c k

20

male based on a more e q u a l power r e l a t i o n s h i p , and thus o f f e r s

some hope of r e g e n e r a t i o n f o r a s t e r i l e , r a c i s t s o c i a l o r d e r .

I n t e r r a c i a l m a r r i a g e i s r a r e i n Southern A f r i c a n

l i t e r a t u r e , i n c l u d i n g the " A f r i c a n Farm" t e x t s . W h i l e i n t e r ­

r a c i a l sex i s acknowledged t o o c c u r , i t i s p r e s e n t e d as the rape

or p r o s t i t u t i o n of b l a c k women by w h i t e men, and a l t e r n a t e l y as

a v e n g e f u l a s s a u l t on w h i t e women by b l a c k men. S i n c e Plomer,

o n l y Gordimer has e x p l o r e d the d e s i r e f o r and p o s s i b l i t y of l o v e

between the r a c e s .

For Gordimer, l i k e Plomer, the o n l y s e x u a l - r a c i a l combina­

t i o n t h a t can approach the e q u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p r e q u i r e d by l o v e

i s t h a t of the b l a c k man and w h i t e woman. The i m p l i c a t i o n i s

t h a t they have a common enemy i n w h i t e , male-dominated c o l o n i a l

s o c i e t y , y e t Gordimer's pessimism about the outcome of t h e i r

bonding r e c o g n i z e s the i n h e r e n t c o n f l i c t s i n t h e i r a l l i a n c e .

The w h i t e woman may be v i c t i m i z e d by her sex, but she i s

p r i v i l e g e d by her s k i n c o l o r — a n d c o l o r i s the c r u c i a l d i v i s i o n

i n South A f r i c a . Thus the a f f a i r between Ann and Gideon i n

Oc c a s i o n f o r L o v i n g i s foredoomed, w h i l e the o p t i m i s t i c m a r r i a g e

of H i l l e l a t o W h a i l a i n A Sp o r t of N a t u r e , which does not

c o m p l e t e l y r i n g t r u e i n terms of the p r e s e n t s t a t e of war i n

Southern A f r i c a , ends w i t h an a s s a s s i n ' s b u l l e t .

Plomer's f o c u s on the m a l a i s e of the w h i t e o u t s i d e r , the

n o n c o n f o r m i s t whose knowledge and p e r c e p t i o n s d i v i d e him a g a i n s t

h i m s e l f , has c l e a r p a r a l l e l s w i t h the d i v i d e d , s e l f - d e s t r u c t i v e

p r o t a g o n i s t s of the t h r e e women w r i t e r s , who, l i k e T u r b o t t W o l f e ,

choose some form of e x i l e . H Isak D i n e s e n , i n the more benign

21

g e o g r a p h i c a l and s o c i a l c l i m a t e of E a s t A f r i c a , i s l e s s haunted

by the o b s e s s i o n s of the Southern A f r i c a n w r i t e r s . Yet under­

l y i n g her c e l e b r a t o r y p r o s e a r e the d a r k e r t o n e s of p e r s o n a l

l o s s and of v i o l e n c e a g a i n s t n a t u r e . And she too i s aware of

th e p a r a l l e l s between sex and r a c e under c o l o n i a l i s m , n o t i n g

t h a t , "The r e l a t i o n between the w h i t e and b l a c k r a c e s i n A f r i c a

i n many ways resembles the r e l a t i o n between the two sexes"

(Out of A f r i c a 264). C h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y she does not pursue

t h i s p o i n t , b e i n g u n w i l l i n g t o expose the c o n f l i c t s between her

g u e s t f o r s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n i n Kenya and the p a r a l l e l d e s i r e f o r

s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the Kenyan p e o p l e . However, the

c e l e b r a t o r y p r o s e o f her memoir i s undercut by d a r k e r s t r a i n s of

l o s s and v i o l e n c e which r e v e a l her s i t u a t i o n more t r u t h f u l l y .

Another major f i g u r e ' w h o s e work seems c l e a r l y t o descend

from S c h r e i n e r and t o connect w i t h Dinesen as w e l l as w i t h

L e s s i n g and Gordimer i s J.M. C o e t z e e . Whereas Gordimer has

worked outward from her w h i t e , E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g m i l i e u , Coetzee

has reached out from h i s A f r i k a n e r r o o t s .

O l i v e S c h r e i n e r , who had i n t i m a t e knowledge of and a g r e a t

sympathy f o r the A f r i k a n e r p e o p l e , n e v e r t h e l e s s w r i t e s about

them from the p e r s p e c t i v e of an o u t s i d e r . D o r i s L e s s i n g ' s

A f r i k a n e r s , a l t h o u g h prominent i n Martha Quest, are the o t h e r

w h i t e s : "them" as opposed t o "us." Nadine Gordimer, however,

w r i t e s from the more heterogeneous p e r s p e c t i v e o f modern

Johannesburg; i n her urban s e t t i n g s , the d i f f e r e n c e s among

w h i t e s a r e n e g l i g i b l e compared t o t h e i r shared s i t u a t i o n as

w h i t e s under a p a r t h e i d . In B u r g e r ' s Daughter she p u r p o s e l y

22

m i n g l e s th e two w h i t e t r i b e s i n her main c h a r a c t e r , whose f a t h e r

i s an A f r i k a n e r r e v o l u t i o n a r y c h a l l e n g i n g the M a n i f e s t D e s t i n y

of h i s p e o p l e .

Coetzee w r i t e s m a i n l y i n E n g l i s h i n a p o e t i c , non-

r e a l i s t i c , f a b u l i s t , p o s t - m o d e r n i s t i d i o m . H i s s t a r k , m y t h i c

work b r i n g s i n t o s h a r p e r r e l i e f themes of power, v i o l e n c e ,

g u i l t , d e s i r e and a l i e n a t i o n t h a t a r e u s u a l l y d e a l t w i t h l e s s

d i r e c t l y i n S c h r e i n e r , D i n e s e n , L e s s i n g and Gordimer, and so

s e r v e s as a k i n d of coda f o r t h e i r " s t o r i e s of an A f r i c a n farm."

In I n the Heart of the C o u n t r y and "The N a r r a t i v e of

Jacobus C o e t z e e " ( i n D u s k l a n d s , 1974) he d e s c r i b e s the i n n e r

v i s i o n s o f A f r i k a n e r s . However, by j u x t a p o s i n g "The N a r r a t i v e

of Jacobus C o e t z e e " w i t h "The V ietnam P r o j e c t , " the n a r r a t i v e of

an American m i l i t a r y s t r a t e g i s t , he shows t h a t h i s c o n c e r n i s

w i t h the a r c h e t y p a l i n t r u s i o n of a s t r o n g , t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y

advanced c u l t u r e i n t o a weaker, l e s s t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y d e v e l o p e d

c u l t u r e . That h i s s u b j e c t i s t h e White H u n t e r , the C o l o n i s t ,

the I m p e r i a l i s t , i s r e i n f o r c e d by W a i t i n g f o r t h e B a r b a r i a n s

( 1 9 80), a f a b l e o f a c r u m b l i n g and t h r e a t e n e d empire w i t h no

r e c o g n i z a b l e h i s t o r i c a l s e t t i n g . T h i s n o v e l d e a l s p o w e r f u l l y

w i t h the r e l a t i o n between c o l o n i z e r and c o l o n i z e d , master and

s e r v a n t — t o r t u r e r and t o r t u r e d . Foe (1986) p u r s u e s t h i s theme

i n more a b s t r a c t and l i t e r a r y terms.

I n D u s k l a n d s , W a i t i n g f o r t h e B a r b a r i a n s and Foe the

c o l o n i z e r , h u n t e r , d e s t r o y e r , i s male. In Jacobus Coetzee's

words:

23

I am an e x p l o r e r . My essence i s t o open what i s c l o s e d , t o b r i n g l i g h t t o what i s d a r k .

I move th r o u g h t h e w i l d e r n e s s w i t h my gun a t the s h o u l d e r of my eye. . . . Savages do not have guns. T h i s i s the e f f e c t i v e meaning of s a v a g e r y , which we may d e f i n e as enslavement t o space, as one speaks o b v e r s e l y of the e x p l o r e r ' s mastery of space. ("The N a r r a t i v e of Jacobus Coetzee" 106; 79.)

The e x p l o r e r i s o f c o u r s e v u l n e r a b l e t o i l l n e s s and d e a t h ;

madness i s endemic, an o c c u p a t i o n a l h a z a r d . So i t i s t o o f o r

Magda, l i v i n g " i n the h e a r t of the c o u n t r y , " but as female

r a t h e r than male, as daughter r a t h e r than f a t h e r , housekeeper

r a t h e r than h u n t e r , she i s l e s s p o w e r f u l and l e s s obsessed w i t h

"mastery" of her environment. Her medium of communication w i t h

"the brown p e o p l e " who s u r r o u n d her i s not the gun but the pen:

A l o n e i n my room w i t h my d u t i e s b e h i n d me and t h e lamp s t e a d i l y b u r n i n g , I c r e a k i n t o rhythms t h a t are my own, stumble over t h e r o c k s of words t h a t I have never heard on another tongue. I c r e a t e m y s e l f i n the words t h a t c r e a t e me, I who l i v i n g among the downcast have never b e h e l d m y s e l f i n t h e e q u a l r e g a r d of a n o t h e r ' s eye, have never h e l d another i n the e q u a l r e g a r d of mine ( I n the H e a r t of t h e C o u n t r y 8; emphasis added).

Magda i s t r a p p e d between her s u b j e c t i o n t o her f a t h e r and

the s u b j e c t i o n of the s e r v a n t s t o h e r . Her pen c r i e s o u t :

The medium, the m e d i a n — t h a t i s what I wanted t o be! N e i t h e r master nor s l a v e , n e i t h e r p a r e n t nor c h i l d but the b r i d g e between, so t h a t i n me the c o n t r a r i e s s h o u l d be r e c o n c i l e d ! ( 1 3 3 ) .

As Coetzee r e c o g n i z e s , the w h i t e woman—the female

c o l o n i s t , s e t t l e r , h u n t e r — i s "a b r i d g e between" th e a b s o l u t e

power of the w h i t e man and the a b s o l u t e p o w e r l e s s n e s s of the

b l a c k s . I n t h e f i c t i o n o f C o e t z e e , Gordimer, L e s s i n g , Dinesen

and S c h r e i n e r she i s p o r t r a y e d as a v i c t i m of t h e deep

24

d i c h o t o m i e s i n her s o c i e t y . For t h e d i v i d i n g l i n e t h a t t h e male

c o l o n i s t draws between b l a c k and w h i t e becomes i n h i s i m a g i n a ­

t i o n a g u l f between c i v i l i z e d and u n c i v i l i z e d , f a t h e r and c h i l d ,

l a n d e d and l a n d l e s s , g u n - c a r r i e r and g u n l e s s , a c t o r and

a c t e d - u p o n — i m a g i n a t i v e c a t e g o r i e s which echo and a r e i n a sense

modeled upon h i s p r i m a r y d i v i s i o n of power between male and

fe m a l e . He p e n e t r a t e s t h e w i l d e r n e s s w i t h h i s gun, m a s t e r i n g

the n a t i v e p e o p l e as he p e n e t r a t e s h i s w i f e and r u l e s h i s

d a u g h t e r s . But i n t h e i n t e r e s t s of " p u r i t y " he f o r b i d s any

human c o n t a c t between h i s w h i t e women and t h e i r n a t u r a l a l l i e s ,

" h i s " b l a c k s , t h u s f o s t e r i n g f e a r but a l s o a t t r a c t i o n between

the two p a r t i e s .

We see t h i s theme of h e s i t a n t , f r a u g h t rapprochement of

b l a c k and w h i t e t h r o u g h the ambiguous f i g u r e of the c o l o n i a l

woman i n each o f the f o u r women w r i t e r s . I n S c h r e i n e r i t i s a t

f i r s t b u r i e d i n her c h r o n i c l e of t h e o p p r e s s i o n of w h i t e women

and c h i l d r e n . But i t emerges i n From Man t o Man, when Rebekah

f i n a l l y makes common cause w i t h t h e A f r i c a n s . Dinesen's memoir

i s a p l a t o n i c , but s e n s u a l l o v e a f f a i r w i t h the K i k u y u , M a s a i ,

and Somali t r i b e s p e o p l e , i n which c o n f l i c t s of a l l e g i a n c e a r e

g r a c e f u l l y g l o s s e d o v e r . Even her d e s c r i p t i o n s of l i o n h u n t i n g

i n which t h e l i o n m y s t i c a l l y i n v i t e s t h e h u n t e r ' s b u l l e t ,

t r a n s f o r m the k i l l i n g i n t o a communion between hun t e r and

a n i m a l — a n d i n a l a r g e r sense between t h e European and A f r i c a .

W h i l e D inesen's mystique of h u n t i n g can be t r a c e d t o her

u p b r i n g i n g i n Denmark and t h e u p p e r - c l a s s p a s s i o n f o r h u n t i n g ,

i t i s i n A f r i c a an i m p e r i a l i s t g e s t u r e . Karen B l i x e n ' s h u n t i n g

25

as an a c t o f l o v e ( d e s c r i b e d u n c r i t i c a l l y by Dinesen) f i n d s an

e e r i e echo i n Jacobus Coetzee's s h o o t i n g of A f r i c a n s ( d e s c r i b e d

i r o n i c a l l y ) as m y s t i c a l communication/ when he p r o c l a i m s t h a t ,

"The gun i s our mediator w i t h the w o r l d . . ." ( 7 9 ) . Thus

Co e t z e e ' s f i c t i o n exposes t h e v i o l e n t , i m p e r i a l i s t and m a s c u l i n -

i s t a s p e c t of Dinesen's e t h i c . There i s a l s o a s i m i l a r i t y i n

the r e l a t i o n between I s a k Dinesen and Karen B l i x e n , J.M. Coetzee

and "Jacobus Coetzee," whose name s u g g e s t s he i s a t l e a s t an

a n c e s t o r , i f not an a l t e r ego of h i s a u t h o r . However, Coetzee's

d e p i c t i o n of h i s a n c e s t o r / a l t e r ego i s more c r i t i c a l and

s e l f - a w a r e than i s Dinesen's of her f i c t i o n a l i z e d s e l f .

There i s l e s s double meaning i n L e s s i n g ' s and Gordimer's

e x p l i c a t i o n of t h e themes of communication and c o n n e c t i o n . For

L e s s i n g ' s w h i t e c h a r a c t e r s the b l a c k s a r e i n s c r u t a b l e and

u n r e a c h a b l e . Gordimer's w h i t e main c h a r a c t e r s l o n g and s t r a i n

f o r s o r o r i t y or f r a t e r n i t y ; t h ey are b l o c k e d not so much by

t h e i r mental and e m o t i o n a l l i m i t a t i o n s as by t h e p o l i t i c s of

South A f r i c a . Thus, more and more, p o l i t i c s , l e g i s l a t i o n and

h i s t o r y become the f o c u s of her f i c t i o n .

The ambiguous, s e l f - d i v i d e d p o s i t i o n o f the w h i t e g i r l or

woman i n c o l o n i a l s o c i e t y i s , t h e n , t h e i m p l i c i t theme of t h e

women's w r i t i n g and w r i t i n g about women t h a t began w i t h O l i v e

S c h r e i n e r . The female c h a r a c t e r s i n t h e s e books a r e i n t e r n a l

b a t t l e g r o u n d s i n which the c o n f l i c t s of A f r i c a n c o l o n i a l s o c i e t y

a re p l a y e d o u t , and a l s o meeting p l a c e s where i l l i c i t r e l a t i o n ­

s h i p s between the r a c e s can d e v e l o p . " I wanted t o be . . . the

b r i d g e between," w r i t e s Magda i n her d i a r y . " I am the p l a c e

26

where something has o c c u r r e d , " i s Rosa B u r g e r ' s e p i g r a p h . In

t h e i r s e a r c h f o r the female s e l f , t h e s e w r i t e r s d i s c o v e r the

v i o l e n t h i s t o r y of t h e i r c o u n t r i e s . That t h e s e i d e n t i t y g u e s t s

a r e not o n l y s t o r i e s of the s e l f , but s t o r i e s of n a t i o n a l and

g e o g r a p h i c a l i d e n t i t y or the l a c k t h e r e o f i s shown by the

t i t l e s : The S t o r y of an A f r i c a n Farm, Out of A f r i c a , The

C h i l d r e n of V i o l e n c e , I n the Heart o f the C o u n t r y . The t i t l e

B u r g e r ' s D a u g h t e r — t h a t i s , the daughter o f L i o n e l B u r g e r , but

a l s o t h e daughter of t h e b u r g e r , t h e c i t i z e n — i n d i c a t e s

Gordimer's c o n c e r n w i t h the l a r g e r i n h e r i t a n c e o f the South e r n

A f r i c a n g i r l - c h i l d , a c o n c e r n which O l i v e S c h r e i n e r f i r s t

embodied i n her orphaned, l a n d l e s s L y n d a l l . L y n d a l l and the

c h a r a c t e r s who come a f t e r her do not p a r t a k e of t h e power and

r i c h e s , the mastery of the male c o l o n i s t . They are c u r i o u s l y

u n i m p l i c a t e d i n t h e v i o l e n c e of c o l o n i a l i s m : L y n d a l l i s

f a t h e r l e s s ; Waldo i s the son o f a k i n d l y , v i c t i m i z e d worker;

Martha Quest's f a t h e r i s dreamy and incompetent; Rosa's f a t h e r

i s an i d e a l i z e d r e v o l u t i o n a r y , an enemy of the s t a t e . Karen

B l i x e n i s a generous and e n t h u s i a s t i c but f a i l e d farmer who may

r u l e and hunt as a k i n d of ho n o r a r y male, but who i d e n t i f i e s

w i t h the r u l e d and hunted t h r o u g h her female v u l n e r a b i l i t y .

As Stephen Gray s u g g e s t s i n Southern A f r i c a n L i t e r a t u r e : An

I n t r o d u c t i o n , t h e s e w r i t e r s i n t h e l i b e r a l t r a d i t i o n p o r t r a y the

w h i t e f a i l u r e t o connect w i t h b l a c k A f r i c a n s and t o t a k e r o o t i n

A f r i c a n s o i l . But t h e y go beyond a p o r t r a i t of a l i e n a t i o n ;

t h e i r female c h a r a c t e r s a r e s y m b o l i c a l l y f r e e d o f the psycho­

l o g i c a l l i m i t a t i o n s of the d o m i n a t i n g male, f r e e d of the

27

b a r r i e r s t h a t a gun, a l a n d deed, and a s a f e f u l l of g o l d pose

to l o v e , u n d e r s t a n d i n g and e q u a l i t y . These c h a r a c t e r s g e n e r a l l y

f a i l i n t h e i r q u e s t t o b u i l d a modest b r i d g e between the w h i t e

and b l a c k w o r l d s , which i s not s u r p r i s i n g g i v e n t h e i r ambiguous

p o s i t i o n i n t h e w h i t e w o r l d and t h e i r e q u i v o c a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n

the b l a c k w o r l d . Nor i s i t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t hey g e n e r a l l y f a i l

t o l i v e f r e e and f r u i t f u l l i v e s as t h e y v e n t u r e — a c t u a l l y or

s y m b o l i c a l l y — f r o m the o p p r e s s i v e p r o t e c t i o n of t h e w h i t e

f o r t r e s s i n t o t h e i n d i f f e r e n t or a c t i v e l y h o s t i l e t e r r i t o r y of

the A f r i c a n s . L y n d a l l ' s q u e s t f o r p e r s o n a l freedom i s s u i c i d a l ;

Waldo r e t u r n s t o t h e farm t o d i e of sorrow. Rebekah, i n one of

the most o p t i m i s t i c e n d i n g s of any of t h e s e books, adopts a

h a l f - c a s t e c h i l d and b e g i n s her own farm. But t h e economic

r e a l i t i e s of f a r m i n g doom Karen B l i x e n ' s r u r a l p a r a d i s e . Mary

Turner w i l l s her own death a t t h e hands of Moses, her b l a c k

s e r v a n t and v i r t u a l l o v e r . Martha Quest c o n s t r u c t s an i m a g i n a r y

c i t y of harmony on t h e v e l d , which she i s f o r e v e r unable t o

r e c r e a t e i n S a l i s b u r y or London. Helen Shaw escapes on a s h i p

t o Europe. Rosa f i n d s a form of j o y i n p r i s o n . Maureen Smales

runs b l i n d l y toward a h e l i c o p t e r , no l o n g e r c a r i n g whether i t

b e l o n g s t o t h e w h i t e or b l a c k a r m i e s . And Magda withdraws i n t o

her farm house, c h o o s i n g t o d i e "here i n the p e t r i f i e d garden,

b e h i n d l o c k e d g a t e s , near my f a t h e r ' s bones" ( I n t h e Heart of

the C o u n t r y 138).

As Stephen Gray and o t h e r c r i t i c s have p o i n t e d o u t , s e t t i n g

i n w h i t e S o u t h e r n A f r i c a n f i c t i o n s y m b o l i z e s the a l i e n a t i o n of

the c h a r a c t e r s . The A f r i c a n l a n d r e j e c t s i t s c o l o n i s t s ; drought

28

i s a p r e v a l e n t metaphor, whereas r a i n — w h i c h i n A f r i c a means

growth and l i f e — i s used i r o n i c a l l y t o emphasize the s t e r i l i t y

of t h e w h i t e s . When the l o n g drought i n A f r i c a n Farm b r e a k s ,

r a i n and greenness h e r a l d d e a t h . I n The C o n s e r v a t i o n i s t , r a i n

comes i n a f l o o d which sweeps away symbols of w h i t e power as i t

g i v e s s y m b o l i c r e b i r t h t o b l a c k A f r i c a . The t i t l e s of two

n o v e l s by Andre B r i n k , a South A f r i c a n whose work i s v e r y

s i m i l a r t o G o r d i m e r ' s , show how g e n e r a l i s the imagery of

drought and storm i n w h i t e Southern A f r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e : A Dry

White Season ( 1 9 7 8 ) and Rumours of R a i n ( 1 9 7 9 ) . 1 1

S h e i l a Fugard's A R e v o l u t i o n a r y Woman (1983), t h e s t o r y of

an a c t i v i s t t e a c h e r i n the time of Gandhi , s e t i n S c h r e i n e r ' s

Karoo, i n v o k e s S c h r e i n e r ' s imagery and even S c h r e i n e r h e r s e l f ,

upon whom the h e r o i n e seems t o be modeled. Fugard's n o v e l ,

a l t h o u g h f l a w e d by o v e r w r i t i n g and r e p e t i t i o n , r e i n f o r c e s the

" A f r i c a n Farm" themes and imagery, o f f e r i n g f u r t h e r p r o o f o f

S c h r e i n e r ' s c o n t i n u i n g i n f l u e n c e . 1 2

As w h i t e South A f r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e becomes more p o l i t i c a l l y

r a d i c a l , i n s t e p w i t h the r e s i s t a n c e movement and i t s v i o l e n t

s u p p r e s s i o n by t h e government, the w r i t e r s d i s c o v e r i n t h e

p a t t e r n of imagery i n h e r i t e d from S c h r e i n e r (who o n l y gave form

t o the dreams and f e a r s a l r e a d y p r e s e n t i n t h e w h i t e - s e t t l e r

psyche) the symbols of r e v o l u t i o n . T h i s symbolism, apparent i n

B r i n k , Coetzee and L e s s i n g , i s most developed i n Gordimer.

Throughout her f i c t i o n she has pursued the image o f w h i t e South

A f r i c a as a g r a v e y a r d , c o n n e c t i n g d r y n e s s and s t e r i l i t y w i t h

decadence and d e a t h . B l a c k South A f r i c a , o p p r e s s e d and

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r e p r e s s e d , i s the b u r i e d body t h a t t h r e a t e n s , or p r o m i s e s , t o

r i s e u p — t o i n u n d a t e and d e s t r o y , or t o r e v i v e and f e r t i l i z e —

t he c o u n t r y of t h e w h i t e s .

A r e l a t e d s y m b o l i c p a t t e r n emerging i n t h i s l i t e r a t u r e i s

t h a t of the h e r o i n e as Eve, who, t a i n t e d by her w h i t e b l o o d , by

her i n h e r i t e d p o s i t i o n of p r i v i l e g e , i s b a r r e d from the b l a c k

A f r i c a n p a r a d i s e . The Eve metaphor, which i s developed most

c l e a r l y i n L e s s i n g , but r e v e r b e r a t e s i n the work of the o t h e r

w r i t e r s , i s a f i g u r a t i v e v e r s i o n of a p a r t h e i d , t h a t b a r r i e r

a g a i n s t the b l a c k s which becomes, f i n a l l y , a t r a p i n which the

w h i t e s are c a ught. What i s f o r L e s s i n g t h e p s y c h i c w a l l of

a p a r t h e i d becomes f o r Gordimer a s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l w a l l i n a

South A f r i c a i n which i t i s o f f i c i a l l y f o r b i d d e n t o e n t e r the

b l a c k Townships and L o c a t i o n s , or t o have i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s

on e q u a l terms w i t h non-white p e o p l e .

We can t r a c e a g r a d u a l s h i f t i n f o c u s i n the " A f r i c a n Farm"

l i t e r a t u r e from S c h r e i n e r t o Gordimer. S c h r e i n e r ' s almost

e x c l u s i v e l y w h i t e w o r l d , i n which c o l o n i a l v i o l e n c e i s d i r e c t e d

a t w h i t e women and c h i l d r e n , and o n l y i m p l i c i t l y at b l a c k s , i s

t r a n s f o r m e d i n Gordimer's f i c t i o n i n t o a d i v i d e d w o r l d which the

a l i e n a t e d , g u i l t y w h i t e s l o n g t o r e u n i t e : t h r o u g h l o v e and

u n d e r s t a n d i n g (The L y i n g Days, A World of S t r a n g e r s , 1958) or

v i o l e n t r e v o l u t i o n (The C o n s e r v a t i o n i s t , J u l y ' s P e o p l e ) or both

( B u r g e r ' s Daughter and A S p o r t o f N a t u r e ) . As South A f r i c a n

h i s t o r y b o i l s t o what may be i t s f i n a l c r i s i s , t h e metaphors of

drought and f l o o d , the b u r i e d body, and w h i t e Eve, which i n

S c h r e i n e r and even i n L e s s i n g are symbols of vague unease and

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u n f o c u s e d g u i l t , t a k e on c o n c r e t e p o l i t i c a l meaning. B l a c k

c h a r a c t e r s , who a r e l a r g e l y absent i n S c h r e i n e r and two-

d i m e n s i o n a l i n L e s s i n g , more f u l l y developed i n Dinesen but

s t i l l a backdrop f o r the w h i t e h e r o i n e , become more c e n t r a l i n

G ordimer, B r i n k and C o e t z e e . B l a c k h i s t o r y and c u l t u r e , which

were p r e s e n t t o some e x t e n t i n the work of the e a r l i e r w r i t e r s ,

but o n l y i n terms of t h e w h i t e c h a r a c t e r s ' development, become

major themes.

Yet the attempt t o break down a p a r t h e i d i n w h i t e f i c t i o n o f

the n i n e t e e n - s e v e n t i e s and e i g h t i e s has o c c u r r e d at a time when

the p h y s i c a l and i d e o l o g i c a l g u l f between the r a c e s has

i n c r e a s e d because of p o l i t i c a l and m i l i t a r y r e p r e s s i o n on the

p a r t of the government, and movements toward autonomy w i t h i n the

b l a c k community, such as B l a c k C o n s c i o u s n e s s . Thus w h i l e

p r o g r e s s i v e w h i t e South A f r i c a n w r i t e r s may be f a r ahead of

t h e i r government i n e n v i s i o n i n g the s h i f t of power from w h i t e

m i n o r i t y t o b l a c k m a j o r i t y , they can do no more than f o l l o w

b e h i n d the b l a c k community. I t i s i m p o s s i b l e f o r w h i t e w r i t e r s

t o speak f o r or guide t h e i r countrymen; they remain i m p a s s i o n e d

and endangered o b s e r v e r s . In h i s work on Gordimer, Stephen

Clingman has c h r o n i c l e d her attempt t o surmount the growing

b a r r i e r s between the r a c e s by means of i n c r e a s i n g l y r a d i c a l

i m a g i n a t i v e s t r a t e g i e s . However the s u b t e x t of her r e c e n t

w o r k — t h e theme which she cannot a l l o w h e r s e l f t o be f u l l y

c o n s c i o u s o f i f she i s t o c o n t i n u e t o w r i t e — i s the

i m p o s s i b i l i t y of t r a n s c e n d i n g r a c i a l i d e n t i t y .

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I n my c o n c l u s i o n I examine changing r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of

b l a c k n e s s i n t h e " A f r i c a n Farm" w r i t e r s , u s i n g t h e i r s h o r t

s t o r i e s , w h i c h , because t h e y do not f o c u s so e x c l u s i v e l y on t h e

growth of the w h i t e h e r o i n e as the Bildungsromane do, c o n t a i n

f u l l e r d e s c r i p t i o n s of b l a c k - w h i t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s . I a l s o l o o k

b r i e f l y a t two non-white women w r i t e r s , B e s s i e Head (Maru, 1972)

whose work c o n t a i n s i n t e r e s t i n g r e f e r e n c e s t o S c h r e i n e r , and

M i r i a m T l a l i (Amandla, 1980), who i g n o r e s w h i t e c h a r a c t e r s and

w h i t e l i t e r a r y r e f e r e n c e s t o f o c u s on contemporary b l a c k urban

l i f e and the s t r u g g l e f o r freedom.

Except f o r t h e mention of Head and T l a l i , whose f i c t i o n

p r e s e n t s p o i n t s of comparison and c o n t r a s t w i t h the work o f

S c h r e i n e r , D i n e s e n , L e s s i n g and Gordimer, I have e x c l u d e d b l a c k

A f r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e from t h i s t h e s i s . 1 3 The l i t e r a t u r e t h a t

began w i t h O l i v e S c h r e i n e r ' s A f r i c a n Farm e x p l o r e s t h e w h i t e

A f r i c a n psyche. The l a n d s c a p e and n a t i v e i n h a b i t a n t s a r e

d e p i c t e d from t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of the European s e t t l e r as

e s s e n t i a l l y a l i e n . The w r i t e r s o f t h i s l i t e r a t u r e have l i t t l e

i n common w i t h t h e i r b l a c k A f r i c a n c o u n t e r p a r t s , whose p o i n t of

view, c u l t u r e , h i s t o r y and co n c e r n s a r e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t .

Rowland S m i t h , who c h a r a c t e r i z e s v i o l e n c e as endemic t o South

A f r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e as i t i s t o South A f r i c a n h i s t o r y , emphasizes

the d i f f e r e n t t r e a t m e n t of v i o l e n c e i n b l a c k and w h i t e f i c t i o n .

Whereas i n b l a c k f i c t i o n p o l i c e b r u t a l i t y i s "a c o n s t a n t , d a i l y

r e a l i t y , " most w h i t e w r i t e r s "have remained o b s e r v e r s " ( " A l l a n

Q u a r t e r m a i n t o Rosa B u r g e r : V i o l e n c e i n South A f r i c a n F i c t i o n "

177-178).

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The g u l f between b l a c k and w h i t e South A f r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e

i s e v i d e n c e of the power of a p a r t h e i d t o c r e a t e what are f o r the

most p a r t s e p a r a t e c u l t u r e s . B l a c k South A f r i c a n w r i t e r s t e l l

an u r g e n t , angry t a l e of o p p r e s s i o n and r e s i s t a n c e , f o r which

they have most o f t e n employed the genres of a u t o b i o g r a p h y , the

s h o r t s t o r y and p o e t r y . They have had l i t t l e a c c e s s t o main­

stream p u b l i s h e r s , not t o mention the e d u c a t i o n a l system or the

c u l t u r a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t . In the c u r r e n t p o l i t i c a l c l i m a t e they

r e l y i n c r e a s i n g l y on o r a l performance.

Because of. t h e i r p o t e n t i a l mass audie n c e w i t h i n the c o u n t r y

t h e y a r e p e r c e i v e d by the a u t h o r i t i e s as more dangerous than

w h i t e l i b e r a l w r i t e r s i n E n g l i s h , who have a much s m a l l e r and

l e s s p o l i t i c a l l y e x p l o s i v e r e a d e r s h i p . S e r i o u s b l a c k w r i t e r s ,

t h e r e f o r e , have u s u a l l y been s u p p r e s s e d : c e n s o r e d , i m p r i s o n e d ,

e x i l e d or k i l l e d ; s e v e r a l have t a k e n t h e i r own l i v e s . 1 4 There

i s , t h e n , no c o u n t e r p a r t i n b l a c k South A f r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e t o

the l e i s u r e l y , i n t r o s p e c t i v e n o v e l s of the s a f e , p r i v i l e g e d and

i s o l a t e d w h i t e m i n o r i t y . And the post-independence l i t e r a t u r e

of b l a c k A f r i c a i n g e n e r a l has a d i f f e r e n t agenda, d i f f e r e n t

models, s t y l e s and p r e o c c u p a t i o n s than t h a t of w h i t e c o l o n i a l

A f r i c a . To t a k e one example, the Kenyan n o v e l i s t Ngugi wa

Thiong'o u n d e r s c o r e s the g u l f between h i s A f r i c a n e x p e r i e n c e and

v i s i o n of h i s c o u n t r y and Dinesen's e x p a t r i a t e , c o l o n i a l v i s i o n

when i n Homecoming he c r i t i c i z e s her r a c i s t a t t i t u d e s .

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Of the f o u r women w r i t e r s , Gordimer comes c l o s e s t t o

b r e a k i n g through the b a r r i e r s of l i t e r a r y a p a r t h e i d , a l t h o u g h

she cannot f u l l y escape her a l i e n a t e d s t a t u s as a w h i t e South

A f r i c a n . I n f l u e n c e d by b l a c k w r i t e r s and t h e o r i s t s (such as

Chinua Achebe and F r a n t z Fanon) she i s now a t t e m p t i n g t o b r i d g e

the gap between w h i t e c o l o n i a l and A f r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e , as

S c h r e i n e r , D i n e s e n , L e s s i n g , and Gordimer h e r s e l f , have b r i d g e d

the gap between c o l o n i a l and m e t r o p o l i t a n l i t e r a t u r e by b r i n g i n g

A f r i c a n c o l o n i a l e x p e r i e n c e i n t o the mainstream of A n g l o -

American f i c t i o n . Gordimer's f i c t i o n , t h e n , i s e x t e n d i n g , and

perhaps c o n c l u d i n g ( f o r she w i l l p r o b a b l y be one of the l a s t

w h i t e South A f r i c a n , as opposed t o A z a n i a n , w r i t e r s ) the work

t h a t S c h r e i n e r began i n The S t o r y of an A f r i c a n Farm.

I t i s n o t a b l e t h a t even the more r a d i c a l w h i t e f i c t i o n of

the s e v e n t i e s and e i g h t i e s c o n t i n u e s t o r e f e r t o and r e i n t e r p r e t

S c h r e i n e r . Gordimer's C o n s e r v a t i o n i s t and J u l y ' s P e o p l e ,

C oetzee's I n the Heart of the C o u n t r y and L i f e and Times of

M i c h a e l K, B r i n k ' s Rumours of R a i n and A Chain of V o i c e s , and

S h e i l a Fugard's A R e v o l u t i o n a r y Woman r e t u r n t o the " A f r i c a n

Farm" as t h e microcosm of c o l o n i a l s o c i e t y i n which v i o l e n c e

c h a r a c t e r i z e s the r e l a t i o n s between s e t t l e r and l a n d , master and

s e r v a n t , man and w i f e , p a r e n t and c h i l d . In t h e s e n o v e l s as i n

S c h r e i n e r ' s the c o l o n i z e d l a n d t a k e s revenge on the s e t t l e r ,

s y m b o l i z i n g the l a t e n t power of the oppressed A f r i c a n s who r i s e

up t o r e c l a i m t h e i r farm, t h e i r c o u n t r y .

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Notes - I n t r o d u c t i o n

I s a n d r a M. G i l b e r t and Susan Gubar pursue t h i s l i n e o f thought i n The Madwoman i n the A t t i c : The Woman W r i t e r and the N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y L i t e r a r y I m a g i n a t i o n , t h e i r p o i n t of depar­t u r e b e i n g H a r o l d Bloom's t h e o r y of "the a n x i e t y of i n f l u e n c e . " They argue t h a t i n women's l i t e r a t u r e i n f l u e n c e i s b e n i g n r a t h e r t h a n f r a u g h t w i t h j e a l o u s y a g a i n s t t h e f a t h e r - f i g u r e , as Bloom c l a i m s f o r male w r i t e r s . ( G i l b e r t and Guber 46-53; Bloom, The A n x i e t y o f I n f l u e n c e : A Theory of P o e t r y ) .

2The i d e a s of a c o n t i n u o u s women's t r a d i t i o n i s pursued i n G i l b e r t and Gubar, as w e l l as i n E l a i n e S h o w a l t e r , A L i t e r a t u r e of t h e i r Own: B r i t i s h Women N o v e l i s t s from B r o n t e t o L e s s i n g , P a t r i c i a Meyer S p a c k s , The Female I m a g i n a t i o n ; and E l l e n Moers, L i t e r a r y Women.

^ s h o w a l t e r sees S c h r e i n e r as an exemplar of e a r l y B r i t i s h f e m i n i s t l i t e r a t u r e .

4 S e e Stephen Gray. S o u t h e r n A f r i c a n L i t e r a t u r e : An I n t r o ­d u c t i o n , O l i v e S c h r e i n e r and A f t e r , ed. Ma l v e r n Van Wyk Smith and Don Maclennan, and Stephen Clingman, The N o v e l s of Nadine Gordimer: H i s t o r y from the I n s i d e .

5 A f r i c a n Farm, wrote Woolf, has the " a s t o u n d i n g v i v i d n e s s " of t he B r o n t e n o v e l s , but " i t has the l i m i t a t i o n s of t h o s e e g o t i s t i c a l m a s t e r p i e c e s w i t h o u t a f u l l measure of t h e i r s t r e n g t h . "

6 R u t h Prawer J h a b v a l a ' s Heat and Dust, s e t i n I n d i a , i s an i n t e r e s t i n g companion p i e c e t o the n o v e l s of L e s s i n g and Gordimer, f o r i t i s about the r e l a t i o n o f the p o s t - c o l o n i a l daughter ( l i t e r a l l y t he s t e p - g r a n d d a u g h t e r ) t o her c o l o n i a l f o r e - m o t h e r , as w e l l as about the d i f f i c u l t p o s i t i o n o f the r e b e l l i o u s woman s e t t l e r caught between her a l l e g i a n c e t o her own c u l t u r e and r a c e and her a t t r a c t i o n t o the o t h e r . The contemporary n a r r a t o r of J h a b v a l a ' s n o v e l i s a w r i t e r who g a i n s a c c e s s t o t h e c o l o n i a l I n d i a of her g r e a t - a u n t through her g r e a t - a u n t ' s w r i t i n g (her l e t t e r s ) w h i l e she r e c o r d s i n her j o u r n a l her own l o v e a f f a i r w i t h I n d i a — a n d f o l l o w i n g her a n c e s t r e s s , w i t h an I n d i a n . Her ques t p a r a l l e l s L e s s i n g ' s and Gordimer's r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f S c h r e i n e r and Dine s e n through t h e i r a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l c h a r a c t e r s . The t i t l e of J h a b v a l a ' s s e l e c t e d s t o r i e s , Out of I n d i a ( 1 9 8 6 ) , i s f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e o f the p a r a l l e l s between her work and t h a t of t h e A f r i c a n w r i t e r s .

^ M a r t i n S wales, The German Bildungsroman from W i e l a n d t o Hesse; Jerome H. B u c k l e y , Season of Youth: the Bildungsroman from D i c k e n s t o G o l d i n g .

35

^ i n "The S m a l l P e r s o n a l V o i c e " L e s s i n g d e s c r i b e s C h i l d r e n of V i o l e n c e as i n the n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y r e a l i s t t r a d i t i o n . In the "Author's Notes" t o the Four-Gated C i t y she d e s c r i b e s the n o v e l as a B ildungsroman i n the German t r a d i t i o n ( 6 5 5 ) . I n What Happened t o B u r g e r ' s Daughter Gordimer d i s c u s s e s B u r g e r ' s Daughter i n terms s i m i l a r t o L e s s i n g ' s d i s c u s s i o n of The Four- Gated C i t y i n "The S m a l l P e r s o n a l V o i c e . " V a r i o u s r e v i e w e r s and c r i t i c s have a n a l y z e d C h i l d r e n of V i o l e n c e , The L y i n g Days, and B u r g e r ' s Daughter as Bildungsromane.

^Marianne J u h l and Bo Haken J ^ r g e n s e n , i n Diana's Revenge: Two L i n e s i n I s a k Dinesen's A u t h o r s h i p , see the theme of woman's freedom as c e n t r a l i n her work, c i t i n g the p o w e r f u l A r t e m i s / Diana imagery i n Out of A f r i c a .

-*- uGordimer, f o r one, has e x p r e s s e d her a d m i r a t i o n f o r T u r b o t t Wolfe ( i n " L i v i n g i n the Interregnum" 2 4 ) . Clingman p o i n t s out t h a t Gordimer i s fond of q u o t i n g Plomer's statement i n T u r b o t t Wolfe t h a t the s o - c a l l e d n a t i v e q u e s t i o n , " i s n ' t a q u e s t i o n . I t ' s an answer" (The N o v e l s of Nadine Gordimer 6 ) . He sees Plomer as the second major i n f l u e n c e on her work a f t e r S c h r e i n e r .

^ B r i n k ' s Rumours of R a i n , about an A f r i k a n e r i n d u s t r i a l i s t whose s e c u r e w o r l d i s g r a d u a l l y d e s t r o y e d by the d e f e c t i o n of h i s m i s t r e s s and son t o the o p p o s i t i o n , has s t r o n g s i m i l a r i t i e s t o the p l o t of Gordimer's The C o n s e r v a t i o n i s t . B r i n k , from the p e r s p e c t i v e of a male and an A f r i k a n e r , i s e s s e n t i a l l y w r i t i n g the same book as Gordimer, f o l l o w i n g the l e a d of her e a r l y work, and of such anglophone p r e d e c e s s o r s as S c h r e i n e r , Plomer and L e s s i n g .

12T have e x c l u d e d the E a s t A f r i c a n E l s p e t h H u x l e y , whose Flame Trees of T h i k a (1959) i s t o my mind a r e l a t i v e l y minor c o n t r i b u t i o n t o the s t o r i e s of an A f r i c a n farm. A r e c e n t n o v e l s e t i n w h i t e - s e t t l e r Kenya, L o u i s a Dawkins' N a t i v e s and S t r a n g e r s (1985), a more p r o g r e s s i v e update of H u x l e y , echoes the themes of i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and e x i l e i n the " A f r i c a n Farm" t e x t s , but does not add t o t h e s e t e x t s . I have a l s o e x c l u d e d the South A f r i c a n s P a u l i n e Smith and Sarah G e r t r u d e M i l l i n . Smith's c o l l e c t i o n of s t o r i e s The L i t t l e Karoo (1925) and n o v e l The Beadle (1926) do not go beyond an a p p r e c i a t i v e p o r t r a i t of Boer f o l k l i f e . M i l l i n , b e s t known f o r God's S t e p c h i l d r e n (1924) was a p r o l i f i c and i n f l u e n t i a l minor n o v e l i s t who was an a p o l o g i s t f o r r a c i s m . The work of t h e s e w r i t e r s , c o n t r i b u t e s l i t t l e t o the p o r t r a i t of c o l o n i a l A f r i c a from a women's p e r s p e c t i v e p a i n t e d by S c h r e i n e r , D i n e s e n , L e s s i n g and Gordimer. I have a l s o e x c l u d e d A l a n P a t o n ; w h i l e h i s Cry the B e l o v e d C o u n t r y (1948) awakened an i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e a d i n g p u b l i c t o the p l i g h t of South A f r i c a ' s b l a c k s , i t now reads as o v e r l y s e n t i m e n t a l , p a t r o n i z i n g and i r r e l e v a n t , w i t h i t s message of C h r i s t i a n c h a r i t y and r e s i g n a t i o n . In c o n t r a s t t o Gordimer's

3 6

l i t e r a r y e v o l u t i o n , which i s l i n k e d t o c o n s c i o u s p o l i t i c a l e v o l u t i o n , P a ton's o u t d a t e d l i b e r a l i s m has l o s t t o u c h w i t h the c u r r e n t p o l i t i c a l r e a l i t i e s ; as a r e s u l t he has not developed as f u l l y as a w r i t e r .

I ^ A S t o the q u e s t i o n o f why I have not i n c l u d e d o t h e r w r i t e r s , o t h e r t e x t s , I have l i m i t e d m y s e l f t o w r i t e r s of s i g n i f i c a n c e and i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t a t u r e who t r e a t t h e i r s u b j e c t s e r i o u s l y , c r i t i c a l l y , and from p e r s o n a l knowledge. I e x c l u d e w r i t i n g about A f r i c a by eminent s t r a n g e r s , t r a v e l e r s , and so­j o u r n e r s , such as Joseph Conrad, whose Heart of Darkness ( 1 9 0 2 ) of c o u r s e haunts a l l w h i t e w r i t i n g about A f r i c a ; Graham Greene (The H e a r t of the M a t t e r ) ; Margaret Laurence (The Tomorrow Tamer); V.S. N a i p a u l (A Bend i n t h e R i v e r ) , and many o t h e r European, American and Commonwealth n o v e l s and s t o r i e s .

1 4 T o t a k e one example of a well-known non-white South A f r i c a n n o v e l i s t , A l e x La Guma, who was born i n 1 9 2 5 i n a " c o l o u r e d " s e c t i o n o f Capetown, s u f f e r e d imprisonment, house a r r e s t and banning u n t i l h i s escape from South A f r i c a i n 1 9 6 6 . A l l of h i s n o v e l s , from A Walk i n t h e N i g h t ( 1 9 6 2 ) t o The Time of t h e B u t c h e r b i r d ( 1 9 8 1 ) have been p u b l i s h e d o u t s i d e South A f r i c a ; the p e o p l e about whom and f o r whom he wrote cannot read him. (See " A l e x La Guma, The G e n e r a t i o n of M a r g i n a l F i c t i o n " i n JanMohamed, Manichean A e s t h e t i c s . ) Other w r i t e r s who were e x i l e d and banned i n the p o s t - S h a r p e v i l l e e r a were Can Themba, Nat Nakasa, L e w i s N k o s i and E z e k i e l M p h a h l e l e ; Nakasa committed s u i c i d e abroad w h i l e Themba and La Guma have d i e d .

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Chapter Two

O l i v e S c h r e i n e r : Eve D i v i d e d

The S t o r y of an A f r i c a n Farm

O l i v e S c h r e i n e r ' s A f r i c a n farm i s i n i m i c a l t o the p e r s o n a l

and c r e a t i v e f l o w e r i n g of her a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l h e r o i n e and

hero. H o s t i l i t y i s embodied i n the c r u e l d e s e r t l a n d of the

Karoo, as w e l l as i n the farm's Boer m i s t r e s s , Tant' S a n n i e , and

i t s B r i t i s h e x p l o i t e r , Bonaparte B l e n k i n s . Cunning and d e c e i t ,

e n f o r c e d by the whip and the p r o p e r t y deed, p r e v a i l over

f a i r n e s s and t r u s t . S c h r e i n e r does not d e a l d i r e c t l y w i t h the

v i o l e n c e of the w h i t e i n v a d e r a g a i n s t the A f r i c a n p e o p l e , as her

s u c c e s s o r s have done. I n s t e a d she f o c u s e s on the v i o l e n c e of

the s e t t l e r c u l t u r e a g a i n s t i t s own c h i l d r e n , i n p a r t i c u l a r i t s

female c h i l d r e n . Both L y n d a l l and Waldo a r e , e s s e n t i a l l y ,

female c h a r a c t e r s whose v i c t i m i z a t i o n , r e b e l l i o n , and f i n a l

punishment a r e based on t h e i r gender. T h e i r orphaned, p r o p e r t y -

l e s s s t a t u s removes them from a d u l t p r o t e c t i o n and r e n d e r s them

e x p l o i t a b l e . Waldo's a r t i s t i c s e n s i t i v i t y and L y n d a l l ' s

i c o n o c l a s m t h r e a t e n the c o n v e n t i o n a l o r d e r , and c o n s e q u e n t l y the

two are r u t h l e s s l y s u p p r e s s e d . C l e a r l y t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s a r e

v e r s i o n s of the young author h e r s e l f ; S c h r e i n e r i n d i c t s c o l o n i a l

South A f r i c a by p o r t r a y i n g i t s d e s t r u c t i v e e f f e c t s upon her own

growth and t a l e n t .

S c h r e i n e r ' s s t a r t i n g p o i n t i n The S t o r y of an A f r i c a n Farm

was her own c h i l d h o o d . She was o p p r e s s e d by her E n g l i s h

mother's narrow C a l v i n i s m , which her German f a t h e r , g e n t l e but

38

weak, d i d not oppose. O l i v e E m i l y A l b e r t i n a ( g r i m l y named f o r

her t h r e e dead b r o t h e r s ) was a s t r o n g - w i l l e d and i m a g i n a t i v e

c h i l d who v e r y e a r l y f o r m u l a t e d her own i d e a s i n o p p o s i t i o n t o

her p a r e n t s , e s p e c i a l l y t o her c o l d , t y r a n n i c a l mother. Her

at h e i s m and sympathy f o r t h e A f r i k a n e r s were t o some e x t e n t a

r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t her mother's m i l i t a n t Nonconformism and h a r d l y

l e s s m i l i t a n t assumption of E n g l i s h s u p e r i o r i t y . One of the

worst e p i s o d e s i n O l i v e ' s c h i l d h o o d was her b e i n g s e v e r e l y

beaten f o r u t t e r i n g t he A f r i k a a n s e x c l a m a t i o n , "Ach!" ( F i r s t and

S c o t t 4 8 ) . Her fe m i n i s m , as e v i d e n c e d i n the c h a r a c t e r of

L y n d a l l , was a complex response t o her mother and t o both the

p e r s o n a l and p o l i t i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s of her c h i l d h o o d i n the

c o l o n i e s t h a t B r i t a i n was c o n s o l i d a t i n g by f o r c e i n Southern

A f r i c a .

Born i n 1855, O l i v e was t h e n i n t h o f t w e l v e c h i l d r e n , seven

of whom s u r v i v e d ; her e a r l y c h i l d h o o d was spent on remote

m i s s i o n s t a t i o n s on the f r o n t i e r s of the c o l o n y . When O l i v e was

tw e l v e her f a m i l y was d i s p e r s e d as a r e s u l t of her f a t h e r ' s

d i s m i s s a l from h i s m i s s i o n a r y p o s t f o r c o r r u p t i o n and incom­

p e t e n c e . O l i v e l i v e d w i t h her o l d e r s i s t e r s and b r o t h e r s , one

of whom took her t o the r e c e n t l y opened Diamond F i e l d s , and she

worked i n t e r m i t t e n t l y as a governess on Boer farms i n the Karoo

and o t h e r p a r t s o f the Cape Co l o n y . The S t o r y o f an A f r i c a n

Farm, O l i v e S c h r e i n e r ' s f i r s t p u b l i s h e d n o v e l , was begun i n 1875

and f i n i s h e d i n 1881 when she l e f t South A f r i c a f o r the f i r s t of

s e v e r a l s o j o u r n s i n Engla n d .

39

Rodney Davenport, d e s c r i b i n g the p o l i t i c a l c o n t e x t of the

n o v e l , w r i t e s :

I t would have been hard f o r O l i v e S c h r e i n e r , a f t e r a c h i l d h o o d spent i n m i s s i o n s t a t i o n s , not t o be aware of the emerging r a c i a l t e n s i o n s o f South e r n A f r i c a n s o c i e t y , e s p e c i a l l y d u r i n g the 1870s, t h a t p e r i o d of major c o n f r o n t a t i o n and f r o n t i e r war. She had t o move from t h e farm a t R a t e l Hoek d u r i n g t h e war of 1877 (" O l i v e S c h r e i n e r and South A f r i c a n P o l i t i c s " 1 03).

I t was a p e r i o d of w h i t e e x p a n s i o n i n t o b l a c k t e r r i t o r i e s ,

v i o l e n t c o n f r o n t a t i o n between A f r i c a n s and Europeans, and

t e r r i t o r i a l c o n f l i c t between the B r i t i s h and the A f r i k a n e r s .

A f r i c a n Farm does not d e a l d i r e c t l y w i t h t h e s e r a c i a l and e t h n i c

t e n s i o n s ; i t i s an a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l n o v e l which f o c u s e s on the

i n n e r l i v e s of the two main c h a r a c t e r s , but t h e r e i s an under­

c u r r e n t of v i o l e n c e and r e b e l l i o n which i s perhaps one o f t h e

reaso n s why South A f r i c a n c r i t i c s c o n t i n u e t o see i t as a

c e n t r a l t e x t , even the c e n t r a l t e x t i n t h e i r l i t e r a t u r e . 1

S c h r e i n e r ' s b e s t r e c e n t b i o g r a p h e r s , Ruth F i r s t and Ann S c o t t , 2

i n t e r p r e t p o l i t i c s i n the n o v e l t h u s :

The European f r o n t i e r s o c i e t y i n s u l a t e d i t s e l f from the i n d i g e n o u s s o c i e t y but i n t e r n a l i z e d the v i o l e n c e i t used a g a i n s t i t ; hence the v i o l e n c e o f Bonaparte and Tant' S a n n i e ' s b e h a v i o u r . . . . O l i v e was w r i t i n g . . . about what c o l o n i a l i s m d i d t o w h i t e s , and i n her n o v e l the c h i l d r e n a r e both symbol and e x p r e s s i o n of t h a t system and i t s consequences ( 9 7 ) .

L y n d a l l (as w e l l as Rebekah, the h e r o i n e o f From Man t o

Man) t a k e s her name from O l i v e ' s mother, Rebecca L y n d a l l . She

i s an i d e a l i z e d v e r s i o n o f the young a u t h o r , but a l s o o f her

unhappy mother. As t h e c l e v e r and a m b i t i o u s Rebecca L y n d a l l

c o u l d not escape her f a t e as a domesti c t y r a n t w i t h t o o many

40

c h i l d r e n , i n an a l i e n and h o s t i l e l a n d , so L y n d a l l , f o r a l l her

f i r e and b r i l l i a n c e , cannot escape her woman's f a t e , and so

O l i v e S c h r e i n e r f e a r e d t h a t she would not escape h e r s .

The orphan L y n d a l l ' s o r i g i n s a r e m y s t e r i o u s ; she i s

d e s c r i b e d as a s p i r i t of the m o o n l i g h t , " g o l d e n , " " e t h e r e a l , "

and " e l f i n , " as a b e w i t c h e d p r i n c e s s t r a p p e d on the s u r r e a l -

i s t i c a l l y h o r r i f i c o s t r i c h farm and as an Undine: p a r t human,

p a r t f a i r y . Her h e r o i n e ' s m a g i c a l o r i g i n r e f l e c t s S c h r e i n e r ' s

view of h e r s e l f as a c h i l d : she was an a l i e n spark of i m a g i n a ­

t i o n and i n t e l l e c t f a l l e n among s a d i s t i c " p h i l i s t i n e s , " as she

c a l l e d her countrymen.3

S c h r e i n e r ' s f i r s t n o v e l , an immature a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l work

p u b l i s h e d posthumously, was c a l l e d U n d i n e . 4 L y n d a l l , l i k e i t s

h e r o i n e , Undine, i s d e s c r i b e d m e t a p h o r i c a l l y as a s u p e r n a t u r a l

c r e a t u r e out of her element, but bound t o the n a t u r a l w o r l d by

her human s o u l , which i s r e p r e s e n t e d by Waldo, her male c o u n t e r ­

p a r t , companion, a l t e r ego. Whereas she i s o f the a i r , he i s o f

the e a r t h ; he r e p r e s e n t s her bond t o the s o i l , r o c k s and a n i m a l s

of the farm she t r i e s t o l e a v e b e h i n d . A c t u a l l y i t i s the d a r k ,

s t o c k y , w i l d - l o o k i n g Waldo r a t h e r than the d e l i c a t e , e t h e r e a l

L y n d a l l who more resembles the young O l i v e ; i t i s t h rough

Waldo's r e a d i n g and t h i n k i n g t h a t S c h r e i n e r t r a c e s her own

p a i n f u l , l a b o r i o u s s t r u g g l e t o educate h e r s e l f .

The use of the Undine metaphor, the name Waldo, and the

pseudonym "Ralph I r o n " under which O l i v e S c h r e i n e r f i r s t

p u b l i s h e d A f r i c a n Farm i n d i c a t e her r e a d i n g up t o t h a t p o i n t .

She was i n f l u e n c e d by German and E n g l i s h Romanticism and

41

American T r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s m (Ralph Waldo Emerson) as w e l l as

H e r b e r t Spencer, C h a r l e s Darwin, and John S t u a r t M i l l , w h i c h —

through W a l d o — e n t e r the p l o t of A f r i c a n Farm. Waldo d i s c o v e r s

a box of books and r e v e r e n t l y b e g i n s t o read M i l l ' s P o l i t i c a l

Economy. The book i s a door which opens onto a new w o r l d , and

which i s then shut f o r e v e r when Tant' Sannie e x c o r i a t e s the

" d e v i l ' s book" and Bonaparte B l e n k i n s c e r e m o n i a l l y burns i t

(113-14).

S c h r e i n e r ' s c r i t i c s have r e c o g n i z e d the i m p o r t a n c e of books

i n her n o v e l . For Stephen Gray, M i l l , Darwin, Emerson and

Spencer " s e t up such a n t i p a t h i e s w i t h i n t h e f a b r i c of the n o v e l

t h a t p a r t of i t s l i v e l i n e s s i s d e r i v e d from her a t t e m p t s t o

r e s o l v e them i n t o a t o t a l whole" (Southern A f r i c a n L i t e r a t u r e

149). For F i r s t and S c o t t , t h i s attempt a t r e s o l u t i o n t h r ough

Spencer's i d e a o f the u n i t y of Nature l e a d s t o L y n d a l l and

Waldo's d i s t u r b i n g and u n c o n v i n c i n g embrace of death (59-60).

These comments i n d i c a t e the c e n t r a l r o l e of books i n A f r i c a n

Farm, which i n t u r n r e f l e c t s t h e i r i mportance t o the a u t h o r : as

a s u b s t i t u t e f o r s c h o o l , c o n v e r s a t i o n , even f r i e n d s .

Because S c h r e i n e r read so few books, we can see the

i n f l u e n c e of t h o s e she d i d r e a d . For i n s t a n c e , the B i b l e

i n f l u e n c e d her p r o s e s t y l e , which i s sonorous, r h y t h m i c , and

tends t o r e p e a t r e f r a i n s , as i n t h i s passage from A f r i c a n Farm:

At l a s t came the year of the g r e a t d r o u g h t , t h e year of 1862. From end t o end of the l a n d the e a r t h c r i e d f o r w a t e r . Man and b e a s t t u r n e d t h e i r eyes t o the p i t i l e s s s k y , t h a t l i k e the r o o f of some b r a z e n oven a r c h e d overhead. On t h e farm, day a f t e r day, month a f t e r month, the water i n the dams f e l l lower and l o w e r , the sheep d i e d i n the f i e l d s . . . ( 4 4 ) .

42

We a l s o know t h a t she read D i c k e n s ; c e r t a i n l y t h e r e a re

D i c k e n s i a n c a r i c a t u r e s , such as Bonaparte B l e n k i n s , and

S c h r e i n e r ' s use of the c h i l d ' s p o i n t of view i s a l s o D i c k e n s i a n

(as w e l l as R o m a n t i c ) . The i n f l u e n c e of D i c k e n s i s apparent i n

her s e n t i m e n t a l i z a t i o n of L y n d a l l ' s d e a t h . There are a l s o

s t r o n g s i m i l a r i t i e s between A f r i c a n Farm and Wuthering H e i g h t s

( e s p e c i a l l y t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between L y n d a l l and Waldo), as w e l l

as The M i l l on the F l o s s (Waldo's r e l i g i o u s c r i s i s , t he

c h a r a c t e r of L y n d a l l ) and Jane E y r e ( L y n d a l l a g a i n , but more

p a r t i c u l a r l y the c r u e l t r e a t m e n t of the orphan c h i l d r e n ) ,

a l t h o u g h t h e r e i s no e v i d e n c e t h a t S c h r e i n e r had read the

B r o n t e s or George E l i o t . 5

O l i v e S c h r e i n e r , l i k e Waldo, escaped from the b r u t a l ,

s t i f l i n g atmosphere of her h o u s e h o l d i n t o s c i e n t i f i c s t u d y and

m y s t i c a l c o n t e m p l a t i o n o f her n a t u r a l s u r r o u n d i n g s . I n the

n o m i n a l l y m a s c u l i n e , but e s s e n t i a l l y s e x l e s s c h a r a c t e r of Waldo,

S c h r e i n e r r e p r e s e n t s t h a t a s p e c t of i n t e l l e c t u a l and a r t i s t i c

development which she p r e f e r s t o see as androgynous, whereas i n

L y n d a l l she r e p r e s e n t s the s p e c i f i c problems o f the r e b e l l i o u s

and a m b i t i o u s f e m a l e . The l i n k e d d e v e l o p m e n t — a n d shared f a t e —

of the two c h a r a c t e r s form a t r a g i c p o r t r a i t of the s e l f - d i v i d e d

female a r t i s t . L y n d a l l i s b e a u t i f u l , e l o q u e n t , and courageous;

Waldo i s an o r i g i n a l t h i n k e r and n a t u r a l a r t i s t who i s g r a n t e d

the g r e a t e r freedom and o p p o r t u n i t y of the male. Yet d i v i d e d as

they a re i n t o two c h a r a c t e r s , they a r e both i n c o m p l e t e , and both

too weak t o s u r v i v e the w o r l d ' s c r u e l t y . L y n d a l l i s r e s t l e s s

and d i s c o n t e n t e d ; her f e m i n i s t anger i s unf o c u s e d . She cannot

r e a l i z e her a m b i t i o n s because she i s f e m a l e , and so l o o k s t o her

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male c o u n t e r p a r t Waldo t o c r e a t e , t o a c t , t o a c h i e v e what she

c annot. Waldo mediates between L y n d a l l and the w o r l d , between

the i d e a l and the r e a l . He i s l i k e Undine's human s o u l , o n l y

S c h r e i n e r has t r a n s l a t e d the Undine myth i n t o f e m i n i s t terms:

L y n d a l l i s a woman who t r i e s t o e n t e r the male-dominated

p a t r i a r c h a l w o r l d . L i k e Undine, both she and her male " s o u l "

Waldo are doomed.

L y n d a l l and Waldo's r e l a t i o n s h i p i n t e r e s t i n g l y p r e f i g u r e s

the p l a t o n i c r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t S c h r e i n e r was t o have w i t h

Havelock E l l i s . L y n d a l l says t o Waldo:

When I am w i t h you I never know t h a t I am a woman and you a r e a man; I o n l y know t h a t we are both t h i n g s t h a t t h i n k . Other men . . . are mere b o d i e s t o me; but you a r e a s p i r i t . . . ( 2 1 0 ) .

Waldo i s a p e r s e c u t e d earthbound s p i r i t , a s c i e n t i s t , i n v e n t o r ,

p h i l o s o p h e r , and a r t i s t , whose crude wood c a r v i n g s e x p r e s s h i s

y e a r n i n g v i s i o n s . However, he i s a d i s c o n c e r t i n g l y weak

c h a r a c t e r who i s e x p l o i t e d , even t o r t u r e d by the v i l l a i n s of the

n o v e l . H i s s u r v i v i n g work of a r t i s , f i t t i n g l y , a g r a v e p o s t f o r

h i s f a t h e r (a k i n d l y German who resembles O l i v e ' s f a t h e r ) .

A l t h o u g h he, i n c o n t r a s t t o L y n d a l l , has the o p p o r t u n i t y t o make

h i s own way i n t h e w o r l d o u t s i d e t h e farm, i n t h e end he r e t u r n s

c r u s h e d and d i s i l l u s i o n e d by the w o r l d ' s c r u e l t y . When L y n d a l l

i s r e a b s o r b e d , U n d i n e - l i k e , i n t o the s u p e r n a t u r a l element, Waldo

too l e t s go h i s tenuous h o l d on l i f e and f o l l o w s h e r . The

a u t h o r t r i e s t o c omfort the r e a d e r , and h e r s e l f , w i t h the

( S p e n c e r i a n ) s u g g e s t i o n t h a t out of the death and s u f f e r i n g of

t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s grows the c o l l e c t i v e l i f e of n a t u r e . But even

t h i s i s u ndercut by the c o u n t e r - s u g g e s t i o n t h a t the b e l i e f i n a

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s p i r i t t h a t l i v e s on i n n a t u r e i s but another p i p e dream t h a t

h e l p s t o d u l l the p a i n o f l i v i n g i n "the cankered l i t t l e kingdom

of the t a n g i b l e " (291).

The c h a r a c t e r of L y n d a l l c a r r i e s S c h r e i n e r ' s f e m i n i s t

message, Waldo her a r t i s t i c message. Together they embody the

i n g r e d i e n t s t h a t S c h r e i n e r f e l t had formed her own p e r s o n a l i t y .

I n L y n d a l l she t r i e s t o g i v e shape t o her s t r o n g mother's p r o t o -

f e m i n i s m . Waldo has the weakness, the p a s s i v i t y t h a t she f e a r e d

she might have i n h e r i t e d from her f a t h e r ; t h r o u g h him she a l s o

r e p r e s e n t s the i n t e l l e c t u a l hunger t h a t found l i t t l e sympathy i n

her f a m i l y , and t h a t , l o g i c a l l y f o r her time and p l a c e , she

o b j e c t i f i e d as male. But the a r t i s t - i n t e l l e c t u a l i s bound t o a

woman's body, as Waldo i s p o r t r a y e d as bound t o , dependent upon

L y n d a l l , and so unable t o s u r v i v e i n male-dominated s o c i e t y .

I n the " L y n d a l l " c h a p t e r , the t h e m a t i c c e n t e r of the n o v e l ,

t h i s female dilemma i s expounded upon a t l e n g t h , w i t h g r e a t w i t

as w e l l as anger. The s i x t e e n - y e a r - o l d has r e t u r n e d t o the farm

r a d i c a l i z e d by her e x p e r i e n c e of a g i r l s ' s c h o o l . In a much-

quoted monologue t h a t i s f r e s h s t i l l , she damns female

e d u c a t i o n .

They a r e c a l l e d f i n i s h i n g s c h o o l s and the name t e l l s a c c u r a t e l y what t h e y a r e . They f i n i s h e v e r y t h i n g but i m b e c i l i t y and weakness, and t h a t t h e y c u l t i v a t e . They are n i c e l y adapted machines f o r e x p e r i m e n t i n g on the q u e s t i o n , ' I n t o how l i t t l e space a human s o u l can be c r u s h e d ? ' ( s i c , 185).

She c o n c l u d e s t h a t women w i l l not p r o g r e s s u n t i l t h ey a r e g i v e n

e d u c a t i o n and work w i t h which t o a c h i e v e independence from men,

t h a t l o v e w i l l be i m p o s s i b l e u n t i l sex i s f r e e d from the market­

p l a c e . She a n a l y z e s the d i s a s t r o u s e f f e c t of t h e damming of

45

women's power w i t h i n the f a m i l y . I n f a c t t h e c o r e of S c h r e i n e r ' s

i n f u e n t i a l n o n f i c t i o n work, Woman and Labour (1 9 1 1 ) , i n c l u d i n g

i t s r h e t o r i c a l s t y l e , i s here i n the " L y n d a l l " monologue, an

i n d i c a t i o n of how l i t t l e S c h r e i n e r ' s i d e a s or r h e t o r i c

d e v e l o p e d — a n d of how A f r i c a n Farm a n t i c i p a t e d t h e f e m i n i s t

a e s t h e t i c and i d e o l o g y of the l a t e n i n e t e e n t h and e a r l y

t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r i e s .

For a l l i t s e l o q u e n c e , L y n d a l l ' s speech i s b i t t e r :

e m a n c i p a t i o n i s a concept f o r the f u t u r e : she has been born too

e a r l y t o b e n e f i t from her own v i s i o n . Her melodramatic end i s

an e x p r e s s i o n of S c h r e i n e r ' s p e s s i m i s m about her own f u t u r e as

an a m b i t i o u s but p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y shaky "New Woman" of the l a t e

n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . ^ L y n d a l l e n t e r s i n t o an i l l i c i t a f f a i r ,

l e s s out of d e s i r e , i t would seem, than t o make a p o i n t of

d e f y i n g s o c i e t y ' s s t r i c t u r e s . C h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y , when she

f i n d s t h a t she i s p r e g n a n t , she r e f u s e s t o marry t h e man,

because she does not l o v e him and does not want t o compromise

what remains of her freedom. She bea r s her c h i l d a l o n e , and

a f t e r a v a g u e l y d e f i n e d but o b v i o u s l y w i l l e d i l l n e s s

( r e m i n i s c e n t of C a t h e r i n e ' s i n Wuthering H e i g h t s ) , she f o l l o w s

her baby i n t o d e a t h . To pursue the Undine metaphor, one c o u l d

say t h a t L y n d a l l i s a woman w i t h a male s o u l , who i s c l a i m e d by

her s e x u a l d e s t i n y and thus d e s t r o y e d . S i g n i f i c a n t l y , L y n d a l l ' s

c h i l d h o o d i d o l i s Napoleon. With c o n s c i o u s i r o n y she compares

her own dim p r o s p e c t s t o h i s i l l u s t r i o u s i f t r a g i c c a r e e r ,

c i t i n g t he s t o r y of h i s d e f e a t and e x i l e w i t h b i t t e r r e l i s h :

46

I t i s a t e r r i b l e , h a t e f u l e n d i n g . . . and t h e w orst i s , i t i s t r u e . I have n o t i c e d . . . t h a t i t i s o n l y the made-up s t o r i e s t h a t end n i c e l y ; the t r u e ones a l l end so (48 ) .

We a r e meant t o see her as a f a i l e d Napoleon. Not o n l y i s she

orphaned, p e n n i l e s s , p o o r l y e d u c a t e d , and t r a p p e d i n an obscure

c o r n e r of the w o r l d , but she i s a l s o a woman, who w i l l be

d e f e a t e d by her own body.

Another metaphor t h a t S c h r e i n e r uses f o r L y n d a l l ' s p l i g h t

i s the s t o r y of S l e e p i n g Beauty. D e s c r i b e d as a " p r i n c e s s " when

she r e t u r n s t o the farm, she c o m p l a i n s : "There i s not room t o

b r e a t h e h e r e ; one s u f f o c a t e s " ( 1 8 3 ) . She f e e l s i m p r i s o n e d i n

the m a l e v o l e n t Tant' S a n n i e ' s c l a u s t r o p h o b i c house on the s l e e p y

farm i n an empty, b a r r e n l a n d . She c r i e s out t o be "awakened,"

" d e l i v e r e d , " by the p r i n c e i n whom she does not b e l i e v e :

I w i l l do n o t h i n g good f o r m y s e l f n o t h i n g f o r the w o r l d , t i l l someone wakes me. I am a s l e e p , swathed, shut up i n s e l f ; t i l l I have been d e l i v e r e d I w i l l d e l i v e r no one (196).8

But when her l o v e r comes t o t a k e her away i t i s o n l y an

i r o n i c r e s c u e . And t h e f a r m — h e r b e w i t c h e d k i n g d o m — d o e s not

awake. As i n the f a i r y - t a l e metaphor, a p a t t e r n of s l e e p and

dream imagery i s used i r o n i c a l l y t o u n d e r l i n e t h e c o n t r a s t

between f a n t a s y and r e a l i t y , dream and waking l i f e . ^ The

n o v e l ' s f i r s t p a ragraph d e s c r i b e s t h e farm i n the m o o n l i g h t .

The moon t r a n s f o r m s the u g l y house and s t u n t e d garden i n t o a

p l a c e of p o s s i b i l i t y : " i t g u i t e e t h e r e a l i z e d t h e low b r i c k w a l l

t h a t r a n b e f o r e the house and which e n c l o s e d a bare p a t c h of

sand and two s t r a g g l i n g s u n f l o w e r s " ( 3 5 ) . L y n d a l l , "who

belonged of r i g h t t o the m o o n l i g h t , " (36) i s awakened by the

47

w o n d e r f u l f l o o d of w h i t e l i g h t , which has f a n t a s t i c a l l y

t r a n s f o r m e d her s e t t i n g , u n t i l t he p u n i s h i n g S o u t h e r n sun a g a i n

r e v e a l s i t s b l e a k n e s s .

For Waldo the d e s e r t i s not b l e a k and b a r r e n but p o p u l a t e d

w i t h dreams and v i s i o n s , the l o n g e s t of which i s "The A l l e g o r y

of the Hunter," a l o n g m e d i t a t i o n on the quest f o r the u n a t t a i n ­

a b l e s e t i n t h e b l u e mountains which are h i s h o r i z o n : h i s l a n d

of i m a g i n a t i o n . The image o f c l a u s t r o p h o b i a which i s so

s t r o n g l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h L y n d a l l does not a p p l y t o Waldo, who

f e e l s a t one w i t h the n a t u r a l w o r l d and h i s own body. C l a u s t r o ­

p h o b i a and confinement are f o r S c h r e i n e r d e s c r i p t i v e of the

female c o n d i t i o n , which her a r t i s t , Waldo, i s not bound by. He

i s , however, s y m b o l i c a l l y bound t o h i s female c o u n t e r p a r t ,

L y n d a l l .

The o p p o s i t i o n between what S c h r e i n e r ' s c h a r a c t e r s can

imagine and t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s which b i n d them i s p o w e r f u l l y

c a r r i e d by the i r o n i c use of n a t u r e . The farm s u f f e r s under a

g r e a t d r o u g h t , which i s f i n a l l y b roken by a storm which marks

L y n d a l l ' s d e a t h . The l i f e o f the farm i s s y m b o l i c a l l y connected

t o h e r s , i t s l o n g drought end i n g o n l y w i t h her d e a t h . As the

w o r l d f l o w e r s and greens i n the wake of the r a i n s , Waldo l i e s

down t o s l e e p , and t o d i e . T h i s savage use of the images of

f e r t i l i t y , j o i n e d now w i t h the images of s l e e p and dreams,

r e i n f o r c e s t h e message t h a t the l a n d — t h e farm, t h e c o l o n y ,

A f r i c a , perhaps the w o r l d — i s a n t i p a t h e t i c a l t o her young

c h a r a c t e r s ' f l o w e r i n g . The symbols of c o n t i n u i t y : green c r o p s ,

c h i l d r e n , and p r o p e r t y , e x c l u d e L y n d a l l and Waldo.

48

Stephen Gray t r a c e s the n e g a t i v e use of n a t u r a l imagery

from S c h r e i n e r t o L e s s i n g and Gordimer, and t o w h i t e Southern

A f r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e i n g e n e r a l . He argues c o n v i n c i n g l y t h a t ,

. . . the l i t e r a t u r e of t h i s k i n d has as a b a s i c t e n e t the theme t h a t i t s c h a r a c t e r s do n o t — c a n n o t — b e l o n g . We a r e c o n f r o n t e d w i t h a co h e r e n t and c o n t i n u o u s stream of f i c t i o n t h a t i s about permanently a l i e n a t e d b e i n g s . . . who are not p a r t o f , and can never be p a r t o f , a l a n d which o f f e r s them no harmonious, s y m p a t h e t i c growth (151).

In a d d i t i o n t o n a t u r a l imagery, S c h r e i n e r uses the

secondary c h a r a c t e r s i n A f r i c a n Farm t o emphasize the i s o l a t i o n

of L y n d a l l and Waldo. There are few c h a r a c t e r s i n the n o v e l ,

which u n d e r l i n e s our sense of the h e r o i n e ' s and hero's

p o s s i b i l i t i e s as s t r i c t l y , d e f e a t i n g l y l i m i t e d . I n p a r t i c u l a r ,

S c h r e i n e r uses t h e o t h e r two women c h a r a c t e r s t o e x e m p l i f y the

c h o i c e s open t o L y n d a l l . Her c o u s i n Em embodies a l l t h a t

S c h r e i n e r ' s h e r o i n e r e j e c t s of c o n v e n t i o n a l womanhood; k i n d -

h e a r t e d , but p l a i n , d u l l and u n i m a g i n a t i v e , she u n c o m p l a i n i n g l y

a c c e p t s her l o t . A l t h o u g h she t o o i s c r u e l l y used and

d i s a p p o i n t e d i n l o v e , she s u r v i v e s t o i n h e r i t both L y n d a l l ' s

c a s t - o f f a d m i r e r , Gregory Rose, and the farm i t s e l f . I t i s Em's

l i n e r a t h e r than L y n d a l l ' s which w i l l c o n t i n u e .

S c h r e i n e r ' s o t h e r female c h a r a c t e r , Tant' S a n n i e , i s a

c a r i c a t u r e of the e v i l s tep-mother. She i s a bundle of g r o s s

a p p e t i t e s , a devourer of men, a g r o t e s q u e e a r t h g o d d e s s — a n

argument, i n f a c t , f o r L y n d a l l ' s c o n t e n t i o n t h a t women's power

w i l l be p e r v e r t e d i f w h o l l y d i r e c t e d toward the domestic sphere.

N e v e r t h e l e s s , as an embodiment of t r a d i t i o n a l female power over

c h i l d r e n , husband and home, she t h r i v e s . S i g n i f i c a n t l y ,

S c h r e i n e r g i v e s her a s t r o n g , c o l o r f u l v o i c e . She e x c l a i m s :

49

There's n o t h i n g l i k e b e i n g m a r r i e d . . . . I f a woman's got a baby and a husband she's got the b e s t t h i n g s the L o r d can g i v e h e r ; i f o n l y the baby doesn't have c o n v u l s i o n s . As f o r a husband i t ' s v e r y much the same who one has. Some men a r e f a t and some men are t h i n ; some men d r i n k brandy, and some men d r i n k g i n ; but i t a l l comes t o the same t h i n g i n the end (2 9 3 ) .

I n t e r e s t i n g l y t h e n , S c h r e i n e r does not d i s m i s s Sannie as a

loathsome v i l l a i n e s s , but r a t h e r admires her and uses her t o

s a t i r i z e t he o t h e r , weaker c h a r a c t e r s . For the r e a d e r , her

b r u t a l common sense i s a r e f r e s h i n g a n t i d o t e t o the melodra­

m a t i c a l l y r endered L y n d a l l and the o f t e n p a t h e t i c Waldo. Tant'

Sa n n i e ' s comic v o i c e i s s t r o n g l y r e a s s e r t e d a t t h e end of t h e

n o v e l (as i n her speech t o Em, quoted a b o v e ) , w h i l e the s t o r y of

L y n d a l l and Waldo t e e t e r s toward b a t h o s . I n Tant' S a n n i e ,

S c h r e i n e r p r e s e n t s an a l t e r n a t e v i s i o n o f f e m i n i n e power which

i s not e n t i r e l y n e g a t i v e , but which e x c l u d e s t h e h e r o i n e . The

d e f e a t of L y n d a l l i s c o n t r a s t e d w i t h the g u a l i f i e d s u c c e s s of

the o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s , through whom S c h r e i n e r o f f e r s the a l t e r n a ­

t i v e v i s i o n o f the rewards o f c o n f o r m i t y . Em and Tant' Sannie

a r e s t r o n g e r , more e n d u r i n g , and even more a d m i r a b l e i n t h e i r

f a s h i o n than L y n d a l l . They r e p r e s e n t p r a c t i c a l i t y and

c o n t i n u i t y : t h e homely q u a l i t i e s t h a t S c h r e i n e r admires i n the

l i f e o f the farm.

The male c h a r a c t e r s s e r v e s i m i l a r l y as c o l o n i a l t y p e s and

r o l e models, m o s t l y n e g a t i v e , f o r Waldo. The v i l l a i n , named

Bonaparte i n a parody of L y n d a l l ' s i d o l i z a t i o n o f Napoleon, i s

an u n s c r u p u l o u s B r i t i s h c o l o n i s t come t o South A f r i c a t o make

money by t h e e a s i e s t , t h a t i s , the most d i s h o n e s t and

e x p l o i t a t i v e means. Old O t t o , Waldo's German f a t h e r , i s an

a n a c h r o n i s t i c peasant whom B l e n k i n s d e s t r o y s . Gregory Rose i s a

50

n a i v e , f r e s h - f a c e d Englishman who c a l l o u s l y b r e a k s Em's h e a r t ,

but whom S c h r e i n e r educates and reforms through h i s s e l f -

s a c r i f i c i n g l o v e f o r L y n d a l l . The b i z a r r e d e v i c e of h i s

a d o p t i n g a woman's d i s g u i s e t o nurse L y n d a l l t h r o u g h her l a s t

days has a f e m i n i s t message: he must be f e m i n i z e d t o become a

complete person.10 G r e g o r y ' s androgyny a l s o r e i n f o r c e s the

androgynous c o n n e c t i o n between L y n d a l l and Waldo. F i n a l l y ,

Waldo's S t r a n g e r , a m y s t e r i o u s European e x i l e , both l u r e s Waldo

toward and warns him a g a i n s t t he c u l t u r e of the m e t r o p o l i s ,

r e f l e c t i n g S c h r e i n e r ' s a m b i v a l e n c e about g o i n g a b r o a d , and

p r e f i g u r i n g her own i n t e r c o n t i n e n t a l wandering.

Through the predicament of L y n d a l l , t he r e b e l l i o u s c o l o n i a l

woman, and Waldo, t h e c o l o n i a l a r t i s t , S c h r e i n e r d e p i c t s her own

s i t u a t i o n as a r e j e c t e d and a l i e n a t e d daughter of c o l o n i a l

A f r i c a . Her own l a n d l e s s n e s s , t he break-up of her f a m i l y , and

her s i t u a t i o n as a governess and housekeeper f o r o t h e r s f u e l e d

her f e m i n i s t anger and spa r k e d her sympathy f o r t h e l e s s

p o w e r f u l , t h a t i s , non-white and n o n - B r i t i s h segments of South

A f r i c a n s o c i e t y . Her work e x p e r i e n c e gave her f i r s t - h a n d

knowledge of A f r i k a n e r s , whom her mother had d e n i g r a t e d — b u t

O l i v e l i v e d among them as an o u t s i d e r , a s t r a n g e r . I n A f r i c a n

Farm, she d e s c r i b e s Boer farm l i f e w i t h detachment, through

L y n d a l l ' s E n g l i s h eyes. For example, the d e s c r i p t i o n of a

t r a d i t i o n a l wedding, from L y n d a l l ' s p o i n t of vi e w , i s a p p r e c i ­

a t i v e but u n i n v o l v e d ; L y n d a l l watches her n e i g h b o r s c a v o r t but

d e c l i n e s t o p a r t i c i p a t e . Her a t t i t u d e toward everyone e x c e p t

Waldo i s of one who has c u t her bonds t o s o c i e t y , who ha s , i n

51

her mind, a l r e a d y l e f t . (We w i l l see t h i s a t t i t u d e a g a i n i n the

e a r l y h e r o i n e s of L e s s i n g and Gordimer.) Her s e a r c h f o r freedom

has d r i v e n her from o t h e r p e o p l e ; p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h her own f a t e

she cannot c o n s i d e r the r e l a t e d f a t e s of o t h e r s . I n a sense,

f i n a l l y , her death i s a f a t a l w i t h d r a w a l i n t o s e l f : " I am

a s l e e p , swathed, shut up i n s e l f ; t i l l I have been d e l i v e r e d I

w i l l d e l i v e r no one."

L y n d a l l r e j e c t s the t r a d i t i o n a l f e m i n i n e r o l e s r e p r e s e n t e d

by Em and Tant' S a n n i e , but i s l e f t w i t h the time-honored r o l e

of the f a l l e n woman, the o u t c a s t and v i c t i m . R e j e c t e d , she a l s o

r e j e c t s : the B r i t i s h c o l o n i s t s , the Boer s e t t l e r s , and the

n a t i v e A f r i c a n s as w e l l . For the h e r o i n e ' s and hero's

detachment from the w h i t e communities i s a l s o e v i d e n t i n the

r e f e r e n c e s t o b l a c k s i n the n o v e l . L y n d a l l and Waldo view the

b l a c k p e o p l e among whom they l i v e as s t r a n g e , sometimes

r e p u l s i v e , d o m e s t i c a t e d a n i m a l s . L y n d a l l argues p a s s i o n a t e l y

f o r women's e m a n c i p a t i o n w i t h no thought f o r the r i g h t s of the

A f r i c a n men and women who l i v e i n s e m i - s l a v e r y on the farm.

Waldo makes no c o n n e c t i o n between h i s own s u f f e r i n g and h u m i l i ­

a t i o n as a h i r e d worker and t h a t of the A f r i c a n l a b o r e r s , except

i n s o f a r as he i d e n t i f i e s w i t h a l l dumb s u f f e r i n g c r e a t u r e s .

The i m p o r t a n t e x c e p t i o n i s Waldo's f a s c i n a t i o n w i t h the

San, or Bushmen p a i n t i n g s which s u r v i v e on the r o c k s o f the

farm, l o n g a f t e r the a r t i s t s t h emselves have been hunted down.

Compare h i s i m a g i n a t i v e empathy f o r the San w i t h a t y p i c a l

d e s c r i p t i o n of a " K a f f i r " s e r v a n t . Here i s Waldo s p e a k i n g about

the Bushmen:

52

I t was . . . one of t h e s e o l d w i l d Bushmen, t h a t p a i n t e d t h o s e p i c t u r e s t h e r e . He d i d not know why he p a i n t e d but he wanted t o make something so he made t h e s e . He worked h a r d , v e r y h a r d , t o f i n d the j u i c e t o make the p a i n t ; and then he found t h i s p l a c e where the r o c k s hang o v e r , and he p a i n t e d them. To us they a r e o n l y s t r a n g e t h i n g s , t h a t make us l a u g h ; but t o him they were v e r y b e a u t i f u l . . . . He used t o k n e e l here naked, p a i n t i n g , p a i n t ­i n g , p a i n t i n g ; and he wondered at the t h i n g s he made h i m s e l f . . . . Now t h e Boers have shot them a l l , so t h a t we never see a y e l l o w f a c e p e e p i n g out among the s t o n e s (49-50).

T h i s i s a d e s c r i p t i o n of a b l a c k woman:

She was a s u l l e n , i l l - l o o k i n g woman, w i t h l i p s h i d e o u s l y p r o t r u d i n g . . . . She m uttered i n broken Dutch . . . shook her head s u l l e n l y . . . g r u n t e d a n e g a t i v e , and fanned the f l i e s from her baby ( 8 7 ) .

Of c o u r s e Waldo's a d m i r a t i o n f o r the dead Bushman c o n t r a s t s

u n f a v o r a b l y w i t h the a u t h o r ' s marked l a c k of sympathy f o r l i v i n g

b l a c k p e o p l e , and i s r e m i n i s c e n t of more r e c e n t South A f r i c a n

paeans t o the Bushmen, who no l o n g e r pose a t h r e a t t o w h i t e

s e t t l e m e n t . i l However, i t shows t h a t Waldo the a r t i s t can

t r a n s c e n d the r a c i a l i s m of h i s s o c i e t y , as S c h r e i n e r h e r s e l f was

a b l e t o do i n l a t e r l i f e , as we s h a l l see i n the d i s c u s s i o n of

From Man t o Man. At t h i s p o i n t , she does not make e x p l i c i t the

l i n k between the c o l o n y ' s a n t i p a t h y t o f e m i n i s m and c r e a t i v i t y

on the one hand, and i t s o p p r e s s i v e r a c i a l p o l i c i e s on the

o t h e r . But i t i s q u i t e s t r i k i n g t h a t the o n l y a r t i s t Waldo

i d e n t i f i e s w i t h was i n d i g e n o u s , non-white, and was hunted almost

t o e x t i n c t i o n by w h i t e s e t t l e r s .

I t i s o n l y i n the w r i t i n g of D o r i s L e s s i n g and Nadine

Gordimer t h a t the d i s c o n t e n t of L y n d a l l and Waldo i s named and

d e f i n e d as s p e c i f i c t o t h e i r a l i e n a t i o n as Europeans i n A f r i c a ,

v i c t i m s of the v e r y c o l o n i a l system t h a t o s t e n s i b l y e x i s t s t o

53

p r o t e c t t h e i r p r i v i l e g e s as w h i t e s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , i n S c h r e i n e r

we can f i n d s t r o n g i m p l i c a t i o n s of the c r i t i q u e of w h i t e s e t t l e r

s o c i e t y made by her s u c c e s s o r s . S c h r e i n e r ' s South A f r i c a i s

P h i l i s t i n e , m a t e r i a l i s t i c , and v i r u l e n t l y a n t i - i n t e l l e c t u a l ,

w i t h the s t r o n g u n d e r c u r r e n t of v i o l e n c e which pervades a l l

unequal r e l a t i o n s h i p s . C h i l d r e n as w e l l as n a t i v e s e r v a n t s a r e

beaten i n t o obedience and kept i g n o r a n t . They have no p r o t e c ­

t i o n from s a d i s t i c t y r a n t s l i k e Bonaparte B l e n k i n s who r u l e them

i n t he g u i s e of l o v i n g r e l a t i v e s or k i n d m a s t e r s . I n t h i s

c o n t e x t , L y n d a l l ' s f i e r c e f e m i n i s m and Waldo's a t h e i s m and

e v o l u t i o n i s m a r e a t t a c k s on the d i v i n e l y o r d a i n e d i n e q u a l i t y of

r a c e s , sexes and c u l t u r e s which j u s t i f i e s t he w h i t e c o l o n i a l

system. As L y n d a l l a s s e r t s i n her monologue, s p e a k i n g f o r

women, but a l s o by i m p l i c a t i o n f o r c h i l d r e n , f o r g o v e r n e s s e s ,

f o r h o u s ehold s e r v a n t s , farm l a b o r e r s — a n d San a r t i s t s : "We bear

the w o r l d and we make i t " ( 1 9 3 ) .

From Man t o Man

An e a r l y t i t l e f o r The S t o r y of an A f r i c a n Farm, a c c o r d i n g

t o E l a i n e S h o w a l t e r , was "Mi r a g e : A S e r i e s of A b o r t i o n s , " a

t i t l e which s u c c i n c t l y e x p r e s s e s the pessi m i s m o f the n o v e l . 1 2

S c h r e i n e r ' s South A f r i c a i s a s t e r i l e p l a c e i n which y o u t h f u l

dreams and p r o g r e s s i v e a s p i r a t i o n s d i e an u n n a t u r a l d e a t h .

F i t t i n g as i t might have been, S c h r e i n e r h e r s e l f d i d not

f o l l o w her h e r o i n e and hero i n t o an e a r l y g r a v e . She l i v e d

u n t i l 1920, p r o d u c i n g s e v e r a l works of n o n f i c t i o n , s t o r i e s , and

one more major n o v e l , From Man t o Man, wh i c h , uncompleted,

remained u n p u b l i s h e d u n t i l 1926.

54

From Man t o Man i s a l i t t l e - r e a d work, g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r e d

i n f e r i o r t o A f r i c a n Farm.13 Begun a t about the same time as

A f r i c a n Farm i t was added t o and r e v i s e d over S c h r e i n e r ' s

l i f e t i m e . I 4 The r e s u l t i s a patchwork of a u t o b i o g r a p h y , melo­

drama, s c i e n t i f i c and p h i l o s o p h i c a l s p e c u l a t i o n and f e m i n i s m .

The r e a d e r w i l l p r o b a b l y f i n d t e d i o u s such s e c t i o n s as the

a u t h o r ' s f i f t y - p a g e v e r s i o n of the e v o l u t i o n of c i v i l i z a t i o n .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , From Man t o Man i s an u n d e r r a t e d n o v e l which i s

saved by i t s w o n d e r f u l h e r o i n e R e b e k a h . I 5 Rebekah i s a much

rounder and more complete c h a r a c t e r than L y n d a l l or Waldo.

Whereas L y n d a l l and Waldo a r e i d e a l i z e d and s c h e m a t i c r e p r e s e n ­

t a t i o n s of d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s of S c h r e i n e r ' s young s e l f , Rebekah

i s an a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l c h a r a c t e r who grows and changes a l o n g

w i t h her c r e a t o r . S p e c i f i c a l l y , Rebekah shows us how S c h r e i n e r

h e r s e l f became c o n s c i o u s of the c o n n e c t i o n s between s e x u a l and

r a c i a l i n j u s t i c e i n South A f r i c a .

In o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d the changes i n S c h r e i n e r ' s i d e a s l e t

us f i r s t l o o k b r i e f l y a t her c a r e e r f o l l o w i n g the p u b l i c a t i o n of

her c e l e b r a t e d f i r s t n o v e l i n England i n 1883, when she was

t w e n t y - e i g h t . For a s h o r t p e r i o d , u n t i l her r e t u r n t o South

A f r i c a i n 1889, she became p a r t of a l o o s e l y o r g a n i z e d i n t e l l e c ­

t u a l group and p o l i t i c a l movement whose i d e a s were t o remain an

i n f l u e n c e upon h e r . W i l l i a m M o r r i s , E l e a n o r Marx, Havelock

E l l i s and Edward C a r p e n t e r espoused a r o m a n t i c s o c i a l i s m based

more on s p i r i t u a l and c u l t u r a l change than economic t r a n s f o r m a ­

t i o n . They c o n s i d e r e d s e x u a l freedom and freedom f o r women

p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t avenues t o s o c i a l change. T h i s c l i m a t e

55

of o p i n i o n r e i n f o r c e d S c h r e i n e r ' s a l r e a d y s t r o n g i n t e r e s t i n

fem i n i s m and s e x u a l i t y . 1 6

S c h r e i n e r s e t s out her f e m i n i s t i d e o l o g y i n the i n f l u e n t i a l

Woman and Labour (1911). The two main arguments of t h i s non-

f i c t i o n work a r e , one, t h a t women cannot be men's i n t e l l e c t u a l

and c r e a t i v e e q u a l s as l o n g as they a r e d e n i e d p r o d u c t i v e work;

and two, t h a t the f e m i n i n e q u a l i t i e s o f a l t r u i s t i c l o v e and

ma t e r n a l s a c r i f i c e can redeem b r u t a l and e x p l o i t a t i v e

p a t r i a r c h a l s o c i e t y .

The n o t a b l e f e a t u r e of From Man t o Man, which i s i n d i r e c t

c o n t r a s t t o the a l i e n a t i o n a t the h e a r t of A f r i c a n Farm, i s

Rebekah's i n n e r power t o blossom w i t h i n the s o c i a l c o n f i n e s

which b i n d h e r . Her i n t e l l e c t u a l and s p i r i t u a l growth embrace

those around h e r , s t a r t i n g w i t h her f a m i l y . Most i m p o r t a n t l y ,

Rebekah's p l i g h t as a woman g i v e s her em p a t h e t i c i n s i g h t i n t o

the p l i g h t of the o t h e r oppressed group i n her s o c i e t y : the

b l a c k A f r i c a n s . And her p e r s o n a l r e a l i z a t i o n i s shown t o have

r a m i f i c a t i o n s o u t s i d e h e r s e l f , t o have, i n f a c t , i m p l i c a t i o n s

f o r change i n South A f r i c a .

The w i d e n i n g of Rebekah's v i s i o n i s a r e s u l t of the widen­

i n g of her a u t h o r ' s p o l i t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e . A f t e r her r e t u r n t o

South A f r i c a S c h r e i n e r became an a c t i v e opponent of e t h n i c and

r a c i a l i n e q u a l i t y . F i r s t she launched an a t t a c k on C e c i l Rhodes

f o r h i s a n n e x a t i o n of "Rhodesia."17 D u r i n g the Anglo-Boer War

she a l l i e d h e r s e l f w i t h the A f r i k a n e r s a g a i n s t the B r i t i s h . As

a consequence, she was o s t r a c i z e d and f o r a p e r i o d i n t e r n e d .

S u b s e q u e n t l y , she took up the cause of r a c i a l i n e q u a l i t y ,

56

a t t a c k i n g the i n c r e a s i n g l y d i s c r i m i n a t o r y p o l i c i e s of the s e l f -

g o v e r n i n g South A f r i c a n c o l o n i e s , which i n 1910 became the Union

of South A f r i c a . ! 8

Thus i n her l a t e r l i f e , spent m o s t l y i n South A f r i c a ,

S c h r e i n e r extended her f e m i n i s t c r i t i q u e t o o t h e r forms of

s o c i a l e x p l o i t a t i o n . In the n i n e t e e n - t e n s i n England she took

up a l a s t unpopular cause, t h a t of p a c i f i s m d u r i n g the F i r s t

World War. U n t i l her death she e x e r c i s e d her e l o q u e n t v o i c e and

pen i n the s e r v i c e of her w i d e n i n g s y m p a t h i e s . She seems t o

have t r i e d i n her ever-uncompleted l a s t n o v e l t o s y n t h e s i z e her

d i v e r s e i d e a s , t o weld them i n t o a moving a r t i s t i c u n i t y . " T h i s

book i s g o i n g t o be a w f u l l y outspoken;" she wrote t o Havelock

E l l i s i n 1884, "An A f r i c a n Farm was n o t h i n g t o i t . . . ."

( L e t t e r s 3 3 ) . But i n s p i t e o f her s u c c e s s as an o r a t o r and

e s s a y i s t she was s i m p l y not a b l e t o a c h i e v e a u n i f i e d n o v e l i s t i c

v i s i o n . Her c o n s i d e r a b l e p e r s o n a l problems, i n p a r t i c u l a r her

c o n f l i c t s about her own r o l e as a woman, her s i m u l t a n e o u s

a t t r a c t i o n t o and f e a r of s e x u a l i t y and motherhood, c o n f u s e and

unbalance her f i c t i o n . I n From Man t o Man as i n A f r i c a n Farm

t h e r e i s g r e a t t e n s i o n between i d e a l and r e a l womanhood, t e n s i o n

w h i c h , i f i t were b e t t e r c o n t r o l l e d , would deepen and e n r i c h the

n o v e l . As i t i s , the a u t h o r ' s s e l f - d i v i s i o n and c o n f u s i o n

g l a r e d t h r o u g h her t e x t , damaging the r e a l i s m of i t s p l o t and

c h a r a c t e r s .

The b e s t example of t h i s p r o c e s s i n From Man t o Man i s

Rebekah's i d e a l i z e d p l a t o n i c attachment t o Mr. Drummond, which

t a k e s p l a c e on an i m p o s s i b l y s p i r i t u a l p l a n e , i n c o n t r a s t t o her

unhappy m a r r i a g e , which i s p o r t r a y e d w i t h p o w e r f u l r e a l i s m .

57

Rebekah's need f o r a Mr. Drummond r e f l e c t s S c h r e i n e r ' s own

entrapment i n i d e a l i z e d , d i s t a n t , s e x u a l l y f r u s t r a t e d r e l a t i o n ­

s h i p s w i t h Havelock E l l i s and the man whom she m a r r i e d a t

t h i r t y - n i n e , Samuel C r o n w r i g h t - S c h r e i n e r . 1 9 S c h r e i n e r a l s o

w r i t e s her ambivalence about motherhood i n t o the n o v e l . Her

l i f e l o n g f e a r of and d e s i r e f o r a c h i l d were e n c a p s u l a t e d i n the

b i r t h of a daughter when she was f o r t y , who d i e d w i t h i n a day.

From t h i s e x p e r i e n c e , added t o the memory of the death of her

baby s i s t e r E l l i e , s p r i n g s the both morbid and g l o r i f i e d view of

m a t e r n i t y t h a t i s so prominent an element i n From Man t o Man.

T h i s i s t o o f f e r an e x p l a n a t i o n as t o why O l i v e S c h r e i n e r

was unable t o e x t r i c a t e h e r s e l f from t h i s n o v e l , and was unable

t o w r i t e a n o t h e r . I t i s not t o say, however, t h a t From Man t o

Man i s w i t h o u t m e r i t or i n t e r e s t i n s p i t e of i t s unevenness. I n

i t s worst p a r t s i t i s an a m b i t i o u s f a i l u r e whose v i s i b l e

s c a f f o l d i n g i s a f a s c i n a t i n g and p o i g n a n t s u b t e x t . i n i t s b e s t

p a r t s , c h i e f among them "The P r e l u d e — T h e C h i l d ' s Day" (which

s i g n i f i c a n t l y was w r i t t e n i n one p i e c e as a s e l f c o n t a i n e d

s t o r y ) 2 0 the au t h o r succeeds i n t w i s t i n g the s t r a n d s of aut o ­

b i o g r a p h y and s o c i a l message i n t o the t h r e a d of p o e t i c r e a l i s m .

"The P r e l u d e " b e g i n s w i t h t h i s s e n t e n c e : "The l i t t l e mother

l a y i n the agony of c h i l d b i r t h . " The " l i t t l e mother" of the

s t o r y i s Rebekah's mother, but c l e a r l y she a l s o r e p r e s e n t s the

grown-up Rebekah (who w i l l have f o u r sons and s e v e r a l mis­

c a r r i a g e s ) , O l i v e S c h r e i n e r ' s mother, Rebecca L y n d a l l , and O l i v e

h e r s e l f . The book i s j o i n t l y d e d i c a t e d t o O l i v e ' s dead baby

s i s t e r and t o her dead d a u g h t e r . Thus the auth o r a t t a c h e s t o

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t h e c h a r a c t e r of Rebekah a m o u r n f u l web of a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l

meanings.

The l i t t l e mother of the n o v e l g i v e s b i r t h t o t w i n s , one

dead, one l i v e . The f i v e - y e a r - o l d Rebekah a p p r o p r i a t e s the

s t i l l b o r n t w i n as a f a n t a s y d a u g h t e r - s e l f . Here i n s t a r k e r

symbols i s t h e A f r i c a n Farm theme of t h e f e r t i l e dream w o r l d of

the c h i l d f i g h t i n g t o f l o u r i s h i n the s t e r i l e a c t u a l w o r l d of

the a d u l t s . Through a s e r i e s of dreams, games and s t o r i e s

i n v o l v i n g the s t i l l b o r n baby, Rebekah s k e t c h e s her own i d e n t i t y

as a South A f r i c a n c h i l d of the l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . The

symbols of t h i s d i v i d e d i d e n t i t y a r e the t r e a s u r e d p o s s e s s i o n s

she a r r a n g e s around the baby. These i n c l u d e an a l p h a b e t book,

t a l i s m a n of i n t e l l e c t u a l l i b e r a t i o n , which i s opposed t o the

s i l v e r t h i m b l e and paper of n e e d l e s , s i g n i f y i n g t r a d i t i o n a l

f e m i n i t y . The bushman s t o n e , symbol of the a n c i e n t A f r i c a n

c u l t u r e which haunts the h e r o i n e and author (as i t haunted Waldo

i n A f r i c a n Farm), i s s e t a g a i n s t a c u t - o u t of Queen V i c t o r i a

from a c i g a r box, symbol of t h e c o n q u e r i n g B r i t i s h empire.

The n o v e l d e v e l o p s d i r e c t l y from t h i s image of Rebekah

l i n i n g up her s y m b o l i c t r e a s u r e s around the baby's c o r p s e . From

Man t o Man i s the s t o r y of Rebekah's attempt t o p r e s e r v e each

a s p e c t of h e r s e l f w i t h o u t b e i n g d e s t r o y e d by i t s o p p o s i n g

q u a l i t y : i n t e l l e c t u a l a m b i t i o n v e r s u s womanliness, and A f r i c a

v e r s u s E n g l a n d . The t h e m a t i c o p p o s i t i o n s i n A f r i c a n Farm are

here d e p i c t e d w i t h g r e a t e r c l a r i t y . L y n d a l l ' s female dilemma:

the c h o i c e between Sannie and Em or t h e f a l l e n woman; Waldo's

a r t i s t i c dilemma: the c h o i c e between the p h i l i s t i n e c u l t u r e of

the c o l o n y or the n e a r - e x t i n c t c u l t u r e of the hunted-down San.

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Rebekah's f i r s t v e h i c l e s of s e l f - e x p r e s s i o n a r e dreams and

o r a l s t o r i e s ; l a t e r she t u r n s t o s c i e n t i f i c t h e o r i e s and w r i t t e n

f i c t i o n . I n her f i r s t dream she i s "the l i t t l e Queen V i c t o r i a

o f South A f r i c a " : s t i l l a c h i l d , a female and a c o l o n i a l , she i s

now a f i g u r e of power. In t h i s f a n t a s y she l i v e s on a l u s h

B r i t i s h i s l e i n a c h i l d - s i z e house equipped w i t h l i b r a r y , m i c r o ­

scope, and mud f o r b u i l d i n g — a l l the r e q u i s i t e s of i n t e l l e c t u a l

i n q u i r y and c r e a t i v i t y .

As a reader of A f r i c a n Farm might p r e d i c t , she wakes t o the

d r y , h o t , d e a t h l i k e r e a l w o r l d of South A f r i c a : " A l l about l a y

the parched y e l l o w g r a s s , and the l i t t l e d r i e d peach t r e e s , w i t h

t h e i r s h r i v e l l e d l e a v e s . . ." ( 5 8 ) . I t i s i m p o r t a n t , however,

t h a t d r o u g h t , t h a t dominant image of A f r i c a n Farm, i s o n l y the

s t a r t i n g p o i n t of From Man t o Man. The death of her dreams w i l l

not be the death of Rebekah. Her r e v e r y over the dead baby i s

broken by the w a i l of the l i v e t w i n , Rebekah's s i s t e r B e r t i e ,

whom she w i l l c o n t i n u e t o mother and p r o t e c t throughout the

n o v e l . The grown-up Rebekah m a i n t a i n s her s e c r e t i n n e r l i f e

w i t h i n t h e c o n f i n e s of her o u t e r l i f e as an e x p l o i t e d w i f e and

h a r a s s e d mother. The m e l odramatic saga of the s e d u c t i o n and

f a l l o f B e r t i e , and the s t e r o t y p i c a l t r a g e d y of Rebekah's

m a r r i a g e — p u n c t u a t e d by the m i s c a r r i a g e s of her d a u g h t e r s —

s u r r o u n d but do not obscure the o t h e r s t o r y of Rebekah's mental

l i f e . The r a t h e r p r e p o s t e r o u s f i c t i o n a l e v e n t s of the n o v e l a c t

as a c o u n t e r p o i n t t o the h e r o i n e ' s mental development. By means

of t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between the i n n e r and o u t e r s t o r i e s S c h r e i n e r

d e v e l o p s and a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y r e s o l v e s the s y m b o l i c

o p p o s i t i o n s s e t out e x p l i c i t l y a t the b e g i n n i n g of the n o v e l i n

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book and t h i m b l e , stone and Queen V i c t o r i a c u t - o u t .

The a d u l t Rebekah's s e c r e t l i f e t a k e s p l a c e i n a t i n y s tudy

p a r t i t i o n e d o f f from her c h i l d r e n ' s bedroom i n her house i n

Capetown. L i k e the t r e a s u r e s i n her c h i l d h o o d f a n t a s y , i t s

s p a r s e f u r n i s h i n g s a r e m a i n l y t a l i s m a n i c : a m i c r o s c o p e , f o s s i l

specimens, her o l d s c h o o l b o o k s , t r a n s l a t i o n s from t h e c l a s s i c s ,

an e d i t i o n of Darwin, an a t l a s , a s t a t u e t t e of H e r c u l e s , a p r i n t

of the Madonna, and some notebooks i n which she w r i t e s

s p o r a d i c a l l y . These are o b j e c t s from her c h i l d h o o d and woman­

hood, from A f r i c a and from Europe. The i d e a l i z e d Mother i s

e n s h r i n e d a l o n g w i t h the Greek h e r o , perhaps t o s y m b o l i z e the

H e r c u l e a n t a s k of a l o n e female t h i n k e r . There i s a path worn

i n t o the c a r p e t where she paces round and round as she t h i n k s .

Her s i t u a t i o n i s d e l i n e a t e d w i t h r e a l i s t i c d e t a i l :

T o n i g h t she drew the book towards h e r . I t was f o u r months s i n c e she had opened i t . . . . When l a s t she wrote she had been s i t t i n g up f o r a n i g h t , t o make p o u l t i c e s f o r her boy who had bad e a r a c h e , and, between w h i l e s as he s l e p t , she had w r i t t e n ( 1 7 7 ) .

Rebekah's m o t h e r l y c o n c e r n s — c h e c k i n g on the s l e e p i n g

c h i l d r e n , d a r n i n g s o c k s — w e a v e i n and out of her p h i l o s o p h i c a l

s p e c u l a t i o n s . Nor are t h e s e p r a c t i c a l concerns p u r e l y d i s t r a c ­

t i o n s from her mental a c t i v i t y ; r a t h e r her p h i l o s o p h y seems t o

be shaped by her e x p e r i e n c e as a w i f e and mother. The i n t e r i o r

monologue begun above w i t h the p o u l t i c e making, f o r example,

b u i l d s t o t h i s condemnation of s o c i a l Darwinism:

You say t h a t , w i t h your guns s h o o t i n g so many s h o t s a minute, you can d e s t r o y any r a c e of men armed o n l y w i t h s p e a r s ; but how does t h a t prove your s u p e r i o r i t y , e x c ept as the s u p e r i o r i t y of the c r o c o d i l e i s proved when i t e a t s a human baby, because i t has l o n g t e e t h and baby has none? ( 2 2 2 ) .

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T h o u g h t f u l l y , Rebekah r e j e c t s the " s c i e n t i f i c " j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r

i m p e r i a l might w i t h an argument based upon her p r o t e c t i v e

f e e l i n g s toward her c h i l d r e n . S i g n i f i c a n t l y , t h i s i s her f i r s t

a n t i - c o l o n i a l statement.21

The h e r o i n e ' s m a t e r n a l i s m (whose p a t r o n i z i n g tone we s h o u l d

see i n the c o n t e x t of r a c i a l views of her t i m e , and thus make

some a l l o w a n c e f o r ) reaches i t s c l i m a x near the end of the n o v e l

when she adopts the daughter of her husband and the b l a c k

s e r v a n t g i r l . T h i s s e c t i o n of From Man t o Man r e f e r s t o the

n o v e l ' s b e g i n n i n g , when the c h i l d Rebekah imagined t h a t she

adopted her baby s i s t e r . Rebekah t e l l s her c h i l d r e n a s t o r y i n

which she d e s c r i b e s her s u p e r i o r a t t i t u d e toward the A f r i c a n s

when she was a c h i l d , h a r k i n g back t o her e a r l y f a n t a s y of b e i n g

" l i t t l e Queen V i c t o r i a of South A f r i c a " :

I always p l a y e d t h a t , I was Queen V i c t o r i a and t h a t a l l A f r i c a belonged t o me, and I c o u l d do whatever I l i k e d . i t always p u z z l e d me when I walked up and down t h i n k i n g what I s h o u l d do w i t h the b l a c k p e o p l e ; I d i d not l i k e t o k i l l them . . . and y e t I c o u l d not have them near me. At l a s t I made a p l a n . I made b e l i e v e I b u i l t a h i g h w a l l r i g h t a c r o s s A f r i c a and put a l l the b l a c k p e o p l e on the o t h e r s i d e , and I s a i d , 'Stay t h e r e , and, the day you put one f o o t o v e r , your heads w i l l be c u t o f f . '

I was v e r y p l e a s e d when I made t h i s p l a n , I used t o walk up and down and make b e l i e v e t h e r e were no b l a c k people i n South A f r i c a ; I had i t a l l t o m y s e l f ( 4 3 5 ) .

But g r a d u a l l y , she t e l l s t he c h i l d r e n , she came t o i d e n t i f y

w i t h b l a c k women, who impressed her w i t h t h e i r b r a v e r y and depth

of emotion, so t h a t "they were mine and I was t h e i r s , and the

w a l l I had b u i l t a c r o s s A f r i c a had s l o w l y t o f a l l down" (438).

S c h r e i n e r ' s image of b u i l d i n g and t e a r i n g down an i m a g i n a r y

w a l l o f a p a r t h e i d i s a p o w e r f u l and p r e s c i e n t one, which emerges

62

r e a l i s t i c a l l y from her h e r o i n e ' s i n t e l l e c t u a l and e m o t i o n a l

development. I t i s a t t h i s p o i n t where R e b e k a h / S c h r e i n e r ' s

f e m i n i s m widens t o embrace s o c i a l and r a c i a l e q u a l i t y .

Rebekah's a d o p t i o n of S a r t j e i s an acknowledgement of the

f u r t i v e but wi d e s p r e a d s e x u a l e x p l o i t a t i o n of b l a c k women by

t h e i r w h i t e m a s t e r s . Furthermore/ by t a k i n g r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r

S a r t j e as the c h i l d of her husband and by l o v i n g her as a

dau g h t e r , Rebekah undermines the r a c i a l s e p a r a t i o n upon which

the A f r i c a n c o l o n i a l system i s based. I t i s i m p o r t a n t here

t h a t she r e j e c t s the Queen V i c t o r i a r o l e t h a t had a t t r a c t e d her

as a c h i l d . As she has matured, t h a t female symbol of i m p e r i a l

might has l o s t i t s p otency f o r h e r . I t has been r e p l a c e d , by an

a l l e g o r i c a l f i g u r e of s t r u g g l i n g Humanity as a p o w e r f u l woman

whose f e e t a r e f e t t e r e d and b u r i e d i n the d e s e r t sand. When

Humanity l e a r n s t o use her s t r o n g arms and hands t o f r e e her

f e e t , she w i l l be a b l e t o walk t o the green mountains f o r which

she y e a r n s . (We s h o u l d be reminded here of t h e " A l l e g o r y of t h e

Hunter" i n A f r i c a n Farm, s e t i n a s i m i l a r l a n d s c a p e o f d e s e r t

and d i s t a n t peaks, but much more r a r e f i e d and a b s t r a c t , and more

n e g a t i v e i n i t s v i s i o n . )

The a l l e g o r i c a l f i g u r e i s a b o l d f e m i n i s t answer t o the

complacent, m o t h e r l y w h i t e gueen whose s t a t u e s and p o r t r a i t s

adorned each c o r n e r of her empire. The f i v e - y e a r - o l d who i n the

b e g i n n i n g of t h e n o v e l h e l d f o u r b e l o v e d s y m b o l i c o b j e c t s which

she c o u l d not r e c o n c i l e has f i n a l l y chosen between Queen

V i c t o r i a and the Bushman s t o n e . I n terms of the second

o p p o s i t i o n , t h a t between the t h i m b l e and the b o o k — t r a d i t i o n a l

f e m i n i t y and t h e m a s c u l i n e p r o v i n c e of l e a r n i n g — s h e has found

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her own, female and m a t e r n a l , i n t e l l e c t u a l p a t h . I n an o f t e n

s e n t i m e n t a l and " m a t r o n i z i n g " tone and at too g r e a t a l e n g t h ,

O l i v e S c h r e i n e r , l i k e Rebekah b r e a k i n g down the w a l l between the

r a c e s , b reaks down some of the i m a g i n a t i v e w a l l s of her t i m e :

m a s c u l i n e s u p e r i o r i t y , r a c i a l s u p e r i o r i t y , t h e p a t r i a r c h a l

f a m i l y , and the i d e a of empire.

Employing the d e v i c e o f s t o r y - t e l l i n g , Rebekah completes

her i m a g i n a t i v e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h t h e c o l o n i z e d A f r i c a n s . She

asks her c h i l d r e n t o imagine the i n v a s i o n of e a r t h by a techno­

l o g i c a l l y s u p e r i o r s p e c i e s who s y s t e m a t i c a l l y d e s t r o y the

c o m p a r a t i v e l y "savage," " p r i m i t i v e " human c i v i l i z a t i o n and k i l l

o r e n s l a v e t h e " i n f e r i o r " human r a c e . But t h e humans s u r v i v e d ,

" l e a r n t a l l t h e t e r r i b l e w h i t e - f a c e d s t r a n g e r s had t o t e a c h , and

we worked f o r them. We worked . . . and we w a i t e d . . .11 ( 4 2 3 ) .

C l e a r l y S c h r e i n e r i s on the b r i n k o f s u g g e s t i n g an o r g a n i z e d

r e v o l t of t h e c o l o n i z e d humans a g a i n s t the " w h i t e - f a c e d

s t r a n g e r s , " a s t e p w h i c h , however, she was not h i s t o r i c a l l y

p l a c e d t o do more than i m p l y . As she t e l l s her c h i l d r e n , "The

dream ends t h e r e . " I n any c a s e , her a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l h e r o i n e

has i m a g i n a t i v e l y t r a v e l e d i n another d i r e c t i o n from t h e dead­

end reached by the c o l o n i a l c h i l d r e n i n A f r i c a n Farm. C e r t a i n l y

much of t h e d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t i n A f r i c a n Farm i s r e p e a t e d i n From

Man t o Man, as a r e i t s images o f s t e r i l i t y and c l a u s t r o p h o b i a .

However, most of i t s t r a g e d y — n o t t o say m e l o d r a m a — i s g i v e n t o

Rebekah's s i s t e r B e r t i e ; the uncompleted p l a n o f the n o v e l has

her a p r o s t i t u t e i n Cape Town d y i n g of v e n e r e a l d i s e a s e ,

l o v i n g l y nursed through her l a s t days by Rebekah.22

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Rebekah h e r s e l f , on the o t h e r hand, almost f l o u r i s h e s i n

the t i n y room-of-her-own where she s t u d i e s , dreams and most

i m p o r t a n t , w r i t e s . Her p o w e r f u l v i s i o n c o u n t e r s t h e images of

s t e r i l i t y and e n c l o s u r e , and on a s m a l l s c a l e she manages t o

b r i n g her dreams t o f r u i t i o n . She ends her s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p

w i t h her husband, f i n d s an i n t e l l e c t u a l soul-mate i n Mr.

Drummond, b r e a k s her t i e s t o w h i t e s o c i e t y by a d o p t i n g S a r t j e ,

and b e g i n s t o t e a c h her c h i l d r e n r a d i c a l l y new v a l u e s . A c c o r d ­

i n g t o S c h r e i n e r ' s husband, the e n d i n g o f the n o v e l would have

Rebekah l i v i n g a l o n e w i t h her c h i l d r e n on her own farm ( 5 0 6 ) .

O l i v e S c h r e i n e r ' s u n f i n i s h e d n o v e l , From Man t o Man, i s

f o r m a l l y i n f e r i o r t o her acknowledged m a s t e r p i e c e , The S t o r y of

an A f r i c a n Farm. However i t s r a t h e r m e l odramatic p l o t and

l e n g t h y p h i l o s o p h i c a l e x c u r s i o n s do connect on the t h e m a t i c

l e v e l . Through th e outward drama and i n t e r i o r debate t h a t

c h a r a c t e r i z e her h e r o i n e ' s l i f e , S c h r e i n e r was a b l e t o d i s s o l v e

the s e e m i n g l y i n s o l u b l e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s t h a t d e f e a t e d L y n d a l l and

Waldo i n A f r i c a n Farm, and so hampered her own development as a

woman and w r i t e r . T h i s i s apparent even i n the d i f f e r e n t use of

metaphor i n the two n o v e l s . L y n d a l l i s d e p i c t e d i n r a t h e r

s t r a i n e d terms as S l e e p i n g Beauty, Napoleon, and Undine, who i s

so emblematic of her s e l f - d i v i s i o n . Rebekah i s d e p i c t e d , more

r e a l i s t i c a l l y f o r an a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l h e r o i n e , as a s t o r y - t e l l e r

and w r i t e r . Most i m p o r t a n t of a l l , whereas i n A f r i c a n Farm the

a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l h e r o i n e i s i n e f f e c t s p l i t i n t o f e m a l e ,

L y n d a l l , and male, Waldo, Rebekah i n t e g r a t e s male s t r e n g t h i n t o

her image of h e r s e l f ( H e r c u l e s and the Madonna). She f a n t a s i z e s

65

about b e i n g a man who p r o t e c t s and c a r e s f o r her pregnant female

s e l f :

She f e l t t he g r e a t freedom opened t o h e r , no p l a c e shut o f f from h e r , the l o n g c h a i n b r o k e n , a l l work p o s s i b l e f o r h e r , no law t o say t h i s and t h i s i s f o r woman, you are woman; she drew a l o n g b r e a t h and s m i l e d an e x p a n s i v e s m i l e ( 2 2 6 ) .

From Man t o Man i s a v i s i o n a r y n o v e l which i m a g i n a t i v e l y

b r e a k s down the w a l l s which i n r e a l l i f e l i m i t e d i t s a u t h o r .

Rebekah b r i n g s down the w a l l which the " l i t t l e Queen V i c t o r i a of

South A f r i c a " b u i l t t o keep t h e A f r i c a n s out of "her" c o u n t r y .

She even b r i n g s down the symbol of Queen V i c t o r i a by r e p l a c i n g

her w i t h the h a l f - f r e e , h a l f - f e t t e r e d female f i g u r e of Humanity.

By championing both her f a l l e n s i s t e r B e r t i e (whose a b n o r m a l l y

s m a l l f e e t echo Humanity's u s e l e s s l i m b s ) and S a r t j e , the h a l f -

c a s t e daughter o f a w h i t e master and a b l a c k s e r v a n t , she f i g h t s

f o r both s e x u a l and r a c i a l e q u a l i t y i n t h e c o l o n y .

L y n d a l l ' s s u c c e s s o r Rebekah does not s o l v e a l l of her

c o n f l i c t s ; n o t a b l y she i s not a l l o w e d a s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h

Mr. Drummond, because, presumably, she r e s p e c t s the m a r r i a g e

vows which her husband has r e p e a t e d l y b r o k e n . She s e t t l e s f o r a

l i f e of c e l i b a c y and i n t e l l e c t u a l communion. S c h r e i n e r g r a n t s

Rebekah c h i l d r e n , and a p l a c e t o w r i t e ; e v e n t u a l l y the room of

her own becomes a farm of her o w n — t h e A f r i c a n farm, the p i e c e

of A f r i c a which L y n d a l l and Waldo were d e n i e d .

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Notes - O l i v e S c h r e i n e r

1-For Stephen Gray i n South e r n A f r i c a n L i t e r a t u r e : An I n t r o d u c t i o n , The S t o r y o f an A f r i c a n Farm i s "a s o l e common o r i g i n " of the l i b e r a l South A f r i c a n n o v e l i n E n g l i s h ( 1 3 3 ) . For D a v i d R a b k i n , " I n [ S c h r e i n e r ' s ] work, r e a l i s m s t r u c k i t s f i r s t , t e n t a t i v e r o o t s i n South A f r i c a n s o i l " ("Ways of L o o k i n g : O r i g i n s of t h e N o v e l i n South A f r i c a " 4 3 ) . Kenneth P a r k e r i n The South A f r i c a n N o v e l i n E n g l i s h , E s s ays i n C r i t i c i s m and S o c i e t y echoes t h e s e v i e w s . The c o n t i n u i n g i n t e r e s t i n S c h r e i n e r by c r i t i c s of South A f r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e i s apparent i n both the t i t l e and c o n t e n t s o f O l i v e S c h r e i n e r and A f t e r : E s s ays on Southern A f r i c a n L i t e r a t u r e i n Honour of Guy B u t l e r .

2Ruth F i r s t and Ann S c o t t i n O l i v e S c h r e i n e r combine a f e m i n i s t and M a r x i s t - o r i e n t e d approach t o the w r i t e r , thus s y n t h e s i z i n g the two main a t t i t u d e s toward S c h r e i n e r : one, t h a t she i s a woman's w r i t e r , two, t h a t she i s a South A f r i c a n w r i t e r . T h e i r main s o u r c e s a r e S c h r e i n e r ' s L e t t e r s , Samuel C r o n w r i g h t - S c h r e i n e r ' s b i o g r a p h y , which a l t h o u g h b i a s e d made use of s o u r c e s t o which o n l y he had a c c e s s , and Ma r i o n Friedman's p s y c h o a n a l y t i c b i o g r a p h y .

3 i n a l e t t e r t o Havelock E l l i s , S c h r e i n e r c a l l e d South A f r i c a "a whole n a t i o n of lower m i d d l e - c l a s s P h i l i s t i n e s , w i t h o u t an a r i s t o c r a c y of b l o o d or i n t e l l e c t or muscular l a b o u r e r s t o save them!" (1890, L e t t e r s 183). The phrase was p i c k e d up by D o r i s L e s s i n g t o c h a r a c t e r i z e w h i t e R h o d e s i a n s .

4 S c h r e i n e r must have come a c r o s s e i t h e r La Motte Fouque's Undine or a r e f e r e n c e t o t h e German t a l e .

5The young S c h r e i n e r i s known t o have read few n o v e l s and I have not been a b l e t o f i n d any r e f e r e n c e t o Wuthering H e i g h t s or Jane Eyre i n her l e t t e r s , or any i n d i c a t i o n by her b i o g r a p h e r s t h a t she had read t h e s e n o v e l s . However the p a r a l l e l s , p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h E m i l y B r o n t e ' s n o v e l , a re so s t r i k i n g as t o f a l l j u s t s h o r t of p r o v a b l e e v i d e n c e . There a re s e v e r a l a d m i r i n g r e f e r e n c e s t o George E l i o t ( e . g . M i l l on The F l o s s , 1885; L e t t e r s 8 2 ) , but none t h a t suggest t h a t she had read E l i o t b e f o r e w r i t i n g A f r i c a n Farm.

^For a h i s t o r i c a l view o f O l i v e S c h r e i n e r as an e a r l y f e m i n i s t n o v e l i s t see E l a i n e S h o w a l t e r , "The F e m i n i s t N o v e l i s t s , " i n A L i t e r a t u r e o f t h e i r Own: B r i t i s h Women N o v e l i s t s from B r o n t e t o L e s s i n g . She w r i t e s t h a t , "The con f u s e d a s p i r a t i o n s and dreams and the c l a u s t r o p h o b i c f e m aleness of t h e f e m i n i s t a e s t h e t i c are most s u g g e s t i v e l y embodied i n the l i f e and works o f O l i v e S c h r e i n e r . . . . In her a m b i v a l e n c e , her s e l f - d e c e p t i o n , her p s y c h o s o m a t i c i l l ­n e s s e s , we can read the d i s t r e s s s i g n a l s of a t r a n s i t i o n a l g e n e r a t i o n " (194-95). G r o u p i n g S c h r e i n e r w i t h B r i t i s h w r i t e r s , S h o w a l t e r does not c o n s i d e r the c o l o n i a l component, and t h i s i s a s e r i o u s l a c k i n her a n a l y s i s .

67

' L y n d a l l i s a f o r e r u n n e r of the e d u c a t e d , f i n a n c i a l l y i n d e p e n d e n t , s e x u a l l y emancipated "New Woman" c e l e b r a t e d by ( m o s t l y male) w r i t e r s of the 1890s. But her attempt at emanci­p a t i o n p o i n t s up the gap between the model and the r e a l i t y ; S c h r e i n e r ' s own l i f e s i m i l a r l y r e v e a l s the s t r a i n s i n the New Woman i d e o l o g y .

^ T h i s q u o t a t i o n from an e a r l y l e t t e r of S c h r e i n e r ' s shows t h a t L y n d a l l ' s c o n f u s e d d e s i r e t o be " d e l i v e r e d " i s l i k e her a u t h o r ' s : "But no one w i l l ever absorb me and make me l o s e m y s e l f u t t e r l y , and u n l e s s someone d i d I s h o u l d never marry" ( L e t t e r t o Mrs. Cawood, 1 8 7 8 , L e t t e r s 4-5).

^ E l a i n e W i l s o n i n " P e r v a s i v e Symbolism i n The S t o r y of an A f r i c a n Farm" d i s c u s s e s the p a t t e r n of s l e e p and waking imagery, c o n c l u d i n g too s i m p l i s t i c a l l y t h a t the farm i s the unawakened w o r l d of c h i l d h o o d and the w o r l d o u t s i d e s y m b o l i z e s the awakening of a d u l t h o o d .

l°However L y n d a l l ' s contemptuous d e s c r i p t i o n of Gregory Rose as "a man-woman" (197) i s i n d i c a t i v e o f the contempt t h a t S c h r e i n e r o f t e n showed f o r women, another s i g n of her own c o n f l i c t about sex r o l e s . She wrote t o E l l i s : " p l e a s e see t h a t they bury me i n a p l a c e where t h e r e are no women. I've not been a woman r e a l l y . . ." (1888, L e t t e r s 142).

l ^ F o r i n s t a n c e , Laurens van der P o s t , The L o s t World of the K a l a h a r i and o t h e r books, whom D o r i s L e s s i n g has memorably c r i t i c i z e d f o r p r o j e c t i n g the w h i t e man's f a n t a s i e s onto A f r i c a n s .

1 2 S h o w a l t e r 199. I have not been a b l e t o c o n f i r m t h i s e l s e w h e r e .

l^The n o v e l has been w i d e l y d i s m i s s e d and n e g l e c t e d . Even i n F i r s t and S c o t t ' s e x c e l l e n t b i o g r a p h y i t i s b a r e l y mentioned. I t was out of p r i n t from the 1920s u n t i l 1982, when V i r a g o P r e s s r e p u b l i s h e d i t . D o r i s L e s s i n g d i s m i s s e s the n o v e l ("Afterword t o The S t o r y o f an A f r i c a n Farm" 112). Dinesen and Gordimer do not d i s c u s s i t .

1 4 S c h r e i n e r began From Man t o Man i n 1873, took a manu­s c r i p t of the n o v e l w i t h her t o England i n 1881, and, as her l e t t e r s show, worked and w o r r i e d over i t f o r the r e s t of her l i f e . A c c o r d i n g t o her husband the t i t l e comes from a sentence of John (Lord) M o r l e y : "From man t o man n o t h i n g m a t t e r s but . . . c h a r i t y " ( I n t r o d u c t i o n by S.C. C r o n w r i g h t - S c h r e i n e r , From Man t o Man 495).

l 5 I n a s i g n t h a t the n o v e l has begun t o be r e a s s e s s e d , Laurence L e r n e r i n " O l i v e S c h r e i n e r and the F e m i n i s t s " d e s c r i b e s Rebekah as a unique h e r o i n e , who does "the t r u l y r a d i c a l t h i n g f o r a d e f i a n t woman," which i s t o s u r v i v e ( 7 5 ) . He w r i t e s :

68

"Rebekah i s a woman of s t r o n g s e x u a l f e e l i n g , and s t r o n g e m o t i o n a l dependence; a t the same t i m e , she i s competent, s e l f - r e l i a n t and c a p a b l e of l e a r n i n g independence. She i s Am e l i a and Becky combined, she i s Jane Eyre d e p r i v e d of the c o n v e n t i o n a l n o v e l p l o t — s h e i s e x a c t l y the k i n d of woman the f e m i n i s t n o v e l needed" ( 7 9 ) .

l*>For a d e s c r i p t i o n o f thes e e a r l y B r i t i s h s o c i a l i s t s and S c h r e i n e r ' s p l a c e among them see S h e i l a Rowbotham, Women, R e s i s t a n c e and R e v o l u t i o n .

l ^ H a v i n g been an e a r l y admirer o f Rhodes, she became a f i e r c e opponent. The n o n f i c t i o n P o l i t i c a l S i t u a t i o n (1896), w r i t t e n w i t h her husband, and her n o v e l Trooper P e t e r H a l k e t (1897) were d i r e c t a t t a c k s on h i s p o l i c i e s i n R h o d e s i a .

l^ s h e broke w i t h the South A f r i c a n women's s u f f r a g e movement because b l a c k and c o l o u r e d e n f r a n c h i s e m e n t was not p a r t of t h e i r program. She j o i n e d her b r o t h e r W.P. S c h r e i n e r , a l i b e r a l M.P., t o f i g h t u n s u c c e s s f u l l y f o r b l a c k r i g h t s i n the c o n s t i t u t i o n .

r o n w r i g h t was a South A f r i c a n farmer and l a w y e r , younger than she, who, g o i n g so f a r as t o t a k e her name and s u b o r d i n a t e h i s c a r e e r t o h e r s , sympathized w i t h her p o l i t i c s and s u p p o r t e d her w r i t i n g . They d i d however spend l o n g p e r i o d s a p a r t , o s t e n s i b l y because of O l i v e S c h r e i n e r ' s h e a l t h .

2 0 S h e wrote "The P r e l u d e " i n I t a l y i n 1888. As she d e s c r i b e d i t , " . . . s u d d e n l y , i n an i n s t a n t , t he whole of t h i s l i t t l e P r e l u d e f l a s h e d on me. . . . i t ' s a p i c t u r e i n s m a l l , a k i n d of a l l e g o r y , of the l i f e o f the woman i n the book!!" ( L e t t e r t o Mrs. F r a n c i s S m i t h , 1909, L e t t e r s 291).

2 1 A s S h o w a l t e r p o i n t s o u t , contemporary f e m i n i s t s adapted th e t h e o r y of s o c i a l Darwinism t o c l a i m t h a t women were more h i g h l y e v o l v e d , s p i r i t u a l l y and m o r a l l y , than men (185-86). S c h r e i n e r d e v e l o p s t h i s v e r y argument i n her n o v e l , an example of c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n her e v o l u t i o n a r y t h e o r y which echo o t h e r i d e o l o g i c a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n her w r i t i n g .

2 2 A s w e l l as an i n t r o d u c t i o n t o the f i r s t e d i t i o n o f the n o v e l , C r o n w r i g h t - S c h r e i n e r wrote a p r e c i s of what he thought the i n t e n d e d e n d i n g was t o be, based on h i s w i f e ' s notes and o u t l i n e . T h i s p o s t s c r i p t i s r e p r i n t e d i n the V i r a g o P r e s s e d i t i o n (505-07).

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Chapter Three

Isak D i n e s e n : Eve as Adam

Out of A f r i c a

The young Danish b r i d e Karen B l i x e n d i s c o v e r s her persona

i n the h i g h l a n d s of Kenya: b e n e v o l e n t m i s t r e s s , f e a r l e s s l i o n

h u n t e r , and f i n a l l y , the consummate s t o r y - t e l l e r I s a k D i n e s e n .

She approaches A f r i c a as a European, as a woman, and as a f u t u r e

w r i t e r ; t h e s e t h r e e d e t e r m i n a n t s o f her memoir Out of A f r i c a

combine i n a p a t t e r n q u i t e d i f f e r e n t from t h a t o f O l i v e

S c h r e i n e r ' s n o v e l The S t o r y of an A f r i c a n Farm.

F i r s t of a l l , I s ak Dinesen u n d e n i a b l y w r i t e s as a European

s e t t l e r ; she e m i g r a t e d i n 1913 a t the age of t w e n t y - e i g h t t o

what was t h e n t h e P r o t e c t o r a t e of B r i t i s h E a s t A f r i c a t o manage

a c o f f e e farm owned by her f a m i l y i n Denmark. Large t r a c t s o f

f e r t i l e l a n d were b e i n g made a v a i l a b l e t o w h i t e s e t t l e r s , w h i l e

the K i k u y u , Masai and o t h e r t r i b e s were b e i n g c o n f i n e d t o r e ­

s e r v e s and, t h r o u g h the i m p o s i t i o n of t a x e s , f o r c e d t o work f o r

wages on the w h i t e farms. The s e t t l e r s o f the time were l a r g e l y

w e a l t h y and u p p e r - c l a s s . The Karen Dinesen who e m i g r a t e d t o

E a s t A f r i c a t o marry her Swedish c o u s i n , B r o r B l i x e n , came l e s s

out of l o v e f o r her p r o f l i g a t e and l i b e r t i n e husband (she had

been i n l o v e w i t h h i s b r o t h e r ) t h a n , one s u s p e c t s , f o r the

o p p o r t u n i t y of becoming Baroness Von B l i x e n - F i n e c k e , and even

more f o r t h e o p p o r t u n i t y of e s c a p i n g the narrow h o r i z o n s o f a

woman of her c l a s s i n Denmark. Added t o t h e s e reasons was the

f a c t t h a t her f a t h e r had e x p l o r e d America as a young man, and i t

was t h i s r o m a n t i c image of him t h a t she p r e s e r v e d a f t e r h i s

70

s u i c i d e when she was a c h i l d . 1 For s e v e r a l r e a s o n s , t h e n , she

was p r e p a r e d t o f a l l i n l o v e w i t h the b e a u t i f u l and not

i n c o n s e q u e n t i a l chunk of the E a s t A f r i c a n h i g h l a n d s (6,000

a c r e s ) t h a t she soon became s o l e m i s t r e s s o f , when B r o r made i t

c l e a r t h a t he was more i n t e r e s t e d i n h i s l o v e a f f a i r s i n town

th a n i n t h e r u n n i n g of t h e farm. B e f o r e t h e y s e p a r a t e d and

l a t e r d i v o r c e d he gave her s y p h i l i s , o f which she was never

f u l l y c u r e d . She r a r e l y mentions her husband i n Out of A f r i c a .

T h i s i n d i r e c t r e f e r e n c e i s one o f the few: "Our r e a l t r o u b l e was

t h a t we were s h o r t of c a p i t a l , f o r i t had a l l been spent i n t h e

o l d days b e f o r e I took over the r u n n i n g of the farm" ( 2 2 8 ) .

The Baroness B l i x e n , as d e p i c t e d i n her memoir, e v i n c e s the

c l a s s i c c o l o n i a l q u a l i t i e s of the b e l o v e d and r e v e r e d m i s t r e s s

of s c o r e s of b l a c k s e r v a n t s and l a b o r e r s whose f a t e hangs upon

h e r s . F u r t h e r m o r e , the b l a c k c h a r a c t e r s a r e i d e a l i z e d and

d i s t o r t e d t o f i t the a u t h o r ' s f a n t a s y of h e r s e l f ; they a re

d e s c r i b e d as b e a u t i f u l w i l d c r e a t u r e s a k i n t o the a n i m a l s and

the l a n d s c a p e , and as nobl e savages or " t r u e a r i s t o c r a t s , "

a c c o r d i n g t o Dinesen's i d e a l o f f e u d a l N o r t h e r n European

s o c i e t y . However, her p o r t r a y a l of A f r i c a i s not q u i t e so

schem a t i c or s i m p l e . The c o m p l e x i t y and i n t e r e s t come, i n my

o p i n i o n , from her s t a t u s as a woman. L i v i n g i n A f r i c a f r e e d her

from the r e s t r i c t i o n s of u p p e r - m i d d l e - c l a s s D a nish s o c i e t y , so

t h a t she was a b l e t o c r e a t e the s e l f which matured i n t o one of

the most admired w r i t e r s of our c e n t u r y .

As d e p i c t e d i n her l e t t e r s and i n J u d i t h Thurman's

d e f i n i t i v e b i o g r a p h y , the young Karen i s a p e r s o n a l i t y too l a r g e

f o r t he s m a l l s t a g e of her l i f e i n Denmark. She i s b u r s t i n g

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w i t h t a l e n t and i n t e n s i t y t h a t t h o s e around her f i n d u n n e r v i n g

and u n n a t u r a l i n a young woman. She w r i t e s p l a y s f o r f a m i l y

t h e a t r i c a l s and s k e t c h e s out g o t h i c t a l e s , most of which w i l l

remain undeveloped u n t i l she r e t u r n s from A f r i c a t o become Is a k

D i n e s e n . I n s h o r t she i s a f r u s t r a t e d female a r t i s t who goes t o

A f r i c a i n s e a r c h o f the autonomy and power o f the male a r t i s t .

I n E a s t A f r i c a her s t r o n g p e r s o n a l i t y comes i n t o i t s own. The

p h y s i c a l , p s y c h o l o g i c a l and f i n a n c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s of Karen

B l i x e n ' s l i f e i n Kenya c a l l upon q u a l i t i e s which a r e t r a d i ­

t i o n a l l y male: p h y s i c a l courage, s k i l l i n h u n t i n g , e g o t i s m ,

s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y , and a u t h o r i t y . As e v i d e n c e d i n her l e t t e r s

the r e a l Karen B l i x e n was o f t e n i l l , l o n e l y , and p r o s t r a t e w i t h

s o rrow, when, f o r i n s t a n c e , her l o v e r Denys F i n c h - H a t t o n would

l e a v e a f t e r one of h i s b r i e f , i n t e r m i t t e n t v i s i t s . But her l i f e

i n A f r i c a gave her t h e freedom t o imagine h e r s e l f as she would

have l i k e d t o be, and t o l i v e up t o t h a t image t o a l a r g e

e x t e n t . Thus t h e A f r i c a n c o l o n y o f f e r e d her something of what

the " w i l d e r n e s s " has t r a d i t i o n a l l y o f f e r e d young men: an

o p p o r t u n i t y t o r e c r e a t e her l i f e on her own terms, and an

o p p o r t u n i t y f o r h e r o i s m . She w r i t e s i n the b e g i n n i n g of Out of

A f r i c a : "The views were immensely wide. E v e r y t h i n g t h a t you saw

made f o r g r e a t n e s s and freedom, and u n e q u a l l e d n o b i l i t y " ( 1 5 ) .

I n e v i t a b l y she m y t h o l o g i z e s her e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e t y p i c a l

c o l o n i a l way i n which the f o c u s i s on the European hero or

h e r o i n e f o r which A f r i c a i s a backdrop, and t h e A f r i c a n s a r e , at

b e s t , a s u p p o r t i n g c a s t , a t w o r s t , p a r t of the f a u n a . Her book

b e g i n s , " I had a farm i n A f r i c a . . .." Kenya i s d e s c r i b e d i n

the p a s t t e n s e as i f now t h a t t h e w r i t e r has l e f t i t i t no

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l o n g e r e x i s t s . Karen B l i x e n i s Adam, and A f r i c a was her Eden.

I n a t y p i c a l example, she d e s c r i b e s a herd of b u f f a l o approach­

i n g as i f t h e y "were b e i n g c r e a t e d b e f o r e my eyes and sent out

as they were f i n i s h e d " ( 2 3 ) .

However, the s e n s i t i v i t y w i t h which she p o r t r a y s the l a n d

and p e o p l e m o d i f i e s — a l t h o u g h i t cannot r e d e e m — h e r r a c i s m and

e t h n o c e n t r i s m . T h i s sympathy comes from her i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h

t h e " p r i m i t i v e " w o r l d . What a t t r a c t s her t o t h e A f r i c a n s i s not

her shared sense of o p p r e s s i o n — a s i n S c h r e i n e r — b u t her shared

sense of t h e i r n o b i l i t y and of t h e f r a g i l i t y of t h e i r p o s i t i o n .

As a memoir, Out of A f r i c a i s s u f f u s e d w i t h the t r a g e d y t h a t

t h r e a t e n s from t h e b e g i n n i n g and f i n a l l y o v e r t a k e s the h e r o i n e

when her farm f a i l s . The Baroness" doom i s seen as a k i n t o t h a t

of t h e K i k u y u and M a s a i , whose s u p e r i o r but a n a c h r o n i s t i c way of

l i f e i s doomed by modern s o c i e t y . She, l i k e them, does not f i t

her t i m e , and s u b s i s t s , as she p o r t r a y s the A f r i c a n s s u b s i s t i n g ,

on the bread of her i d e a l s , her emotions, and above a l l , her

i m a g i n a t i v e c o n c e p t i o n of h e r s e l f . So Dinesen's sense of the

p r e c a r i o u s n e s s of her u n d e r t a k i n g i n A f r i c a , and of the persona

t h a t she has c r e a t e d t h e r e , e n a b l e s her t o impart a sense of the

p r e c a r i o u s n e s s of the n a t i v e c u l t u r e s , the w i l d c o u n t r y and

a n i m a l s of E a s t A f r i c a d u r i n g t h e p r o c e s s of c o l o n i z a t i o n i n the

n i n e t e e n - t e n s and t w e n t i e s .

Dinesen i d e n t i f i e s w i t h the a n i m a l s she h u n t s , e v i n c i n g a

p a r t i c u l a r a f f i n i t y f o r the l i o n s . S h o o t i n g l i o n s w i t h Denys

F i n c h - H a t t o n was, she w r i t e s , "a d e c l a r a t i o n o f l o v e " ( 1 0 2 ) .

She a t t r i b u t e s t o a n i m a l s , most o b v i o u s l y t h e fawn L u l u , but

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even t o herds of e l e p h a n t s and e l a n d s , human m o t i v a t i o n s and

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

S i m i l a r l y she f o c u s e s upon human m i s f i t s and e c c e n t r i c s .

Kamante, f o r i n s t a n c e (who s h a r e s a c h a p t e r w i t h L u l u ) , has "the

a r r o g a n t g r e a t n e s s of s o u l o f the r e a l dwarf, who, when he f i n d s

h i m s e l f a t a d i f f e r e n c e w i t h t h e whole w o r l d , h o l d s the w o r l d t o

be c r o o k e d " (34). Kamante's a r r o g a n c e h e l p s t o i n s p i r e the

p r o u d l y e c c e n t r i c c h a r a c t e r t h a t Karen B l i x e n was t o assume as

I s a k D i n e s e n . She p l a c e s h e r s e l f and her f r i e n d s , such as

B e r k e l e y C o l e and Denys—who, f o l l o w i n g the B a r o n e s s '

p r e d i l e c t i o n f o r the " n a t u r a l a r i s t o c r a c y , " are u p p e r - c l a s s

E n g l i s h m e n — i n t h e c a t e g o r y of t h o s e who are a t a d i f f e r e n c e

w i t h the modern w o r l d and h o l d the w o r l d t o be c r o o k e d . Her

e x p a t r i a t e Englishmen are European v e r s i o n s of the Masai w a r r i o r

and the K i k u y u c h i e f . She d i s m i s s e s the l a t e r , more m i d d l e -

c l a s s immigrants as c r a s s money-grubbers who t u r n e d A f r i c a i n t o

"a b u s i n e s s p r o p o s i t i o n . " The a u t h o r and her s e l e c t group of

Europeans share a s p e c i a l a f f i n i t y w i t h the A f r i c a n s , which she

e x p l a i n s by the n a t u r a l sympathy between "the t r u e a r i s t o c r a c y

and the t r u e p r o l e t a r i a t of the w o r l d " (146). With t h i s paradox

she a t t e m p t s t o e r a s e the c o n t r a d i c t i o n s of her own p o s i t i o n as

d e f e n d e r of t h e A f r i c a n s w h i l e b e i n g , i n the words of her

b i o g r a p h e r "one of the g r e a t e s t f e u d a l o v e r l o r d s o f the c o u n t r y "

(Thurman 128).

Dinesen i s aware of the i r o n y of her p o s i t i o n ; she p o i n t s

out t h a t the s o - c a l l e d s q u a t t e r s , t h a t i s t h e o r i g i n a l

i n h a b i t a n t s of "her" l a n d , p r o b a b l y r e g a r d her as "a s o r t of

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s u p e r i o r s q u a t t e r on t h e i r e s t a t e s " ( 1 9 ) . She o f t e n conveys her

a d m i r a t i o n f o r the A f r i c a n s , as i n t h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t a t e ­

ment: "The d i s c o v e r y of t h e dark r a c e s was t o me a m a g n i f i c e n t

enlargement o f a l l my w o r l d " ( 2 4 ) . I n a s e n s i t i v e summary of

the h i s t o r y o f E a s t A f r i c a , she s u g g e s t s t h a t the K i k u y u s o l d as

s l a v e s d i s p l a y e d an i r o n i c r e s i g n a t i o n toward t h e i r t o r m e n t o r s .

She imagines them s a y i n g , "You a r e here on our a c c o u n t . You

e x i s t f o r our sa k e , not we f o r your sake" ( 1 1 1 ) . S i m i l a r l y she

d e s c r i b e s how t h e Somali women make of t h e i r a b s o l u t e dependence

on men a c e l e b r a t i o n of Amazon-like s t r e n g t h :

These d a u g h t e r s of a f i g h t i n g r a c e went through t h e i r c e r e m o n i a l of primness as through a g r e a t g r a c e f u l war-dance; b u t t e r would not melt i n t h e i r mouth, n e i t h e r would they r e s t u n t i l t h ey had drunk t h e h e a r t ' s b l o o d of t h e i r a d v e r s a r y ; t h e y f i g u r e d l i k e t h r e e f e r o c i o u s young she-wolves i n seemly sheep's c l o t h i n g ( 1 3 9 ) .

In t h i s passage she i m a g i n a t i v e l y s t r i p s away the assumed

s u b m i s s i v e n e s s of t h e Somali women t o r e v e a l t h e i r i n n e r

dynamism. She must s u r e l y have f e l t t h a t beneath her own "p r i m "

e x t e r i o r was a s i m i l a r e l e m e n t a l s t r e n g t h , a s t r e n g t h , i n f a c t ,

t h a t A f r i c a r e v e a l e d t o her by o f f e r i n g a unique c h a l l e n g e t o

her courage and s e l f - r e l i a n c e .

I t i s a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t i n endin g her c h a p t e r s , Dinesen

u s u a l l y g i v e s t h e A f r i c a n s t h e l a s t word, a d e v i c e which o f t e n

r e f l e c t s i r o n i c a l l y on the e x p l o i t s o f her w h i t e c h a r a c t e r s .

For example, a t t h e end of t h e " V i s i t o r s t o t h e Farm" s e c t i o n ,

an o l d man asks i f Denys and Karen can see God i n t h e i r

a i r p l a n e . To t h e i r n o n - c o m m i t t a l answer he r e p l i e s , " I do not

know a t a l l why you two go on f l y i n g " ( 1 7 2 ) .

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Thus Dinesen i s a l i v e t o the i r o n i e s of w h i t e power i n

A f r i c a t o a degree which was s t r i k i n g l y u n usual among the

s e t t l e r s i n B r i t i s h E a s t A f r i c a i n the n i n e t e e n - t w e n t i e s , who

f o u g h t s t r e n u o u s l y t o e n t r e n c h w h i t e supremacy. On one hand,

the Baroness B l i x e n , w i t h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c n o b l e s s e , t a k e s her

p r i v i l e g e d p o s i t i o n f o r g r a n t e d , which s a f e l y a l l o w s her t o

sympathize w i t h her dependents. On the o t h e r hand, she knows

t h a t she h e r s e l f i s hostage t o the p r e c a r i o u s f i n a n c i n g of her

farm, her r a i s o n d ' e t r e i n A f r i c a . She was f r u s t r a t e d by her

dependence on her f a m i l y ' s money, on the p r i c e of c o f f e e , and

f i n a l l y , on the good w i l l of the banks. I t i s p a r t l y through

her own s i t u a t i o n t h a t she empathizes w i t h the A f r i c a n s who have

l o s t t h e i r own l a n d and must s e r v e i n f e r i o r m a s t e r s . As her own

p l i g h t worsens, Karen B l i x e n becomes p a i n f u l l y aware t h a t her

"male" r o l e of f a r m e r , l a w - g i v e r and hunter i s s e l f - c r e a t e d , has

been w i l l e d i n t o b e i n g by her own power of a r t i f i c e . I n c r e a s ­

i n g l y her power of a r t i f i c e t a k e s over and t r a n s f o r m s the b i t t e r

r e a l i t y ; i n t h i s p r o c e s s we w i t n e s s the emergence of the

s t o r y t e l l e r I sak D i n e s e n , who i s i n a sense born out of Karen

B l i x e n ' s d e b a c l e .

Dinesen's c r i t i c s respond t o d i f f e r e n t elements of her

remarkable s e l f - t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . Robert Langbaum's s e m i n a l

s t u d y , The Gayety of V i s i o n , e s t a b l i s h e s Out of A f r i c a as a

p a s t o r a l romance. P a t r i c i a Meyer Spacks i n The Female

I m a g i n a t i o n emphasizes t h a t Dinesen's a r c h e t y p e i s f e m a l e : the

i d e a l s e l f image t h a t she g e n e r a t e s i s one based on c o n n e c t i o n ,

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r e l a t i o n s h i p / and l o v e . Her w r i t e r ' s i m a g i n a t i o n " p r e s e r v e s t h e

female v o c a t i o n o f l o v i n g as p a r t of the a r t i s t ' s v o c a t i o n : t o

s e e , t o r e c o g n i z e / t o shape" ( 3 8 9 ) . Abdul R. JanMohamed i n

Manichean A e s t h e t i c s c o n c e n t r a t e s on Dinesen's e x p e r i e n c e as a

" s t r a n g e r , " who l i v i n g among the A f r i c a n s was d i v e s t e d of her

o r i g i n a l i d e n t i t y and f r e e d t o choose a new one:

. . . d i s i n t e g r a t i o n becomes the b a s i s f o r a r e c o n ­s t r u c t i o n of a more complex p e r s o n a l i t y and a more pr o f o u n d s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the n a t i v e s . . . . D i nesen's e x p e r i e n c e as a s t r a n g e r i s a g e n u i n e l y l i b e r a t i n g one t h a t p r o f o u n d l y augments the su p e r ­f i c i a l l i c e n s e p r o v i d e d by the p r i v i l e g e s of a c o l o n i a l s o c i e t y : the freedom not t o g i v e a damn f o r c o n v e n t i o n s p a l e s i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e freedom from a p r e f a b r i c a t e d s e l f ( 5 4 - 5 5 ) .

The c e n t r a l metaphor i n Out of A f r i c a i s the B i b l i c a l

C r e a t i o n . I s a k Dinesen l o v e s t h e A f r i c a n s , t h e mountains, the

r a i n , the l i o n s and e l e p h a n t s as i f they were her c h i l d r e n ,

a s p e c t s of h e r s e l f . The a u t h o r i s not o n l y Adam but God as

w e l l ; or perhaps Karen B l i x e n i s Adam and I s a k Dinesen i s God.

When she and Denys f l y over the p l a i n s i n h i s a i r p l a n e she f e e l s

toward the herds of a n i m a l s below "as God d i d when he had j u s t

c r e a t e d them, and b e f o r e he commissioned Adam t o g i v e them

names" ( 1 6 7 ) . When she w r i t e s an account of the l i f e of one of

" h e r " K i k u y u , i t i s as i f she has c r e a t e d him anew by

i m m o r t a l i z i n g him on paper. She d e s c r i b e s the man's wonder and

g r a t i t u d e :

Such a g l a n c e d i d Adam g i v e the L o r d when he formed him out of the d u s t , and b r e a t h e d i n t o h i s n o s t r i l s the b r e a t h of l i f e , and man became a l i v i n g s o u l . I had c r e a t e d him and shown him h i m s e l f : Jogona Kanyagga of l i f e e v e r l a s t i n g ( 9 2 ) .

Jogona Kanyagga, e v i d e n c e of t h e power of t h e w r i t t e n word,

becomes Is a k Dinesen's work of a r t .

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I n JanMohamed 1s p e r c e p t i v e a n a l y s i s , whereas Dinesen t r a n s ­

forms the c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f the A f r i c a n s by i n t r o d u c i n g them t o

the w r i t t e n word, she i s i n t u r n i n f l u e n c e d by the myt h i c

c o n s c i o u s n e s s , the metonymic c o n n e c t i o n s , the o r a l t r a d i t i o n s ,

of t h e i r p r e l i t e r a t e s o c i e t y . 2 A d o p t i n g the r o l e of the

dreamer, she admits i n t o her t a l e t h e freedom of t h e m a g i c a l and

m y t h i c a l . She w r i t e s :

The t h i n g which i n the waking w o r l d comes n e a r e s t t o a dream i s n i g h t i n a b i g town, where nobody knows one or the A f r i c a n n i g h t . There too i s i n f i n i t e freedom: i t i s t h e r e t h a t t h i n g s a r e g o i n g on, d e s t i n i e s a r e made round you, t h e r e i s a c t i v i t y on a l l s i d e s , and i t i s none of your c o n c e r n ( 7 1 ) .

As G o d - a r t i s t Dinesen i s dreaming the farm; a t one p o i n t she

w r i t e s , " I must c a l l i n f r e s h f o r c e s , or t h e farm w i l l run i n t o

a bad dream, a ni g h t m a r e " ( 1 0 5 ) . I n the end she l o s e s the farm

but keeps t h e dream of t h e farm: her s t o r y .

In Out o f A f r i c a t h e r e i s no s y p h i l i s , no m i s c a r r i a g e , no

b i t t e r d i v o r c e from B r o r B l i x e n , no r u p t u r e w i t h Denys, no

attempted s u i c i d e , none o f the d e s p a i r which J u d i t h Thurman

d e s c r i b e s as s u r r o u n d i n g her l a s t weeks i n A f r i c a ( 2 4 6 ) . There

i s v i o l e n c e and death but they a r e a e s t h e t i c a l l y t r a n s f o r m e d and

i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e s t o r y which t h e author d e p i c t s as u n f o l d i n g

b e f o r e her i n a connected s e r i e s of marvelous c h a r a c t e r s and

e n t e r t a i n i n g a d v e n t u r e s . I t i s a c o l l e c t i o n of b e a u t i f u l

v i g n e t t e s , remembered i n a s e e m i n g l y c a s u a l , random way, but

which a re a c t u a l l y c a r e f u l l y c r a f t e d , f i x e d i n t i m e , made

p e r f e c t . The v o i c e o f the n a r r a t o r - h e r o i n e i s c o n t r o l l e d and

de t a c h e d . Karen B l i x e n ' s c o f f e e f a r m i n g was but t h e raw

m a t e r i a l f o r I s a k Dinesen's r e f i n e d , c r y s t a l l i z e d s t o r y . I n

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t h i s v e r s i o n , even Denys' death i n a p l a n e c r a s h f i g u r e s as a

t r a g i c event which f i t t i n g l y marks the h e r o i n e ' s d e p a r t u r e from

A f r i c a . I t i s w i t h a m a j e s t i c sense of an e n d i n g t h a t t h e l o s s

of her farm i s marked by the deaths of her f r i e n d s C h i e f

K i n a n j u i , Denys, and e a r l i e r , B e r k e l e y C o l e , about whom she

w r i t e s : "An epoch i n the c o l o n y came t o an end w i t h him" ( 1 5 8 ) .

These remarks t o g e t h e r w i t h o t h e r v i g n e t t e s , such as the s t o r y

of Emmanuelson (141-46), the t r a g e d i a n who walks i n t o l i o n

c o u n t r y , i l l u s t r a t e her sense of t r a g e d y s u f f u s i n g and e n n o b l i n g

her l i f e ; Karen B l i x e n , l i k e Emmanuelson, i s an a c t o r , who

c o n s c i o u s l y assumes her t r a g i c r o l e , and so r i s e s above her

mundane problems. Dinesen uses the metaphor o f t h e t h e a t r e f o r

a r t i s t i c metamorphosis, as i n t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n of a n i g h t - t i m e

Ngoma or dance: "The f i r e made the d a n c i n g p l a c e a s t a g e o f the

f i r s t o r d e r , i t c o l l e c t e d a l l t h e c o l o u r s and movements w i t h i n

i t i n t o a u n i t y " ( 1 2 0 ) . I t i s t h i s a r t i f i c i a l u n i t y of the

st a g e t h a t she borrows t o o r d e r and u n i f y her own s t o r y .

To pursue the emphasis on a r t i f i c e , t h e r e a re s e v e r a l

a l l u s i o n s t o The Thousand and One N i g h t s , which suggest t h a t

Dinesen sees h e r s e l f as Scheherezade, who d e f e a t s e v i l and

escapes death by means of her charm, w i t , a u d a c i o u s n e s s and

a r t . She d e s c r i b e s how i n the e v e n i n g s she would s i t

" c r o s s - l e g g e d l i k e Scheherezade h e r s e l f " ( 1 5 9 ) . Scheherezade

r e p r e s e n t s here the woman a r t i s t who tr i u m p h s over her c i r c u m ­

s t a n c e s by sheer i m a g i n a t i v e power, who saves her l i f e by means

of her s t o r i e s , as Dinesen by means of her s t o r i e s s a l v a g e d her

l i f e from the wreck of her A f r i c a n farm.

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Dinesen compares f l y i n g over A f r i c a i n Denys' p l a n e t o

P r i n c e A l i b e i n g c a r r i e d by t h e D j i n n i n one of Scheherezade's

t a l e s ; by v i e w i n g the w o r l d from a g r e a t h e i g h t , she a c h i e v e s

" t h e f u l l freedom of t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s , " c o n c l u d i n g , c h a r a c t e r ­

i s t i c a l l y , t h a t "now I u n d e r s t a n d e v e r y t h i n g " ( 1 6 7 - 8 ) . That

s u b l i m e p e r s p e c t i v e she a t t e m p t s t o impart i n Out of A f r i c a .

Shadows on the G r a s s

The view i n Shadows on t h e G r a s s i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y the same;

o n l y some s e v e n t y pages l o n g , i t i s a k i n d of A f t e r w o r d t o Out

of A f r i c a i n which she t e l l s something of what happened t o "her"

A f r i c a n s a f t e r she l e f t Kenya. The dream has dimmed, the r i c h

c o l o r s grown f a i n t ; the d r a m a t i s personae have receded i n t o the

d i s t a n c e and t h e farm i n t o the realm of f i c t i o n . Yet i n t h i s

s e q u e l t o the Out o f A f r i c a myth c e r t a i n p e o p l e and i n c i d e n t s ,

c e r t a i n a s p e c t s of her l o s t l i f e i n A f r i c a s t a n d out i n the

a u t h o r ' s memory, which g i v e s her second memoir d i f f e r e n t

emphases. F i r s t , she f o c u s e s on her Somali head s e r v a n t , Farah

Aden, who had r e c e n t l y d i e d , as a c e n t r a l f i g u r e . She b e g i n s

the book w i t h a v i s i o n of F a r a h , c a l l i n g him " t h e doorkeeper t o

a l l o f [my memories]," "a p a r t of m y s e l f , " her amputated r i g h t

hand. She w r i t e s t h a t "Farah and I had a l l t h e d i s s i m i l a r i t i e s

r e q u i r e d t o make up a u n i t y " (281-83). Farah emerges as her

d o u b l e , her Waldo; he, not Denys or B r o r or B e r k e l e y , i s her

male h a l f and a l t e r ego. Farah comes t o r e p r e s e n t f o r her

A f r i c a i t s e l f , which she sees as h a v i n g complemented and

completed her u n f i n i s h e d p e r s o n a l i t y . As we s h a l l see,

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L e s s i n g ' s and Gordimer's female main c h a r a c t e r s a l s o have t h e i r

Waldos, t h e i r p l a t o n i c f r i e n d s who i n s p i r e and complete them,

and who r e p r e s e n t f o r "them some a s p e c t of A f r i c a .

The o t h e r element of the o r i g i n a l memoir which s t a n d s out

i n Shadows on the G r a s s i s her New Y e a r ' s l i o n hunt w i t h Denys,

which e p i s o d e she l o v i n g l y r e t e l l s i n such m y s t i c a l language as

t h i s : "a l i o n hunt . . . i s an a f f a i r of p e r f e c t harmony, of

deep, b u r n i n g mutual d e s i r e and r e v e r e n c e between two t r u t h f u l ,

undaunted c r e a t u r e s , on the same wave l e n g t h " ( 3 0 5 ) . The

g l o r i f i c a t i o n of h u n t i n g l i o n s who o f t e n pose no immediate

t h r e a t t o h e r s e l f or the p e o p l e on her l a n d s i s a defense of her

p r e d a t o r y r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h A f r i c a . The mystique of the hunt,

brought by the u p p e r - c l a s s s e t t l e r s from Europe, took on g r a n d —

even g r o t e s q u e — p r o p o r t i o n s i n a c o u n t r y t h a t abounded i n l a r g e

game. H u n t i n g f o r t r o p h i e s , as Karen B l i x e n and her f r i e n d s d i d ,

was a q u i n t e s s e n t i a l l y c o l o n i a l a c t i v i t y , embodying the

s e t t l e r s ' c a r e l e s s a g g r e s s i o n toward t h e l a n d . J.M. Coetzee

d e s c r i b e s the gun as the i n s t r u m e n t of the c o l o n i s t ' s p e r v e r s e

l o v e of A f r i c a ; t h i s i s borne out i n Isak Dinesen's l o v i n g

d e s c r i p t i o n s o f l i o n k i l l i n g .

However, w i t h t y p i c a l s e l f - c r i t i c i s m , D inesen f o l l o w s her

paean t o l i o n - h u n t i n g w i t h a d i s c l a i m e r t h a t shows how s e n s i t i v e she i s t o the m o r a l , and f o r h e r , a e s t h e t i c , i s s u e s r a i s e d by

b i g game h u n t i n g . She w r i t e s

When I f i r s t came out t o A f r i c a I c o u l d not l i v e w i t h o u t g e t t i n g a f i n e specimen of each s i n g l e k i n d of A f r i c a n game. I n my l a s t t e n y e a r s out t h e r e I d i d not f i r e a shot except i n o r d e r t o get meat f o r my N a t i v e s . I t became t o me an u n r e a s o n a b l e t h i n g ,

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indeed i n i t s e l f u g l y or v u l g a r , f o r the sake of a few h o u r s ' e x c i t e m e n t t o put out a l i f e t h a t belonged i n the g r e a t l a n d s c a p e . . . . But l i o n - h u n t i n g was i r r e s i s t i b l e t o me; I shot my l a s t l i o n a s h o r t time b e f o r e I l e f t A f r i c a ( 3 0 6 ) .

The c o n t r a d i c t i o n between, ". . . 1 d i d not f i r e a shot

except . . ." and, " . . . l i o n h u n t i n g was i r r e s i s t i b l e t o me"

i s a t e l l i n g example of what seem t o be c o n t r a d i c t o r y views of

h e r s e l f as e c o l o g i s t and h u n t e r . T h i s passage can be e x p l a i n e d

perhaps by D inesen's v i s i o n of h e r s e l f as a g o d l i k e f i g u r e ,

p o s s e s s e d of t h e complementary powers of c r e a t i o n and

d e s t r u c t i o n , o f n u r t u r i n g and k i l l i n g . C e r t a i n l y D i nesen's

s t a t e m e n t s about h u n t i n g e x e m p l i f y her complex a t t i t u d e toward

her r o l e i n E a s t A f r i c a . W h i l e she defends the c o l o n i a l

i d e o l o g y , t h e c i v i l i z i n g m i s s i o n , she remains s e n s i t i v e t o t h e

problems i t c r e a t e s f o r the A f r i c a n s and t h e i r l a n d . T h i s

p e r v a s i v e a m b i v a l e n c e , r a t h e r than weakening th e f a b r i c of her

work, s t r e n g t h e n s i t , g i v e s i t depth and humanity.

Din e s e n and S c h r e i n e r

Out of A f r i c a was p a r t l y i n s p i r e d by The S t o r y of an

A f r i c a n Farm, as Dinesen w r i t e s i n her i n t r o d u c t i o n t o

S c h r e i n e r ' s n o v e l , but A f r i c a n Farm does not seem t o have

d i r e c t l y i n f l u e n c e d her i d e a s or s t y l e . She read the n o v e l i n

Denmark b e f o r e g o i n g t o A f r i c a , u s i n g i t as a s p r i n g b o a r d f o r

her r o m a n t i c i m a g i n a t i o n : "The w o r l d of the book had l i v e d on

. . . i n the mind of the r e a d e r , and had grown and p r o p a g a t e d

t h e r e " ( I n t r o d u c t i o n t o The S t o r y of an A f r i c a n Farm v ) . The

a s p e c t s of the n o v e l t h a t remained i m p o r t a n t t o her are the

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d e s c r i p t i o n of l a n d s c a p e and the atmosphere, not t h e d e p r e s s i n g

p l o t and d e s p a i r i n g c h a r a c t e r s , whom, i n f a c t , she sees i n the

r o s i e r l i g h t of her own h e r o i c v i s i o n . D inesen's v e r s i o n of

A f r i c a n Farm, t h e n , r e f l e c t s her own more p o s i t i v e view of a

w h i t e woman's p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n c o l o n i a l A f r i c a .

In s p i t e of Dinesen's homage t o S c h r e i n e r , the r e l a t i o n

between them i s one of c o n t r a s t . Karen B l i x e n found i n A f r i c a

the freedom t o r e c r e a t e h e r s e l f as Isak D i n e s e n . I n her memoir

she a c h i e v e s a m a g n i f i c e n t d i s t a n c e from her own t r o u b l e s and

t r a g e d i e s and the t r o u b l e s and t r a g e d i e s of " her" A f r i c a n s .

Isak Dinesen t r i u m p h s over the raw m a t e r i a l o f Karen B l i x e n ' s

s t o r y t o c r e a t e a b e a u t i f u l and r o m a n t i c t a l e of Eden i n which

the a u t h o r - p r o t a g o n i s t i s both Adam and God. However, i t was

the p l i g h t of Karen B l i x e n , the woman s e a r c h i n g f o r a r o l e and a

v o i c e , t h a t s e n s i t i z e d her t o t h e p l i g h t of t h e c o l o n i z e d

A f r i c a n s , and l e d i n t u r n t o her s t r o n g i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h

them. -This g i v e s t h e memoir t h e i n s i g h t and depth t o make i t

more than a European's r o m a n t i c f a n t a s y of A f r i c a . Thus she can

d e s c r i b e h e r s e l f as "a s q u a t t e r " on t h e farm t h a t she

acknowledges r e a l l y b e l o n g s t o her A f r i c a n l a b o r e r s , a l t h o u g h

she cannot s u r r e n d e r her hard-won power and p r e s t i g e as l a d y of

the manor. To escape t h i s dilemma she adopts a m a t e r n a l i s t i c

s t a n c e : " t h e s e p e o p l e a r e my c h i l d r e n and I must h e l p and

p r o t e c t them." T h i s c o l o n i a l m a t e r n a l i s m i s s i m i l a r t o the

p o s i t i o n t h a t Rebekah t a k e s i n From Man t o Man; and i t i s a

r e s u l t of much the same p r o c e s s : Karen B l i x e n l i k e Rebekah i s

awakened and s e n s i t i z e d t o t h e problems of t h e A f r i c a n s by her

r e l a t e d problems as a woman.

83

But t h e a e s t h e t i c p r o c e s s e s of t h e two w r i t e r s are q u i t e

d i f f e r e n t . Karen B l i x e n ' s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h o t h e r s t r a n s l a t e s

i n t o the i d e a t h a t t h e farm, i t s p e o p l e and a n i m a l s are a w o r l d

of the a u t h o r ' s c r e a t i o n , her dream, her f i c t i o n . Through a r t

she p e r f e c t s her i m p e r f e c t r e a l i t y , c ompletes her i n c o m p l e t e

s t o r y . Her medium i s the s h o r t s t o r y ; even Out of A f r i c a i s

s t r u c t u r e d as a s e r i e s of o v e r l a p p i n g i n c i d e n t s and a n e c d o t e s ,

some ( i n "From an Immigrant's Notebook") no l o n g e r than a

p a r a g r a p h . T h i s form g i v e s her c o n t r o l , a l l o w s her t o keep her

d i s t a n c e , t o m a i n t a i n her g r a v e l y humorous, p h i l o s o p h i c a l ,

s l i g h t l y b l a s e t o n e : " T h i s i s j u s t a good t a l e , one t h a t might

have e n t e r t a i n e d Denys by the f i r e , " she seems t o be s a y i n g .

O l i v e S c h r e i n e r , i n c o n t r a s t , w r i t e s i n the P r e f a c e t o

A f r i c a n Farm t h a t she r e f u s e s t o p e r f e c t her i m p e r f e c t r e a l i t y ,

t o complete her i n c o m p l e t e s t o r y . She s e t s out t o w r i t e as a

r e a l i s t who " s a d l y . . . must squeeze the c o l o u r from h i s

b r ushes and d i p i t i n t o the g r e y pigments around him. He must

p a i n t what l i e s b e f o r e him" ( 2 8 ) . Of c o u r s e O l i v e S c h r e i n e r

does not e x a c t l y p a i n t what l i e s b e f o r e h e r . L i k e Isak Dinesen

she a l s o d i s t o r t s the r e a l i t y of A f r i c a t o t e l l her own s t o r y .

The major d i f f e r e n c e between the two w r i t e r s , though, i s t h a t

O l i v e S c h r e i n e r ' s n o v e l s e x p l o r e and i l l u m i n a t e t h e i r

c o n t r a d i c t i o n s .

I n her P r e f a c e S c h r e i n e r d e s c r i b e s two methods by which

"human l i f e may be p a i n t e d " : "the s t a g e method" r e o r d e r s r e a l i t y

i n t o a s a t i s f y i n g , but f a l s e , a r t i s t i c whole. The o t h e r method,

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" t h e method of the l i f e we a l l l e a d , " r e f l e c t s the d i s o r d e r , the

i l l o g i c , the i n c o m p l e t e n e s s of r e a l l i f e . S c h r e i n e r c o n c l u d e s

t h a t , "The canons of c r i t i c i s m t h a t bear upon the one cut

c r u e l l y upon the o t h e r " ( 2 7 ) . C l e a r l y , her method i s the

l a t t e r , the " r e a l i s t i c " method, w h i l e Dinesen's might be

c h a r a c t e r i z e d as the f o r m e r , "the st a g e method." And they

s h o u l d be e v a l u a t e d , as S c h r e i n e r s a y s , by d i f f e r e n t c r i t e r i a .

Out of A f r i c a and Shadows on the Grass r e f l e c t Dinesen's

e d u c a t i o n and r e a d i n g ; the l i t e r a r y i n f l u e n c e s upon her w r i t i n g

were d i f f e r e n t from the books which i n f l u e n c e d S c h r e i n e r .

Dinesen was educated a t home by governesses and female

r e l a t i o n s . She read w i d e l y , and her r e a l e d u c a t i o n , as she saw

i t , came as d i d S c h r e i n e r ' s from books. A s t r o n g e a r l y

i n f l u e n c e was the l i t e r a r y c r i t i c Georg Brandes, whose e s s a y s

i n t r o d u c e d her t o Shakespeare, S h e l l e y , H e i n e — a n d N i e t z s c h e ,

f o r whose thought she f e l t an a f f i n i t y t h roughout her l i f e . 3

Her h e r o i c i d e a l of the pers o n who a c t i v e l y embraces h i s f a t e —

seen i n Out of A f r i c a i n c h a r a c t e r s from Kamante t o Denys t o

Karen B l i x e n — w a s c l e a r l y i n f l u e n c e d by N i e t z s c h e (from whom she

took the e p i g r a p h t o Out of A f r i c a 4 ) . She a l s o r e t a i n e d her

l o v e of Shakespeare, i d e n t i f y i n g w i t h h i s t r a g i c heroes as w e l l

as w i t h the s t r o n g women i n the comedies who assume male r o l e s

and male powers. A f r i c a f o r her was l i k e one of Shakespeare's

enchanted woods i n which a woman can become a man, or more

p r e c i s e l y , have the b e s t of both s e x e s .

S c h r e i n e r ' s t h e a t r i c a l metaphor i s an apt d e s c r i p t i o n of

Dinesen's a r t i s t i c s t a n c e . Her vantage p o i n t i s the g o d - l i k e

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view from Denys' a i r p l a n e , from which the w o r l d i s a t i m e l e s s ,

c o m p r e h e n s i b l e , and v e r y l o v e l y p a t t e r n . Her v o i c e i s t h a t of

t h e a n c i e n t , a l l - k n o w i n g t a l e s p i n n e r . O l i v e S c h r e i n e r ' s

vantage p o i n t , on the o t h e r hand, i s t h a t of the ant who l i v e s

out i t s l i f e on a mound of sandy Karoo s o i l , under the oppres­

s i v e g l a r e of the South A f r i c a n sun. The n a r r a t o r ' s v o i c e i s

d i f f i c u l t t o s e p a r a t e from t h a t of the a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l

c h a r a c t e r s , who a r e d e p i c t e d as v a l i a n t l y but f r u i t l e s s l y l i v i n g

out t h e i r i n s i g n i f i c a n t and o b s c u r e l i v e s i n an i n s i g n i f i c a n t

and obscure c o r n e r o f God's c r e a t i o n . They are the b u t t of a

c r u e l j o k e t h a t o n l y God might f i n d h u m o r o u s — i f he e x i s t s ,

which they i n c r e a s i n g l y doubt.

Thus the p a i n , a l i e n a t i o n and t r a g e d y t h a t are

unacknowledged i n Dinesen's s t o r y are the c e n t r a l f a c t s o f

S c h r e i n e r ' s s t o r y . Whereas Dinesen's a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l h e r o i n e

t r i e s t o i g n o r e the d i m l y s k e t c h e d h i s t o r i c a l and economic

f o r c e s t h a t do i n f a c t d e f e a t h e r , S c h r e i n e r ' s c h a r a c t e r s , who

view l i f e from the bottom, are a c u t e l y c o n s c i o u s t h a t they are

v i c t i m s of h i s t o r y , economics and p o l i t i c s . They a n a l y z e , and

a g o n i z e o v e r , the i d e o l o g i c a l c u r r e n t s t h a t even on t h e i r remote

farm s w i r l over them.

Dinesen d e p i c t s the b r u t a l i t y of the c o l o n i a l system, but

d i s s o c i a t e s h e r s e l f from i t ; her farm i s f r e e from the e v i l s of

c o l o n i a l i s m and she h e r s e l f has f l o u r i s h e d under the system

which g i v e s her n e a r - a b s o l u t e power over thousands of a c r e s of

l a n d and hundreds of l i v e s . I n c o n t r a s t , S c h r e i n e r ' s w h i t e

p r o t a g o n i s t s a r e shown t o be s t u n t e d and u l t i m a t e l y d e s t r o y e d by

the b r u t a l i t y of the c o l o n i a l system of which they are p a r t .

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Her h e r o i n e and hero are a l i e n a t e d from b i r t h ; t hey are

p a r e n t l e s s and l a n d l e s s i n a s o c i e t y based upon the i n h e r i t a n c e

of t h e f a m i l y farm; they a r e i n t r o s p e c t i v e and i n t e l l e c t u a l ,

i m p r a c t i c a l and u n c o n v e n t i o n a l i n a narrow-minded, a n t i -

i n t e l l e c t u a l , m a t e r i a l i s t i c and d o g m a t i c a l l y r e l i g i o u s s o c i e t y .

I n s h o r t , whereas Dinesen's A f r i c a n farm i s P a r a d i s e ,

S c h r e i n e r ' s A f r i c a n farm i s P u r g a t o r y , and her heaven i s an

i d e a l which i s u n a t t a i n a b l e even i n d r e a m s — o r f i c t i o n . Conse­

q u e n t l y , w h i l e Dinesen i s c o n t e n t w i t h t h e view from heaven,

S c h r e i n e r ' s a n t - l i k e c h a r a c t e r s s t r u g g l e t o escape t h e i r sandy

p a t c h of s o i l .

T h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s p a r t l y based on the d i f f e r e n t

c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h a t p r e v a i l e d i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e s o c i e t i e s .

S c h r e i n e r ' s Cape Colony of the e i g h t e e n - s i x t i e s and s e v e n t i e s ,

w i t h a much l o n g e r h i s t o r y of w h i t e s e t t l e m e n t , was a more r i g i d

s o c i e t y , s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by the c o n s e r v a t i v e and r e l i g i o u s

r u r a l A f r i k a n e r s whom she p o r t r a y s w i t h the mixed f e e l i n g s of an

o u t s i d e r . D i nesen's E a s t A f r i c a , not even a c o l o n y when she

f i r s t a r r i v e d , was a c o u n t r y of o u t s i d e r s , a l o o s e c o l l e c t i o n of

i n d i v i d u a l s i n s e a r c h o f t h e i r unique v i s i o n s i n what they l i k e d

t o t h i n k of as a v i r g i n l a n d , newly c r e a t e d f o r them. I t was

f o r the w h i t e s e t t l e r a f r e e r , more open, and more p e a c e f u l l a n d

than the South A f r i c a n c o l o n i e s w i t h t h e i r h i s t o r y of c o n f l i c t

between Dutch and B r i t i s h , b l a c k s and w h i t e s . Even the l a n d ­

scape and c l i m a t e of the E a s t A f r i c a n h i g h l a n d s i s l e s s

o p p r e s s i v e than the d e s e r t Karoo which S c h r e i n e r chose as her

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e South A f r i c a n l a n d s c a p e .

87

Another cause of Dinesen's and S c h r e i n e r ' s d i f f e r e n t

a e s t h e t i c r e s p o n s e s t o A f r i c a l i e s of cou r s e i n t h e i r

b i o g r a p h i e s . Dinesen embraced A f r i c a as a f o r e i g n e r and as an

a d u l t , s e e i n g i t as a p l a c e and s i t u a t i o n which o f f e r e d her a

h e r o i c r o l e , a new, autonomous i d e n t i t y . I n l a t e m i d d l e age she

l o o k e d back upon her y e a r s t h e r e as a l o s t , g o l d e n t i m e .

S c h r e i n e r , h a v i n g been born i n i n a u s p i c i o u s c i r c u m s t a n c e s i n

South A f r i c a , q u i t e n a t u r a l l y longed t o escape t o E n g l a n d , which

might o f f e r her more o p p o r t u n i t i e s as a w r i t e r , an i n t e l l e c t u a l

and an a c t i v i s t . I t i s not s u r p r i s i n g t h a t her view of A f r i c a i s

more r e a l i s t i c , more c r i t i c a l than D i n e s e n ' s , and her i d e a s more

r a d i c a l . T h i s c r i t i c a l , r a d i c a l bent was o n l y r e i n f o r c e d i n an

England w h i c h , w h i l e i t was s t i m u l a t i n g , d i d not f u l f i l l a

f a n t a s y , the way A f r i c a d i d f o r Di n e s e n . What S c h r e i n e r saw and

d i d and read i n England r e i n f o r c e d her f e m i n i s m , developed her

i n c i p i e n t s o c i a l i s m , and i n c r e a s e d her knowledge of p s y c h o l o g y .

She d i r e c t e d her new awareness of s e l f and s o c i e t y back i n t o her

n a t i v e South A f r i c a n m i l i e u , as we have seen i n From Man t o Man,

i n which she advocated fundamental changes i n the o r g a n i z a t i o n

of s o c i e t y as a s o l u t i o n t o the problems of women, and by

e x t e n s i o n of o t h e r o p p r e s s e d groups.

In c o n c l u s i o n , S c h r e i n e r i n The S t o r y of an A f r i c a n Farm

a d d r e s s e s the dilemma of the female a r t i s t much more e x p l i c i t l y

than does Dinesen i n Out of A f r i c a . The female p r i d e t h a t i s

apparent i n Dinesen's d e s c r i p t i o n of Somali women—and i n her

own i n d e p e n d e n c e — i s i n S c h r e i n e r a p a s s i o n a t e c o n c e r n ,

e x p l i c a t e d and defended a t l e n g t h . I n c o n t r a s t t o Dinesen's

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comparison of h e r s e l f t o Scheherezade, t h e c u n n i n g and

v i c t o r i o u s female s t o r y t e l l e r , we have i n S c h r e i n e r a s h a t t e r i n g

p o r t r a i t of t h e a r t i s t as v i c t i m . Whereas Dinesen's a r t i s t -

h e r o i n e i d e n t i f i e s w i t h and t a k e s i n s p i r a t i o n from an A f r i c a o f

n o b l e n a t i v e s and grand v i s t a s , S c h r e i n e r ' s c h a r a c t e r s i d e n t i f y

w i t h an A f r i c a of dumb, s u f f e r i n g , and e x t i n c t c r e a t u r e s . The

two w r i t e r s p r o v i d e a l t e r n a t i v e v i s i o n s — a n d a l t e r n a t i v e

f i c t i o n s — f o r D o r i s L e s s i n g and Nadine Gordimer.

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Isak Dinesen - Notes

l l s a k D inesen i d e n t i f i e d s t r o n g l y w i t h her a r i s t o c r a t i c f a t h e r W i l h e l m , whose p a s t o r a l L e t t e r s from the Hunt (1889) was a model f o r her own work. Even h i s c o n t r a c t i o n o f s y p h i l i s , which was the presumed cause of h i s s u i c i d e when she was t e n , seemed t o p r e f i g u r e her own d e s t i n y . (See Thurman 27-29).

2 A l t h o u g h h i s p o i n t i s w e l l t a k e n t h a t D i n e s e n , u n l i k e most o t h e r w h i t e s e t t l e r s , absorbed much from A f r i c a n c u l t u r e , JanMohamed o v e r l o o k s the a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l component t h a t f a c i l i t a t e d t h i s exchange. Dinesen had a p r e d i s p o s i t i o n f o r the mythic over the e m p i r i c a l , the m e d i e v a l over the modern, e t c . Her r o m a n t i c i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h her a r i s t o c r a t i c f a t h e r as opposed t o her more b o u r g e o i s mother i s e v i d e n c e of t h i s .

3 F o r a d e s c r i p t i o n of Dinesen's e a r l y r e a d i n g see Thurman 50-51.

^ " E q u i t a r e , arcem t e n d e r e , v e r i t a t e m d i c e r e " : To r i d e , t o shoot w i t h a bow, t o t e l l t h e t r u t h ("On t h e Thousand and One G o a l s , " Thus Spake Z a r a t h u s t r a 171). Dinesen's c h o i c e of t h i s e p i g r a p h emphasizes the theme of h u n t i n g , and by e x t e n s i o n t h e p r e d a t o r y and d o m i n a t i n g a t t i t u d e of the s e t t l e r i n Out of A f r i c a .

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Chapter Four

L e s s i n g and Gordimer: Two C o n t e m p o r a r i e s and a P r o b l e m a t i c I n h e r i t a n c e

D o r i s L e s s i n g has t r a v e l e d such a s u r p r i s i n g number of

a e s t h e t i c and i d e o l o g i c a l r o u t e s t h a t i t i s easy t o f o r g e t how

c l o s e her e a r l y work was t o Nadine G o r d i m e r ' s . I n a 1986 s t a t e ­

ment, L e s s i n g acknowledges t h a t , "our c a r e e r s have been v e r y

t w i n e d t o g e t h e r . . . . I t h i n k we have a g r e a t d e a l i n common

i n f a c t " ( i n t e r v i e w w i t h Eve B e r t e l s e n , J o u r n a l of Commonwealth

L i t e r a t u r e 135).

Gordimer, i n a 1979 i n t e r v i e w , speaks a d m i r i n g l y of

L e s s i n g ' s a b i l i t y t o change and grow, w h i l e n o t i n g the e a r l y

l i n k s between t h e i r work. I n Gordimer's words:

D o r i s L e s s i n g — a l w a y s s e a r c h i n g , always on her way t o something new and d i f f e r e n t , what a range of i n t e l l i g e n c e , her eve r y book a blow a t a r t i s t i c complacency. The Golden Notebook I c o n s i d e r her m a s t e r p i e c e .

The f i r s t p a r t of C h i l d r e n o f V i o l e n c e , Martha Quest, has some v e r y s t r i k i n g s i m i l a r i t i e s w i t h my f i r s t n o v e l , The L y i n g Days, which I wrote a t the same t i m e . Not because we i n f l u e n c e d each o t h e r — I don't suppose we'd heard of each o t h e r ; the s i m i l a r i t i e s had to a r i s e — t h e r e was such a s i m i l a r i t y of development and e x p e r i e n c e between us where and when we grew up. In another sense those e a r l y n o v e l s complement each o t h e r , I l i k e t he i d e a o f a l i t e r a r y patchwork, n o v e l by n o v e l , poem by poem, by d i f f e r e n t w r i t e r s , mapping out an e r a , 'a c o n t i n e n t ' more and more t h o r o u g h l y . No one w r i t e r can do i t . ( I n t e r v i e w w i t h Johannes R i i s , K u n a p i p i 2 5 ) .

For Gordimer, t h e n , the two w r i t e r s a r e p r o d u c t s o f s i m i l a r

S o u t h e r n A f r i c a n s o c i e t i e s i n the same e r a , who, t o g e t h e r w i t h

o t h e r S o u t h e r n A f r i c a n w r i t e r s o f the time (she mentions Dan

Jacobson) "[map] out an e r a , 'a c o n t i n e n t . ' " When she speaks of

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"a s i m i l a r i t y of development and e x p e r i e n c e " she i m p l i e s the

c l o s e r c o n n e c t i o n of shared sex and r a c e , and shared p o l i t i c a l

s y mpathies f o r the l e f t and f o r b l a c k n a t i o n a l i s m which emerge

i n t h e i r e a r l y a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l B ildungsromane , as w e l l as i n

t h e i r s t o r i e s of the same p e r i o d .

Gordimer does not acknowledge t h a t the c l o s e s t bond between

them was t h e i r s h a r ed m a t e r i a l and a t t i t u d e s as women w r i t e r s .

The c a t e g o r y of women w r i t e r s and the r e l a t e d i s s u e of femin i s m

a r e a r e a s which both L e s s i n g and Gordimer have downplayed or

t r i e d t o a v o i d . L e s s i n g made her most cogent statement on t h e

matter i n her 1971 P r e f a c e t o The Golden Notebook, i n which she

v o i c e s her d i s a p p o i n t m e n t t h a t the book was reduced t o "a u s e f u l

weapon i n the sex war" ( 8 ) , t h a t i t s l a r g e r i s s u e s , i t s o v e r a l l

p l a n were obscured i n the minds o f her r e a d e r s and c r i t i c s by

t h a t a s p e c t which seemed t o be "a trumpet f o r Women's

L i b e r a t i o n " ( 9 ) . As she w r i t e s i n the P r e f a c e , the n o v e l "was

w r i t t e n as i f t h e a t t i t u d e s t h a t have been c r e a t e d by the

Women's L i b e r a t i o n movements a l r e a d y e x i s t e d " ( 9 ) ; t h a t i s t o

say, i t t a k e s f e m i n i s m f o r g r a n t e d . A g a i n , "Of c o u r s e t h i s

attempt ["to g i v e the i d e o l o g i c a l ' f e e l ' of our m i d - c e n t u r y " ]

assumed t h a t t h a t f i l t e r which i s a woman's way o f l o o k i n g

a t l i f e has the same v a l i d i t y as the f i l t e r which i s a man's

way . . ." ( 1 1 ) .

In e f f e c t L e s s i n g does not want t o be c h a r a c t e r i z e d as a

women's w r i t e r ( t h a t i s t o say, l i m i t e d , r e d u c e d ) ; she would

l i k e the f a c t t h a t she w r i t e s as a woman t o be t a k e n f o r

g r a n t e d , as i t i s f o r male w r i t e r s . Nadine Gordimer a l s o

92

r e f u s e s t o be l i m i t e d t o "women's i s s u e s . " I n the 1975 I n t r o ­

d u c t i o n t o her S e l e c t e d S t o r i e s , she w r i t e s t h a t she never f e l t

d i s a d v a n t a g e d or i s o l a t e d because of her s e x , and t h a t i n any

c a s e , " a l l w r i t e r s a r e androgynous b e i n g s " ( 1 1 ) . I n s e v e r a l

i n t e r v i e w s , she has gone so f a r as t o d i s s o c i a t e h e r s e l f from

the f e m i n i s t movement, which she c r i t i c i z e s as i r r e l e v a n t b o th

t o her p e r s o n a l l y and t o the p r e s e n t South A f r i c a n s i t u a t i o n .

I n 1974 she s t a t e d t h a t , " I n South A f r i c a Women's L i b e r a t i o n

s c a r c e l y e x i s t s . . . the b a s i c i s s u e f o r p e o p l e concerned w i t h

l i b e r a t i o n i s the l i b e r a t i o n o f b l a c k p e o p l e , male and female"

( l e t t e r , q uoted i n B e t t y M. F r a d k i n , " O l i v e S c h r e i n e r — A n

O p p o s i t e P i c t u r e " 7 5 ) . I n 1981 she s a i d , " I f e e l t h a t i f the

r e a l b a t t l e f o r human r i g h t s i s won the kingdom of . . .

f e m i n i n e l i b e r a t i o n f o l l o w s " ( I n t e r v i e w w i t h Susan Ga r d n e r ,

K u n a p i p i 105). Gordimer pursues her c r i t i q u e of t h e women's

l i b e r a t i o n movement i n B u r g e r ' s Daughter, i n which the w h i t e

m i d d l e - c l a s s f e m i n i s t s a r e shown t o be out of t o u c h w i t h t h e

problems f a c i n g non-white women; t h e i r g o a l of s i s t e r h o o d i s

d e p i c t e d as a b s u r d i n a s o c i e t y i n which a l l b l a c k p e o p l e l a c k

b a s i c human r i g h t s .

D e s p i t e her c r i t i c i s m of b o u r g e o i s f e m i n i s m i n South

A f r i c a , Gordimer i s not a n t i - f e m i n i s t ; the female c h a r a c t e r s i n

her f i c t i o n l e a r n t o d e f i n e themselves i n d e p e n d e n t l y of men,

p a r t l y t h r o u g h t h e i r commitment t o the b l a c k l i b e r a t i o n

s t r u g g l e . Thus they f i n d t h e m s e l v e s , they become l i b e r a t e d i n

the f e m i n i s t sense, through commitment t o what Gordimer sees as

the l a r g e r cause.

93

Dorothy D r i v e r , i n her s t u d y of "The P o l i t i c i s a t i o n of

Women" i n Gordimer's f i c t i o n , argues f o r an i m p l i c i t l y f e m i n i s t

r e a d i n g . S p e c i f i c a l l y , she s a y s , "Gordimer's c o n t i n u i n g c o n c e r n

w i t h the p o s i t i o n o f w h i t e women i n a c o l o n i a l , r a c i s t s o c i e t y

i s . . . e v i d e n t both i n the ways t h a t she e x p l o r e s women's

s e x u a l i t y and . . . e x p l o i t s s e x u a l development i n her

p r e s e n t a t i o n of p o l i t i c a l development" ( 3 5 ) . Gordimer s e t s up

"a r e v e r b e r a t i n g m e t a p h o r i c a l r e l a t i o n between s e x i s m and

r a c i s m " ( 3 7 ) . She e x p l o r e s the r e l a t i o n betwen sex and power,

and by e x t e n s i o n , the p u b l i c and p r i v a t e spheres i n South

A f r i c a . As D r i v e r shows, however, the e q u a t i o n of se x i s m and

r a c i s m i s f a r from s i m p l e ; Gordimer r e f u s e s t o l e t the w h i t e

woman o f f t h e hook as a f e l l o w v i c t i m ; she i n s i s t s not on

women's p a s s i v i t y , but on t h e i r s h a red r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , t h e i r

c o l l u s i o n i n r a c i s m .

I t i s over t h i s i s s u e t h a t Gordimer c h a l l e n g e s O l i v e

S c h r e i n e r , t h a t her r e l a t i o n s h i p t o the mother n o v e l , A f r i c a n

Farm, becomes p r o b l e m a t i c . She c r i t i c i z e s S c h r e i n e r f o r her

b l i n d n e s s , her l a c k of p r o p o r t i o n i n p u t t i n g women's e q u a l i t y

b e f o r e r a c i a l e q u a l i t y . She g r u d g i n g l y a l l o w s her her fe m i n i s m

i n t h e c o n t e x t of "her r e s t l e s s , s e l f - s e a r c h i n g y e a r s i n England

and Europe," but goes on t o say t h a t : . . . i n t h e South A f r i c a n c o n t e x t where she always f e l t h e r s e l f t o b e l o n g , and t o which she always r e t u r n e d , t h e f e m i n i s t i s s u e w i t h e r s i n comparison w i t h the i s s u e of the v o t e r l e s s , p o w e r l e s s s t a t e of South A f r i c a n b l a c k s , i r r e s p e c t i v e of t h e i r sex. I t was as b i z a r r e then . . . as i t i s now . . . t o r e g a r d a campaign f o r women's r i g h t s — b l a c k or w h i t e — a s r e l e v a n t t o the South A f r i c a n s i t u a t i o n . O l i v e S c h r e i n e r seems not t o have seen t h a t her wronged sense of s e l f , as a woman, her l i b e r a t i o n , was a

94

s econdary matter w i t h i n her h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n . I r o n i c a l l y , here at l e a s t she s h a red the most p e r s i s t e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of her f e l l o w c o l o n i a l s : t h a t of d i s c o u n t i n g the p r i o r i t i e s o f the r e a l e n t i t i e s of the l i f e around h e r , w h i l e b e l i e v i n g she was p e r f o r m i n g an a c t o f p r o t e s t a g a i n s t c o l o n i a l r a c i s t t h i n k i n g ("Review of O l i v e S c h r e i n e r : A B i o g r a p h y by Ruth F i r s t and Ann S c o t t " 17-18).

E s s e n t i a l l y Gordimer sees S c h r e i n e r ' s f e m i n i s m as n e u r o t i c , as

b o th ego- and e t h n o - c e n t r i c . The vehemence of her language ( f o r

i n s t a n c e the use of the word " b i z a r r e " t o d e s c r i b e S c h r e i n e r ' s

p o s i t i o n ) s i g n a l s her i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h the e a r l i e r w r i t e r .

She i m p a t i e n t l y and u n f a i r l y s c o l d s her f o r not r i s i n g above her

problems as a woman, f o r not p r o v i d i n g a b e t t e r model.

These comments were w r i t t e n i n 1980, a f t e r she had,

presumably, r e t h o u g h t her a t t i t u d e s toward S c h r e i n e r as a r e s u l t

of the F i r s t and S c o t t b i o g r a p h y . Her u r g e n t , e m o t i o n a l , and

s p e c i f i c c r i t i c i s m of S c h r e i n e r i s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t from the

r a t h e r vague a p p r e c i a t i o n she wrote i n 1961: "The S t o r y of an

A f r i c a n Farm i s . . . the s o r t of n o v e l we can hope i s t o come

. . . i t t a k e s us away t o n o t h i n g more l i m i t e d than the mystery

of l i f e i t s e l f " ("The N o v e l and the N a t i o n i n South A f r i c a , "

4 9 ) . Whereas i n 1961 she had been c o n t e n t t o o v e r l o o k the

l e t t e r of S c h r e i n e r ' s work i n f a v o r of i t s s p i r i t , i n 1980 she

judges i t more h a r s h l y . Her r e e v a l u a t i o n i s p a r t l y the r e s u l t

of her p o l i t i c a l r a d i c a l i z a t i o n d u r i n g t h a t time span, but i t i s

a l s o e v i d e n c e of the need t o r e d e f i n e her r e l a t i o n t o the

m o t h e r - w r i t e r as she matures and changes.

L e s s i n g too has r e c e n t l y m o d i f i e d her view of the mother-

w r i t e r by d i s c o u n t i n g the f e m i n i s m i n S c h r e i n e r ' s n o v e l . In

1980 she s a i d t h a t ,

95

. . . the l e a s t i m p o r t a n t p a r t , I t h i n k , i s t h e fem i n i s m which i s , as i t were, the i n t e l l e c t u a l m o t i v a t i o n . . . . She was b i t t e r l y c o n s c i o u s of the p o s i t i o n o f women i n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . . . . Wh i l e she was f i g h t i n g t h i s p a r t i c u l a r b a t t l e a l l her l i f e , and f i g h t i n g i t w e l l , she was a l s o p r e o c c u p i e d a l l t he time w i t h o t h e r t h i n g s ( I n t e r v i e w w i t h M i c h a e l Thorpe, K u n a p i p i 9 9 ) .

L e s s i n g ' s and Gordimer*s r e c e n t comments seem t o echo

Dinesen's c l a i m t h a t w h i l e , " L y n d a l l i s t h e champion of woman's

r i g h t s . . . no freedom and no e q u a l i t y of women c o u l d have

h e l p e d her a g a i n s t t h e f a t a l f o r c e s w i t h i n her own n a t u r e which

b r i n g her . . . t o her e a r l y , l o n e l y grave ( I n t r o d u c t i o n t o

The S t o r y of an A f r i c a n Farm i x ) . However, w h i l e Dinesen reads

S c h r e i n e r ' s f e m i n i s m as a d i s t r a c t i o n from the t r a g i c t r u t h s a t

the h e a r t of the n o v e l , L e s s i n g ' s and Gordimer's o b j e c t i o n s a re

p o l i t i c a l .

G ordimer's c r i t i c i s m and L e s s i n g ' s downplaying o f

S c h r e i n e r ' s f e m i n i s m a r e i n p a r t a d e n i a l of t h e "women's"

component t h a t r e a d e r s and c r i t i c s have been perhaps too eager

t o f i n d i n t h e work of a l l f o u r w r i t e r s , most o b v i o u s l y i n

L e s s i n g , but a l s o i n Gordimer and D i n e s e n . The p o i n t i s t h a t i n

th e s e w r i t e r s gender and s e x u a l i t y i n t e r a c t w i t h n a t u r a l and

s o c i a l s e t t i n g , w i t h p o l i t i c s , h i s t o r y and myth. The h e r o i n e

draws the s t r e n g t h t o t h i n k i n d e p e n d e n t l y , t o r e b e l a g a i n s t

c o n v e n t i o n , from her v e r y p o s i t i o n o f weakness, of i r r e l e v a n c e

i n t he power s t r u c t u r e . She i s i n a sense o u t s i d e the b r u t a l

p a c t between w h i t e male r u l e r and b l a c k male r u l e d .

L y n d a l l c l a i m s i n n o c e n c e as a v i c t i m of t h i s arrangement;

Karen B l i x e n c l a i m s i n n o c e n c e as one who can make her own, more

b e n e f i c e n t p a c t . L e s s i n g ' s and Gordimer's h e r o i n e s a r e f o r c e d

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by h i s t o r y t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t t h e y cannot p l e a d e i t h e r L y n d a l l ' s

or Karen B l i x e n ' s v e r s i o n s of i n n o c e n c e . They are enmeshed i n a

g u i l t y a t t r a c t i o n / r e p u l s i o n t o A f r i c a ; as w h i t e females they are

v i c t i m s of the c o l o n i a l system who are not p e r m i t t e d t o

i d e n t i f y , t o s u f f e r w i t h t h e i r f e l l o w v i c t i m s : the b l a c k s .

They a r e s a f e g u a r d e d from the p h y s i c a l s u f f e r i n g o f S c h r e i n e r ' s

c h a r a c t e r s , from hunger and the whip, but a t t h e same time c ut

o f f from the l i f e around them. T h e i r p r i v i l e g e d s t a t u s

a l i e n a t e s them, f o r c i n g them t o acknowledge a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y

which the s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l c o n d i t i o n s of a p a r t h e i d

i n c r e a s i n g l y p r e v e n t them from a c t i n g upon.

L e s s i n g and Gordimer have employed q u i t e d i f f e r e n t p e r s o n a l

and a r t i s t i c s t r a t e g i e s t o d e a l w i t h t h i s dilemma. One has o n l y

t o compare B u r g e r ' s Daughter w i t h L e s s i n g ' s The Good T e r r o r i s t

(1985) t o see t h a t i n r e c e n t y e a r s t h e two w r i t e r s have i n

e f f e c t t r a d e d i d e o l o g i c a l p l a c e s . Whereas Gordimer's p o r t r a y a l

of communist r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s i n South A f r i c a i s s y m p a t h e t i c ,

even i d e a l i z e d , L e s s i n g ' s p o r t r a y a l of the f a r l e f t i n B r i t a i n

i s a v i t r i o l i c a t t a c k on m i s g u i d e d " t e r r o r i s t s . "

N o n e t h e l e s s , as Gordimer has n o t e d , t h e i r e a r l y work has

" s t r i k i n g s i m i l a r i t i e s " — w h i c h came not from temperament or

i n t e l l e c t u a l a f f i n i t y , but r a t h e r from shared c i r c u m s t a n c e s as

c o l o n i a l women w r i t e r s i n Southern A f r i c a at m i d - c e n t u r y . Both

L e s s i n g and Gordimer r e c o g n i z e d t h a t the s i t u a t i o n — a n d t h e i r

s i t u a t i o n — w e r e i n t o l e r a b l e , r e c o r d e d t h i s f a c t i n t h e i r

f i c t i o n , and, l i k e S c h r e i n e r and D i n e s e n , e n v i s i o n e d new s o c i a l

o r d e r s .

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Chapter F i v e

D o r i s L e s s i n g : Eve i n E x i l e

L e s s i n g and Her P r e c u r s o r s

D o r i s L e s s i n g ' s s i t u a t i o n as the daughter of E n g l i s h

c o l o n i s t s i n the s t i l l w i l d , s p a r s e l y s e t t l e d S o u t h e r n Rhodesia

of the n i n e t e e n - t h i r t i e s c l o s e l y resembles both t h a t of Karen

B l i x e n i n E a s t A f r i c a two decades e a r l i e r and t h a t of O l i v e

S c h r e i n e r i n South A f r i c a i n the l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . ! The

m a g n i f i c e n t h i g h v e l d s e t t i n g of L e s s i n g ' s A f r i c a n f i c t i o n has

more i n common w i t h B l i x e n ' s s o a r i n g h i l l c o u n t r y than w i t h

S c h r e i n e r ' s o p p r e s s i v e d e s e r t p l a i n . I n L e s s i n g as i n B l i x e n we

f i n d t h a t c o l l e c t i o n o f e c c e n t r i c c h a r a c t e r s who come t o f u l l

bloom i n t h e freedom and i s o l a t i o n of t h e c o l o n y . On the o t h e r

hand, L e s s i n g f o l l o w s S c h r e i n e r ' s emphasis on s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s

and c o l o n i a l p o l i t i c s .

I n the f o l l o w i n g passage i n which she d e s c r i b e s the

c o l o n i a l s o c i e t y of her y o u t h , L e s s i n g f i r s t seems t o echo

D i n e s e n , then quotes S c h r e i n e r , and f i n a l l y speaks f o r h e r s e l f

as "a c h i l d of t h e i n v a d e r s " :

. . . e v e r y one had l e f t a s a f e and narrow r u t of a l i f e out of a sense of adve n t u r e and a need t o widen h o r i z o n s , f o r a c o u n t r y t o them w i l d and o f t e n dangerous. I t cannot be s a i d t h a t t h e y were a c u l t i v a t e d or wide-minded p e o p l e , f o r most f i t t e d O l i v e S c h r e i n e r ' s d e f i n i t i o n of t h e South A f r i c a n s of her time as 'a n a t i o n o f p e t t y b o u r g e o i s P h i l i s t i n e s . ' . . . The c h i l d r e n and g r a n d c h i l d r e n of t h e s e i n v a d e r s condemn t h e i r p a r e n t s , wish they c o u l d r e p u d i a t e t h e i r own h i s t o r y . But t h a t i s not so easy (Forward t o Lawrence Vambe, An I l l - f a t e d P e o p l e : Zimbabwe B e f o r e and A f t e r Rhodes x v i - x v i i ) .

98

T h i s l a s t s tatement about th e r e l u c t a n t i n h e r i t o r s of c o l o n i a l

h i s t o r y and c o l o n i a l power (note t h a t the w h i t e s d i d not

r e l i n q u i s h power i n Zimbabwe u n t i l 1980) i s a u s e f u l summary of

the major theme i n D o r i s L e s s i n g ' s A f r i c a n f i c t i o n . F u r t h e r ­

more, as we s h a l l see, t h e theme of c o l o n i a l i n h e r i t a n c e and

p e r s o n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y c o n t i n u e s t o p l a y a p a r t i n her r e c e n t

"space f i c t i o n . "

L i k e S c h r e i n e r and D i n e s e n , L e s s i n g i s c o g n i z a n t of the

p r e - s e t t l e r h i s t o r y of t h e c o r n e r o f A f r i c a which her w h i t e

c h a r a c t e r s i n h a b i t . As i n the o t h e r two w r i t e r s , her w h i t e

c h a r a c t e r s come t o see t h e m s e l v e s through t h e p r i s m of b l a c k

h i s t o r y : as s q u a t t e r s on l a n d t h a t i s not t h e i r s by r i g h t — a s

i n v a d e r s . I n Martha Quest, as i n A f r i c a n Farm and Out of

A f r i c a , the w h i t e h e r o i n e l i v e s on a v a s t t r a c t of l a n d worked

by r e c e n t l y d i s p l a c e d b l a c k t r i b e s p e o p l e . I n her i s o l a t e d

c o l o n y , the young h e r o i n e has the freedom t o d e v e l o p i d e a s and

r o l e s which f a l l o u t s i d e t h e c o n v e n t i o n s of her mother s o c i e t y ,

be i t l o w e r - m i d d l e - c l a s s England or u p p e r - m i d d l e - c l a s s Denmark.

She i s awed and i n s p i r e d by t h e a l i e n l a n d s c a p e , h i s t o r y and

c u l t u r e which she d i s c o v e r s around h e r ; however she i s c o n f u s e d

and g u i l t - r i d d e n about her p o s i t i o n as an i n v a d e r i n A f r i c a .

L e s s i n g , who from her m i d - t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y vantage p o i n t i s

p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y and p o l i t i c a l l y more s o p h i s t i c a t e d than her two

f o r e b e a r s , d e v e l o p s th e s e c o n f l i c t s more f u l l y .

Martha Quest, p o r t r a y e d w i t h c r i t i c a l i r o n y , i s h e r s e l f

p a i n f u l l y s e l f - c o n s c i o u s and s e l f - c r i t i c a l , i r o n i c a l l y aware of

t h e gap between her i d e a l v i s i o n of h e r s e l f and t h e muddled

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r e a l i t y . The i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e t h a t Martha s h a r e s w i t h the

h e r o i n e s of Dinesen and S c h r e i n e r i s her s p e c i a l p o s i t i o n as

w h i t e but fe m a l e : on the one hand, autonomous and p o w e r f u l , on

the o t h e r , s u b j e c t t o men and male i n s t i t u t i o n s . Karen B l i x e n

was the w h i t e f e u d a l m i s t r e s s of a b l a c k v i l l a g e . The Baroness'

autonomy, n e v e r t h e l e s s , was undermined by f i n a n c i a l p r e s s u r e

from her f a m i l y i n Denmark, her c o n t r a c t i n g s y p h i l i s from her

husband, and her e m o t i o n a l dependence on the s p o r a d i c

appearances of her l o v e r . I n s h o r t , she was undermined by her

sex. F o r t u n a t e l y , however, the c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f her own

p r e c a r i o u s n e s s gave her e m p a t h e t i c , i f " m a t r o n i z i n g , " i n s i g h t

i n t o t he d i s p o s s e s s e d K i k u y u and Masai who would o t h e r w i s e form

a mere backdrop t o t h e l a r g e r - t h a n - l i f e h e r o i n e .

O l i v e S c h r e i n e r ' s a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l h e r o i n e s a l s o c r e a t e

t h e m s e l v e s , but i n o p p r e s s i v e r a t h e r than s p l e n d i d i s o l a t i o n .

They a r e v i c t i m s of h a r s h p a r e n t a l f i g u r e s and of the more r i g i d

and r e p r e s s i v e , l o n g e r - e s t a b l i s h e d South A f r i c a n s o c i e t y .

C o n s e q u e n t l y , u n l i k e Karen B l i x e n , L y n d a l l l o o k s l o n g i n g l y t o

Europe as the home of i n t e l l e c t u a l freedom. Her f e l t o p p r e s s i o n

— a s young, f e m a l e , i n t e l l e c t u a l , and through Waldo, a r t i s t i c —

f i r s t d r i v e s her t o become a f i e r c e f e m i n i s t and then by

consequence a f i e r c e opponent of the e x i s t i n g s o c i a l o r d e r .

Rebekah b e g i n s t o i d e n t i f y as a woman w i t h her b l a c k maid; she

a c c e p t s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r her husband's c h i l d and te a c h e s her

sons and adopted daughter t o q u e s t i o n w h i t e supremacy.

L y n d a l l ' s p e r s o n a l r e b e l l i o n e v o l v e s i n t o Rebekah's s t r o n g l y

argued o p p o s i t i o n t o c o l o n i a l i d e o l o g y . Whereas Dinesen s i m p l y

100

d i s r e g a r d e d any elements of w h i t e Kenyan s o c i e t y t h a t might have

cramped her e c c e n t r i c , a r i s t o c r a t i c s t y l e ( f o r i n s t a n c e the

p o s t - W o r l d War I b u s i n e s s - o r i e n t e d m i d d l e - c l a s s s e t t l e r s ) ,

S c h r e i n e r s t r u g g l e d i n her l i f e and a r t t o i n f l u e n c e the f u t u r e

of her n a t i v e South A f r i c a .

D o r i s L e s s i n g ' s h e r o i n e , l i k e Karen B l i x e n , i magines

h e r s e l f as Adam i n Eden, b u t , l i k e L y n d a l l and Rebekah, she a l s o

f e e l s o p p r e s s e d by her f a m i l y and by the i n t e l l e c t u a l l i m i t a ­

t i o n s o f c o l o n i a l l i f e . L i k e S c h r e i n e r ' s h e r o i n e s she t u r n s her

e x p e r i e n c e i n t o a c r i t i q u e of r a c i s m and i m p e r i a l i s m . For

example, when Martha imagines a c i t y on the v e l d i n which w h i t e s

and b l a c k s l i v e i n e q u a l i t y and harmony, she b a r s most of the

w h i t e s of her a c q u a i n t a n c e from her U t o p i a because o f t h e i r

r a c i s m and narrowmindedness. M a r t h a , l i k e S c h r e i n e r ' s a u t o ­

b i o g r a p h i c a l c h a r a c t e r s , i d e a l i z e s England and l o n g s t o l e a v e

S outhern A f r i c a . Of c o u r s e , when f i n a l l y i n London, Martha

y e a r n s f o r her A f r i c a n farm. I f L y n d a l l had escaped t o England

as her au t h o r had, S c h r e i n e r would p r o b a b l y have p o r t r a y e d her

as s i m i l a r l y l o s t and d i v i d e d . I t i s e v i d e n t from the n i g h t ­

m a r i s h p o r t r a i t of Rebekah's s i s t e r Baby B e r t i e as a kept woman

i n London t h a t S c h r e i n e r had n e g a t i v e f e e l i n g s about England

("How the R a i n R a i n s i n London," Ch. XI of From Man t o Man).

Martha, l i k e Karen B l i x e n and Rebekah, comes t o i d e n t i f y w i t h

b l a c k A f r i c a n s and t o see h e r s e l f as t h e i r d e f e n d e r . Her

i d e a l i s m i s d e f l a t e d , however, both by the author and by the

s e l f - c o n s c i o u s , c y n i c a l h e r o i n e h e r s e l f (who i n t h i s r e s p e c t

resembles S c h r e i n e r ' s L y n d a l l ) .

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F o l l o w i n g q u i t e c o n s c i o u s l y i n O l i v e S c h r e i n e r ' s f o o t s t e p s ,

t h e n , D o r i s L e s s i n g p o r t r a y s her h e r o i n e from the p e r s p e c t i v e of

her own e r a , and of her p a r t i c u l a r e x p e r i e n c e of pre-war and

wartime A f r i c a and post-war E n g l a n d . Born D o r i s T a y l e r i n

P e r s i a i n 1919, she was t h e daughter of a l o w e r - m i d d l e c l a s s

E n g l i s h c o u p l e who, p h y s i c a l l y and s p i r i t u a l l y t r a u m a t i z e d by

World War I , sought a new l i f e i n t h e B r i t i s h c o l o n y of Southern

R h o d e s i a . 2 L e s s i n g has noted t h a t her r e l a t i o n s h i p t o her

p a r e n t s was s i m i l a r t o O l i v e S c h r e i n e r ' s i n t h a t both w r i t e r s

had i d e a l i s t i c , u n w o r l d l y f a t h e r s who were u n s u c c e s s f u l i n

p r a c t i c a l terms, and c a p a b l e , a m b i t i o u s but d o m i n e e r i n g mothers

("Afterword t o The S t o r y of an A f r i c a n Farm" 108). S i m i l a r too

was t h e i r f a m i l i e s ' f i n a n c i a l i n s e c u r i t y ; from t h e time t h a t

they a r r i v e d on t h e i r l a n d i n the d i s t r i c t of Banket i n 1925,

t h e T a y l e r s were always about t o make t h e i r f o r t u n e i n maize,

t o b a c c o or m i n e r a l s , and "get o f f the farm." I n f a c t , t h e i r

farm was h e a v i l y mortgaged and u n p r o f i t a b l e , and t h e T a y l e r s

remained f o r twenty y e a r s i n t h e p o l e and t h a t c h house t h a t had

been b u i l t t o l a s t a few s e a s o n s — a house t h a t L e s s i n g l o v e d and

has r e t u r n e d t o s e v e r a l t i m e s i n her w r i t i n g .

L i k e O l i v e S c h r e i n e r , D o r i s L e s s i n g was a s o l i t a r y ,

c r e a t i v e c h i l d who spent her time roaming the l a r g e farm and

w i l d v e l d . U n l i k e S c h r e i n e r , though, L e s s i n g was a b l e t o read

w i d e l y i n E n g l i s h and European l i t e r a t u r e , h i s t o r y , p o l i t i c s ,

economics and p s y c h o l o g y . A l t h o u g h she was sent t o s c h o o l , she

d e s c r i b e s i t as a n e g l i g i b l e p a r t of her e d u c a t i o n . She l e f t

s c h o o l a t f o u r t e e n , worked as an au p a i r i n S a l i s b u r y , then

102

moved back t o her p a r e n t s ' farm t o w r i t e . At e i g h t e e n she took

another j o b i n town, soon a f t e r made a h a s t y m a r r i a g e — l i k e

M a r t h a ' s — a n d had two c h i l d r e n . D u r i n g the war, she, l i k e

M a r tha, was a c t i v e i n a l o c a l communist group; she d i v o r c e d ,

r e m a r r i e d a German communist ( L e s s i n g ) , and had a son w i t h him.

At the age of t w e n t y - n i n e she l e f t R h o desia w i t h her youngest

son and her f i r s t n o v e l , The Gra s s i s S i n g i n g , which was

p u b l i s h e d i n 1950.

L e s s i n g ' s c h i l d h o o d and j o u r n e y from o b s c u r i t y i n Southern

A f r i c a t o fame as a w r i t e r i n London f o l l o w t h e p a t t e r n of

S c h r e i n e r ' s e a r l y c a r e e r : a r a t h e r w i l d c h i l d h o o d , an i d i o s y n ­

c r a t i c e d u c a t i o n , r e b e l l i o n a g a i n s t her mother, t h e achievement

of a measure of independence t h r o u g h t r a d i t i o n a l l y female

g o v e r n e s s - l i k e j o b s , becoming a w r i t e r i n i s o l a t i o n and then

b u r s t i n g upon the B r i t i s h l i t e r a r y scene. However, u n l i k e

S c h r e i n e r , L e s s i n g has been a b l e t o s u s t a i n her l i t e r a r y o u t p u t :

by the end of 1986 she had p u b l i s h e d over twenty f i v e books:

n o v e l s , s t o r i e s , n o n f i c t i o n , drama and p o e t r y . F u r t h e r m o r e , i n

c o n t r a s t t o S c h r e i n e r ' s unhappy, i n d e c i s i v e s t a t e of not

b e l o n g i n g i n e i t h e r England or South A f r i c a , L e s s i n g has l i v e d

i n London s i n c e 1949. Her d e c i s i o n t o l i v e i n E n g l a n d , a l t h o u g h

not c o m p l e t e l y v o l u n t a r y because she was banned from r e t u r n i n g

t o R h o d e s i a or South A f r i c a , seems t o have been l e s s t r a u m a t i c

and a m b i v a l e n t t h a n i t was f o r S c h r e i n e r . Her n i n e t e e n - f i f t i e s

f i c t i o n and n o n f i c t i o n ( t h a t i s , Going Home and I n P u r s u i t of

the E n g l i s h , 1960, about her e x p e r i e n c e of post-war London)

p a i n t a b i t t e r s w e e t e x i l e ' s p o r t r a i t , i n which the damp grey

p o v e r t y of London i s c o n t r a s t e d w i t h t h e memory of A f r i c a n sky

103

and sun. But g r a d u a l l y the v i v i d p o r t r a y a l of her A f r i c a n y outh

i n her e a r l y f i c t i o n i s r e p l a c e d by a n o s t a l g i c , i n c r e a s i n g l y

s y m b o l i c use of t h e A f r i c a n s e t t i n g and theme i n her f i c t i o n of

the s i x t i e s and s e v e n t i e s , which i s s e t m a i n l y i n Eng l a n d .

I d e o l o g i c a l l y the e a r l y L e s s i n g has much i n common w i t h

S c h r e i n e r . A l t h o u g h she has r e f u s e d t o be l a b e l e d as a f e m i n i s t

or women's w r i t e r , her n o v e l s , l i k e S c h r e i n e r ' s , have been read

e a g e r l y as f e m i n i s t documents. The c r i t i q u e of female

e d u c a t i o n , m a r r i a g e and motherhood i s as s t r o n g an element of

L e s s i n g ' s e a r l y w r i t i n g as i t i s of S c h r e i n e r ' s ; however L e s s i n g

shows more s y s t e m a t i c a l l y how t h e p o s i t i o n of women r e l a t e s t o

l a r g e r s o c i a l i s s u e s . S c h r e i n e r , i n kee p i n g w i t h her t i m e , was

a champion of j u s t i c e and e q u a l i t y w i t h i n a r a t h e r vague

s o c i a l i s t framework. L e s s i n g , who came of age i n the n i n e t e e n -

t h i r t i e s , was i n f l u e n c e d by the b e t t e r d e f i n e d and more

comprehensive i d e o l o g y of communism. By her own r e c k o n i n g , she

was a communist, " e m o t i o n a l l y i f not o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l y , " from

1942, and a P a r t y member from 1945 t o 1956 ("The S m a l l P e r s o n a l

V o i c e " 2 0 ) . A l o n g w i t h many o t h e r i n t e l l e c t u a l s she l e f t the

P a r t y because she was d i s i l l u s i o n e d by S t a l i n i s m , but she

remained l o y a l t o t h e communist i d e a l . I n her 1957 w r i t e r ' s

m a n i f e s t o , "The S m a l l P e r s o n a l V o i c e , " she d e c l a r e s her commit­

ment t o a M a r x i s t - h u m a n i s t w o r l d view and t o r e a l i s t i c f i c t i o n

which s p r i n g s from t h a t w o r l d view. She t a k e s as her model t h e

n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y European n o v e l i n w h i c h , she s a y s , the w r i t e r

speaks not o n l y i n h i s i n d i v i d u a l v o i c e , but a l s o as spokesman

and i n t e r p r e t e r of h i s s o c i e t y . She d e c l a r e s her own theme t o

104

be the r e l a t i o n between t h e i n d i v i d u a l and t h e c o l l e c t i v e ,

g i v i n g as her example the C h i l d r e n of V i o l e n c e s e r i e s .

The f i v e - v o l u m e seguence which b e g i n s w i t h Martha Quest i s

an a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l s e r i e s i n which the e v e n t s o f Martha's

l i f e — f r o m her c h i l d h o o d t o her m a r r i a g e s and p o l i t i c a l

a c t i v i t y — a r e p o r t r a y e d as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f her sex, n a t i o n ­

a l i t y and g e n e r a t i o n . L e s s i n g ' s problem i n t h e s e n o v e l s i s t o

s t r i k e a b a l a n c e between t h r e e l e v e l s o f c h a r a c t e r and p l o t : the

p e r s o n a l or i n d i v i d u a l , t h e t y p i c a l or r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , and the

a r c h e t y p a l or m y t h i c . L e s s i n g c r e a t e s i n Martha Quest a

humorous, c r i t i c a l h e r o i n e who i s bemused by t h e d i s c o v e r y t h a t

her f e e l i n g s and a c t i o n s a r e l a r g e l y a f u n c t i o n of her p l a c e and

t i m e , and f u r t h e r d etermined by t h e c o n s t r a i n t s of her female

sex and human n a t u r e . T h i s l a s t a r c h e t y p a l l e v e l c o r r e s p o n d s t o

L e s s i n g ' s i n t e r e s t i n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , and p a r t i c u l a r l y i n Jung,

which became i m p o r t a n t i n her f i c t i o n of the s i x t i e s , t o be

r e p l a c e d i n the s e v e n t i e s by an i n t e r e s t i n t h e m i d d l e - e a s t e r n

m y s t i c a l p h i l o s o p h y of S u f i s m , then by a more i d i o s y n c r a t i c

v i s i o n of human e v o l u t i o n i n the s e t t i n g of t h e r i s e and f a l l of

cosmic e m p i r e s .

The t i p p i n g of the b a l a n c e i n L e s s i n g ' s f i c t i o n from t h e

r e a l i s t i c — i n d i v i d u a l and s o c i a l — t o t h e a r c h e t y p a l l e v e l i s

i l l u m i n a t e d i f not e x p l a i n e d by the co r r e s p o n d e n c e s between her

A f r i c a n f i c t i o n and D i n e s e n ' s . L e s s i n g , l i k e D i n e s e n , imposes

her v i s i o n on an A f r i c a n s e t t i n g t h a t , as she has moved away

from i t i n time and space, has become more n o s t a l g i c and

m y t h i c a l . I n a 1971 r e v i e w o f Dinesen's A f r i c a n memoirs,

105

L e s s i n g c r i t i c i z e s her f e u d a l n o t i o n s , but admires her d i s d a i n

f o r f e m i n i n e c o n v e n t i o n s and her a b i l i t y t o c r e a t e a noble i f

e s s e n t i a l l y m y t h i c a l w o r l d ("A Deep D a r k n e s s " ) . S i g n i f i c a n t l y ,

she s h a r e s D inesen's n o s t a l g i a f o r a l o s t w o r l d i n which w h i t e

s e t t l e r s were few and t h e t r a d i t i o n a l n a t i v e way of l i f e had not

yet been d e s t r o y e d . E s s e n t i a l l y she i s e n t h r a l l e d by the

Dinesen myth, even though i t i s a r i s t o c r a t i c and r e a c t i o n a r y

a c c o r d i n g t o her p o l i t i c a l v i e w s . C e r t a i n l y t he a f f i n i t y t h a t

L e s s i n g f e e l s f o r Dinesen r e v e a l s an ambivalence i n t h e ex-

communist aut h o r and her a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l h e r o i n e Martha Quest

which has i n t e r e s t i n g r e p e r c u s s i o n s i n L e s s i n g ' s l a t e r f i c t i o n .

I n r e s p e c t t o L e s s i n g ' s n o n f i c t i o n , Going Home has r e l e v a n t

echoes of Out o f A f r i c a . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g passage L e s s i n g , l i k e

D i n e s e n , r e g a r d s A f r i c a as the m a t e r i a l of f a n t a s y : " I t i s s t i l l

u n c r e a t e d . . . . A m a g n i f i c e n t c o u n t r y , w i t h a l l i t s r i c h e s i n

the f u t u r e . Because i t i s so empty we can dream. We can dream

of c i t i e s and a c i v i l i z a t i o n more b e a u t i f u l than a n y t h i n g t h a t

has been seen i n the w o r l d b e f o r e " ( 1 3 - 1 4 ) . L e s s i n g ' s book,

l i k e D i n e s e n ' s , i s s t r u c t u r e d around a n e c d o t e s , d i a l o g u e s and

memories, but whereas Dinesen's s e e m i n g l y c a s u a l o r d e r i n g o f

ev e n t s i s a c t u a l l y an a r t f u l , p o e t i c r e c o n s t r u c t i o n , L e s s i n g ' s

o r g a n i z a t i o n seems t o f o l l o w t h e a c t u a l j o u r n a l o f her t r i p

home. I t i s an extended p i e c e of j o u r n a l i s m , f u l l of f a c t s and

p o l i t i c a l commentary as w e l l as the a u t h o r ' s i m p r e s s i o n s and

memories. L e s s i n g ' s Dinesenesque n o s t a l g i a i n Going Home i s

tempered by her t r e n c h a n t c r i t i q u e of " P a r t n e r s h i p " i n the

whit e - d o m i n a t e d F e d e r a t i o n .

106

A l t h o u g h i t i s not c l e a r i f L e s s i n g had read Out of A f r i c a

b e f o r e she wrote Martha Quest, she c e r t a i n l y d i d read The S t o r y

of an A f r i c a n Farm as a young g i r l , and i t d e e p l y i n f l u e n c e d her

e a r l y work. T h i s i s most apparent i n Martha Quest, which seems

to have been i n s p i r e d by and even t o be modeled on A f r i c a n Farm,

and c o n t a i n s s e v e r a l a l l u s i o n s t o S c h r e i n e r . In 1968, L e s s i n g

p u b l i s h e d " A f t e r w o r d t o The S t o r y of an A f r i c a n Farm," i n which

she d i s c u s s e s the n o v e l ' s i n f l u e n c e on her i n terms which echo

Dinesen's I n t r o d u c t i o n t o S c h r e i n e r ' s work:

I read the n o v e l when I was f o u r t e e n or s o , under­s t a n d i n g v e r y w e l l t h e i s o l a t i o n d e s c r i b e d i n i t . . . . T h i s was the f i r s t ' r e a l ' book I'd met w i t h t h a t had A f r i c a f o r a s e t t i n g . Here was the s u b s t a n c e of t r u t h , and not from England or R u s s i a or France or A m e r i c a , n e c e s s i t a t i n g a l l k i n d s of mental t r a n s l a ­t i o n s , s w i t c h e s , c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s , but r e f l e c t i n g what I knew and c o u l d see. And the book became p a r t of me, as the few r a r e books do (98-99).

She d i s m i s s e s the p l o t , acknowledging t h a t A f r i c a n Farm i s not a

c o n v e n t i o n a l l y good n o v e l . I n s t e a d she l a u d s i t as an o r i g i n a l

" m i x t u r e of j o u r n a l i s m and the Z e i t g e i s t and a u t o b i o g r a p h y t h a t

comes out of a p a r t of t h e human c o n s c i o u s n e s s which i s always

t r y i n g t o u n d e r s t a n d i t s e l f . . . ." ( 9 9 ) . T h i s i s not o n l y a

good c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of S c h r e i n e r ' s n o v e l s , but a l s o an

a c c u r a t e d e s c r i p t i o n o f L e s s i n g ' s own f i c t i o n , which i s a

s i m i l a r l y a m b i t i o u s and o r i g i n a l attempt t o e x p l a i n human

c h a r a c t e r and i t s d e t e r m i n a n t s .

The G r a s s i s S i n g i n g

The c r i t i c a l and commercial s u c c e s s of L e s s i n g ' s f i r s t

n o v e l The G r a s s i s S i n g i n g m i r r o r e d the r e c e p t i o n of S c h r e i n e r ' s

The S t o r y of an A f r i c a n Farm. I t s c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r Mary Tur n e r

107

i s a n e g a t i v e v e r s i o n of Martha Quest, Karen B l i x e n and L y n d a l l ;

she i s w i t h o u t t h e i r beauty and b r a i n s , t h e i r a r t i s t i c or

i n t e l l e c t u a l a m b i t i o n s . Mary's m o d e l s — t h e i d e a l images a g a i n s t

which she measures her own d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n s — a r e from Hollywood

f i l m s and r o m a n t i c f i c t i o n r a t h e r than p o e t r y , p h i l o s o p h y and

s c i e n c e . But she e x p e r i e n c e s the same gap between f a n t a s y and

r e a l i t y t h a t L y n d a l l and Martha f e e l . As L e s s i n g n a r r a t e s ,

"There seemed t o be no c o n n e x i o n between the d i s t o r t e d m i r r o r o f

the s c r e e n and her own l i f e ; i t was i m p o s s i b l e t o f i t t o g e t h e r

what she wanted f o r h e r s e l f , and what she was o f f e r e d " ( 4 6 ) .

L o s t t o t h e imagined d e l i g h t s of t h e town, marooned on her

f a r m — a s L y n d a l l and Martha a r e — s h e too f e e l s a p r i s o n e r

o p p r e s s e d by h o s t i l e emanations from the l a n d , e s p e c i a l l y , as i n

S c h r e i n e r , by the t e r r i b l e h e a t . Mary T u r n e r , i n f e a r and

l o a t h i n g of the farm and i t s b l a c k l a b o r e r s ("always so c l o s e t o

t h e i r l i v e s but a l s o so c u t o f f " 102) i s the o p p o s i t e of Karen

B l i x e n , who embraces ev e r y a s p e c t of l i f e on her farm. When

Mary's husband f a l l s i l l she, l i k e Karen B l i x e n , t a k e s over the

farm, but u n l i l k e the h e r o i n e of Out o f A f r i c a who works a l o n g ­

s i d e her employees, e n t e r i n g i n t o t h e i r j o y s and s o r r o w s , the

r e s e n t f u l Mary t a k e s p l e a s u r e o n l y i n p i t t i n g her w i l l a g a i n s t

the r e c a l c i t r a n t "boys." Whereas Karen B l i x e n welcomes the

p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n w i t h her dependents, Mary i s t e r r i f i e d of i t ,

t a k i n g r e f u g e b e h i n d the sjambok. But g i v i n g i n t o her h a t r e d by

s t r i k i n g Moses m y s t e r i o u s l y b r i n g s her c l o s e r t o him; her

e x e r c i s e of power i s a c t u a l l y a l o s s of c o n t r o l which p u t s her

i n t o her s e r v a n t ' s power.

108

From t h i s p o i n t Mary i s obsessed w i t h Moses. As she l o s e s

her g r i p on the farm and her house, the l a n d s c a p e i s i n c r e a s ­

i n g l y d e s c r i b e d as savage and menacing. I n t h e l a s t c h a p t e r the

i r o n i c use of n a t u r e so c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of w h i t e A f r i c a n f i c t i o n

b e g i n n i n g w i t h S c h r e i n e r i s e v i d e n t . I t i s at the end of t h e

d r y season. A f t e r a serene and gorgeous dawn the sun r i s e s

b r u t a l l y , drawing t h e c o l o r from t h e sky and f l a t t e n i n g the

l a n d s c a p e . Mary's d i s t u r b e d i m a g i n a t i o n p a i n t s the s e t t i n g o f

her d e a t h : "the sky shut down over h e r , w i t h t h i c k y e l l o w i s h

w a l l s of smoke growing up t o meet i t " ( 2 0 4 ) . Moses i s an

i n s t r u m e n t of t e r r i b l e n a t u r e : "And then the bush avenged

i t s e l f ; t h a t was her l a s t t h o u g h t . The t r e e s advanced i n a

r u s h , l i k e b e a s t s , and the thunder was the n o i s e of t h e i r

coming" ( 2 1 7 ) . At the moment of her death come the l i f e - g i v i n g

r a i n s , as t h e y do i n A f r i c a n Farm.

Mary's v i o l e n t end f o l l o w s the p a t t e r n o f L y n d a l l ' s and

Waldo's p e a c e f u l but u n n a t u r a l d e a t h s , as Mary's a s p i r a t i o n s a r e

t h e i r s i n debased form. As they a r e , she i s t r a p p e d i n a

s e t t i n g and s i t u a t i o n which i n e v i t a b l y d e s t r o y s h e r . The G r a s s

i s S i n g i n g i s a g r i p p i n g , t i g h t l y s t r u c t u r e d i f o v e r w r i t t e n

r e a l i s t i c n o v e l , which borrows the a u t h o r i t y of T.S. E l i o t ' s

Waste Land t o connect Mary's t r a g e d y w i t h a l a r g e r statement

about the s p i r i t u a l inadequacy of Western c u l t u r e — h e r e

s y m b o l i c a l l y d e f e a t e d by A f r i c a : " I n t h i s decayed h o l e among the

mountains/ In t h e f a i n t m o o n l i g h t , t h e g r a s s i s s i n g i n g / . . . .

Then spoke the thunder" (from the n o v e l ' s e p i g r a p h ) . L e s s i n g

makes use of the imagery of heat and d r y n e s s t o s y m b o l i z e w h i t e

109

d i s c o n t e n t and a l i e n a t i o n i n her o t h e r A f r i c a n f i c t i o n as w e l l ,

i n c l u d i n g the C h i l d r e n of V i o l e n c e . Martha Quest i s born i n

O c t o b e r , the month i n which Mary Turner d i e s , t h e month of v e l d

f i r e s and t e n s e e x p e c t a t i o n of t h e promised r a i n s . Nadine

Gordimer pursues the symbolism of drought and r a i n i n The

C o n s e r v a t i o n i s t , i n which the A f r i c a n dead, borne on the f l o o d

w a t e r s , r i s e t o c l a i m t h e i r l a n d . L e s s i n g and Gordimer both

e x p l o r e the r e l a t i o n between w h i t e m i s t r e s s and b l a c k s e r v a n t i n

t h e i r s h o r t f i c t i o n , w h i l e Gordimer t a k e s t h i s theme t o i t s

l o g i c a l c o n c l u s i o n i n J u l y ' s P e o p l e i n which Maureen Smales

becomes a dependent i n the t r i b a l v i l l a g e of which her s e r v a n t

J u l y i s C h i e f .

The p r o b l e m a t i c a s p e c t of The G r a s s i s S i n g i n g i s the t o t a l

l a c k of c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n f o r Moses; the i n s t r u m e n t o f Mary's

d e a t h , the avenger of the s t o l e n l a n d , i s h i m s e l f a blank whose

m o t i v a t i o n s remain unfathomable. Gordimer and J.M. C o e t z e e ,

whose I n the H e a r t of t h e C o u n t r y a l s o examines the power of t h e

s e r v a n t over t h e m i s t r e s s on an i s o l a t e d farm i n an a r i d l a n d —

s h are L e s s i n g ' s d i f f i c u l t y i n c r e a t i n g a d e q u a t e l y developed

b l a c k c h a r a c t e r s . N e v e r t h e l e s s the w h i t e c h a r a c t e r s i n t h e i r

n o v e l s a t l e a s t attempt t o imagine what t h e i r b l a c k c o u n t e r p a r t s

t h i n k and f e e l . F u r t h e r m o r e , i n The C o n s e r v a t i o n i s t and J u l y ' s

P e o p l e Gordimer g i v e s the r e a d e r what g l i m p s e s she can of b l a c k

c h a r a c t e r s among t h e m s e l v e s , f r e e of t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the

w h i t e c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r . But L e s s i n g does not p r o v i d e even

o b l i q u e scenes of b l a c k p e o p l e : as L o r n a Sage sees th e problem

i n The G r a s s i s S i n g i n g :

110

To e x p l a i n Moses, t o w r i t e him o u t , might w e l l be t o w h i t e him o u t . . . . But then a g a i n , t o l e a v e him b l a n k , i n a book so c o n s c i o u s of the o p p r e s s i v e f u n c t i o n of s i l e n c e , i s d e e p l y e m b a r r a s s i n g . What t h i s dilemma r e v e a l s i s a v i t a l problem i n L e s s i n g ' s w r i t i n g . How much can one r e p r e s e n t ? How much, t h a t i s , can one f i n d o t h e r s i n o n e s e l f , i n e x p e r i e n c e , i m a g i n a t i o n and language? i n s h o r t . . . L e s s i n g the w r i t e r i s e n c o u n t e r i n g her s e t t l e r ' s p r oblem, and hasn ' t found a s o l u t i o n ( D o r i s L e s s i n g 27-28).3

The e m b a r r a s s i n g s i l e n c e i n the t e x t , the d i s t u r b i n g h o l e

i n t he s t o r y caused by the absence of Moses as a c h a r a c t e r , not

o n l y f l a w s The Gra s s i s S i n g i n g but a l s o i n d i c a t e s a problem i n

L e s s i n g ' s subsequent f i c t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y her n o v e l s . The

" s e t t l e r ' s problem" of how t o r e p r e s e n t the A f r i c a n o t h e r as a

s u b j e c t r a t h e r than an o b j e c t — a r e s e r v o i r o f t h e w h i t e s '

d e s i r e s and f e a r s — i s an u n r e s o l v e d i s s u e t h a t p a r t l y e x p l a i n s

her abandonment of A f r i c a n s u b j e c t s . E a r l y i n her c a r e e r she

d e s c r i b e d t h e f r u s t r a t i o n she e n c o u n t e r e d , the dead end she f e l t

she had reached i n w r i t i n g about s o u t h e r n A f r i c a . The c o l o r bar

was an i s s u e t h a t the w r i t e r c o u l d not a v o i d , and c o u l d not

t r a n s c e n d ; f u r t h e r m o r e , i t had a l l been s a i d b e f o r e — a n d

b e t t e r — i n t h e c o n t e x t of c l a s s d i v i s i o n s i n n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y

European l i t e r a t u r e . 4 I n L e s s i n g ' s words from Going Home: " I n

w r i t i n g t h i s I am c o n s c i o u s of a f e e l i n g o f f a t i g u e and

s t e r i l i t y which i s what I have t o f i g h t a g a i n s t as soon as I s e t

f o o t i n w h i t e A f r i c a " ( 1 7 ) . T h i s f e e l i n g of f a t i g u e and

s t e r i l i t y p e rvades Martha Quest.

Martha Quest

The e p i g r a p h t o P a r t One of Martha Quest i s from O l i v e

S c h r e i n e r : " I am so t i r e d o f i t , and a l s o t i r e d of the f u t u r e

I l l

b e f o r e i t comes."5 Martha i s f i f t e e n and ready t o l e a v e her

p a r e n t s ' farm; L e s s i n g ' s n o v e l b e g i n s , i n f a c t , a t the p o i n t i n

A f r i c a n Farm when L y n d a l l r e t u r n s from s c h o o l , f u l l of b i t t e r

e x p e r i e n c e and dread of the f u t u r e . Martha, l i k e L y n d a l l , has

outgrown the farm. L e s s i n g w r i t e s : "She r e p e a t e d t h e i n c a n t a t o r y

names of c h i l d h o o d l i k e a s p e l l which had l o s t i t s f o r c e . . . .

For e v e r y t h i n g had shrunk f o r h e r " ( 3 1 ) . The s p a c i o u s sky and

windswept l a n d s c a p e "caused her o n l y the p r i c k l i n g f e e l i n g of

c l a u s t r o p h o b i a " ( 9 ) . Compare Martha's f e e l i n g s t o L y n d a l l ' s :

She l o o k e d about among the o l d f a m i l i a r o b j e c t s ; a l l was t h e r e , but the o l d s e l f was gone. 'What a r e you n o t i c i n g ? ' asked Em. 'Nothing and e v e r y t h i n g . I thought the windows were h i g h e r . I f I were you when I get t h i s p l a c e I s h o u l d r a i s e the w a l l s . There i s not room t o b r e a t h e h e r e ; one s u f f o c a t e s ' ( A f r i c a n Farm 183).

Not a l l Martha's emotions about t h e farm a r e n e g a t i v e , how­

e v e r . L e s s i n g , l i k e S c h r e i n e r , i s a m b i v a l e n t about t h e A f r i c a n

l a n d . She d e s c r i b e s i t as b r e a t h t a k i n g , l i b e r a t i n g , a l i v e w i t h

w o n d e r f u l c r e a t u r e s , and i s p a r t i c u l a r l y r h a p s o d i c about t h e

wide h i g h v e l d s k y . She w r i t e s : " . . . the l a n d t r a v e l l e d

e n d l e s s l y , w i t h o u t l i m i t , and faded i n t o a b l u i s h h aze, l i k e

t h a t h i n t e r l a n d t o the i m a g i n a t i o n we cannot do w i t h o u t " ( 9 ) .

The a m b i v a l e n t d e s c r i p t i o n s of n a t u r e i n Martha Quest echo one

of S c h r e i n e r ' s e s s a y s , "South A f r i c a ' s S p e l l , " i n which she

weighs t h e p r o s and cons of t h e bush v e r s u s t h e c i t y , South

A f r i c a v e r s u s Europe: "There's no room t h e r e . . . . I t ' s so

f r e e h e r e , " argues t h e South A f r i c a n , w h i l e t h e European i s

a p p a l l e d by the v a s t , empty A f r i c a n l a n d s c a p e .

The m a g n i f i c e n t n a t u r a l v i s t a s i n Martha Quest, l i k e t h e

d i s t a n t mountains i n A f r i c a n Farm, s i g n i f y a c o u n t r y of the

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i m a g i n a t i o n , an A f r i c a unencumbered by human c o m p l i c a t i o n s .

D i nesen's d e s c r i p t i o n s of the view from Denys' a i r p l a n e have a

s i m i l a r s i g n i f i c a n c e i n Out of A f r i c a . But whereas Dinesen

t r i e s t o m a i n t a i n t h a t view from t h e heavens, t o a v o i d coming

down t o e a r t h , as i t were, S c h r e i n e r and L e s s i n g keep t h e i r

c h a r a c t e r s e m b r o i l e d i n r e a l i s t i c dilemmas. N e v e r t h e l e s s , they

gaze l o n g i n g l y toward t h e mountains and s k y , which s y m b o l i z e

t h a t i d e a l c o u n t r y which they imagine must e x i s t somewhere.

L e s s i n g w r i t e s : " [ M a r t h a ] l o o k e d . . . a c r o s s t h e v e l d t o t h e

Dumfries H i l l s , and r e f a s h i o n e d t h a t unused c o u n t r y t o the s c a l e

of her i m a g i n a t i o n " ( 1 7 ) . L a t e r she r e f e r s t o " t h a t i d e a l

l a n d s c a p e of w h i t e c i t i e s and n o b l e p e o p l e which l a y over the

a c t u a l v i s t a s of h a r s h g r a s s and s t u n t e d t r e e s l i k e a g o l d e n

mirage" ( 3 5 ) . Martha's i d e a l c o u n t r y i s an i n t e l l e c t u a l

t e r r a i n , p e o p l e d by p o e t s , n o v e l i s t s and r e b e l l i o u s t h i n k e r s ,

from S h e l l e y and Whitman t o E n g e l s , whom she reads "as i f they

were a c o n f i r m a t i o n of some k i n d of e x i l e " ( 2 2 1 ) . L i k e L y n d a l l

and Waldo, Rebekah and Karen B l i x e n , Martha c o n s t r u c t s an i n n e r

w o r l d i n which she a t t e m p t s t o connect an i m p o r t e d i n t e l l e c t u a l

s t r u c t u r e t o her immediate s e t t i n g . I t i s t h i s i n n e r w o r l d of

dreams and f a n t a s i e s t h a t Martha c a l l s her " l o d e s t o n e , " her

" c o n s c i e n c e . " As the n a r r a t o r n o t e s i r o n i c a l l y , i t i s a c o u n t r y

from which one cannot be e x i l e d because i t does not e x i s t .

Martha has a sense of e x i l e not o n l y from the i n t e l l e c t u a l

c a p i t a l s of Europe and A m e r i c a , but a l s o , and more p r o f o u n d l y ,

from the A f r i c a she i n h a b i t s i n the ambiguous r o l e of w h i t e

s e t t l e r . I f Martha's i d e a l c i t y i s a " g o l d e n mirage," t h e n

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h a r d l y more r e a l i s t h e c o l o n i a l town which i s "so l i g h t l y

s c r a t c h e d on the s u r f a c e of the s o i l t h a t one c o u l d see the v e l d

by . . . l o o k i n g down t o the end of t h e s t r e e t . . ." (2 2 1 ) .

I n Martha Quest as w e l l as i n L e s s i n g ' s o t h e r A f r i c a n

n o v e l s and s t o r i e s t h e w h i t e h e r o i n e i s unable t o connect w i t h

A f r i c a and A f r i c a n s — m u c h as E.M. F o r s t e r ' s F i e l d i n g t r i e s but

i s unable t o connect w i t h I n d i a and I n d i a n s . The f i g u r e of the

i m p e n e t r a b l e and o f t e n a c t i v e l y h o s t i l e n a t i v e , who i n h a b i t s an

e q u a l l y h o s t i l e "dark c o n t i n e n t , " e x e m p l i f i e d i n Conrad's Hear t

of D a r k n e s s , i s a " g i v e n " of w h i t e c o l o n i a l l i t e r a t u r e ,

i n c l u d i n g the work of S c h r e i n e r , D i n e s e n , L e s s i n g , Gordimer and

Coetzee. The European l i b e r a l ' s s e a r c h f o r c o n n e c t i o n e x e m p l i ­

f i e d i n F o r s t e r ' s A Passage t o I n d i a , i s a r e f i n e m e n t of t h e

h e a r t of darkness theme, and the b a s i s f o r t h e r e a l i s t i c f i c t i o n

of S o u t h e r n A f r i c a t h a t b e g i n s w i t h O l i v e S c h r e i n e r , r e a c h i n g

i t s c u l m i n a t i o n , and p r o b a b l y i t s f i n a l form, i n Nadine

Gordimer.

L e s s i n g ' s H e a r t of Darkness i s The Gr a s s i s S i n g i n g , i n

which Mary Turner seeks and f i n d s — o n e might say she c r e a t e s —

her death a t the hands o f Moses. L e s s i n g ' s f i r s t c o l l e c t i o n o f

s t o r i e s , The O l d C h i e f ' s C o u n t r y i s her Passage t o I n d i a .

Martha Quest, l i k e The S t o r y o f an A f r i c a n Farm and Out of

A f r i c a , f o c u s e s on i n d i v i d u a l s e l f - d i s c o v e r y . The c o l o n y of

Southern R h o d e s i a i s a s e t t i n g f o r Martha's own drama, but one

which i n c o n t r a s t t o Dinesen's c h a l l e n g i n g , m a g i c a l , u l t i m a t e l y

b e n i g n Kenya i s d i s t u r b i n g even i n i t s b e a u t y , i n d u c i n g i n the

w h i t e h e r o i n e unease and g u i l t . The l a n d and n a t i v e c h a r a c t e r s

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which form a backdrop t o t h e a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l drama of L y n d a l l

and Waldo i n A f r i c a n Farm, w h i l e l e s s w e l l d e f i n e d than i n

L e s s i n g ' s n o v e l , i nduce s i m i l a r f e e l i n g s of a l i e n a t i o n and vague

g u i l t . Whereas Karen B l i x e n f e e l s t h a t she b e l o n g s , L y n d a l l ,

Waldo and Martha p r o f o u n d l y do n o t .

Of c o u r s e Karen B l i x e n ' s b e l o n g i n g i s p r o b l e m a t i c a l ,

a l t h o u g h she i s r e l u c t a n t t o acknowledge t h a t t h e c o u n t r y w i t h

which she f e e l s a m y s t i c a l bond a l s o i s o l a t e s and f i n a l l y

r e j e c t s h e r . I n Out o f A f r i c a she wonders, " I f I know a song of

A f r i c a . . . does A f r i c a know a song of me?" ( 6 4 ) . Martha i s

aware from t h e s t a r t t h a t A f r i c a i s u n l i k e l y t o know a song of

h e r . "The farm," w r i t e s L e s s i n g , " l a y about her l i k e a l o v e d

c o u n t r y which r e f u s e d her c i t i z e n s h i p " ( 3 1 ) . So she t u r n s , l i k e

Waldo, t o her b o o k s — t o t h a t c o u n t r y of the mind from which one

cannot be e x i l e d .

As the n o v e l b e g i n s , Martha i s r e a d i n g Havelock E l l i s on

sex; w h i l e waving the book l i k e a r e d f l a g i n her mother's f a c e ,

she e s t a b l i s h e s her i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h the i n t e l l e c t u a l r e b e l s

of the p a s t — i n c l u d i n g t h rough E l l i s h i s f r i e n d O l i v e S c h r e i n e r .

Martha's r e l a t i o n s h i p t o books, however, i s more c o m p l i c a t e d

t h a n Waldo's or Rebekah's. For Martha as f o r her p r e d e c e s s o r s

books are t a l i s m a n s , keys t o the o t h e r w o r l d beyond the farm.

But whereas S c h r e i n e r ' s c h a r a c t e r s have an almost r e l i g i o u s awe

of the few books t h a t come i n t o t h e i r p o s s e s s i o n , Martha i n the

n i n e t e e n - t h i r t i e s , i s swamped w i t h books, s t e e p e d i n l i t e r a t u r e ,

and i n p o s s e s s i o n o f more knowledge than she can use. Martha's

problem i s t h a t she knows more than she can u n d e r s t a n d ; her

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i n t e l l e c t i s more developed than her e x p e r i e n c e . As L e s s i n g

w r i t e s : She was, i n f a c t , s u f f e r i n g from the form of moral e x h a u s t i o n which i s caused by s e e i n g a g r e a t many f a c t s w i t h o u t knowing the cause f o r them, by s e e i n g o n e s e l f as an i s o l a t e d p e r s o n , w i t h o u t o r i g i n or d e s t i n a t i o n (182-83).

M artha, u n l i k e Waldo, has the b e n e f i t of Freud and Marx, the

l i t e r a t u r e of the Gre a t War and the a l r e a d y m y t h i c a l t w e n t i e s .

In c o n t r a s t t o Karen B l i x e n , who e s s e n t i a l l y r e j e c t s

contemporary European t h o u g h t — a n d even i n s o f a r as she can,

contemporary h i s t o r y — M a r t h a s t r u g g l e s t o p l a c e her own

s i t u a t i o n i n h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t :

And from a l l t h e s e books Martha had ga i n e d a c l e a r p i c t u r e of h e r s e l f , from t h e o u t s i d e . She was a d o l e s c e n t , and t h e r e f o r e bound t o be unhappy; B r i t i s h , and t h e r e f o r e uneasy and d e f e n s i v e ; i n the f o u r t h decade of the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , and t h e r e f o r e i n e s c a p a b l y b e s e t w i t h problems of r a c e and c l a s s ; f e m a l e , and o b l i g e d t o r e p u d i a t e the s h a c k l e d women of the p a s t . She was tormented w i t h g u i l t and r e s p o n s i ­b i l i t y and s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s ; and she d i d not r e g r e t the torment . . . (14-15).

Martha i s more s e l f - a w a r e than L y n d a l l , but f o r a l l her

s o p h i s t i c a t i o n she i s h e l p l e s s t o p r e v e n t h e r s e l f from f a l l i n g

p r ey t o a modern v e r s i o n of L y n d a l l ' s m i s f o r t u n e . The i r o n y

t h a t i s such a marked f e a t u r e of the n o v e l r e v o l v e s around j u s t

t h i s p o i n t .

M a r t h a , l i k e L y n d a l l , i s p o r t r a y e d as b e i n g v u l n e r a b l e

because she i s a woman; L e s s i n g , l i k e S c h r e i n e r , p r o v i d e s

n e g a t i v e s t e r e o t y p e s of f e m i n i n i t y f o r her h e r o i n e t o r e j e c t .

Mrs. Van Rensberg, the f a t , complacent mother of e l e v e n , p l a y s

the r o l e of S c h r e i n e r ' s Tant' S a n n i e ; from Martha's p o i n t of

view she i s a r e p u l s i v e and f r i g h t e n i n g s p e c t e r of what c o u l d

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happen t o h e r . " I w i l l not become l i k e t h a t , " Martha promises

h e r s e l f , l o o k i n g a t the o l d e r woman's s w o l l e n , v e i n e d l e g s .

Marnie Van Rensberg, who i s Martha's age, p l a y s the r o l e of Em

i n A f r i c a n Farm: the c o n v e n t i o n a l l y f e m i n i n e g i r l who i s a f o i l

t o t h e r e b e l l i o u s h e r o i n e . Martha, l i k e L y n d a l l , vehemently

r e j e c t s M a m i e ' s p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h m a r r i a g e ; i t i s not

s u r p r i s i n g however t h a t Martha, l i k e her p r e c u r s o r , becomes a

young mother i n the next v o l u m e — a n d f u r t h e r b e t r a y s her own and

L y n d a l l ' s i d e a l s by m a r r y i n g a c i v i l s e r v a n t .

The r o l e of Waldo (and Rebekah's Mr. Drummond) i s p l a y e d by

J o s s Cohen, a young J e w i s h i n t e l l e c t u a l who i n s p i r e s Martha's

b e l i e f i n a t h e i s m , s o c i a l i s m , and r a c i a l e g u a l i t y . U n l i k e

S c h r e i n e r , however, L e s s i n g acknowledges a s e x u a l c u r r e n t be­

tween h e r o i n e and he r o ; Martha i s d i s t u r b e d and c o n s t r a i n e d by

J o s s Cohen's response t o her appearance. She i s an i n c i p i e n t

but c o n f u s e d f e m i n i s t , who demands t o be t a k e n s e r i o u s l y as an

i n t e l l e c t u a l e q u a l , but n e v e r t h e l e s s c u l t i v a t e s a s t y l i s h ,

p r o v o c a t i v e l o o k . L e s s i n g , t h e n , r e p l a c e s the myt h i c i d e n t i f i ­

c a t i o n between L y n d a l l and Waldo w i t h a r e a l i s t i c p o r t r a y a l of

the d i f f i c u l t i e s c r e a t e d by Martha's i n d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h J o s s .

F o l l o w i n g L y n d a l l and Waldo, Martha and J o s s do not a c t u a l l y

have a s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p , but i t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t Martha's

f i r s t l o v e r i s a Jew. Adolph i s a s o c i a l o u t c a s t i n t h e S p o r t s

C l u b , and Martha i s seen t o be b r e a k i n g a taboo by s l e e p i n g w i t h

him. As w e l l as a s u r r o g a t e J o s s , he i s a l s o , p e r h a p s , a

s u r r o g a t e b l a c k man.

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As i n S c h r e i n e r and D i n e s e n , the p e r s o n a l d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n s

of L e s s i n g ' s h e r o i n e l e a d her t o make a wider s o c i a l c r i t i q u e .

Martha's s e n s i t i v i t y t o her t r e a t m e n t as a woman i n c r e a s e s her

awareness of o t h e r forms of h y p o c r i s y and u n f a i r n e s s i n the

community. For example, i t i s a f t e r an e n c o u n t e r w i t h J o s s , i n

which she has r e s e n t e d b e i n g p a t r o n i z e d as a p r e t t y g i r l , t h a t

she has an i n t u i t i o n of a p a r t h e i d t h a t goes beyond her

h e r e t o f o r e p u r e l y i n t e l l e c t u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the problem. As

L e s s i n g d e s c r i b e s Martha's r e v e l a t i o n :

. . . the f a c t was, she c o u l d not remember a time when she had not thought of p e o p l e i n terms of g r o u p s , n a t i o n s , or c o l o u r of s k i n f i r s t , and as p e o p l e a f t e r w a r d s . . . . Martha c o u l d f e e l the s t r i v i n g f o r c e s i n her own s u b s t a n c e : the e f f o r t of i m a g i n a t i o n needed t o d e s t r o y t h e words b l a c k , w h i t e , n a t i o n , r a c e , e xhausted h e r , her head ached and her f l e s h f e l t heavy on her bones ( 5 6 ) .

Martha reaches a deep e m o t i o n a l and p h y s i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f

t h e d i v i s i o n s i n t h e c o l o n y , and she now b e g i n s t o i d e n t i f y w i t h

the b l a c k A f r i c a n s , who have been i n v i s i b l e t o h e r . But the

language of t h i s l o n g v i s i o n a r y passage b e t r a y s M a r t h a ' s — a n d

L e s s i n g ' s — r e l i a n c e on f o r e i g n l i t e r a r y c o n c e p t i o n s t o d e f i n e

her r e l a t i o n t o her s e t t i n g . For i n s t a n c e , t h e i n f l u e n c e of

D.H. Lawrence i s p a i n f u l l y o b v i o u s i n the f o l l o w i n g s e n t e n c e :

And each group, community, c l a n , c o l o u r , s t r o v e and f o u g h t away from th e o t h e r , i n a s i c k n e s s of d i s s o l u ­t i o n ; i t was as i f the p r i n c i p l e of s e p a r a t e n e s s was b r e d from the v e r y s o i l , , the s k y , the d r i v i n g sun; as i f t h e i n c h o a t e v a s t n e s s of the u n i v e r s e , always i n s i s t e n t i n the enormous unshrouded s k i e s , the enormous m o u n t a i n - g i r t h o r i z o n s , so t h a t one might n e v e r , not f o r a moment, f o r g e t the inhuman, r e l e n t ­l e s s s t r u g g l e of s o i l and l i g h t , b r e d a f e v e r of s e l f - a s s e r t i o n i n i t s c h i l d r e n ( 5 6 ) .

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The message of t h e passage, t h a t Martha i s b r e a k i n g out of the

w h i t e s e t t l e r c a s t of mind w i t h i t s r i g i d c e r t a i n t i e s , i s b e l i e d

by t h e s t y l e . M a r t h a / L e s s i n g p r o j e c t s her c o n c e p t i o n of

c o l o n i a l s o c i e t y onto the " v a s t , " " i n c h o a t e , " "inhuman" l a n d ­

s c a p e — a s Martha p r o j e c t s her f a n t a s y of the i d e a l c i t y onto the

" h a r s h , " "empty" v e l d (as S c h r e i n e r and Dinesen s i m i l a r l y

p r o j e c t t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e c o n c e p t i o n s of A f r i c a onto what they

see as the empty, u n c l a i m e d , unformed l a n d ) .

A l t h o u g h th e sentence quoted above i m p l i e s t h e i m p o s s i ­

b i l i t y of t r a n s c e n d i n g a p a r t h e i d , Martha b e g i n s t o t r y . When

she sees a p r o c e s s i o n of b l a c k p r i s o n e r s h a n d c u f f e d t o g e t h e r ,

"She marched, i n i m a g i n a t i o n , down the s t r e e t , one of the f i l e ,

f e e l i n g the o p p r e s s i o n of a p o l i c e s t a t e as i f i t were heavy on

her . . ." ( 1 8 4 ) . But she f e e l s p o w e r l e s s t o a l l e v i a t e anyone's

s u f f e r i n g , l e a s t o f a l l her own:

'And what now?' demanded t h a t s a r c a s t i c v o i c e i n s i d e M a r t h a , and i t answered i t s e l f , 'Go out and j o i n the P r i s o n e r s ' A i d S o c i e t y , ' Here she sank i n t o s e l f -d e r i s o r y impotence . . ." ( 1 8 4 ) .

Martha's s e l f - d e p r e c a t i n g , even d e s t r u c t i v e sense of humor

i s d i f f e r e n t from a n y t h i n g we f i n d i n S c h r e i n e r or D i n e s e n ;

f a c e d w i t h t h e s i g h t of h a n d c u f f e d p r i s o n e r s Rebekah would

almost c e r t a i n l y have j o i n e d t h e P r i s o n e r s ' A i d S o c i e t y t h a t

Martha r i d i c u l e s . Karen B l i x e n would have charmed the Governor

i n t o r e l e a s i n g t h e p r i s o n e r s and then o f f e r e d them s q u a t t i n g

r i g h t s on her farm. Martha's v e r y d i f f e r e n t r e a c t i o n o f " s e l f -

d e r i s o r y impotence" i s c onnected t o her h i s t o r i c a l sense of

h e r s e l f as one o f the " C h i l d r e n o f V i o l e n c e . " T h i s r e f e r s t o

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th e g e n e r a t i o n who th r o u g h t h e i r p a r e n t s ' memories must r e l i v e

the n ightmare of t h e F i r s t World War and h a l f - w i l l i n g l y f i n d

t h e m s e l v e s swept up i n t h e h o l o c a u s t of the Second World War.

For M artha, as a c h i l d o f w h i t e s e t t l e r s , the l e g a c y of v i o l e n c e

a l s o i n c l u d e s t h e c o l o n i z a t i o n of A f r i c a : a s i t u a t i o n which she

was born i n t o , d e p l o r e s , and by v i r t u e of her s k i n p r i v i l e g e ,

c o l l u d e s i n . She t r i e s t o escape t h e l a n d w i t h i t s weight of

a m b i v a l e n t a s s o c i a t i o n s and her p a r e n t s w i t h t h e i r weight of

d i s t u r b i n g memories by m i g r a t i n g t o t h e c a p i t a l . L e s s i n g ' s

i r o n y i s broad here as she d e s c r i b e s Martha's y o u t h f u l o p t i m i s m :

"And a door had c l o s e d , f i n a l l y ; and b e h i n d i t was the farm and

the g i r l who had been c r e a t e d by i t . . . . She was a new

p e r s o n , and an e x t r a o r d i n a r y , m a g n i f i c e n t , an a l t o g e t h e r new

l i f e was b e g i n n i n g " ( 9 2 ) . A f t e r a few weeks of b l i s s f u l s e l f -

d e l u s i o n , Martha, a g a i n s t her c o n s c i o u s w i l l , a b s o rbs t h e war

h y s t e r i a t h a t g r i p s the town's y o u t h . I t i s the w i n t e r of 1938,

and t h e promise of comradeship, g l o r y , and death beckons the

young men o f the c o l o n y . Martha h e r s e l f cannot r e s i s t t he

f r a n t i c d a n c i n g , d r i n k i n g and m a r r y i n g t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e s e

months.

Here L e s s i n g ' s p r e s e n t a t i o n o f Martha as a h i s t o r i c a l t y p e

becomes v e r y c l e a r ; she was born i n t h e a f t e r m a t h of t h e F i r s t

World War t o a f a t h e r broken and obsessed by h i s e x p e r i e n c e i n

the t r e n c h e s . Images of no-man's l a n d , e x p l o d i n g s h e l l s , r a t s

and mud, are almost as r e a l t o Martha as i f she had seen them

h e r s e l f ( a s , a c c o r d i n g t o L e s s i n g ' s b e l i e f i n t h e c o l l e c t i v e

u n c o n s c i o u s , she h a s ) . Martha's young womanhood as c h r o n i c l e d

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i n Books Two t o Four of the C h i l d r e n of V i o l e n c e , i s l i v e d i n

the shadow of the next war, w h i c h , f a r from the a c t u a l c a r n a g e ,

she v i v i d l y s u f f e r s a t second hand. When i n The Four-Gated

C i t y , she f i n a l l y a r r i v e s i n E n g l a n d , i t i s not the pre-war

"Home" t h a t her mother has s e n t i m e n t a l l y d e s c r i b e d t o h e r , but

the b l e a k , bomb-scarred and t h r e a d b a r e London of the n i n e t e e n -

f o r t i e s . At the end o f The Four-Gated C i t y , Martha d i e s on a

remote i s l a n d i n the H e b r i d e s , among a c o l o n y of s u r v i v o r s of

World War Three.

As t h i s p a t t e r n a s s e r t s i t s e l f i n the n o v e l s , the f i g u r e of

Martha the unique i n d i v i d u a l i s superseded by Martha the

h i s t o r i c a l t y p e and, i n t h e l a s t volume, by Martha the a r c h e ­

t y p a l Woman of the C e n t u r y . The second through f o u r t h n o v e l s of

the s e r i e s seem h u r r i e d l y , r a t h e r s l o p p i l y w r i t t e n , as i f the

au t h o r had been i m p a t i e n t t o get through the n e c e s s a r y n a r r a t i o n

i n o r d e r t o make her i d e o l o g i c a l p o i n t s and remarks on c h a r a c t e r

t y p e s and group dynamics. The Four-Gated C i t y i s s i m i l a r l y

f l a w e d , but more c o m p e l l i n g and o r i g i n a l i n i t s e x p l o r a t i o n o f

the middle-aged Martha's r e l a t i o n t o the mass mind.

I t i s i n t h e f i r s t two volumes of the s e r i e s , Martha Quest

and A P r o p e r M a r r i a g e , t h a t L e s s i n g b e s t i n t e g r a t e s the a u t o b i o ­

g r a p h i c a l , t y p i c a l , and a r c h e t y p a l a s p e c t s o f her c h a r a c t e r s and

s t o r y . Martha's f a t h e r , f o r i n s t a n c e , i s more than a p o r t r a i t

of the a u t h o r ' s f a t h e r and a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of h i s w a r - s c a r r e d

g e n e r a t i o n , he i s a l s o a unique and l i v e l y f i c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r .

L e s s i n g ' s mother, on the o t h e r hand, e x e r t s a m a l e v o l e n t , almost

s u p e r n a t u r a l power over Martha which tends t o unbalance the

t e x t ' s r e a l i s m .

1 2 1

The e p i s o d e of Martha's f i r s t dance i s the b e s t example of

how L e s s i n g merges the d i f f e r e n t elements of c h a r a c t e r and

s i g n i f i c a n c e . Martha works round the c l o c k sewing a l o n g ,

glamorous w h i t e d r e s s , as i f under a s p e l l i n which she has

assumed the r o l e of The Young G i r l Going t o Her F i r s t Dance.

Martha, w r i t e s L e s s i n g , " d i d not know t h i s a l o o f , dream-logged

g i r l who t u r n e d a b r o o d i n g f a c e under the c u r v e of l o o s e blonde

h a i r " ( 8 3 ) . T r a n s f i g u r e d by t h i s " a n c i e n t r o l e , " she i s endowed

w i t h the power t o escape from c h i l d h o o d , t o be " s e t f r e e " .

With her c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i r o n y , L e s s i n g s e t s Martha's

g l o w i n g a n t i c i p a t i o n a g a i n s t the d i s a p p o i n t i n g a c t u a l i t y of the

dance at the Van Rensbergs' house. Martha's f a n t a s y i s q u i c k l y

d e f l a t e d by r e a l i t y : the shadowy l o v e r of whom she has been

dreaming t u r n s out t o be an uncouth and o r d i n a r y n e i g h b o r .

F u r t h e r m o r e , Mr. Van Rensberg S e n i o r b r e a k s i n t o Martha's r e v e r y

and b r i n g s her down t o e a r t h by a d d r e s s i n g her as a

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the B r i t i s h community. He c a l l s Martha t o

account f o r B r i t i s h c h a u v i n i s m , h y p o c r i s y and b r u t a l i t y a g a i n s t

the B o e r s . Martha responds by i n g e n u o u s l y d e f e n d i n g e q u a l

r i g h t s f o r a l l r a c e s . F i n a l l y , i n an e x p r e s s i o n of h o s t i l i t y as

much f o r Martha's " B r i t i s h a r r o g a n c e " as f o r her p r o v o c a t i v e

v i r g i n i t y , her e s c o r t c a r r i e s her o u t s i d e i n t o the mud and

k i s s e s h e r . Her w h i t e d r e s s s p a t t e r e d w i t h r e d mud i s an

o b v i o u s metaphor f o r her s y m b o l i c l o s s of v i r g i n i t y , which

i n c l u d e s the shedding of r o m a n t i c i l l u s i o n and the i n i t i a t i o n

i n t o a d u l t p o l i t i c a l r e a l i t i e s . S i g n i f i c a n t l y , i t i s a f t e r t h i s

dance t h a t Martha awakes from the s t u p o r of i n a c t i o n t h a t has

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kept her on t h e farm, throws o f f t h e weight of her p a r e n t s '

dreams, and b e g i n s the next phase of her l i f e : i n town.

I n Martha Quest as i n A f r i c a n Farm and Out of A f r i c a , t h e

images of s l e e p and awakening, dreams and n i g h t m a r e , are

prominent symbols of s e l f - d i s c o v e r y , t h e i m a g i n a t i o n and i t s

l i m i t s . ^ Mrs. Quest i s "a w i t c h " or "the e t e r n a l mother,

h o l d i n g s l e e p and death i n her t w i n hands . . . l i k e a b a n e f u l

f i g u r e i n the nightmare i n which she h e r s e l f was c a u g h t " ( 3 1 - 3 2 ) .

S t r u g g l i n g t o keep Martha l o c k e d i n t h e s l e e p of c h i l d h o o d , she

t r a n s f e r s her own n i g h t m a r e s t o her d a u g hter. On t h e a u t o ­

b i o g r a p h i c a l l e v e l are echoes of S c h r e i n e r ' s antagonism toward

her m o t h e r — a l o n g w i t h her f e a r o f r e l i v i n g her mother's l i f e .

M a r tha, l i k e L y n d a l l , Waldo, and Rebekah (who f o r e g o e s her

s l e e p i n t h e p u r s u i t of knowledge) f i g h t s t o s t a y awake, t h a t

i s , t o g u e s t i o n a u t h o r i t y , t o t h i n k f o r h e r s e l f . In town she

b a r e l y s l e e p s , p a r t l y because she i s a f r a i d of her dreams. Thus

f o r L e s s i n g ' s and S c h r e i n e r ' s young c h a r a c t e r s s l e e p i s d e a d l y

and dreams a r e t h r e a t e n i n g as w e l l as l i b e r a t i n g . L e s s i n g and

S c h r e i n e r a r e more p e s s i m i s t i c about the p o s s i b i l i t i e s of the

i m a g i n a t i o n than D i n e s e n , who i n Out of A f r i c a embraces her

dream w h o l e h e a r t e d l y .

I n L e s s i n g ' s l a t e r f i c t i o n her c h a r a c t e r s do embrace, use,

and become t h e i r dreams, but Martha's g o a l i s awakening. I n t h e

A f r i c a n volumes of the C h i l d r e n of V i o l e n c e Martha awakes t o an

u n d e r s t a n d i n g of h e r s e l f and her p l a c e i n t h e w o r l d , of her

h i s t o r i c a l r o l e , t h r o u g h her i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h the b l a c k

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A f r i c a n s — w h o a r e t h e m s e l v e s r e a l i z i n g t h e i r power, awakening t o

freedom.7 Martha e x p r e s s e s her i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h the b l a c k s ,

as w e l l as her r e b e l l i o n a g a i n s t w h i t e s e t t l e r mores, by j o i n i n g

a communist group whose s t a t e d aim i s b l a c k r e v o l u t i o n . Here

L e s s i n g i s q u i t e s a r c a s t i c , a t t h e expense of her own y o u t h f u l

i d e a l i s m , about the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the s m a l l a l l - w h i t e group

which has no c o n t a c t w i t h t h e b l a c k s i t proposes t o l e a d i n t o a

brave new p o s t - c o l o n i a l w o r l d . (As E i l e e n Manion n o t e s , L e s s i n g

d e p i c t s t h e communist c e l l as e l i t i s t , h i e r a r c h i a l and

a u t h o r i t a r i a n , i n f a c t as "the m i r r o r image of the c o l o n i a l

a u t h o r i t i e s , " "Transcendence Through D i s o r d e r " 212.) As t h e

group's p o l i t i c a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n s and i n t e r p e r s o n a l c o n f l i c t s

come t o the f o r e , i n A R i p p l e from the Storm and L a n d l o c k e d ,

Martha's o n l y d e s i r e i s t o escape the c o l o n y from which she has

become i r r e v o c a b l y a l i e n a t e d . Her i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h the

b l a c k s , from the s t a r t p r o b l e m a t i c , i s r e v e a l e d as s h a l l o w and

n a r c i s s i s t i c , t o o tenuous t o b u i l d a new l i f e upon.

I t i s n o t a b l e t h a t i n L e s s i n g , the most h i s t o r i c a l l y

c o n s c i o u s and p o l i t i c i z e d of t h e t h r e e w r i t e r s c o n s i d e r e d so

f a r , the b l a c k s a r e l e a s t v i v i d and most s u b o r d i n a t e t o the

w h i t e h e r o i n e ' s s t o r y . I n c o n t r a s t , i n D i n e s e n , who i s the most

c o n s e r v a t i v e , a h i s t o r i c a l w r i t e r o f the t h r e e , the b l a c k

c h a r a c t e r s a r e much more f u l l y drawn and more i m p o r t a n t i n t h e

h e r o i n e ' s s t o r y . Perhaps i t i s the case t h a t w i t h i n her m y t h i c

framework Dinesen i s f r e e r t o d e s c r i b e her secondary c h a r a c t e r s

v i v i d l y , whereas L e s s i n g ' s d e p i c t i o n of c h a r a c t e r i s c o n s t r a i n e d

by t h e messages and p r e c o n c e p t i o n s w i t h which her f i c t i o n i s

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w e i g h t e d . S c h r e i n e r ' s c h a r a c t e r s f a l l somewhere i n between:

they are not r e p r e s e n t a t i v e h i s t o r i c a l t y p e s as L e s s i n g ' s a r e ,

nor a r e they f r e e of d i d a c t i c c o n t e n t as are D i n e s e n ' s .

S c h r e i n e r d e l i g h t s i n making her "bad" c h a r a c t e r s c o l o r f u l and

humorous, and w h i l e her b l a c k c h a r a c t e r s are o f t e n n e g a t i v e

s t e r e o t y p e s , t h e y have more l i f e than L e s s i n g ' s o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l

c r e a t i o n s . I t i s o n l y Nadine Gordimer who extends r e a l i s t i c

c h a r a c t e r p o r t r a y a l t o A f r i c a n s , a l t h o u g h her p o i n t of view has

been i n c r e a s i n g l y l i m i t e d by the l e g a l and s o c i a l b a r r i e r s of

a p a r t h e i d .

In Martha Quest, t h e n , L e s s i n g m a i n t a i n s the f i n e b a l a n c e

between r e a l i s m and symbolism; Martha the a r c h e t y p e emerges from

Martha the f unny, dreamy, s e n s i t i v e c h i l d w i t h i n t u i t i o n s of

d i s s o l u t i o n and U t o p i a . Martha i n her r o l e s o f p o e t i c h i s t o r i a n

and spokeswoman f o r the human r a c e i s o n l y a c r e d i b l e h e r o i n e

i n s o f a r as she remains the mundane, s p e c i f i c Martha. When i n

The Four-Gated C i t y Martha l o s e s her s p e c i f i c i t y t o become a

mouthpiece f o r L e s s i n g ' s a p o c a l y p t i c messages, the f i c t i o n

c eases t o be b e l i e v a b l e ; but i n Martha Quest at l e a s t , L e s s i n g ' s

tendency t o g e n e r a l i z e i s kept i n check by the demands of the

r e a l i s t i c g enre.

Because Martha i s an a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l h e r o i n e , her q u e s t i s

i m p l i c i t l y a r t i s t i c and l i t e r a r y ; her s t r u g g l e t o c r e a t e an

i d e n t i t y , t o f i n d a b a l a n c e between freedom and commitment, i s

d e p i c t e d i n terms of p e r c e p t i o n r a t h e r than a c t i v i t y . T h i s i s

one f u n c t i o n of Martha's i n n e r w o r l d , her v i s i o n s on.the v e l d ;

as an a d o l e s c e n t female she has i n s i g h t w i t h o u t power; she i s a

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p a s s i v e o b s e r v e r and c r i t i c ; what she c r e a t e s i s i n t a n g i b l e .

Throughout the s e r i e s she i n t e r n a l i z e s r a t h e r than a c t s , t r a n s ­

f o r m i n g h i s t o r y i n t o i m a g i n a t i v e e x p e r i e n c e .

Martha i l l u s t r a t e s Simone de B e a u v o i r ' s t h e o r y of the young

g i r l as a b e i n g who, o u t w a r d l y p a s s i v e , has a r i c h i n n e r w o r l d .

In the v e r y c o n f l i c t between her f a n t a s i e s o f power and her l a c k

of scope f o r a c t i o n i n the r e a l w o r l d l i e s her p o s s i b i l i t y f o r

i n t e l l e c t u a l and c r e a t i v e g r o w t h — a t odds w i t h s o c i e t y . ("The

F o r m a t i v e Y e a r s , " i n The Second S e x ) . L e s s i n g ' s d e p i c t i o n of

Martha's q u i n t e s s e n t i a l l y female p e r c e p t i o n o f war i s

b r i l l i a n t l y c o n v i n c i n g ; unable t o f i g h t or make p o l i t i c a l

d e c i s i o n s , she s u f f e r s war as a n i g h t m a r e , as s c h i z o p h r e n i a , as

h o s t i l i t y between l o v e r s .

Martha's A f r i c a undergoes the same k i n d of i n n e r t r a n s f o r m ­

a t i o n i n t o symbol, i n t o c o u n t r y of t h e mind. I t i s d i s t o r t e d t o

r e f l e c t L e s s i n g ' s messages, which have l e s s t o do w i t h the r e a l

problems of c o l o n i a l i s m than w i t h t h e t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y female

psyche. The b l a c k c h a r a c t e r s a r e c i p h e r s , whose main f u n c t i o n

i s t o r e f l e c t Martha's f e e l i n g of entrapment and p o w e r l e s s n e s s ,

as w e l l as her hopes f o r freedom. The b r u t a l i t y of the c o l o n i a l

system i s d e p i c t e d as a r e f l e c t i o n of a w o r l d mad w i t h war. The

m a l a i s e t h a t a f f l i c t s "Zambesia," L e s s i n g ' s i m a g i n a r y Southern

A f r i c a n c o l o n y , i s a r e f l e c t i o n of t h e g e n e r a l m a l a i s e

a f f l i c t i n g the o l d empires of Europe. Thus the r e a l i s t i c

d e p i c t i o n of female coming-of-age under c o l o n i a l i s m i s a l r e a d y

i n Martha Quest s u b j u g a t e d t o L e s s i n g ' s l a r g e r p l a n .

126

To S h i k a s t a and Beyond

With Martha Quest D o r i s L e s s i n g began her f i v e - v o l u m e

C h i l d r e n o f V i o l e n c e s e r i e s ; w i t h S h i k a s t a (1979), t w e n t y - e i g h t

y e a r s l a t e r , she began another v e r y d i f f e r e n t s e r i e s of n o v e l s .

Canopus i n A r g o s : A r c h i v e s a l s o c o n s i s t s so f a r of f i v e n o v e l s :

Re: C o l o n i z e d P l a n e t 5, S h i k a s t a (1979); The M a r r i a g e s Between

Zones Three, Four and F i v e (1980); The S i r i a n E x p e r i m e n t s

(1980); The Making of t h e R e p r e s e n t a t i v e f o r P l a n e t 8 (1982);

and Documents R e l a t i n g t o the S e n t i m e n t a l Agents i n the V o l y e n

Empire (1983).

Between Martha Quest and S h i k a s t a L e s s i n g wrote s e v e r a l

v e r s i o n s of Martha i n A f r i c a between the wars and i n w a r t i m e .

I n The Golden Notebook (1 9 6 2 ) , w i d e l y acknowledged as her

m a s t e r p i e c e , L e s s i n g r e i n t e r p r e t s t h e a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l m a t e r i a l

of The C h i l d r e n of V i o l e n c e from the p e r s p e c t i v e o f the

h e r o i n e ' s subsequent e m i g r a t i o n t o E n g l a n d , l o s s of f a i t h i n the

Communist P a r t y , and r e l u c t a n t commercial s u c c e s s as an

" A f r i c a n " w r i t e r . The Golden Notebook governs and c l a r i f i e s ,

condenses and i l l u m i n a t e s , the s t o r y which f i l l s up t h r e e

c o m p a r a t i v e l y p l o d d i n g volumes of The C h i l d r e n o f V i o l e n c e .

I n The Four-Gated C i t y ( 1 9 6 9 ) , the f o r m a l d i s t i n c t i o n s

which so s u c c e s s f u l l y govern and c l a r i f y t h e c o n t e n t of The

Golden Notebook a r e broken down, and out of the chaos, L e s s i n g ' s

c h a r a c t e r s i s s u e p r o p h e c i e s . I n t h e w o r l d she d e p i c t s i n t h i s

a p o c a l y p t i c f i c t i o n , t h e r e i s no time f o r the slow w o r k i n g of

p o l i t i c a l change; the o n l y hope i s a m y s t i c a l c o n v e r s i o n , t o

t r a n s c e n d i n an e v o l u t i o n a r y l e a p our a l t o g e t h e r b l e a k

h i s t o r i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s .

127

In the s y m b o l i c f a n t a s y The Memoirs of a S u r v i v o r (1975),

L e s s i n g a g a i n e x p e r i m e n t s s u c c e s f u l l y w i t h the f i c t i o n a l form

t h a t she had t a k e n as g i v e n i n Martha Quest and her o t h e r e a r l y

n o v e l s and s t o r i e s . The n a r r a t o r of Memoirs i s a v e r s i o n o f the

a g i n g Martha Quest, w h i l e her younger s e l f E m i l y i s another

i n c a r n a t i o n o f the a d o l e s c e n t Martha. On the a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l

l e v e l L e s s i n g works out and h e a l s the p a i n f u l r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h

her mother t h a t so marks and d e b i l i t a t e s Martha Quest.

( L e s s i n g ' s use of her mother's name, E m i l y , works s i m i l a r l y t o

S c h r e i n e r ' s use of her mother's name, Rebecca L y n d a l l , f o r her

h e r o i n e s . )

S i g n i f i c a n t l y , E m i l y and the n a r r a t o r i n h a b i t a p o s t - W o r l d

War Three London which p a r a l l e l s Martha Quest's p o s t - W o r l d War

One A f r i c a and p o s t - W o r l d War Two London.8 The n a r r a t o r p asses

between t h i s i m a g i n a r y p o s t - c a t a s t r o p h e London and the i n n e r or

p s y c h i c w o r l d which i s r e p r e s e n t e d as a s e r i e s of rooms beyond

the w a l l s of her f l a t . At t h e end she m a g i c a l l y r e i n t e g r a t e s

the c h a r a c t e r s i n t o the realm o f her i m a g i n a t i o n — w h i c h i s a l s o

the m y t h i c r e a l m of the sh a r e d u n c o n s c i o u s — w h e n she and her

s u r r o g a t e c h i l d r e n walk t h r o u g h the w a l l i n t o the o t h e r w o r l d

beyond. So, i n Memoirs, as w e l l as working through some

u n r e s o l v e d p e r s o n a l m a t e r i a l , L e s s i n g f i n d s a d i s t i n c t i v e form

i n which t o r e p r e s e n t t h a t c o n j u n c t i o n of the p e r s o n a l and

s o c i a l , a r c h e t y p a l and h i s t o r i c a l which has been her major

p r e o c c u p a t i o n . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t h a t Memoirs i s an a r t i s t

p a r a b l e : whereas Martha i s an a r t i s t who does not admit she i s

one, an a r t i s t who i s d e n i e d t h e chance t o c r e a t e , the unnamed

128

n a r r a t o r of Memoirs i s c l e a r l y a w r i t e r f i g u r e . Memoirs i s a

n o v e l about the i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n s between the i m a g i n a t i o n and the

r e a l w o r l d , as such i t i s L e s s i n g ' s most dense and s o p h i s t i c a t e d

f o r m a l v e h i c l e , r e a l i z e d i n some of her b e s t w r i t i n g . 9

The next Martha f i g u r e , and the one who most resembles t h e

a d o l e s c e n t h e r o i n e of Martha Quest, appears i n S h i k a s t a .

L e s s i n g ' s f i r s t attempt a t what she c a l l s "space f i c t i o n " i s an

i n c o n g r u o u s and s t r a i n e d m i x t u r e of documentary, a l l e g o r y ,

r e a l i s m and f a n t a s y whose gaps and rough edges p o i n t t o some of

the c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n her p o l i t i c a l and a e s t h e t i c i d e o l o g y s i n c e

the w r i t i n g of Martha Quest and "The S m a l l P e r s o n a l V o i c e , " her

l e f t - w i n g h u m a n i s t - r e a l i s t c r e d o . The e q u i l i b r i u m between the

p e r s o n a l , s o c i a l and a r c h e t y p a l l e v e l s t h a t L e s s i n g s e t out as

her aim i n "The S m a l l P e r s o n a l V o i c e " and l a r g e l y a c h i e v e d i n

Martha Quest i s i n S h i k a s t a q u i t e unbalanced.

The g r e a t e s t i d e o l o g i c a l problem i n S h i k a s t a , t o which i t s

f o r m a l problems a r e t i e d , i s L e s s i n g ' s a t t i t u d e toward

c o l o n i a l i s m ; the s u b j e c t of the n o v e l i s the c o l o n i z a t i o n o f the

E a r t h - l i k e p l a n e t by a b e n e v o l e n t s u p e r i o r r a c e , who f a r from

b e i n g r e p r e s e n t e d as i n v a d e r s or d e s t r o y e r s , as we might have

ex p e c t e d from L e s s i n g ' s e a r l i e r f i c t i o n , a re d e p i c t e d as wise

and even g o d l y c r e a t u r e s who attempt t o a l t e r the c o u r s e of

human h i s t o r y f o r the b e t t e r . C o r r e s p o n d i n g l y t h e S h i k a s t a n s or

humans are r e p r e s e n t e d as i g n o r a n t , u n r u l y savages who must be

c i v i l i z e d . The m i s s i o n of the Canopean empire i s t o h e l p the

more p r i m i t i v e r a c e s e v o l v e t o i t s own h i g h l e v e l , not o n l y of

t e c h n o l o g y , but a l s o of e t h i c s . T h i s i s an uneasy echo of t h e

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s l o g a n s of B r i t i s h i m p e r i a l i s m , t o which L e s s i n g s u r e l y s h o u l d

be s e n s i t i v e , but which she l e a v e s unresolved.1°

I n From Man t o Man O l i v e S c h r e i n e r uses th e h y p o t h e t i c a l

example of c o l o n i z e r s from a n o t h e r p l a n e t i n o r d e r t o i l l u s t r a t e

t h e c r u e l t y and i n j u s t i c e of t h e f o r c e d i m p o s i t i o n of t e c h n o l ­

o g i c a l l y advanced European c u l t u r e on a l e s s t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y

advanced but as f u l l y human n a t i v e c u l t u r e . I n S h i k a s t a D o r i s

L e s s i n g s u r p r i s i n g l y t a k e s the s i d e of the c o l o n i z e r s a g a i n s t

the n a t i v e p e o p l e , and even more s u r p r i s i n g l y , she seems unaware

of the i r o n y of her p o s i t i o n , d e s p i t e the f a c t t h a t a s u b p l o t i n

her n o v e l i s t h e t r i a l of the European e x - c o l o n i a l powers by the

young p e o p l e of the T h i r d World ( w i t h whom the n a r r a t o r

s y m p a t h i z e s ) . How can we account f o r t h e s e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n

the n o v e l ? E s s e n t i a l l y L e s s i n g ' s space f i c t i o n m a g n i f i e s the

i d e o l o g i c a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n s t h a t e x i s t e d from th e b e g i n n i n g i n

her A f r i c a n f i c t i o n o f the n i n e t e e n f i f t i e s . I n her e a r l y

f i c t i o n , she c o n c e n t r a t e d on t h e dilemma of t h e w h i t e s e t t l e r a t

the expense of f u l l y - r e a l i z e d b l a c k c h a r a c t e r s ; i n S h i k a s t a ,

t h i s p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h t h e c o l o n i s t s r a t h e r than th e c o l o n i z e d

i s t a k e n t o i t s l o g i c a l extreme. Another e x p l a n a t i o n i s the

t i p p i n g of the b a l a n c e from th e h i s t o r i c a l t o t h e a r c h e t y p a l ;

t h o r o u g h l y d i s e n c h a n t e d w i t h human h i s t o r y , L e s s i n g t r i e s t o

l e a p beyond i t . So L e s s i n g t h e communist and humanist has

become L e s s i n g the prophet and mythmaker, and the myth she has

chosen t o warn and i n s t r u c t her p u z z l e d r e a d e r s i s b oth

d i s c o n c e r t i n g and t e l l i n g i n r e l a t i o n t o her e a r l i e r themes.

130

In a f u r t h e r ambiguous c o n n e c t i o n between w h i t e - s e t t l e r

A f r i c a and the c o l o n y of S h i k a s t a , the n o v e l i s d e d i c a t e d t o

". . .my f a t h e r , who used t o s i t . . . o u t s i d e our house i n

A f r i c a , w a t c h i n g the s t a r s . ' W e l l , * he would s a y, ' i f we blow

o u r s e l v e s up, t h e r e ' s p l e n t y more where we came from!'" L e s s i n g

seems t o have come around t o her f a t h e r ' s r a d i c a l c o n s e r v a t i s m

and f a t a l i s t i c r e l i a n c e on t h e m y s t e r i o u s f o r c e s beyond human

c o n t r o l .

However, a l t h o u g h i n the space f i c t i o n she i s no l o n g e r

e x p l i c i t l y c oncerned w i t h t h e j u n c t i o n of p e r s o n a l i t y , c l a s s and

the h i s t o r i c a l moment upon which her f i c t i o n had been based, one

of t h e , f o r us, l u c k y c o n t r a d i c t i o n s which f r a c t u r e s the scheme

of the Canopus s e r i e s i s t h a t t h e r e a r e r e a l i s t i c c h a r a c t e r s and

t o p i c a l a n a l y s e s which c r e a t i v e l y undermine what one can o n l y

term the n o v e l s ' i m p e r i a l i s t message. Thus the " T r i a l " s e c t i o n

of S h i k a s t a c o n s i s t s of t h e d e t a i l e d , h i s t o r i c a l l y p r e c i s e

documentation o f European i m p e r i a l i s t e x p l o i t a t i o n i n the n i n e ­

t e e n t h and t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r i e s . L e s s i n g uses R h o d e s i a , i n f a c t ,

as a t e x t - b o o k example of the ravages of B r i t i s h r u l e .

L e s s i n g ' s c o n c e r n here i s t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e r e c u r r i n g p a t t e r n s

of human h i s t o r y i n the hope t h a t the c y c l e of e x p l o i t a t i o n and

war can be b r o k e n . However, by s h i f t i n g her hopes f o r

r e g e n e r a t i o n from the human t o t h e cosmic and m e t a p h y s i c a l

a r e n a , she c r e a t e s problems which her f i c t i o n cannot r e s o l v e .

L e s s i n g ' s replacement of " e v i l " c o l o n i a l i s m w i t h "good" c o l o n ­

i a l i s m i s n e c e s s a r i l y u n c o n v i n c i n g i n l i g h t of her e a r l i e r work.

What i s i n t r i g u i n g , though, i s t h a t she r e i n t e r p r e t s r a t h e r than

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abandons her e a r l i e r themes and m o t i f s , among which i s the theme

of female coming-of-age i n an u n s t a b l e c o l o n i a l s o c i e t y .

L e s s i n g r e c r e a t e s t h e young Martha Quest i n t h e c h a r a c t e r

of R a c h e l , an e n d e a r i n g , a r t i c u l a t e h e r o i n e from whose p o i n t of

view we w i t n e s s many of the e x t r a o r d i n a r y e v e n t s of S h i k a s t a .

For a time she l i v e s i n the Arab q u a r t e r of a N o r t h A f r i c a n c i t y

where she i s , l i k e Martha Quest, a member of the p r i v i l e g e d

w h i t e m i n o r i t y ; t h e r e f o r e she i s a " c o l o n i s t " w i t h i n the

p l a n e t a r y c o l o n y of S h i k a s t a . As do t h e o t h e r w h i t e h e r o i n e s of

L e s s i n g , S c h r e i n e r and D i n e s e n , R a c h e l i d e n t i f i e s w i t h the

A f r i c a n women and th r o u g h them comes t o und e r s t a n d her own

p o s i t i o n as d i f f e r e n t ( w h i t e , m i d d l e - c l a s s , European) and as

s i m i l a r (young and f e m a l e ) .

As i n Martha Quest and the A f r i c a n s t o r i e s , and s i m i l a r l y

i n I s ak D i n e s e n , t h e young g i r l ' s e x p e r i e n c e of t h e A f r i c a n

o t h e r s i s rendered i n v i v i d s e n s u a l d e t a i l which r e i n f o r c e s her

a t t r a c t i o n t o and sense of e x i l e from t h e i r w o r l d . R a c h e l keeps

a d i a r y about her l i f e i n the N o r t h A f r i c a n slum. Thus we are

a l l o w e d d i r e c t a c c e s s t o her t h o u g h t s , u n l i k e M a r t h a ' s , which

are f i l t e r e d t h r ough the o f t e n s a r c a s t i c h i n d s i g h t of the o l d e r ,

w i s e r n a r r a t o r - a u t h o r . R a c h e l w r i t e s :

F a t i m a c a l l s me i n t o the cubbyhole she s h a r e s w i t h the t h r e e o l d e r c h i l d r e n , and she t a k e s down her b e s t d r e s s from a hook i n the mud w a l l . I t i s a dark b l u e d r e s s , of a s o f t c l o t h , v e r y worn. I t s m e l l s of Fatima and of her perfume, heavy and l a n g u i s h i n g . The d r e s s has b e a u t i f u l embroidery on i t i n l o v e l y c o l o u r s . F a t i m a made t h e d r e s s and d i d the emb r o i d e r y . T h i s d r e s s i s a b i g t h i n g i n her l i f e ( 2 4 0 ) .

132

Wearing F a t i m a ' s d r e s s , R a c h e l i s d r e s s e d up as a b r i d e by

her Arab n e i g h b o r s t o a c t out t h e i r f a n t a s y of p o l i t i c a l and

economic power; i n the p r o c e s s she sees h e r s e l f t h rough t h e i r

eyes: as both an i n s t r u m e n t of power and a sex o b j e c t . As she

r e c o r d s t h e i n c i d e n t i n her d i a r y :

[ Y u s u f ] p r e t e n d s I am h i s b r i d e . I t i s funny and sweet. As i f everyone i s f o r g i v i n g everyone f o r something. I say t o them, c r o s s , t h a t a l l t h i s i s s i l l y because I have no i n t e n t i o n a t a l l of g e t t i n g m a r r i e d . But I am q u i t e wrong t o say i t , because i t i s a s o r t of game. They a r e making an a l t e r n a t i v e e v e n t . A P o s s i b i l i t y . T h e i r l i v e s a r e so narrow. They have so l i t t l e . So here i s t h i s s p o i l e d w e s t e r n g i r l R a c h e l . But they l i k e her r e a l l y . But they have t o manage h e r . And a f t e r a l l , she might marry Y u s u f , who knows! S t r a n g e t h i n g s do happen! . . . A romance! But of c o u r s e t h e y don't b e l i e v e t h i s f o r a moment. And so i t i s a s o r t of a c t e d - o u t p o s s i b i l i t y , no hard f e e l i n g s . I t was a f e a s t . V e g e t a b l e stew and meat­b a l l s . They h a r d l y ever e at meat. . . .

There I s a t , a l l d o l l e d up, a s a c r i f i c i a l c a l f . I t was a l o v e l y meal. I adored i t . A l l the time I was f u r i o u s . Not a t them. At the aw f u l n e s of t h i s p o v e r t y . At A l l a h . At e v e r y t h i n g (240-41).

R a c h e l , the r i c h w h i t e o u t s i d e r who y e t l i v e s among the

p o v e r t y - s t r i c k e n N o r t h A f r i c a n s and empathizes w i t h t h e i r

s t r u g g l e t o c r e a t e moments of beauty and p o s s i b i l i t y , i s

u l t i m a t e l y a l i e n a t e d , s e t a p a r t , g u i l t y . L i k e the o t h e r L e s s i n g

h e r o i n e s b e g i n n i n g w i t h M a r t h a , R a c h e l passes from empathy t o

anger t o impotent d e s p a i r i n the f a c e of the poor and o p p r e s s e d .

But R a c h e l , s p e a k i n g i n her own v o i c e , not f i l t e r e d t h r ough an

i r o n i c n a r r a t o r , p a r t i c i p a t e s i n the l i v e s of o t h e r s and even i n

her own l i f e , more w h o l l y than the s e l f - c o n c e r n e d , s e l f - c r i t i c a l

Martha i s a l l o w e d t o do. W h i l e L e s s i n g ' s l a r g e r statement about

c o l o n i a l i s m — t h e s t o r y of S h i k a s t a and C a n o p u s — i s vague and

c o n t r a d i c t o r y , t h e " s m a l l p e r s o n a l v o i c e " of R a c h e l i s c l e a r and

f r e s h .

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T h i s i s s u r e l y a c r i t i c i s m which can r e f e r t o L e s s i n g ' s

e a r l i e r f i c t i o n ; her i n d i v i d u a l v o i c e s and t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r s

r i n g t r u e , whereas her g e n e r a l i t i e s a re o f t e n i n danger of

l o s i n g touch w i t h r e a l i t y , of l o s i n g c oherence. I t i s most

n o t a b l y i n The Golden Notebook t h a t the human c o n d i t i o n , the

p o s i t i o n of woman, the c l a s h of p o l i t i c a l i d e o l o g i e s i n our

c e n t u r y , and the c r i s i s of the n o v e l a re s u c c e s s f u l l y subsumed

w i t h i n the. s t o r y of Anna, the ex-communist woman w r i t e r from

A f r i c a . One of the g r e a t s t r e n g t h s of The Golden Notebook i s

i t s s t r u c t u r e of the w r i t e r ' s d i a r i e s . T h i s n o v e l , u n l i k e the

C h i l d r e n of V i o l e n c e books, r e c o g n i z e s t h a t i t i s about w r i t i n g ;

Martha Quest, on i t s s t r o n g a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l l e v e l , i s about

becoming a w r i t e r , y e t L e s s i n g does not a l l o w Martha w r i t e r s h i p .

As N i c o l e Ward Jouve ( t o whom I am i n d e b t e d f o r e x p l o r i n g t h i s

p o i n t ) e x p l a i n s , i t i s a w r i t e r ' s a u t o b i o g r a p h y w i t h the w r i t i n g

e r a s e d ("Of Mud and Other M a t t e r — T h e C h i l d r e n of V i o l e n c e " ) .

The Golden Notebook w i t h i t s d i v i s i o n s i n t o Anna's v a r i o u s

v o i c e s , R a c h e l ' s f i r s t p e r s o n j o u r n a l i n S h i k a s t a , The Memoirs

of a S u r v i v o r , t o l d i n the f i r s t - p e r s o n v o i c e of an a r t i s t /

w r i t e r , and even The M a r r i a g e s between Zones T h r e e , Four and

F i v e , n a r r a t e d by a c h r o n i c l e r , w i t h i t s s u b t e x t on the theme of

s t o r y - t e l l i n g , a r e a l l concerned w i t h the p r o c e s s of t h e i r

t e l l i n g . They a r e w r i t e r ' s s t o r i e s , concerned w i t h language and

form, which remind us t h a t much of L e s s i n g ' s f i c t i o n — t o i t s

d e t r i m e n t — i s not p r o p e r l y c o g n i z a n t of i t s e l f as l i t e r a t u r e ,

does not b r i n g the s u b t e x t of the w r i t e r or a r t i s t c h a r a c t e r t o

the s u r f a c e of the t e x t . ( L e s s i n g ' s n e g l e c t of s t y l e i s r e l a t e d

134

t o t h i s problem; she w r i t e s b e s t when she i s most c o n s c i o u s of

the l i t e r a r y s u b t e x t i n her f i c t i o n . )

W h i l e S h i k a s t a i s one o f the most d i s j o i n t e d o f L e s s i n g ' s

n o v e l s , she i s somewhat more s u c c e s s f u l i n subsequent volumes of

the Canopus s e r i e s , i n which she f o c u s e s more c l e a r l y on a

c e n t r a l female c h a r a c t e r : f o r i n s t a n c e A l ' i t h i n The M a r r i a g e s

Between Zones Three, Four and F i v e , and Ambien I I i n The S i r i a n

E x p e r i m e n t s . Both of t h e s e s p a c e - f i c t i o n n o v e l s t r e a t , among

o t h e r s u b j e c t s , c o l o n i a l i s m — f r o m the p o i n t of view of a woman

caught i n the m i d d l e , w i t h a l l e g i a n c e s t o both s i d e s . The age­

l e s s Ambien I I , a h i g h - l e v e l c o l o n i a l b u r e a u c r a t , has more power

and a u t h o r i t y than Martha Quest, but she t o o sees h e r s e l f as a

pawn of h i s t o r i c a l f o r c e s , caught between her a l l i a n c e w i t h the

r u l e r s and her sympathy f o r the s u b j e c t s . I n The S i r i a n

E x p e r i m e n t s as i n her A f r i c a n f i c t i o n , L e s s i n g ' s i n t e r e s t i s i n

the g u i l t and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of the c o l o n i s t r a t h e r than i n the

p e r s o n a l i t i e s of the c o l o n i z e d , who, a l t h o u g h t h e y are

t h e m a t i c a l l y c e n t r a l , are p o r t r a y e d as minor p l a y e r s i n the

p r o t a g o n i s t ' s dilemma.

In M a r r i a g e s A l ' i t h of Zone Three i s a c i v i l i z i n g agent i n

the more b a r b a r i c Zone Fou r , at the same time a b s o r b i n g from

t h a t Zone some of the p r i m i t i v e v i t a l i t y t h a t i s l a c k i n g i n the

a t t e n u a t e d atmosphere of her own Zone. A l ' i t h ' s s t o r y conveys

two messages: t h a t the c r o s s - f e r t i l i z a t i o n of c u l t u r e s l e a d s t o

h e a l t h i e r s o c i e t i e s , and t h a t t h e r e i s a h i e r a r c h y of

c i v i l i z a t i o n s . T h i s l a t t e r p o i n t i s c l e a r l y i l l u s t r a t e d by the

numbered Zones through which the c h a r a c t e r s descend i n o r d e r

135

u l t i m a t e l y t o r i s e . M a r r i a g e s i s one of the more a c c e s s i b l e of

L e s s i n g ' s space f i c t i o n n o v e l s , employing as i t does a s i m p l e

m y t h i c s t r u c t u r e t h a t r e v o l v e s around a r o m a n t i c - s e x u a l

a t t r a c t i o n t o one's o p p o s i t e . I t s i d e a s can be t a k e n as

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the o t h e r f i v e n o v e l s i n the s e r i e s .

I t i s t e m p t i n g t o compare the p i c t u r e of e v o l u t i o n i n

M a r r i a g e s and by e x t e n s i o n the Canopus s e r i e s w i t h S c h r e i n e r ' s

e v o l u t i o n a r y t h e o r i e s i n From Man t o Man. S c h r e i n e r , w h i l e

c r i t i c a l of the e x c e s s e s o f c o l o n i a l i s m , defends a h i e r a r c h y of

c i v i l i z a t i o n s : the Europeans s h o u l d p a t i e n t l y work t o b r i n g the

A f r i c a n s up t o t h e i r l e v e l , r e c o g n i z i n g t h e i r common humanity.

T h i s was an e n l i g h t e n e d i f unremarkable p o s i t i o n f o r her t i m e .

L e s s i n g , who has borne w i t n e s s t o the e x t r a o r d i n a r y e x c e s s e s of

" c i v i l i z e d " Europe d u r i n g t h i s c e n t u r y , s t i l l , i n her l a t e r

f i c t i o n , approves of an e v o l u t i o n a r y h i e r a r c h y of s o c i e t i e s , the

agent of which i s an e n l i g h t e n e d form of c o l o n i a l i s m . She has

even moved backward, so t o speak, h a v i n g r e t r e a t e d t o her

c u r r e n t p o s i t i o n from a more r a d i c a l M a r x i s t c r i t i q u e of

European hegemony and the i n e q u i t i e s of c o l o n i a l i s m .

L e s s i n g ' s i d e o l o g i c a l r e t r e a t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s t r i k i n g i n

comparison t o Nadine Gordimer's c a r e e r : Gordimer, l i v i n g i n the

h e a r t of the l a s t c o l o n i a l s o c i e t y i n A f r i c a — p r i v i l e g e d , but

c u t o f f from the h e a r t of e v e n t s , from the f u t u r e , by her w h i t e

s k i n — h a s not o n l y borne w i t n e s s t o i n j u s t i c e , but a l s o has

a d vocated and t r i e d t o r e a l i z e i n her f i c t i o n a f r e e b l a c k s t a t e

from which she would p r o b a b l y be e x c l u d e d . A l t h o u g h she i s

always aware of the a c t u a l and i m a g i n a t i v e l i m i t a t i o n s t h a t her

136

s k i n c o l o r and background impose, her v a l u e system has s u b t l y

s h i f t e d from w h i t e t o b l a c k , European t o A f r i c a n .

O l i v e S c h r e i n e r ' s empathy w i t h o t h e r r a c e s and c u l t u r e s

went f a r t h e r than most o t h e r European t h i n k e r s and w r i t e r s o f

the l a t e n i n e t e e n t h and e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r i e s . Isak Dinesen

took S c h r e i n e r ' s h e s i t a n t rapprochement a s i g n i f i c a n t s t e p

f u r t h e r by welcoming A f r i c a n p e o p l e a l o n g w i t h t h e i r p e r s p e c ­

t i v e , v a l u e s , symbols and language i n t o her i m a g i n a t i o n . Karen

B l i x e n t h e c o l o n i s t took f a r more from Kenya i n terms of c u l t u r e

and c i v i l i z a t i o n than she gave, i m p o r t a n t as her p r e s e n c e seems

t o have been f o r t h e A f r i c a n s who knew h e r . Her c h a r a c t e r and

i m a g i n a t i o n were p r o f o u n d l y e n r i c h e d by her e x p e r i e n c e as a

w h i t e s e t t l e r ; Out of A f r i c a i s a t r i b u t e t o t h e l a n d and p e o p l e

which acknowledges her d e b t . D o r i s L e s s i n g pays no such

t r i b u t e , acknowledges no such debt t o A f r i c a . In f a c t her

r e l a t i o n s h i p t o the w h i t e - s e t t l e r A f r i c a of her y outh i s the

most p r o b l e m a t i c a l of t h e group; her A f r i c a n f i c t i o n i s

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by gaps, e v a s i o n s and i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s t h a t o n l y

become more prominent i n her c o l o n i a l space f i c t i o n . 1 1

The Problem of " E x i l e " i n L e s s i n g ' s F i c t i o n

The absence of M o s e s — L e s s i n g ' s u n w i l l i n g n e s s or i n a b i l i t y

t o p o r t r a y the b l a c k c h a r a c t e r who p l a y s such a key r o l e i n her

f i r s t n o v e l — c o n t i n u e s t o weaken her A f r i c a n and c o l o n i a l

f i c t i o n . Rebecca O'Rourke s u g g e s t s t h a t ,

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The problems of what t o r e p r e s e n t and how, which i n c r e a s i n g l y come t o dominate L e s s i n g ' s f i c t i o n s , a r e a r g u a b l y grounded i n the problem of how, as a w h i t e s e t t l e r , t o r e p r e s e n t the r e l a t i o n o f o p p r e s s i o n : the i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l d i m e n s i o n s of her s i t u a t i o n as e x i l e , b o th w i t h i n and when d i s t a n t from 'her' c o u n t r y ("Doris L e s s i n g : E x i l e and E x c e p t i o n " 2 2 ) .

L e s s i n g has w r i t t e n t h a t , " A l l w h i t e A f r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e i s

the l i t e r a t u r e of e x i l e — n o t from Europe, but from A f r i c a "

("Desert C h i l d " ) . One can see from Martha Quest t h a t from an

e a r l y age L e s s i n g f e l t e x i l e d from A f r i c a , c u t o f f from t h e

r o o t s of A f r i c a n l i f e by the s i t u a t i o n o f w h i t e s e t t l e r d o m . She

was unable t o overcome her a l i e n a t i o n , which c o l o r s a l l her

w r i t i n g about So u t h e r n A f r i c a . Mary T u r n e r , l i k e Conrad's

K u r t z , walks i n t o t h e murderous embrace of the bush. Martha's

t e n t a t i v e good i n t e n t i o n s toward the A f r i c a n s a r e r i d i c u l e d by

the n a r r a t o r as mi s g u i d e d and i n e f f e c t u a l , i f not p o s i t i v e l y

h a r m f u l . (For example, i n A R i p p l e From the Storm the one b l a c k

member of Martha's communist c e l l i s a p o l i c e spy.) One of the

l e s s o n s t h a t Martha l e a r n s i s t h a t she can make no e f f e c t i v e

p o l i t i c a l or p e r s o n a l c o n t a c t w i t h t h e b l a c k m a j o r i t y , i n s p i t e

of her sympathy f o r t h e i r cause. In the C h i l d r e n of V i o l e n c e as

i n The Gra s s i s S i n g i n g the b l a c k s a re f o r t h e most p a r t a

m i s s i n g p r e s e n c e , a h o l e i n the t e x t which Martha f i l l s w i t h

images of her own d e s i r e f o r l i b e r a t i o n .

D o r i s L e s s i n g c r i t i c i s m has r e c e n t l y begun t o f o c u s more on

th e h o l e s and c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n her f i c t i o n , t h a n on i t s

n a r r a t i v e , t h e m a t i c and s y m b o l i c u n i t y , as had p r e v i o u s l y been

the c a s e . Jenny T a y l o r s e t s t h e tone of Notebooks/Memoirs/

A r c h i v e s : Reading and R e r e a d i n g D o r i s L e s s i n g by t h e s e remarks

about t h e C h i l d r e n of V i o l e n c e :

138

. . . the r e s o u r c e s [ o f t h e c o n v e n t i o n s of n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y r e a l i s m and the l i b e r a l - h u m a n i s t w o r l d view] cannot ' t r a n s c e n d ' t h e e x p e r i e n c e of d i s s o l u t i o n , e x i l e and d i s p l a c e m e n t which they r e p r e s e n t , d e s p i t e t h e i m p l i e d t o t a l i z i n g sweep of the n a r r a t i v e ( I n t r o d u c t i o n , 5 ) .

In t h e same volume N i c o l e Ward Jouve pursues t h e problem of

t h e gap between the r e a l i s t i c form of the C h i l d r e n o f V i o l e n c e ,

w i t h i t s p a r t i c u l a r i z e d p s y c h o l o g i c a l and s o c i a l l a n d s c a p e s , and

what comes t o be i t s dominant theme of t h e i m p e r s o n a l n a t u r e of

the s e l f . The t e x t "chooses t o i g n o r e t h a t i t i s i n f o r m e d by

detachment r a t h e r than r o o t e d n e s s . I t c l a i m s t o be i n c l u s i v e

when i t i s e x c l u s i v e . L i k e i t s h e r o i n e , i t chooses e x i l e . . ."

( 1 0 3 ) . Jouve c l a i m s t h a t , "The n o v e l s as t h e y proceed become

aware of something f a l s e , a v a c u i t y , which i s the f a l s i t y of

t h e i r own f i c t i o n a l mode" ( 1 3 0 ) .

As t h e s e c r i t i c s d e m o n s t r a t e , the t e x t c l a i m s an i n c l u s i v e -

ness and l o g i c a l p r o g r e s s i o n t h a t i t does not p o s s e s s . A l t h o u g h

i t i s on one l e v e l a B i l d u n g s r o m a n the main c h a r a c t e r i s g i v e n

no c h i l d h o o d ; she b e g i n s as a d i s g r u n t l e d a d o l e s c e n t and,

s k i p p i n g m a t u r i t y , ages i n t o a sage. Martha cannot r e a l l y be

s a i d t o grow a l o n g w i t h her y e a r s : she does not a c h i e v e any­

t h i n g , nor does she l e a r n v e r y much, a l t h o u g h we a r e t o l d t h a t

her mind has expanded beyond th e s h e l l t h a t i s t h e i n d i v i d u a l

c a l l e d M artha.

P a r t of t h e d i s j u n c t i o n i n the C h i l d r e n o f V i o l e n c e can be

e x p l a i n e d by i t s p u b l i s h i n g d a t e s : 1952 t o 1969. The f i r s t two

volumes, which do form a c o h e r e n t p a i r , were w r i t t e n i n

L e s s i n g ' s e a r l y y e a r s i n London, w h i l e she was a Communist P a r t y

member. A R i p p l e from the Storm, which i s l a r g e l y t a k e n up w i t h

139

R h odesian l e f t - w i n g p o l i t i c s , was p u b l i s h e d soon a f t e r L e s s i n g

had l e f t t he P a r t y , which e x p l a i n s the c y n i c i s m and sarcasm w i t h

which she d e s c r i b e s Martha's group. L a n d l o c k e d was p u b l i s h e d

t h r e e y e a r s a f t e r the The Golden Notebook, which had blown open

the B ildungsroman form f o r L e s s i n g . By The Four-Gated C i t y

L e s s i n g had abandoned the r e a l i s t i d e o l o g y which i n f o r m e d

Martha Quest and A Pr o p e r M a r r i a g e and i s b e s t r e p r e s e n t e d by

"The S m a l l P e r s o n a l V o i c e . "

L e s s i n g ' s i d e a of who Martha i s and what she r e p r e s e n t s

changes d u r i n g the c o u r s e of the n o v e l s e r i e s ; more fund a ­

m e n t a l l y , L e s s i n g ' s i d e a of what a n o v e l i s seems t o have

changed d u r i n g the w r i t i n g o f C h i l d r e n of V i o l e n c e . The l e v e l

a t which t h e n o v e l s b e s t cohere i s t h e a r c h e t y p a l , m y t h i c l e v e l ,

which c o n s i s t s o f s e v e r a l s y m b o l i c image p a t t e r n s . Most of

L e s s i n g ' s c r i t i c s have been encouraged by t h e s e m o t i f s t o read

the C h i l d r e n o f V i o l e n c e as an o r g a n i c w o r k . 1 2 But whereas they

s t r e s s t h e growth imagery of t r e e s and p l a n t s or t h e i d e a l c i t y

on the v e l d which f i n a l l y becomes London, the imagery of rooms

and houses seems t o l e a d i n a d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n : toward e x i l e

r a t h e r than i n t e g r a t i o n . I n c o n t r a s t t o the s c h e m a t i c , b r o a d l y

o u t l i n e d c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n i n the books, i n t e r i o r s a r e h i g h l y

p a r t i c u l a r i z e d and l o v i n g l y d e s c r i b e d . From the f i r s t p o w e r f u l

image of Martha's c h i l d h o o d p o l e - a n d - t h a t c h house (which L e s s i n g

has d e s c r i b e d i n Going Home as her own p a r e n t s ' house) u n t i l

Martha t a k e s r o o t a g a i n i n t h e m u l t i - l e v e l C o l d r i d g e house i n

London one senses t h a t M a r t h a / L e s s i n g i s l o o k i n g f o r a home, or

t r y i n g t o get back home. C e r t a i n l y she i s always l e a v i n g home.

140

S e v e r a l of t h e c r i t i c s I have quoted p o i n t , r a t h e r v a g u e l y ,

t o L e s s i n g ' s " e x i l e " as the r o o t of the problems i n her f i c t i o n .

I f by the p r i n c i p l e of e x i l e t h a t i n f o r m s her t e x t s we mean her

eager e m i g r a t i o n t o B r i t a i n , where she has l i v e d a p p a r e n t l y

c o n t e n t e d l y and i n d u b i t a b l y p r o l i f i c a l l y f o r alm o s t f o r t y y e a r s ,

then t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l c o n d i t i o n o f e x i l e does not i n i t s e l f

e x p l a i n her work. I f by e x i l e we mean a l i e n a t i o n and

m a r g i n a l i z a t i o n , mixed w i t h the o u t s i d e r ' s s k e p t i c i s m and

independence of mind, p l u s the e x - b e l i e v e r ' s sense o f b e t r a y a l ,

t h e n we come c l o s e r t o e x p l a i n i n g L e s s i n g . Examining the ways

i n which t h e c h a r a c t e r s i n her A f r i c a n f i c t i o n a r e a l i e n a t e d and

m a r g i n a l i z e d , or " e x i l e d , " the most i m p o r t a n t c a t e g o r i e s a r e

sex, r a c e , c o l o n i a l s t a t u s , and l e f t - w i n g p o l i t i c s .

Martha i s m a r g i n a l i z e d as a f e m a l e : t h e h i g h l y d e f i n e d sex

r o l e s of L e s s i n g ' s w h i t e - s e t t l e r s o c i e t y c o n f i n e her t o a

p a s s i v e , f r i v o l o u s p o s i t i o n , w h i l e her i n n e r s e l f , t he p a r t of

her t h a t responds t o p o e t r y and i d e a s , i s b u r i e d , w a i t i n g t o be

reawakened. I t i s by her in v o l v e m e n t i n a s e c r e t p o l i t i c a l

group t h a t she f i n a l l y e x t r i c a t e s h e r s e l f from r e s p e c t a b l e

c o l o n i a l s o c i e t y . Yet Martha t h e r e b e l i s a l s o a m a r g i n a l

f i g u r e ; her group i s regarde d w i t h s u s p i c i o n by t h e w h i t e s , i s

i r r e l e v a n t t o the b l a c k s and " c o l o u r e d s " who a r e the o s t e n s i b l e

o b j e c t s of i t s schemes, and f u r t h e r m o r e , i s c u t o f f from the

r e a l a c t i o n o f a w o r l d a t war o u t s i d e the c o l o n y .

I t i s t h e i s s u e of L e s s i n g ' s p o l i t i c s as they a f f e c t t h e

theme of e x i l e i n her f i c t i o n t h a t has been l e a s t examined by

her c r i t i c s , d e s p i t e her e v i d e n t p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h j o i n i n g and

141

e s p e c i a l l y w i t h l e a v i n g the Communist P a r t y i n the l a s t t h r e e

volumes of the C h i l d r e n of V i o l e n c e and i n The Golden Notebook.

B r i t i s h communists i n the n i n e t e e n - f i f t i e s were m a r g i n a l i z e d ,

d i v i d e d , and made b i t t e r w i t h b e t r a y a l by the r e v e l a t i o n s o f the

S t a l i n i s t death camps, crowned by the S o v i e t i n v a s i o n of Hungary

i n 1956. I t i s L e s s i n g ' s p r o f o u n d d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t w i t h l e f t -

wing p o l i t i c s i n B r i t a i n , t h a t , as r e f l e c t e d i n her A f r i c a n

f i c t i o n , s e t s i t s i r o n i c and o f t e n d e s p a i r i n g t o n e . Her p o s t -

Golden Notebook f i c t i o n i s i n l a r g e p a r t an escape from

p o l i t i c s — i n i t s s u b j e c t s (the w o r l d of n o n r a t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e )

and i t s forms (a r e j e c t i o n o f the s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e a l i s m

t h a t was connected t o her communist-humanist i d e a l ) .

To summarize, t h e n , L e s s i n g ' s a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l c h a r a c t e r s

are a l i e n a t e d as women i n male-dominated s o c i e t y , as w h i t e s i n

A f r i c a and c o l o n i a l s i n B r i t a i n , as communists i n R hodesia and

ex-communists i n London. The web of " e x i l e " i n her f i c t i o n v i e s

w i t h O l i v e S c h r e i n e r ' s i n i t s c o m p l e x i t y , and i n d i c a t e s some of

the s t r e n g t h s — s u c h as d a r i n g and o r i g i n a l i t y — a n d w e a k n e s s e s —

such as i d e o l o g i c a l and f o r m a l c o n f u s i o n — t h a t t h e i r t e x t s

s h a r e . D i n e s e n , i n c o n t r a s t , i s s i m p l e r . She found i n " e x i l e "

from Denmark her freedom; she found i n " e x i l e " from Kenya the

w i l l t o r e c r e a t e her l o s t Eden. Nadine Gordimer has chosen y e t

a n o ther r o a d , t h a t of f i g h t i n g e x i l e , of t r y i n g t o overcome i n

her f i c t i o n her m a r g i n a l s t a t u s as a w h i t e i n a South A f r i c a on

the v e r g e of r e v o l u t i o n . I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t

w i t h contemporary h i s t o r y t h a t overshadows L e s s i n g ' s f i c t i o n ,

G o rdimer's f i c t i o n has been c l o s e l y i n f o r m e d by the r e c e n t

142

h i s t o r y of South A f r i c a ; her work has been n o u r i s h e d by t h e

p o l i t i c a l i s s u e s , r a c i a l c o n f l i c t s , t r a g e d i e s and hopes of her

s o c i e t y .

To pursue t h i s comparison o f the f o u r w r i t e r s i n f o r m a l

t e r m s , S c h r e i n e r ' s n o v e l s eschew seamless form i n t h e i n t e r e s t s

of h o n e s t y and a u t h e n t i c i t y ; t h e i r n a r r a t i v e i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s ,

changes of v o i c e and mode r e f l e c t t h e p r o c e s s of t h e i r c r e a t i o n .

From Man t o Man i n p a r t i c u l a r r e v e a l s t h e l e n g t h y s t r u g g l e of

i t s c o m p o s i t i o n : S c h r e i n e r ' s attempt t o i n c o r p o r a t e her changing

i d e a s , p l u s , p e r h a p s , her f e a r o f f i n i s h i n g i t . I s a k D i n e s e n ,

i n c o n t r a s t , succeeds i n r e a l i z i n g t he seamless u n i t y between

theme and form t h a t d i d not i n t e r e s t S c h r e i n e r . D i n e s e n , w h i l e

o s t e n s i b l y w r i t i n g a u t o b i o g r a p h y , makes i t c l e a r t h a t she i s

a c t u a l l y t e l l i n g a s t o r y — o f a d v e n t u r e , d a r i n g , b e a u t i e s and

m a r v e l s — a n d t h e re a d e r i s not t o expect a n y t h i n g t h a t might mar

the t a l e . Thus one does not f e e l c h e a t e d t h a t she has e d i t e d

out c e r t a i n u n p l e a s a n t f a c t s and u n f l a t t e r i n g d e t a i l s . Even i f

one knows the s u b t e x t , the " r e a l " s t o r y o f Karen B l i x e n , one i s

not c o n s c i o u s o f gaps, d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s or d i s r u p t i o n s i n the

" f i c t i o n a l " t e x t .

What then makes D o r i s L e s s i n g a more d i f f i c u l t and

p r o b l e m a t i c w r i t e r than S c h r e i n e r or D i n e s e n — o r Gordimer, who

f a c e d w i t h many of L e s s i n g ' s p roblems, such as t h e l a c k of

ac c e s s t o b l a c k c o n s c i o u s n e s s , d e a l s more d i r e c t l y , more

t r u t h f u l l y w i t h race? I t i s p a r t l y a r e f u s a l t o be s e l f -

c o n s c i o u s about language and form. When she i s so, as i n

143

The Golden Notebook and The Memoirs of a S u r v i v o r , she w r i t e s

m a s t e r p i e c e s . I n The Golden Notebook Anna c o n f r o n t s her

w r i t e r ' s demons, t h e i n t e r f a c e between a u t o b i o g r a p h y , h i s t o r y

and f i c t i o n , her c y n i c i s m and u n b e l i e f , and her own e x i l e and

detachment. C h i l d r e n of V i o l e n c e , i n which t h e i s s u e of w r i t i n g

i s b u r i e d , i s a weaker work.

What L e s s i n g has s a i d — a n d l e f t u n s a i d — a b o u t her A f r i c a n

c o l o n i a l h e r o i n e s and t h e i r r e l a t i o n t o t h e i r h i s t o r y and

c u l t u r e i n v i t e s comparison w i t h her c l o s e contemporary Nadine

Gordimer, who d e s p i t e the b i o g r a p h i c a l p a r a l l e l s w i t h L e s s i n g ,

and d e s p i t e t h e s i m i l a r c o n t e n t o f t h e i r e a r l y work, has become

a s t r i k i n g l y d i f f e r e n t w r i t e r .

144

D o r i s L e s s i n g Notes

^ M i c h a e l Thorpe, i n D o r i s L e s s i n g ' s A f r i c a , n otes the c o n n e c t i o n between L e s s i n g and S c h r e i n e r , w r i t i n g t h a t ". . . Martha Quest seems t o tak e up the t h r e a d where S c h r e i n e r dropped i t i n The S t o r y o f an A f r i c a n Farm . . ." ( 5 8 ) . However Thorpe does not d e v e l o p t h i s i d e a ; nor have any o t h e r c r i t i c s . The c o n n e c t i o n between L e s s i n g and Dinesen does not seem t o have been n o t i c e d a t a l l by L e s s i n g ' s c r i t i c s .

2 L e s s i n g has w r i t t e n about her p a r e n t s and c h i l d h o o d i n " A f t e r w o r d t o The S t o r y of an A f r i c a n Farm," "My F a t h e r , " and Going Home. I have t a k e n o t h e r b i o g r a p h i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n from Dorothy B r e w s t e r , D o r i s L e s s i n g and M i c h a e l Thorpe, D o r i s L e s s i n g ' s A f r i c a .

3 i n a 1980 i n t e r v i e w L e s s i n g j u s t i f i e s her p o r t r a y a l of Moses by s a y i n g t h a t , "With t h e anonymity I t r i e d t o sum up how the w h i t e p e o p l e would see someone l i k e t h i s because they wouldn't see him v e r y much as an i n d i v i d u a l a t a l l . " But she goes on t o admit t h a t , ". . . 1 wrote The G r a s s i s S i n g i n g i n Rhod e s i a as a w h i t e p e r s o n and my c o n t a c t w i t h t h e b l a c k s as e q u a l s was j u s t n o n e x i s t e n t " ( I n t e r v i e w w i t h M i c h a e l Thorpe, K u n a p i p i 102).

4 L e s s i n g makes t h e s e comments i n Going Home (17 - 2 0 ) , n o t i n g the s o c i a l - h i s t o r i c a l p a r a l l e l s between w h i t e - s e t t l e r A f r i c a and p r e - r e v o l u t i o n a r y R u s s i a , and s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h o s e w i s h i n g t o und e r s t a n d Rhodesian or South A f r i c a n s o c i e t y s h o u l d read Anna K a r e n i n a . I n a r e c e n t i n t e r v i e w she r e i t e r a t e s t h e s e views ( I n t e r v i e w w i t h Eve B e r t e l s e n , J o u r n a l of Commonwealth L i t e r a t u r e 148).

5 I have not been a b l e t o l o c a t e the s o u r c e o f t h i s q u o t e , perhaps i t i s a p a r a p h r a s e .

*>Eve B e r t e l s e n d i s c u s s e s L e s s i n g ' s use o f the S l e e p i n g Beauty myth, i n which Martha i s not o n l y "the a c t i v e q u e s t e r , " but a l s o "the e n t h r a l l e d p r i n c e s s " ("Doris L e s s i n g ' s R h o d e s i a " 33-34). T h i s i s p a r t of her argument t h a t t h e r e a r e "competing d i s c o u r s e s " i n C h i l d r e n of V i o l e n c e .

^ F r e d e r i c k K a r l was one o f the f i r s t c r i t i c s t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t the b l a c k s r e p r e s e n t Martha's emerging s e l f i n her ques t f o r p e r s o n a l freedom ("Doris L e s s i n g i n the S i x t i e s : The New Anatomy of M e l a n c h o l y " 2 5 ) .

145

^ M a r t i n Green o f f e r s an i n t r i g u i n g r e a d i n g of Memoirs as a c o l o n i a l n o v e l , s e e i n g i t as an i n v e r t e d adventure s t o r y about the end o f the B r i t i s h e m pire, an i r o n i c " l a s t r e c a p i t u l a t i o n " o f Robinson C r u s o e , (The E n g l i s h Novel i n the T w e n t i e t h C e n t u r y , 199-202).

^ P a t r i c i a M e r i v a l e w r i t e s t h a t , " D o r i s L e s s i n g has w r i t t e n an a r t i s t - p a r a b l e w i t h an a n t i p h o n a l s t r u c t u r e y i e l d i n g a s e l f - r e f l e x i v e t e x t . . . . I t i s an a l l e g o r y of the way memory and e x p e r i e n c e are summoned t o f l e s h out the c r e a t i v e concept t h r u s t upon an a u t h o r : the c h a r a c t e r s thus c r e a t e d ' l i v e 1 f o r the l e n g t h of the book, and then ' r e t u r n ' t o the t r a n s c e n d e n t a l w o r l d of the i m a g i n a t i o n " ("Neo-Modernism i n the Canadian A r t i s t P a r a b l e , " 203-4).

1 0 W i l l i a m Plomer quotes the g r e a t i m p e r i a l i s t C e c i l Rhodes as d e c l a r i n g , " I would annex the p l a n e t s i f I c o u l d " ( C e c i l Rhodes, 165).

H T h u s I cannot agree w i t h K a t h e r i n e F i s h b u r n ' s c l a i m t h a t i n S h i k a s t a L e s s i n g has " f u l l y r e a l i z e d the d i a l e c t i c a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n h e r e n t i n s c i e n c e f i c t i o n " (The Unexpected U n i v e r s e of D o r i s L e s s i n g 56) .

12por example, Mary Ann S i n g l e t o n , The C i t y and the V e l d ; R o b e r t a R u b e n s t e i n , The N o v e l i s t i c V i s i o n of D o r i s L e s s i n g ; and E l l e n Cronan Rose, The Tree O u t s i d e the Window. B e t s y D r a i n e , i n Substance Under P r e s s u r e , a t t e m p t s the more complex approach of s e e i n g L e s s i n g ' s f i c t i o n as an e v o l v i n g d i a l e c t i c of forms.

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Chapter S i x

Nadine Gordimer: Eve Bears W i t n e s s

I n Martha Quest and subsequent n o v e l s , D o r i s L e s s i n g

r e w r o t e O l i v e S c h r e i n e r ' s S t o r y o f an A f r i c a n Farm, e x t e n d i n g

t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r of the mother n o v e l t o i n c l u d e t w e n t i e t h -

c e n t u r y e v e n t s and i d e a s . L e s s i n g e n l a r g e d upon S c h r e i n e r ' s

i n c i p i e n t , s t i l l l a r g e l y i m p l i c i t c o n n e c t i o n between s e x u a l and

r a c i a l i n e q u a l i t i e s i n c o l o n i a l A f r i c a . However, she a l s o

s h a r e d some of the s o c i a l f a c t o r s and a t t i t u d e s of I s a k D i n e s e n ;

i n s p i t e o f her p o l i t i c a l r a d i c a l i s m , she m a i n t a i n e d an a t t i t u d e

o f B r i t i s h s u p e r i o r i t y which was r e v e a l e d i n her space f i c t i o n .

Nadine Gordimer, a n a t i v e South A f r i c a n f o u r y e a r s younger

than D o r i s L e s s i n g , has b u i l t her f i c t i o n f i r m l y upon

S c h r e i n e r ' s r e a l i s m and p r o g r e s s i v e p o l i t i c s , w h i l e p u r s u i n g , i n

o r i g i n a l d i r e c t i o n s , Isak Dinesen's r o m a n t i c - m y t h i c v i s i o n of

A f r i c a . Of the f o u r w r i t e r s , Gordimer has produced the l a r g e s t

body of f i c t i o n d e a l i n g w i t h A f r i c a . She i s South A f r i c a ' s most

i m p o r t a n t w h i t e w r i t e r . Whereas L e s s i n g ' s r e p u t a t i o n seems

i n c r e a s i n g l y t o r e s t upon her e a r l i e r n o v e l s , from The Grass i s

S i n g i n g t o The Memoirs of a S u r v i v o r , Gordimer's l i t e r a r y

s t a t u r e has grown w i t h each new n o v e l . I n t h e f i f t i e s and

s i x t i e s she was l i t t l e known o u t s i d e South A f r i c a — i n c o n t r a s t

t o L e s s i n g ' s wide p o p u l a r i t y d u r i n g t h a t p e r i o d . But Gordimer's

n o v e l s o f t h e s e v e n t i e s and e i g h t i e s , i n c l u d i n g The C o nserva ­

t i o n i s t , B u r g e r ' s Daughter and J u l y ' s P e o p l e , have a t t r a c t e d

i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c c l a i m .

147

I n s h o r t , h a v i n g begun as a p r o f i c i e n t but c o n v e n t i o n a l

w r i t e r w i t h an a p p a r e n t l y p r o v i n c i a l s u b j e c t of l i m i t e d

i n t e r e s t , she has emerged as the major f i c t i o n a l v o i c e of what

i s i n e f f e c t t h e l a s t A f r i c a n c o l o n i a l s o c i e t y , whose c o n t i n u i n g

e x i s t e n c e i s o f growing i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n c e r n . Reviewers l i k e

t o compare her t o Turgenev, T o l s t o y and Chekhov. Perhaps her

i n c r e a s i n g a u t h o r i t y as a w r i t e r , stems, as d i d t h e i r s , from the

i n h e r e n t l y d r a m a t i c s u b j e c t of a r u l i n g c l a s s t h r e a t e n e d ,

exposed, and beckoned, by r e v o l u t i o n a r y change. L i k e Chekhov,

Gordimer f o c u s e s on the everyday s i t u a t i o n , the b a n a l

c o n v e r s a t i o n , and her c h a r a c t e r s ' i n t r o s p e c t i o n t o show how they

i n t e r n a l i z e and p e r s o n a l i z e h i s t o r i c a l moments t h a t i n a sense

move f o r w a r d w i t h o u t them, t h a t e x c l u d e them. L i k e T o l s t o y she

r e j e c t s serfdom/white supremacy, but remains an a r i s t o c r a t by

v i r t u e of her w h i t e s k i n . L i k e Turgenev she i s a l i e n a t e d from

c z a r i s t R u s s i a n / a p a r t h e i d South A f r i c a , but a l s o by v i r t u e o f

her background i s somewhat e s t r a n g e d from t h e w o r l d o u t s i d e her

n a t i v e b o r d e r s . 1

U n l i k e many w h i t e E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g w r i t e r s from Southern

A f r i c a , who chose or were f o r c e d t o e m i g r a t e t o B r i t a i n , and

u n l i k e most b l a c k South A f r i c a n w r i t e r s , who have been c e n s o r e d ,

i m p r i s o n e d , e x i l e d or k i l l e d , Nadine Gordimer has been a b l e t o

c o n t i n u e t o l i v e and w r i t e i n her own c o u n t r y , and t h u s t o

c h r o n i c l e f o r her growing body of r e a d e r s both the mundane

d e t a i l s and h i g h t r a g e d y o f l i f e i n South A f r i c a . However, she

w i s e l y does not p u r p o r t t o speak f o r the nonwhite m a j o r i t y i n

her c o u n t r y . Her f i c t i o n c e n t e r s on the Johannesburg she

148

i n h a b i t s ; most of her c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r s a r e w h i t e , E n g l i s h -

s p e a k i n g , m i d d l e - c l a s s p r o f e s s i o n a l s , p r e d o m i n a n t l y but not

e x c l u s i v e l y f e m a l e , from whose p o i n t of view she i n t e r p r e t s the

l a r g e r s o c i e t y .

Her e a r l y s t o r i e s and her f i r s t n o v e l i n p a r t i c u l a r d e a l

d i r e c t l y w i t h her own c h i l d h o o d i n a W i t w a t e r s r a n d m i n i n g town,

and her y o u t h i n Johannesburg. She was born i n S p r i n g s i n 1923.

The daughter of J e w i s h immigrant p a r e n t s , she seems t o have l e d

the p r o t e c t e d , c o m f o r t a b l e l i f e of a w h i t e g i r l i n a s m a l l

town. 2 Except i n The L y i n g Days and a few of her s t o r i e s

Gordimer has not been concerned much w i t h J e w i s h n e s s . H o w e v e r —

and t h i s i s e v i d e n t i n her f i r s t n o v e l — b e i n g J e w i s h must have

s e t her a p a r t as a c h i l d , and thus must have h e l p e d t o g i v e her

the p a r t i a l o u t s i d e r ' s , the c r i t i c ' s , view of w h i t e South

A f r i c a n s o c i e t y t h a t she s h a r e s w i t h S c h r e i n e r , Dinesen and

L e s s i n g . S c h r e i n e r was a s e l f - p r o c l a i m e d o u t s i d e r almost from

b i r t h ; a m i s t r e a t e d , m i s u n d e r s t o o d female c h i l d whose f a m i l y

d i s i n t e g r a t e d , who was w i t h o u t p r o p e r t y or means, she remained a

c o u r a g e o u s l y independent s o c i a l c r i t i c of e v e r y t h i n g from s e x u a l

mores t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i c y . The Danish Dinesen was an o u t ­

s i d e r i n a B r i t i s h t e r r i t o r y , a s i t u a t i o n which was u n d e r l i n e d

f o r her i n t h e j i n g o i s t i c c l i m a t e of the F i r s t World War. She

a l s o a r r i v e d i n B r i t i s h E a s t A f r i c a d u r i n g a p e r i o d when a l l of

the s e t t l e r s were i n e f f e c t o u t s i d e r s : a d v e n t u r e r s , l o n e r s ,

r o m a n t i c s i n an unknown c o u n t r y — a n d she c h e r i s h e d t h i s view of

h e r s e l f and her f r i e n d s . D o r i s L e s s i n g a r r i v e d a t her o u t s i d e r

s t a t u s m a i n l y through p o l i t i c s , but a l s o as a r e s u l t of the

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c r i t i c a l c a s t of mind she seems t o have had even as a c h i l d ,

based perhaps on an e a r l y sense of h e r s e l f as a w r i t e r and a

co n c o m i t a n t sense of i n t e l l e c t u a l i s o l a t i o n .

Gordimer a l s o had an e a r l y sense o f h e r s e l f as a w r i t e r and

has spoken o f an i n t e l l e c t u a l i s o l a t i o n s i m i l a r t o L e s s i n g ' s and

S c h r e i n e r ' s . 3 For Gordimer as f o r S c h r e i n e r and L e s s i n g , books

g u i d e d her c r i t i c a l p e r c e p t i o n of her s u r r o u n d i n g s . She has

d e s c r i b e d how she " e x p r o p r i a t e d " B r i t i s h l i t e r a t u r e t o s e r v e her

own s e t t i n g and s i t u a t i o n , how Pepys, B u r t o n , George E l i o t ,

D.H. Lawrence, and E.M. F o r s t e r , f r e e d from "the dead w e i g h t " of

t h e i r t r a d i t i o n , g u i d e d her i n t e l l e c t u a l q u e s t . She found

A Passage t o I n d i a , w i t h i t s emphasis on the complex p e r s o n a l

r e l a t i o n s between "the h o l l o w n e s s o f the Haves and the s t r e n g t h -

without-power of the Have-nots" the b e s t n o v e l about

c o l o n i a l i s m , 4 w h i l e t h e h e r o i n e o f Middlemarch, Dorothea Brooke,

was her f a v o r i t e female c h a r a c t e r . Lawrence encouraged her t o

l o o k beyond the " g e n t e e l y - h y p o c r i t i c a l " p r o v i n c i a l i s m of w h i t e

South A f r i c a , and t o seek the t r u t h through her senses.5 Not

s u r p r i s i n g l y , Gordimer was i n f l u e n c e d by many of the same books

as L e s s i n g . The L y i n g Days, l i k e Martha Quest, b e t r a y s an e a r l y

i n t e r e s t i n D.H. Lawrence, who was a model f o r a s p i r i n g a r t i s t s

t r y i n g t o break f r e e o f m i d d l e - c l a s s t a b o o s . 6

N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t was the v e r y a c t of w r i t i n g t h a t p o l i t i ­

c i z e d h e r , Gordimer has c l a i m e d . She began w r i t i n g as a c h i l d ,

p u b l i s h i n g her f i r s t s t o r y a t f i f t e e n , her f i r s t volume a t

twe n t y - s e v e n . She remembers:

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So i t was t h a t I d i d n ' t wake up t o A f r i c a n s and the shameful e n o r m i t y o f the c o l o u r bar t h r o u g h a y o u t h f u l s p e l l i n the Communist P a r t y , as d i d most of my c o n t e m p o r a r i e s w i t h whom I share t h e r e j e c t i o n of w h i t e supremacy [ e . g . D o r i s L e s s i n g ] , but through the a p p a r e n t l y e s o t e r i c s p e l e o l o g y of doubt, l e d by K a f k a r a t h e r than Marx. And the 'problems' of my c o u n t r y d i d not s e t me w r i t i n g ; on the c o n t r a r y , i t was l e a r n ­i n g t o w r i t e t h a t s e n t me f a l l i n g , f a l l i n g t hrough the s u r f a c e of 'the South A f r i c a n way of l i f e ' ( L e a v i n g S c h o o l - I I , 63-64).

Gordimer has been much more r e t i c e n t about her p r i v a t e l i f e

t h an about her w r i t e r ' s l i f e . She was a p p a r e n t l y a l e s s r e b e l ­

l i o u s and more c o n v e n t i o n a l c h i l d than were the o t h e r t h r e e

w r i t e r s . She was s e t a p a r t from o t h e r c h i l d r e n however by what

her mother c l a i m e d was a s e r i o u s h e a r t c o n d i t i o n . She was

f o r b i d d e n p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y and even t a k e n out of s c h o o l :

a s i t u a t i o n which c o u l d o n l y have r e i n f o r c e d her l o n e l i n e s s and

her sense of d i f f e r e n c e . John Cooke, i n The N o v e l s of Nadine

Gordimer, argues c o n v i n c i n g l y f o r a s u b t e x t i n her n o v e l s o f the

theme of "the mother's house" which o r i g i n a t e s i n Gordimer's

o v e r l y s h e l t e r e d , r e p r e s s e d c h i l d h o o d . T h i s h a l f - h i d d e n under­

l y i n g p a t t e r n i n her f i c t i o n c a l l s t o mind c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s w i t h

the o p p r e s s i v e m o t h e r - f i g u r e s o f S c h r e i n e r and L e s s i n g , Tant'

Sannie and Mrs. Quest, who c l e a r l y resemble Rebecca S c h r e i n e r

and E m i l y T a y l e r .

A l t h o u g h u n l i k e the o t h e r w r i t e r s Gordimer a t t e n d e d

u n i v e r s i t y , she d e s c r i b e s h e r s e l f as e s s e n t i a l l y s e l f - e d u c a t e d

(as d i d S c h r e i n e r , Dinesen and L e s s i n g ) , c l a i m i n g t h a t " I ' v e had

l i t t l e f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n r e a l l y " ( I n t e r v i e w w i t h J a n n i k a H u r w i t t ,

P a r i s Review 8 8 ) . She s t r e s s e s her i n t e l l e c t u a l a l o n e n e s s .

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The whole e x i s t e n t i a l a s p e c t o f l i f e was never d i s ­c u s s e d . I , o f c o u r s e , approached i t through books, thought about i t on my own. I t was as s e c r e t as i t would have been t o d i s c u s s my p a r e n t s ' sex l i f e . I t was something so p r i v a t e because I f e l t t h a t t h e r e was nobody w i t h whom I c o u l d t a l k about t h e s e t h i n g s , j u s t nobody ( I n t e r v i e w w i t h J a n n i k a H u r w i t t , P a r i s Review 92-93).

Gordimer's s t a t e m e n t s c o r r e s p o n d w i t h L e s s i n g ' s r e c e n t d e s c r i p ­

t i o n o f her c h i l d h o o d :

You must remember t h a t I was s t u c k i n a v e r y p r o v i n c i a l p l a c e w i t h no one t o t a l k t o . I had no one at a l l t o d i s c u s s a n y t h i n g w i t h . When I say no one, I mean no one. I was r e a d i n g q u i e t l y t h e r e by my s e l f and I was r e a d i n g the most e x t r a o r d i n a r y c o l l e c t i o n of w r i t e r s . . . . I t h i n k I was i n f l u e n c e d much more by a k i n d of l a r g e n e s s o f a t t i t u d e , which i s what you f i n d i n 'great l i t e r a t u r e ' , which was t h e o p p o s i t e of a n y t h i n g around me ( I n t e r v i e w w i t h M i c h a e l Thorpe, K u n a p i p i 9 9 ) .

A year a t the U n i v e r s i t y of the W i t w a t e r s r a n d i n

Johannesburg seems t o have done f o r Gordimer what London d i d f o r

S c h r e i n e r and the S a l i s b u r y communists f o r L e s s i n g : i n t r o d u c e d

her t o the s o c i e t y of i n t e l l e c t u a l s , a r t i s t s and l e f t - w i n g

p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t y . L i k e L e s s i n g she made her f i r s t t r i p t o

Europe and America a t t h i r t y (when she was a l r e a d y an e s t a b ­

l i s h e d w r i t e r ) ; u n l i k e L e s s i n g , g o i n g abroad made her r e a l i z e

t h a t "home was A f r i c a " ( I n t e r v i e w w i t h J a n n i k a H u r w i t t , P a r i s

Review 8 7 ) .

The s a l i e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f Gordimer's l i f e , t h e n , as

compared w i t h the l i v e s of the o t h e r t h r e e w r i t e r s , has been i t s

e m o t i o n a l and g e o g r a p h i c a l s t a b i l i t y . She w r i t e s w i t h a w e l l -

t h o u g h t - o u t e t h i c a l s t a n c e from an o m i n i s c i e n t , detached George

E l i o t - l i k e c e n t e r of c o n s c i o u s n e s s .

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In c o n t r a s t , O l i v e S c h r e i n e r ' s i n t e l l e c t u a l and p s y c h o l o g i ­

c a l c r i s e s e n t e r p r o m i n e n t l y i n t o her w r i t i n g , e n r i c h i n g but

u l t i m a t e l y i n h i b i t i n g her c r e a t i v i t y . I sak Dinesen's i l l n e s s e s

and stormy l o v e a f f a i r s a r e c o n s p i c u o u s by t h e i r absence i n her

memoir, as she e l a b o r a t e l y w r i t e s around them, m a g i c a l l y

t r a n s f o r m i n g the p a t t e r n o f r e a l l i f e i n t o a r t . D o r i s L e s s i n g ' s

t r o u b l e d h e r o i n e s l i v e p r e c a r i o u s l y on the e m o t i o n a l and p s y c h i c

f r o n t i e r s ; t h e i r q u e s t s r e f l e c t her own i n t e l l e c t u a l r e s t l e s s ­

ness and deep s k e p t i c i s m .

O l i v e S c h r e i n e r spent much of her a d u l t l i f e t r a v e l i n g

between South A f r i c a and E n g l a n d , unable t o f u l l y b e l o n g i n

e i t h e r s o c i e t y ; her sense of a l i e n a t i o n i s t r a n s l a t e d i n t o

themes of entrapment and escape, the d i s i n h e r i t e d c h i l d , and

Undine. I s a k Dinesen's s o j o u r n i n E a s t A f r i c a was a l i v i n g

dream from which she awoke t o w r i t e a f a n t a s y of Eden and i t s

l o s s . For D o r i s L e s s i n g and her c h a r a c t e r s , l i f e i n Southern

A f r i c a ended when she e m i g r a t e d t o B r i t a i n . G ordimer, who has

t r a v e l e d w i d e l y and l i v e d b r i e f l y i n Europe and A m e r i c a , has

always r e t u r n e d t o t h e Johannesburg a r e a where she grew up. She

says s i m p l y , "To go i n t o e x i l e i s t o l o s e your p l a c e i n the

w o r l d " ( I n t e r v i e w i n The New York T i m e s ) .

The f a i t h f u l r e n d e r i n g of her " p l a c e i n the w o r l d " has l e n t

her f i c t i o n a u t h e n t i c i t y and resonance; her w r i t i n g has an

h i s t o r i c a l sweep t h a t i s l a c k i n g i n the o t h e r a u t h o r s . Her

n o v e l s and most of her s t o r i e s a r e h i s t o r i c a l l y s p e c i f i c : each

i s l i n k e d t o a s i g n i f i c a n t moment i n p o s t war South A f r i c a n

c h r o n o l o g y . T h i s was not a t f i r s t o b v i o u s because, p a r t i c u l a r l y

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i n her e a r l y work, p u b l i c e v e n t s were b u r i e d i n p r i v a t e

c o n c e r n s ; h i s t o r y was i n t e r p r e t e d t h r o u g h — a n d p a r t l y o b s c u r e d

b y — t h e p a r o c h i a l c o n c e r n s o f her c h a r a c t e r s . A t h o u g h t f u l

r e a d i n g of her work, however, shows t h a t from the b e g i n n i n g

Gordimer has t r e a t e d her c o u n t r y ' s r a c i a l p o l i t i c s as the

d e t e r m i n i n g f a c t o r i n her c h a r a c t e r s ' l i v e s . Her work i s a

stu d y of the w h i t e psyche i n i t s r e l a t i o n t o b l a c k A f r i c a , a

p o r t r a i t o f a r u l i n g c l a s s g r a d u a l l y l o s i n g i t s g r i p , wracked by

s e l f doubt and g u i l t , p r e s e n t e d w i t h o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r a l t r u i s m

and even h e r o i s m , and f i n a l l y , f a c e d w i t h i t s own e x t i n c t i o n .

As i f i n s p i r e d by t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y h i s t o r y which i t has so

c l o s e l y f o l l o w e d , her f i c t i o n has become more s o p h i s t i c a t e d both

f o r m a l l y and i d e o l o g i c a l l y . C e r t a i n l y a r t and p o l i t i c s , s t y l e

and i d e o l o g y a r e c l o s e l y c o nnected i n her work, as she

p e n e t r a t e s more and more d e e p l y beneath the s u r f a c e o f South

A f r i c a n s o c i e t y .

The L y i n g Days

The L y i n g Days i s Gordimer's Martha Quest, her e q u i v a l e n t

o f The S t o r y o f an A f r i c a Farm. L i k e t h e s e n o v e l s i t i s c l e a r l y

a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l , but i t i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of her g r e a t e r o b j e c ­

t i v i t y and detachment t h a t , whereas L e s s i n g ' s and S c h r e i n e r ' s

n o v e l s a r e p a i n f u l l y c l o s e t o the r e a l l i v e s o f t h e i r a u t h o r s ,

The L y i n g Days d i f f e r s from the b i o g r a p h y of i t s author i n

s e v e r a l s i g n i f i c a n t r e s p e c t s . F i r s t of a l l t h e young h e r o i n e ,

H e l e n Shaw, i s a WASP, t o whom J e w i s h c u l t u r e i s a l l u r i n g but

a l i e n . Too, she i s weaker, more i n d e c i s i v e and i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c

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t h a n one imagines her s u c c e s s f u l young author t o have been. A l l

i n a l l , Gordimer, u n l i k e S c h r e i n e r and L e s s i n g , c a l c u l a t e d l y

d i s t a n c e s h e r s e l f from her p r o t a g o n i s t , even though she has

H e l e n n a r r a t e the n o v e l i n t h e f i r s t p e r s o n . S c h r e i n e r and

L e s s i n g b oth use t h e t h i r d p e r s o n v o i c e f o r n a r r a t i o n , p r o b a b l y

t o impose a measure of o b j e c t i v i t y on t h e i r s t o r i e s . The

r e l a t i o n between I s a k Dinesen and Karen B l i x e n i s o f c o u r s e a

d i f f e r e n t one, f o r Dinesen uses a u t o b i o g r a p h y as a mask f o r

f i c t i o n .

Compared t o Karen B l i x e n , L y n d a l l or Martha Quest, Helen

Shaw i s a muted and c a u t i o u s h e r o i n e . Where th e y a r e e x t r a ­

o r d i n a r y , s t r o n g - w i l l e d , and r e b e l l i o u s , she i s o r d i n a r y ,

p a s s i v e , and o b e d i e n t . At f i r s t she e a g e r l y embraces her

p a r e n t s ' v a l u e s and o n l y g r a d u a l l y , almost i n v o l u n t a r i l y , t u r n s

a g a i n s t them. I f she i s l e s s d r a m a t i c a l l y s e l f - d e s t r u c t i v e than

L y n d a l l or M a r t h a , she i s a l s o more m a l l e a b l e i n the hands of

p e o p l e (her l o v e r P a u l , f o r i n s t a n c e ) and e v e n t s . She i s a

c o m p a r a t i v e l y c o l o r l e s s c h a r a c t e r , t h e n , who t a k e s on the hues

of her time and p l a c e ; Gordimer uses Helen's i m p r e s s i o n a b l e

p e r s o n a l i t y t o p o r t r a y the i n f l u e n c e of the s o c i a l c l i m a t e upon

c h a r a c t e r . Many of her c h a r a c t e r s a r e such barometers of

s p e c i f i c c o n d i t i o n s and a t t i t u d e s , o b s e r v e r s r a t h e r than a c t o r s .

They do not p i t t hemselves h e r o i c a l l y a g a i n s t o b s t a c l e s and

i n j u s t i c e ; r a t h e r they f i n d t h e m s e l v e s c o m p e l l e d t o a c t i n

p a r t i c u l a r ways by t h e i r s i t u a t i o n . I n t h i s r e s p e c t Gordimer's

c h a r a c t e r s resemble L e s s i n g ' s s o c i a l t y p e s . H e l e n , l i k e M a rtha,

a l s o has the w r i t e r ' s a t t r i b u t e s of w a t c h f u l n e s s and

155

p e r c e p t i v e n e s s , and the knack f o r t r a n s l a t i n g the h i s t o r i c a l

moment i n t o p r i v a t e terms.

The L y i n g Days, l i k e Martha Quest and the mother n o v e l ,

The S t o r y of an A f r i c a n Farm, i s on one l e v e l a l i t e r a r y

a u t o b i o g r a p h y of the young a u t h o r . Books a r e tremendously

i m p o r t a n t , even t a l i s m a n i c , t o the i n t e l l e c t u a l l y i s o l a t e d ,

l a r g e l y s e l f - t a u g h t c h a r a c t e r s . Waldo t r e a s u r e s h i s John S t u a r t

M i l l , Martha waves Havelock E l l i s l i k e a r e d f l a g . The l i t e r a r y

a l l u s i o n s i n The S t o r y o f an A f r i c a n Farm, From Man t o Man,

Out o f A f r i c a , Martha Quest and The L y i n g Days i n d i c a t e the

d i f f e r e n t i n t e l l e c t u a l i n f l u e n c e s a t work on t h e c h a r a c t e r s , and

are a v e h i c l e f o r t h e a u t h o r s ' l i t e r a r y a u t o b i o g r a p h y . The

a l l u s i o n s t e l l us as w e l l i n what l i t e r a r y c o n t e x t each a u t h o r

i n t e n d s us t o read her book.

In her P r e f a c e t o A f r i c a n Farm O l i v e S c h r e i n e r a d d r e s s e s

h e r s e l f t o the a p p r e c i a t i v e but somewhat p u z z l e d r e a c t i o n s of

her f i r s t r e a d e r s . She t r i e s t o e x p l a i n her method by d e f i n i n g

what i t i s n o t . I t i s not "the s t a g e method" o f t h e well-made

p l a y , but r a t h e r "the method o f the l i f e we a l l l e a d , " i n w h i c h ,

"when the c u r t a i n f a l l s no one i s re a d y . When t h e f o o t l i g h t s

are b r i g h t e s t t h e y a r e blown o u t ; and what t h e name of the p l a y

i s no one knows" ( 2 7 ) . I t i s not "a h i s t o r y of w i l d a d v e n t u r e , "

f o r , "such works a r e b e s t w r i t t e n i n P i c c a d i l l y or i n t h e

S t r a n d . . . ." ( 2 8 ) , but r a t h e r a work of r e a l i s m , the l i k e of

which the au t h o r h e r s e l f had never e n c o u n t e r e d , f o r which she

had none but n e g a t i v e models.

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S c h r e i n e r ' s next a l l u s i o n s a r e t o the B i b l e : t o h a r s h

passages b e l o v e d of C a l v i n i s t s but t e r r i f y i n g t o an i m a g i n a t i v e

young c h i l d . Waldo l i e s awake r e p e a t i n g , "For wide i s the g a t e ,

and b road i s the way, t h a t l e a d e t h t o d e s t r u c t i o n , and many

t h e r e be which go i n t h e r e a t . " He c r i e s " i n agony," "Oh, God,

God! save them!" ( 3 7 ) . Waldo d e c i d e s he "hates God" and t u r n s

from H i s Book t o t h e book of the w o r l d , t o s c i e n c e . H i s f i n d i n g

of a h i d d e n box of books i s a c l i m a c t i c scene i n which S c h r e i n e r

draws a b a t t l e l i n e between r e l i g i o n and a t h e i s m , t h a t i s , be­

tween i g n o r a n c e and c r u e l t y on the one s i d e , l e a r n i n g and e t h i c s

on the o t h e r . I n a ccordance w i t h the l o g i c of the n o v e l ,

i g n o r a n c e t r i u m p h s s a v a g e l y over l e a r n i n g , and the murder of

Waldo's s p i r i t b e g i n s . The door t h a t M i l l ' s p o l i t i c a l economy

opens f o r Waldo i s slammed shut by the B i b l e - q u o t e r s and book-

b u r n e r s , w h i l e S c h r e i n e r makes i t c l e a r which s i d e she i s on.

I n the s e c t i o n c o n c e r n i n g L y n d a l l ' s e d u c a t i o n S c h r e i n e r

draws another b a t t l e l i n e : between the s p u r i o u s l e a r n i n g

p r o v i d e d by a g i r l s ' f i n i s h i n g s c h o o l and t h e genuine knowledge

g a i n e d from f r e e r e a d i n g and e x p e r i e n c e . I n t h e s e s e c t i o n s

about Waldo's r e a d i n g and L y n d a l l ' s e d u c a t i o n , S c h r e i n e r

d i s c r i m i n a t e s between h a r m f u l and v a l u a b l e l e a r n i n g , coming down

f i r m l y on the s i d e of n a t u r a l h i s t o r y , s o c i a l s c i e n c e , and

newspapers r a t h e r than the a u t h o r i t a r i a n i n s t r u c t i o n p r o v i d e d by

r e l i g i o n and s c h o o l , which i s meant t o i n s t i l l f e a r and

p a s s i v i t y . An e n q u i r i n g , independent mind armed w i t h o b j e c t i v e

knowledge was her i d e a l . Much of A f r i c a n Farm i s t a k e n up w i t h

t h e defense of t h i s p o s i t i o n a g a i n s t t h e dominant f o r c e s of

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c o n f o r m i t y and b i g o t r y which i n the end d e s t r o y L y n d a l l and

Waldo. N e v e r t h e l e s s her c h a r a c t e r s a c h i e v e a moral v i c t o r y ,

which i s a l s o t h e i r young a u t h o r ' s : by w r i t i n g A f r i c a n Farm she

f r e e d h e r s e l f from the i n t e l l e c t u a l r e p r e s s i o n of her s o c i e t y .

And through her s u c c e s s abroad she was a b l e t o l i v e Waldo and

L y n d a l l ' s dream of f i n d i n g a community of l i k e minds.

Through the c h a r a c t e r of Rebekah i n From Man t o Man

S c h r e i n e r v i n d i c a t e d the doomed c h a r a c t e r s o f A f r i c a n Farm.

Rebekah's s t o r y i s v e r y much a h i s t o r y of t h o u g h t ; the c e n t r a l

image i n the n o v e l i s her t i n y s t u d y , from which her mind roams

i n t o the remote p a s t and p o s s i b l e f u t u r e . S c h r e i n e r l o v i n g l y

names her books: t h e s c i e n c e p r i m e r s , t r a n s l a t i o n s from t h e

c l a s s i c s , and Darwin. They are her c u l t u r a l l i f e l i n e , her

reminder t h a t i n s p i t e of her p h y s i c a l i s o l a t i o n she b e l o n g s t o

a community of s c h o l a r s i n whose i n v i s i b l e company she s e t s down

her own t h o u g h t s .

For I s a k D i n e s e n , who, a f t e r a l l , f r e e l y chose her i s o l a t e d

l i f e i n B r i t i s h E a s t A f r i c a , the r e l a t i o n t o books was d i f f e r ­

e n t , l e s s f r a u g h t w i t h f e e l i n g ; w h i l e she and her f r i e n d s

t r e a s u r e d the b o o k s — m o s t l y c l a s s i c f i c t i o n and p o e t r y — t h a t

they had brought from Europe, she took most d e l i g h t i n the

o p p o r t u n i t y her s i t u a t i o n o f f e r e d t o imagine her own t a l e s .

Masking her e r u d i t i o n , she p r e f e r r e d t o p r e s e n t h e r s e l f as a

s t o r y t e l l e r i n the o r a l t r a d i t i o n . The view of h e r s e l f t h a t she

p r e s e n t s i n Out o f A f r i c a i s of an a r t i s t f r e e d from the bonds

of European c u l t u r e , who, i n c o n t r a s t t o S c h r e i n e r ' s d e s p e r a t e l y

b o o k i s h c o l o n i a l s , embraces the new w o r l d around h e r . Dinesen

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l i k e s t o imagine h e r s e l f as Scheherezade, s p i n n i n g s t o r i e s f o r

Denys i n the f i r e l i g h t ; her deeper a f f i n i t y was t o the woman who

t o l d t a l e s t o save her l i f e . Out o f A f r i c a , w r i t t e n i n a time

of d e s p a i r i n Denmark, d i d perhaps save t h e a u t h o r ' s l i f e , and

c e r t a i n l y g l o r i o u s l y p r e s e r v e d her l o s t l i f e i n A f r i c a .

T u r n i n g t o D o r i s L e s s i n g , we f i n d t h a t books p l a y a s i m i l a r

r o l e f o r Martha Quest as f o r S c h r e i n e r ' s c h a r a c t e r s . Martha

d e f i n e s h e r s e l f and her w o r l d by means of her v o r a c i o u s r e a d i n g

i n p s y c h o l o g y , s o c i o l o g y and h i s t o r y , as w e l l as p o e t r y and

f i c t i o n . B u t , more d e e p l y than S c h r e i n e r , L e s s i n g e x p l o r e s the

c o n f l i c t between what Martha l e a r n s through European books and

the A f r i c a n c o l o n i a l w o r l d she i n h a b i t s . Martha i s c o n s t a n t l y

p u z z l e d and d i s a p p o i n t e d by l i f e , which does not a c c o r d w i t h her

i m a g i n a t i o n . She a l s o f e e l s t he f r u s t r a t i o n o f knowing and

u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h r o u g h books more than she has e x p e r i e n c e d , so

t h a t when she does e x p e r i e n c e something f o r h e r s e l f i t seems

s t r a n g e l y secondhand. M a r t h a — i n s t a r k c o n t r a s t t o Karen

B l i x e n ' s sense o f w o n d e r — i s p r o f o u n d l y bored by A f r i c a .

W h i l e the r e f e r e n c e s i n Martha Quest a r e m a i n l y t o O l i v e

S c h r e i n e r and r o m a n t i c p o e t r y > i n The Gra s s i s S i n g i n g L e s s i n g

makes use of E l i o t ' s imagery of s t e r i l i t y t o s y m b o l i z e w h i t e

c o l o n i a l l i f e , w h i l e r a i n - t h u n d e r o u s , d e s t r u c t i v e , and

r e n e w i n g — r e p r e s e n t s the l a t e n t power o f b l a c k n e s s . L e s s i n g ' s

a l l u s i o n s t o The Waste Land warn t h e reader t h a t her n o v e l i s

modern, t h r e a t e n i n g , i c o n o c l a s t i c and a p o c a l y p t i c . I t i s a

d r a m a t i c c a u t i o n a r y t a l e of madness and murder, w h i c h , as

A f r i c a n Farm d i d f o r S c h r e i n e r , e s t a b l i s h e d the r e p u t a t i o n of

i t s a u t h o r as an angry young woman.

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One can compare L e s s i n g ' s c h o i c e of E l i o t t o p r e s i d e over

her f i r s t n o v e l t o Gordimer's c h o i c e of Y e a t s t o p r e s i d e over

h e r s . The t i t l e and e p i g r a p h of The L y i n g Days, which c l e a r l y

announce her theme of growth and d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t , a r e t a k e n from

Y e a t s :

Though l e a v e s a r e many, the r o o t i s one; Through a l l t h e l y i n g days of my y o u t h I swayed my l e a v e s and f l o w e r s i n the sun; Now I may w i t h e r i n t o t h e t r u t h ("The Coming of Wisdom w i t h Time").

F i r s t , one n o t e s t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n tone between the a p o c a l y p t i c

young E l i o t and the w i s e , m e l l i f l u o u s Y e a t s ; second, the need of

both a u t h o r s t o v a l i d a t e t h e i r f i c t i o n s w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o the

g r e a t p o e t s of E n g l i s h l i t e r a t u r e . T h i s i s e s p e c i a l l y i n t e r e s t ­

i n g i n Gordimer's c a s e , because one of her n o v e l ' s subthemes i s

the i r r e l e v a n c e o f E n g l i s h l i t e r a t u r e t o H elen's l i f e i n A f r i c a .

( A f t e r The L y i n g Days the e p i g r a p h s and l i t e r a r y a l l u s i o n s i n

Gordimer's n o v e l s become more p o l i t i c a l and more A f r i c a n . )

The next a l l u s i o n i n The L y i n g Days i s t o E n g l i s h

c h i l d r e n ' s s t o r i e s and European f a i r y t a l e s , which th e e i g h t -

y e a r - o l d H e l e n compares u n f a v o r a b l y w i t h the r e a l - l i f e f a i r y

t a l e of A f r i c a . H e len's sense of wonder at t h e A f r i c a n w o r l d

around her i s s i m i l a r t o Karen B l i x e n ' s ; f o r Gordimer and

D i n e s e n , u n l i k e S c h r e i n e r and L e s s i n g , the l i g h t , c o l o r s and

s m e l l s o f A f r i c a a r e more r e a l than the images and c o n c e p t s of

an i m p o r t e d l i t e r a t u r e .

I n the f i r s t of a s e r i e s o f r e l a t e d scenes i n t h e n o v e l ,

H e l e n , emboldened by c u r i o s i t y and d e s i r e , v e n t u r e s i n t o the

e x o t i c , f o r b i d d e n A f r i c a which s u r r o u n d s the w h i t e e n c l a v e . I n

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t h i s f i r s t scene the c h i l d b r e a k s the boundary of her s e g r e g a t e d

cocoon by w a l k i n g the few y a r d s from her house a t the A t h e r t o n

Mine compound t o t h e N a t i v e S t o r e s . I t i s a b i z a r r e and m a g i c a l

New World; i n Helen's words:

I f e l t f o r the f i r s t time something of t h e t i n g l i n g f a s c i n a t i o n of t h e g i n g e r b r e a d house b e f o r e H a n s e l and G r e t e l , anonymous, nobody's c h i l d r e n , i n the woods ( 2 1 ) .

She i s both charmed and r e p e l l e d by the v i v i d bazaar w i t h i t s

s t r a n g e - s m e l l i n g f o o d , m y s t e r i o u s m e d i c i n e s , and c r u s h of sweat­

i n g humanity. I t i s a s t i m u l a t i n g , sensuous w o r l d i n which her

i m a g i n a t i o n and body come a l i v e i n a new way. Seen through eyes

a l r e a d y j a u n d i c e d by her p a r e n t s ' a d m o n i t i o n s , however, the

"Mine boys" a r e a l s o s i n i s t e r , " f i l t h y , " and " d i s g u s t i n g . "

Shocked and s t i r r e d by the s i g h t of a man u r i n a t i n g , she

r e t r e a t s t o her p a r e n t s ' w o r l d : the p r o t e c t e d , a n t i s e p t i c w h i t e

w o r l d of t e a , l a v e n d e r w a t e r , and f r e s h l y i r o n e d t e n n i s c l o t h e s .

T h i s scene a t the S t o r e s , which i s one of many such scenes

i n Gordimer's f i c t i o n , s e n s u a l i z e s , r o m a n t i c i z e s and even

m y t h i c i z e s b l a c k n e s s , i n a way which S c h r e i n e r and L e s s i n g do

n o t , but which i s r e m i n i s c e n t o f D i n e s e n . The r e l a t i o n s h i p

between w h i t e and b l a c k c h a r a c t e r s i n S c h r e i n e r and L e s s i n g i s

b a s i c a l l y t h a t of m i s t r e s s and s e r v a n t . The b l a c k p a r t n e r i n

t h i s e q u a t i o n remains a c i p h e r , a shadow w i t h o n l y enough f l e s h

t o a c t out h i s or her l i m i t e d r o l e i n r e l a t i o n t o the w h i t e

p r o t a g o n i s t . I n Is a k D i n e s e n , w h i l e we must t a k e t h e m i s t r e s s -

s e r v a n t e q u a t i o n as g i v e n , the b l a c k c h a r a c t e r s a r e n e v e r t h e l e s s

a l l o w e d a l i f e o f t h e i r own. They are not p i t i a b l e or g u i l t -

i n d u c i n g as th e y a r e so o f t e n i n S c h r e i n e r or L e s s i n g , but

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r a t h e r p o s s e s s e d o f p r i d e , n o b i l i t y and beauty which the w h i t e s

r e s p e c t and envy. The b l a c k c h a r a c t e r s i n Gordimer a r e

s i m i l a r l y a t t r a c t i v e . They are u s u a l l y d e s c r i b e d as b e a u t i f u l

i n f a c e and body, and as p o s s e s s e d of c o n f i d e n c e , s t r e n g t h and

humor which a r e the envy of the w h i t e p r o t a g o n i s t s . In Gordimer

as i n Dinesen and the o t h e r w r i t e r s , the non-white c h a r a c t e r s

remain secondary; however t h e i r s y m b o l i c r o l e as double or a l t e r

ego becomes i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p o r t a n t as one moves c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y

t h r o u g h her f i c t i o n .

In The L y i n g Days the p a r t t h a t b l a c k n e s s p l a y s i n the

h e r o i n e ' s development i s s h a r e d by the r e l a t e d symbols of sensu­

a l r e d e m p t i o n : the sea and sex. B l a c k n e s s , sex and the sea a r e

s y m b o l i c a l l y c onnected i n t h i s n o v e l ; each i s a medium through

which Helen d i s c o v e r s her deepest s e l f and g r a d u a l l y becomes

f r e e of the a r t i f i c i a l l i m i t s and s t e r i l e v a l u e s o f the Mine.7

The s m a l l g i r l ' s t i t i l l a t i n g f i r s t f o r a y i n t o b l a c k n e s s i s

a s t o n e dropped i n t o the s t i l l pond of l i f e on the Mine; the

smooth water q u i c k l y c l o s e s over the d i s t u r b a n c e and Helen i s

a g a i n t h e model Mine d a u g h t e r . U n l i k e L y n d a l l and Martha she

moves o b e d i e n t l y through c h i l d h o o d and e a r l y a d o l e s c e n c e . A

p r e c o c i o u s and d u t i f u l o n l y c h i l d , she becomes " q u i t e one o f "

her p a r e n t s ' s e t . She n o t i c e s l i t t l e o u t s i d e the c o n f i n e s of

the w o r l d d e f i n e d by w h i t e A t h e r t o n . The b l a c k m i n e r s ' s t r i k e

i s an o c c a s i o n f o r b u t t e r e d scones at the manager's house.

World War Two p a s s e s , unremarked upon, except t h a t a f u n d -

r a i s i n g dance p r o v i d e s the o c c a s i o n f o r her f i r s t l o n g d r e s s .

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At t h i s s t a g e , Helen e x e m p l i f i e s Simone de B e a u v o i r ' s t h e o r y of

the c o n f l i c t s o f g i r l h o o d , i n which the young g i r l , t o r n between

her d e s i r e t o be an a c t i v e s u b j e c t and the rewards of b e i n g a

p a s s i v e o b j e c t , i s o f f e r e d p o w e r f u l "inducements t o c o m p l i c i t y . "

I t i s a t t h i s s t a g e t h a t de B e a u v o i r c o n t r a s t s the r o l e s

o f f e r e d t o g i r l s and b l a c k s : because of t h e i r r e l a t i v e l y

d i s a d v a n t a g e d s t a t u s v i s - a - v i s w h i t e males, both groups have

i n c e n t i v e s t o q u e s t i o n and r e b e l , t o s e t t h e m s e l v e s a g a i n s t the

e s t a b l i s h e d o r d e r . But w h i t e g i r l s , u n l i k e b l a c k s , a r e o f f e r e d

a p r i v i l e g e d p l a c e , a l b e i t t h a t of a p a s s i v e o b j e c t , w i t h i n the

h i e r a r c h y , which tempts them t o c o l l u d e i n t h e i r own e x p l o i t a ­

t i o n . (De B e a u v o i r ' s comments h i g h l i g h t the c o n f l i c t s i n h e r e n t

i n the w h i t e g i r l s ' and women's i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h b l a c k s i n

a l l the t e x t s under c o n s i d e r a t i o n . )

When Helen i s s e v e n t e e n , the d u l l p a t t e r n i s f a t a l l y d i s ­

t u r b e d by her t r i p t o the c o a s t . She undergoes an a b r u p t s e x u a l

awakening t h a t i s a l s o e m o t i o n a l and i n t e l l e c t u a l . She e n t e r s a

s e c r e t , f o r b i d d e n a r e a of e x p e r i e n c e w h i c h , l i k e the N a t i v e

S t o r e s of her c h i l d h o o d , a g a i n churns up the smooth s u r f a c e of

her l i f e . As Helen e x p l a i n s : And I u nderstood t h a t almost a l l of my l i f e a t home, on the Mine, had been . . . conducted on a s u r f a c e of p o l i t e t r i v i a l i t y t h a t was i n s e n s i t i v e t o the r e a l f l o w of l i f e t h a t was b e i n g e x p e r i e n c e d , u nderneath, a l l the t i m e , by everybody ( 7 6 ) . 8

Now bent on u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t " r e a l f l o w of l i f e , " she

r e t u r n s t o s t u d y E n g l i s h l i t e r a t u r e a t the u n i v e r s i t y .

L i t e r a t u r e exposes the p a u c i t y of w h i t e South A f r i c a n c u l t u r e ,

which i s n e i t h e r European nor A f r i c a n . As Helen c o m p l a i n s :

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But i n n o t h i n g t h a t I read c o u l d I f i n d a n y t h i n g t h a t approximated t o my own l i f e ; t o our l i f e on a g o l d mine i n South A f r i c a . . . . The p a t c h e s o f towns, w i t h t h e i r f l a t s t r e e t s , t i n - r o o f e d houses, main s t r e e t and r e d - f a c e d town h a l l , " P a l a c e " or " T i v o l i " showing y e a r - o l d f i l m s from A m e r i c a . We had no l i o n s and we had no a r t g a l l e r i e s , we heard no Bach and the o r a c l e v o i c e of the a n c i e n t A f r i c a d i d not come t o us, was drowned, p e r h a p s , by the r e c o r d s s i n g i n g o f Tennessee i n the Greek c a f e s and the thump of the Mine stamp b a t t e r i e s which sounded i n our e a r s as u n n o t i c e d as our b l o o d (96-97 ) .

L i t e r a t u r e , however, speaks t o Helen's s e c r e t c o r e , the " r e a l

f l o w o f l i f e " t h a t she has begun t o e n t e r :

Only what was s e c r e t i n me, d i d not e x i s t b e f o r e my mother and f a t h e r or . . . l i f e i n our m i l i e u , l e a p e d t o r e c o g n i t i o n i n what I r e a d . . . . Out o f p o e t r y and t h e c a b b a l i s t i c a c c i d e n t of someone's s y n t a x came the c o l d touch on my cheek: t h i s . You ( 9 7 ) .

At t h i s p o i n t , H e l e n i n her q u e s t f o r s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g

and independence b e g i n s t o resemble L y n d a l l , Waldo and Martha i n

her doubt, r e b e l l i o n , and s e x u a l c u r i o s i t y . Gordimer's h e r o i n e ,

l i k e S c h r e i n e r ' s and L e s s i n g ' s , i s i n f l u e n c e d by books from

abroad which encourage and v a l i d a t e her i n t e l l e c t u a l and moral

r e b e l l i o n a g a i n s t the w h i t e S o u t h e r n A f r i c a n m i l i e u ; l i t e r a t u r e

h e l p s her t o f i n d h e r s e l f , but a t the same time s e r v e s t o

a l i e n a t e her from A f r i c a . G ordimer, l i k e S c h r e i n e r and L e s s i n g ,

uses the metaphor of awakening from a k i n d o f b e w i t c h e d s l e e p :

"We were a l l l i k e s l e e p e r s , coming awake from a l o n g l u l l of

a c c e p t a n c e " ( 1 6 1 ) .

Helen's resemblance t o L y n d a l l and Martha i s f u r t h e r marked

by t h e appearance of her "Waldo," who a l s o has an uncanny

resemblence t o Martha's J o s s Cohen. Helen's male mentor and

g u i d e i s , l i k e J o s s , a J e w i s h i n t e l l e c t u a l , c a l l e d J o e l Aaron.

164

U n l i k e J o s s , but l i k e the o r i g i n a l Waldo, he i s more i d e a l than

r e a l . Male, J e w i s h , p o o r , i n t e l l e c t u a l , l e f t - w i n g , s e l f -

r e a l i z e d , J o e l i s e v e r y t h i n g t h a t Helen wants t o be, except

b l a c k , a l t h o u g h (as i n L e s s i n g ) h i s J e w i s h n e s s s e r v e s as a k i n d

o f b l a c k n e s s which both l u r e s Helen and causes her t o remain

p h y s i c a l l y a l o o f . Thus, as i n S c h r e i n e r and L e s s i n g , h e r o i n e

and hero a r e c o n f i n e d t o a p l a t o n i c f r i e n d s h i p , one which

n u r t u r e s the h e r o i n e w i t h o u t t h r e a t e n i n g her s t i l l f r a g i l e sense

of s e l f .

I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t o the p a t t e r n o f symbolism i n t h e n o v e l

t h a t J o e l was r a i s e d a t the N a t i v e S t o r e s , and p r e s e n t a t the

scene of Helen's e a r l y f o r a y i n t o b l a c k t e r r i t o r y . Now he

i n t r o d u c e s her t o the " s h a r p e r , warmer, r u t h l e s s l y honest l i f e "

o f the i n t e l l e c t , and t o a c i t y c u l t u r e which opposes what she

f e e l s t o be the empty, h y p o c r i t i c a l s o c i e t y of the Mine. Of

c o u r s e H elen's j o u r n e y from the Mine t o the C i t y ( u n d e r l i n e d by

the d i v i s i o n s o f t h e t e x t i n t o "The Mine," "The Sea," and "The

C i t y " ) i s not w i t h o u t i t s d i s a p p o i n t m e n t s and i r o n i e s . I n t h i s

H e len a g a i n resembles her f i c t i o n a l p r e d e c e s s o r s . The Bohemian

s e t t h a t she embraces i s r e v e a l e d t o be as s h a l l o w and hypo­

c r i t i c a l as her p a r e n t s ' t e n n i s p l a y i n g s e t . " M a r c e l ' s C e l l a r , "

f o r example, i s a c a r i c a t u r e of Bohemian P a r i s , where the

Johannesburg young escape the "neon and a i r - c o n d i t i o n e d

u n r e a l i t y " of t h e i r l i v e s t o ape "the m i s e r a b l e , n i h i l i s t i c c a f e

l i f e o f the d i s p o s s e s s e d e x i l e " (224-225; an i r o n i c r e f e r e n c e t o

H e len's growing sense of e x i l e ? ) . They f l i r t w i t h l i b e r a l

a t t i t u d e s and d e r i v a t i v e u n c o n v e n t i o n a l i t y b e f o r e s e t t l i n g down

165

t o "the r e a l b u s i n e s s of h a v i n g b a b i e s and b r i d g e a f t e r n o o n s

. . . . the f l u c t u a t i o n s of the s t o c k exchange and t h e r e l a t i v e

m e r i t s o f B u i c k s and C a d i l l a c s " ( 1 6 0 ) . Gordimer's sarcasm f o r

the Johannesburg youth echoes L e s s i n g ' s a t t a c k on t h e youth of

S a l i s b u r y and s i m i l a r s o c i a l s a t i r e of t h e w h i t e b o u r g e o i s i e i n

S c h r e i n e r and D i n e s e n .

D e s p i t e her d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t , H e l e n , through her p h y s i c a l

and i n t e l l e c t u a l e x p l o r a t i o n s i n the c i t y , t o u c hes t h e p u l s e of

r e a l f e e l i n g and e n t e r s c o n s c i o u s l y i n t o the stream of r e a l

e v e n t s . The n o v e l becomes h i s t o r i c a l l y s p e c i f i c , d a t e s and

p o l i t i c s i m p o r t a n t . A f t e r the v i c t o r y of the A f r i k a n e r

N a t i o n a l i s t P a r t y i n 1948, H elen's t e n t a t i v e , m o s t l y i n d i r e c t

c o n t a c t s w i t h b l a c k p e o p l e a r e g r a d u a l l y c u t o f f . The c h i l l i n

t h e n a t i o n a l c l i m a t e s l o w l y c h i l l s her p a s s i o n a t e l o v e a f f a i r ,

based as i t i s on v i c a r i o u s c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the b l a c k c l i e n t s of

her s o c i a l - w o r k e r l o v e r . The a p a r t h e i d p o l i t i c s of the new

government s u b t l y impinge upon the p e r s o n a l freedom and o u t l o o k

o f t h e p r i v i l e g e d w h i t e s and the i n c r e a s i n g l y u n p r i v i l e g e d non-

w h i t e s . As H e l e n d e s c r i b e s i t :

. . . i t was o n l y v e r y s l o w l y , as t h e months and then the y e a r s went by, t h a t the moral c l i m a t e of g u i l t and f e a r and o p p r e s s i o n c h i l l e d t h r o u g h t o the bone, almost as i f the r e a l c l i m a t e o f the elements had changed, the sun had t u r n e d away from s o u t h A f r i c a , b r i n g i n g about a c t u a l p e r s o n a l i t y changes t h a t a f f e c t e d even the most i n t i m a t e conduct of t h e i r l i v e s ( 2 5 6 ) .

I t i s now t h a t Helen t r u l y l o s e s her i n n o c e n c e — t h e i g n o r a n c e

t h a t a l l o w e d her t o munch b u t t e r e d scones as the s t r i k i n g mine-

workers went hungry. I t i s o n l y when the w a l l s between the

r a c e s a r e r e i n f o r c e d t h a t she r e a l i z e s the e x t e n t of her own

166

i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e w i t h the b l a c k s . I n Gordimer, as i n S c h r e i n e r , o

L e s s i n g , and D i n e s e n , t h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n a l i e n a t e s the h e r o i n e

from her own s o c i e t y and c r e a t e s a c o n f l i c t of i d e n t i t y which

she b e g i n s t o r e s o l v e by r e d e f i n i n g h e r s e l f i n o p p o s i t i o n t o

w h i t e (male) c o l o n i a l v a l u e s , i n accordance w i t h an A f r i c a n

p e r s p e c t i v e .

Thus He l e n b e g i n s a f r i e n d s h i p w i t h a b l a c k woman, a f e l l o w

s t u d e n t who she meets i n one o f t h e l a s t n o n-segregated b a t h ­

rooms i n Johannesburg, u n t i l , as happened soon a f t e r , b l a c k s

were b a r r e d from the u n i v e r s i t y , i n her own l o s t n e s s Helen

i d e n t i f i e s w i t h Mary Seswayo's c u l t u r a l c o n f u s i o n , o n l y t o

r e a l i z e , f i n a l l y , how g r e a t a r e the b a r r i e r s which s e p a r a t e

them. Through Mary's i s o l a t i o n i n the w h i t e w o r l d o f the

u n i v e r s i t y , Helen p e r c e i v e s her own i s o l a t i o n i n Mary's w o r l d ,

and f i n a l l y t h e i r r e l e v a n c e o f the im p o r t e d h i g h c u l t u r e of the

u n i v e r s i t y i n Mary's A f r i c a . H e l e n n a r r a t e s : . . . I had an almost p h y s i c a l s e n s a t i o n o f b e i n g a s t r a n g e r i n what I had always t a k e n u n t h i n k i n g l y as the f a m i l i a r i t y o f home. I f e l t m y s e l f among s t r a n g e r s ; I had grown up, a l l my l i f e , among s t r a n g e r s : the A f r i c a n s , whose language i n my e a r s had been l i k e t he b a r k i n g of dogs or the c r i e s of b i r d s .

And t h i s f e e l i n g seemed t o transmute i t s e l f (perhaps by a t r i c k o f the h e a t , a l t e r i n g the v e r y s e n s i b i l i t y of my s k i n ) t o the f e e l i n g Mary must have, t r y i n g t o oppose the a b s t r a c t c o n c e p t s of her books a g a i n s t t h e overwhelming p h y s i c a l l i f e c r owding a g a i n s t h e r . What a s t r a n g e r i t must make of h e r . A s t r a n g e r t o h e r s e l f . And then a g a i n how s l i g h t , how s t u p i d , how u s e l e s s i t must a l l seem, how i m p o s s i b l e t o g r a s p , the s t r u c t u r e o f the E n g l i s h n o v e l , the meaning of meaning, t h e e l e g a n c e of exchanges between B e a t r i c e and B e n e d i c t — w i t h the woman making m e a l i e p o r r i d g e over t h e f i r e , t he man c a r e f u l l y p r e s e r v i n g the d i r t y b i t of paper t h a t i s h i s p a s s , the c h i l d r e n p l a y i n g f o r a few y e a r s b e f o r e they become n u r s e g i r l s and houseboys (186-87).

167

The c r i s i s f o r Gordimer's h e r o i n e comes d u r i n g the g e n e r a l

s t r i k e when Hel e n i s caught i n the m i d s t of a r i o t i n a b l a c k

t o w n s h i p . What a p p a l l s her most i s her own l a c k of i n v o l v e m e n t ,

her i n a b i l i t y t o a c t i n any way as she watches numbly from be­

h i n d the r o l l e d - u p windows of a c a r : " I t happened around me, not

t o me. Even the death of a man; b e h i n d a w a l l of g l a s s . . ."

( 3 5 1 ) .

As can be p r e d i c t e d from the o t h e r a u t h o r s , Helen's l o s s o f

i n n o c e n c e — t h e knowledge of her own p a s s i v e c o m p l i c i t y i n e v i l —

f o r c e s her t o l e a v e A f r i c a f o r Europe. But b e f o r e embarking

upon her e x i l e the b e w i l d e r e d and d i s i l l u s i o n e d H elen

r e - e n c o u n t e r s J o e l A a r o n , who i s en r o u t e t o the new c o u n t r y of

I s r a e l i n s e a r c h of h i s d e s t i n y . In the v o l u p t u o u s s e t t i n g of

the s e a s i d e r e s o r t , they c o n f e s s t h e i r l o v e : ". . . 1 t a l k e d t o

him as I have never t a l k e d t o any l i v i n g b e i n g : as I have t a l k e d

t o t h i s pen and t h i s paper. . . . J o e l took away from me the

burden of my ego . . ." ( 3 5 7 ) . Sea, sex, and her memory of the

N a t i v e S t o r e s a g a i n work t h e i r magic, and through the W a l d o - l i k e

f i g u r e of J o e l , Helen's c o n n e c t i o n t o South A f r i c a i s symbol­

i c a l l y renewed. In the l a s t image of the n o v e l , a phoenix r i s e s

from the ashes, w h i l e b l a c k c h i l d r e n s i n g i n the n i g h t ; Helen

vows t o r e t u r n t o A f r i c a :

Whatever i t was I was r u n n i n g away f r o m — t h e r i s k of l o v e ? The g u i l t of b e i n g w h i t e ? The danger of p u t t i n g i d e a l s i n t o p r a c t i c e ? — I ' m not r u n n i n g away from now because I know I'm coming back here (367).

The c o n t r i v e d ending of The L y i n g Days does not r e s o l v e the

i s s u e s Gordimer has r a i s e d f o r her h e r o i n e . The c e n t r a l

problem i s summed up i n a metaphor t h a t r e s o n a t e s throughout

168

Gordimer's f i c t i o n (and i s o n l y r e s o l v e d some s i x n o v e l s and

e l e v e n y e a r s l a t e r i n The C o n s e r v a t i o n i s t ) . The image i s o f

w h i t e South A f r i c a as h a v i n g "a p i c n i c i n a b e a u t i f u l g r a v e y a r d

where the p e o p l e a re b u r i e d a l i v e under your f e e t " ( 3 5 8 ) . The

image o f the b u r i e d b l a c k body, the theme o f a w h i t e South

A f r i c a haunted by the b l a c k l i v i n g dead, i s a t the h e a r t of

The L y i n g Days.

At t h i s s y m b o l i c l e v e l Helen's qu e s t i s t o r e s o l v e her

p s y c h i c a p a r t h e i d , t o i n t e g r a t e the b u r i e d " b l a c k " a s p e c t of

h e r s e l f . For H e l e n , b l a c k n e s s i s connected t o the " r e a l f l o w o f

l i f e " which i s "Underneath" the " s u r f a c e " o f the w h i t e Mine

compound and the w h i t e c i t y ; t he imagery o f b l a c k n e s s i s

connected t o the imagery of w a t e r , and t o s e x , knowledge and

growth. J o e l , who i s a Jew r a t h e r than a WASP, and who grew up

a t the N a t i v e S t o r e s , h e l p s H e l e n make c o n t a c t w i t h b l a c k n e s s .

That he i s male g i v e s him the freedom o f movement, the autonomy,

t h a t Helen does not f e e l she can c l a i m f o r h e r s e l f . A g a i n

through the v e h i c l e o f a man, t h i s t ime her l o v e r P a u l , she

makes s y m b o l i c e m o t i o n a l and s e x u a l c o n t a c t w i t h b l a c k s . How­

e v e r , when the a p a r t h e i d laws become more s t r i c t i n the y e a r s

f o l l o w i n g the 1948 e l e c t i o n , Helen and P a u l ' s l o v e a f f a i r i s

g r a d u a l l y d e s t r o y e d . When th e p r o h i b i t i o n on sex between p e o p l e

o f d i f f e r e n t r a c e s i s e n f o r c e d , Helen and P a u l f e e l t h a t t h e i r

own p r i v a c y has been i n v a d e d , and they can no l o n g e r make l o v e .

Thus Helen's p r i v a t e , i n t e r n a l movement toward i n t e g r a t i o n

i s s e t a g a i n s t the p u b l i c , e x t e r n a l movement toward the harden­

i n g of s e g r e g a t i o n . J u s t as Helen b e g i n s t o overcome her

169

p s y c h i c a p a r t h e i d , i n p r a c t i c a l terms she i s i n c r e a s i n g l y b a r r e d

from c o n t a c t w i t h the b l a c k w o r l d . T h i s l e a d s t o her i n c r e a s i n g

a l i e n a t i o n , not o n l y from her p a r e n t s , the u n i v e r s i t y and P a u l —

but a l s o from p a r t of h e r s e l f . I n t h e n o n - r e a l i s t i c , almost

v i s i o n a r y e n d i n g of the n o v e l , Gordimer a t t e m p t s t o h e a l Helen's

a l i e n a t i o n , t o r e s o l v e the c o n f l i c t between the themes o f

i n t e g r a t i o n and s e g r e g a t i o n . But i t i s a p a t e n t l y u n r e a l i s t i c

e n d i n g t h a t r e f l e c t s the i n t a n g i b l e , p r o b l e m a t i c n a t u r e of

c o n n e c t i o n f o r H e l e n , f o r South A f r i c a n s , and f o r Gordimer as a

w r i t e r .

The C o n s e r v a t i o n i s t

Come t o t h i n k o f i t a l l the e a r t h i s a g r a v e y a r d , you never know when you're w a l k i n g over h e a d s — p a r t i c u l a r l y t h i s c o n t i n e n t , c r a d l e of man . . . (The C o n s e r v a t i o n i s t , 141-42).

I n The L y i n g Days Helen moves from an i n n o c e n t a c c e p t a n c e

of t h e e s t a b l i s h e d o r d e r of w h i t e supremacy t o an i n t u i t i v e

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a p a r t h e i d . J u s t as her i n n e r b a r r i e r s s t a r t t o

come down, the p u b l i c b a r r i e r s go up i n the form of the

A f r i k a n e r N a t i o n a l i s t government's c o n s o l i d a t i o n of a p a r t h e i d .

By the end of the n o v e l she i s shut o f f , d i v i d e d from the b u r i e d

b l a c k p a r t o f h e r s e l f . However i n the l a s t pages of the n o v e l

i s a t u r n i n g p o i n t , which opens a p a t h f o r Helen and f o r

Gordimer's subsequent c h a r a c t e r s . Helen f i n d s J o e l Aaron a g a i n ,

and what i s b u r i e d b e g i n s t o r i s e t o the s u r f a c e . The s e a ,

symbol o f s e l f - k n o w l e g e f o r H e l e n , i s r e i n v o k e d . Gordimer uses

the metaphor of the s h i f t i n g seabed, i t s r o c k s t u r n i n g over t o

r e v e a l "new w o r l d s . " Connected t o the c h i l l i n g s i m i l e of South

170

A f r i c a as a w h i t e p i c n i c - g r o u n d over a b l a c k g r a v e y a r d , the

s i n g i n g c h i l d r e n and the image of the phoenix s i g n a l the r i s i n g

up of the b u r i e d b l a c k s : r i s i n g up i n e v e r y sense of the word

from coming t o c o n s c i o u s n e s s t o armed r e v o l u t i o n .

I t i s o n l y on t h i s s y m b o l i c l e v e l t h a t H e l e n ' s a l i e n a t i o n —

and South A f r i c a ' s — c a n be h e a l e d , t h a t s h e — a n d i t — c a n be made

whole. The problem of the w h i t e h e r o i n e or h e r o ' s i d e n t i f i c a ­

t i o n w i t h her or h i s b l a c k c o u n t e r p a r t i n an e r a of i n c r e a s i n g

s e g r e g a t i o n , her attempt t o c o n n e c t , t o redeem h e r s e l f i n the

eyes of the b l a c k s , becomes the c e n t r a l c o n c e r n of Gordimer's

f i c t i o n .

The image of t h e b u r i e d b l a c k body i s pursued i n s t o r i e s

such as " S i x Feet of the C o u n t r y " (1957). The s u b j e c t of the

w h i t e c h a r a c t e r ' s f e a r f u l f o r a y i n t o b l a c k t e r r i t o r y i s t a k e n

f u r t h e r i n each of Gordimer's subsequent books. I n "The S m e l l

of Death and F l o w e r s " (1957) the young h e r o i n e j o i n s a p r o t e s t

march t o a b l a c k l o c a t i o n . No l o n g e r i s o l a t e d b e h i n d g l a s s , as

was H e l e n , she f e e l s her t e r r o r warm t o f e l l o w f e e l i n g as she

makes eye c o n t a c t w i t h t h e p e o p l e w a t c h i n g h e r . T h i s s t o r y a l s o

has a s y m b o l i c s e x u a l d i m e n s i o n ; the n a r r a t o r i s f a s c i n a t e d by

the w h i t e p r o t e s t o r g a n i z e r ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h her I n d i a n

husband, which seems t o the g i r l t o be the c o n c r e t e c u l m i n a t i o n

of her own t i m i d eye c o n t a c t w i t h another r a c e .

In O c c a s i o n f o r L o v i n g (1963) the theme of the b l a c k s e l f

i s c o n f r o n t e d more b o l d l y , f o r the L y n d a l l - W a l d o , H e l e n - J o e l

r e l a t i o n s h i p i s now between the w h i t e p r o t a g o n i s t , J e s s i e , and a

b l a c k p a i n t e r , G i d e o n . Set d u r i n g a p e r i o d of de f a c t o

171

l i b e r a l i z a t i o n i n the l a t e f i f t i e s when w h i t e l i b e r a l s made

o v e r t u r e s t o b l a c k a r t i s t s and i n t e l l e c t u a l s , t h i s n o v e l

e x p l o r e s the l i m i t s of good i n t e n t i o n s . When Gideon i n e v i t a b l y

r e p u d i a t e s h e r . a s a " w h i t e b i t c h " J e s s i e t r i e s t o b r i d g e the gap

between h i s p o s i t i o n of v u l n e r a b i l i t y and her p o s i t i o n of s a f e t y

by r i s k i n g t h a t s a f e t y ; she removes h e r s e l f from t h e p r o t e c t i o n

of w h i t e s o c i e t y by c o m m i t t i n g an a c t of " t e r r o r i s m . " As i n The

L y i n g Days and "The S m e l l of Death and F l o w e r s , " the h e r o i n e ' s

a c t of commitment, which b r e a k s through the s t a l e m a t e b u i l t up

i n the p l o t , o c c u r s a t the end of the s t o r y . I t i s not

l o g i c a l l y c o nnected t o what has gone b e f o r e , but i s r a t h e r a

jump f o r w a r d , a g l i m p s e of what i s p o s s i b l e .

Gordimer f u r t h e r commits her c h a r a c t e r s t o the cause of

b l a c k r e v o l u t i o n i n A Guest o f Honour (1971) which i s s e t i n a

newly independent A f r i c a n c o u n t r y . The w h i t e C o l o n e l Bray

chooses between two b l a c k l e a d e r s and l o s e s h i s l i f e i n what i s

p o r t r a y e d as c o n t i n u a t i o n of the independence s t r u g g l e .

S i g n i f i c a n t l y , t he a c t i o n c o n t i n u e s a f t e r B r a y ' s d e a t h , which i s

p r e s e n t e d as h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o the p r o c e s s of change i n

A f r i c a . Gordimer a l l o w s the w h i t e c h a r a c t e r s i n t h i s n o v e l t o

escape the g u i l t and a l i e n a t i o n t h a t b e s e t her e a r l i e r

c h a r a c t e r s by p l a c i n g them i n a s i t u a t i o n which o f f e r s an

o p p o r t u n i t y f o r h e r o i s m . I n another c o n n e c t i o n between s e x u a l

and p o l i t i c a l i n v o l v e m e n t , Rebecca, the main female c h a r a c t e r ,

i s C o l o n e l B r a y ' s l o v e r . I n the i m p o r t a n t s e c t i o n o f the n o v e l

t h a t t a k e s p l a c e a f t e r B r a y ' s d e a t h , Rebecca p i c k s up h i s

s t a n d a r d , as i t were, c h o o s i n g the v i o l e n t , v i b r a n t new A f r i c a

172

of independence over a s a f e but s t e r i l e Europe. Her t r i p t o

Europe i s r e p r e s e n t e d as a n i g h t m a r i s h j o u r n e y i n t o a dead

c u l t u r e : Gordimer's S w i t z e r l a n d i s a g h a s t l y c a r i c a t u r e i n which

the banks s t a n d f o r s o u l l e s s a f f l u e n c e , and t h e u b i q u i t o u s

t i c k i n g c l o c k s f o r the m e a n i n g l e s s marking of time i n a p l a c e

where n o t h i n g i s g o i n g t o happen. E a r l i e r i n the n o v e l B r a y ' s

l i f e i n England i s s i m i l a r l y d e s c r i b e d as l i k e "an i n t e r e s t i n g

death c u l t ; t o wake up t h e r e a g a i n would be t o f i n d o n e s e l f

a c q u i e s c e n t l y b u r i e d a l i v e " ( 1 3 0 ) .

The theme of t h e b u r i e d body c u l m i n a t e s i n one of her b e s t

and most i m p o r t a n t n o v e l s , The C o n s e r v a t i o n i s t ( 1 9 7 4 ) , i n which

a w h i t e i n d u s t r i a l i s t and weekend farmer i s haunted by the

murdered b l a c k man b u r i e d on h i s l a n d . When the l a n d i s

f l o o d e d , the body r i s e s t o s y m b o l i c a l l y c l a i m h i s p a t r i m o n y ,

w i t h an a l l u s i o n t o t h e A f r i c a n N a t i o n a l Congress r a l l y i n g c r y ,

" A f r i c a ! May i t come b a c k ! " 9

One o f Gordimer's most p e r c e p t i v e c r i t i c s , Stephen

C l i n g m a n , d e s c r i b e s Gordimer's use of symbolism i n The

C o n s e r v a t i o n i s t and o t h e r n o v e l s as an attempt t o t r a n s c e n d her

growing i s o l a t i o n from b l a c k l i f e as o f f i c i a l a p a r t h e i d

hardened, as the B l a c k C o n s c i o u s n e s s movement e x c l u d e d w h i t e s

from the h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s — a s South A f r i c a n s o c i e t y became

more p o l a r i z e d and v i o l e n t r e v o l u t i o n came c l o s e r . U s i n g the

t h e o r i e s of P i e r r e Macherey and F r e d e r i c Jameson, Clingman

w r i t e s t h a t " t h e r e i s a whole domain of South A f r i c a n l i f e which

o b j e c t i v e l y s p e a k i n g b e l o n g s t o the ' u n c o n s c i o u s ' of her

f i c t i o n — t h a t r e p r e s s e d b l a c k w o r l d of which . . . Gordimer's

f i c t i o n cannot be d i r e c t l y aware" ( " W r i t i n g i n a F r a c t u r e d

173

S o c i e t y : the Case of Nadine Gordimer" 168). He d e s c r i b e s the

c o n t i n u a l " r e t u r n " o f t h i s r e p r e s s e d w o r l d i n her f i c t i o n and

her c o m p u l s i o n t o " a d d r e s s " i t . B o r r o w i n g J e a n - P a u l S a r t r e ' s

i d e a of the w r i t e r ' s " v i r t u a l p u b l i c , " as d i s t i n c t from t h e

a c t u a l r e a d i n g p u b l i c , Clingman s u g g e s t s t h a t Gordimer w r i t e s on

b e h a l f of t h e b l a c k m a j o r i t y i n her c o u n t r y . A l t h o u g h i t does

not i n f a c t r ead her books, i t i s t h i s v i r t u a l p u b l i c who i s her

i m p l i c i t a r b i t e r and judge, and whose i m p l i c i t demands she en­

deavors t o a d d r e s s . I n e f f e c t , t h e n , she w r i t e s f o r t h e f u t u r e ,

when her v i r t u a l p u b l i c w i l l a c h i e v e i t s freedom. Clingman i s

l e f t w i t h t h e paradox t h a t ,

. . . as a c o n d i t i o n o f s o c i a l f r a c t u r e i n South A f r i c a has become more emphatic, and o p p r e s s i o n has i n t e n s i f i e d , so too has Nadine Gordimer, i n response t o a v i r t u a l p u b l i c i n c r e a s i n g l y d i v i d e d from her and a f u t u r e ever more r a d i c a l i n i t s i m p l i c a t i o n s , become ever more r a d i c a l l y a t t u n e d t o the demands which t h e s e embody. . . . The narrower Gordimer's a c t u a l a c c e s s t o an o p p r e s s e d b l a c k w o r l d and t o the cause i t r e p r e s e n t s , the more r a d i c a l i s her response t o r e p r e s e n t the j u s t i c e of t h a t cause" (171-72).

Clingman's t h e o r y i s s u p p o r t e d by some of Gordimer's s t a t e ­

ments about whom she i s w r i t i n g f o r . For i n s t a n c e , she has s a i d

t h a t she w r i t e s "as i f [she] were a l r e a d y dead," w i t h no thought

f o r an a u d i e n c e : " I have none . . ." ("'A S t o r y f o r T h i s P l a c e

and Time'" 102, 108). While t h i s may be a s e n s i b l e a t t i t u d e f o r

any w r i t e r , i t i s a l s o a measure of her l a c k of a c c e s s t o the

m a j o r i t y of r e a d e r s i n her own c o u n t r y . She d i s c u s s e s the

m a r g i n a l i t y of w h i t e s i n South A f r i c a n c u l t u r e and her

consequent l a c k o f i m a g i n a t i v e a c c e s s t o some a r e a s o f b l a c k

e x p e r i e n c e , c o n c l u d i n g t h a t w h i t e w r i t e r s can a t l e a s t e x p l o r e

the a r e a s o f c o n f l i c t where c o n t a c t o c c u r s between the r a c e s .

174

She s a y s :

. . . u n l e s s we can make out a case f o r our b e i n g a c c e p t e d and we can f o r g e a common c u l t u r e t o g e t h e r , w h i t e s a r e g o i n g t o be m a r g i n a l , because we w i l l be o u t s i d e t h e c e n t r a l e n t i t i e s of l i f e h e r e . To a l a r g e e x t e n t we a r e now. But t h e r e ' s s t i l l t h a t a r e a of c o n f l i c t which i s from an a r t i s t i c p o i n t of view f r u i t f u l . But when t h a t i s gone, i f we a r e not i n t e g r a t e d , i f we have not c u t l o o s e from the c o l o n i a l c u l t u r e . . ." (she ends i n mid-sentence; "'A S t o r y f o r t h i s P l a c e and Time'" 106).

G ordimer, t h e n , who i s the most r o o t e d o f w r i t e r s , who has

s a i d , "To go i n t o e x i l e i s t o l o s e your p l a c e i n the w o r l d , " i s

y e t p r e y t o the symptoms of e x i l e t h a t haunt S c h r e i n e r , D i n e s e n ,

and L e s s i n g . As a w h i t e w r i t e r she i s e x i l e d from the b l a c k

m a j o r i t y i n her c o u n t r y , who Clingman c l a i m s a r e her t r u e

p u b l i c ; she i s p u b l i s h e d and read m o s t l y a b r o a d , i n London, New

Y o r k , and P a r i s , f a r from th e p e o p l e she w r i t e s o f — a n d even i f

i n d i r e c t l y — t o . A l t h o u g h she has l i v e d a l l her l i f e i n South

A f r i c a , i t i s i n one sense not her c o u n t r y ; t h e r e a r e a r e a s o f

l i f e t h e r e t h a t a r e a l i e n t o h e r , and p e o p l e who p e r c e i v e her as

a l i e n t o them. Her f i c t i o n i s a c u t e l y aware of t h e s e i s s u e s .

Her w r i t e r ' s i m a g i n a t i o n seems t o s t r e t c h i t s l i m i t s i n o r d e r t o

d e l i n e a t e as f u l l y and as d e e p l y as p o s s i b l e t h e arenas where

w h i t e meets b l a c k : i n the i r o n i e s o f t h e m a s t e r - s e r v a n t bond,

c l a n d e s t i n e s e x , r e v o l u t i o n a r y p o l i t i c s , or perhaps o n l y i n

dreams. O f t e n the r e l a t i o n s h i p i s unacknowledged by t h e

p a r t i c i p a n t s ; o f t e n i t i s f o r b i d d e n , as i n s e x , or h i d d e n , as i n

underground p o l i t i c s .

Thus the image of the b l a c k body b u r i e d i n t h e w h i t e - r u l e d

l a n d — o r i n t h e w h i t e u n c o n s c i o u s — i s so p o w e r f u l a p a t t e r n i n

175

Gordimer's work. I t i s a l s o a p o w e r f u l e x p r e s s i o n of the

c o n t r a d i c t i o n s o f r a c i a l i d e n t i t y i n a l l f o u r writers.1°

Gordimer, who i s most " a t home" i n A f r i c a , engages most de e p l y

i n t h e problems of w h i t e female i d e n t i t y ; she i s the most honest

about the ways i n which she and her c h a r a c t e r s cannot be a t home

i n a b l a c k l a n d .

As she d i g s deeper beneath the w h i t e s u r f a c e o f her c o u n t r y

toward the b u r i e d body of b l a c k c u l t u r e , her w r i t i n g r e f l e c t s

her deepening engagement by becoming l e s s a l i e n a t e d , even though

a l i e n a t i o n i s s t i l l i t s major s u b j e c t . The L y i n g Days, f o r

example, i s marred by an en d i n g t h a t seems f a l s e and c o n t r i v e d ;

i t s image p a t t e r n s and i r o n i c c o n t r a s t s a r e o v e r s t a t e d , i t s

h i s t o r i c a l - p o l i t i c a l commentaries imposed on t h e t e x t . Gordimer

t e l l s t he r e a d e r t h a t Helen has grown up (she uses t h e metaphor

of the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a b u i l d i n g ) , t h a t she has d i s c o v e r e d her

t r u e l o v e i n J o e l (who su d d e n l y appears l i k e P r i n c e Charming),

and t h a t she has made a commitment t o the b l a c k cause (she h e a r s

b l a c k c h i l d r e n s i n g i n g ) and a d e c i s i o n t o r e t u r n home (Helen

makes a p l e d g e t o t h i s e f f e c t ) .

By The C o n s e r v a t i o n i s t , Gordimer's method, her s t y l e and

form, have changed markedly. T h i s i s i n p a r t a r e s u l t of her

p o l i t i c a l e v o l u t i o n . As she s t a t e d i n 1979: t o g e t h e r w i t h

O c c a s i o n f o r L o v i n g , "The L a t e B o u r g e o i s World r e a l l y marks the

end o f what I had t o say about w h i t e l i b e r a l i s m i n South A f r i c a "

( I n t e r v i e w w i t h Johannes R i i s , K u n a p i p i 2 0 ) . I n The

C o n s e r v a t i o n i s t , which d e a l s w i t h e x i l e on a more p r o f o u n d l e v e l

t h an the e x p l i c a t i o n of t h e l i b e r a l dilemma i n her e a r l i e r work,

176

she succeeds i n overcoming some of her own detachment or

a l i e n a t i o n as a w r i t e r . Her method i s an a p p a r e n t l y r a m b l i n g ,

but a c t u a l l y c a r e f u l l y s t r u c t u r e d i n t e r i o r monologue which

i n c l u d e s remembered and i m a g i n a r y c o n v e r s a t i o n s between t h e

c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r , M e h r i n g , and h i s absent m i s t r e s s , h i s absent

son, h i s b l a c k farm manager, and f i n a l l y , t he murdered man

h i m s e l f . The s o c i a l and h i s t o r i c a l background of the c h a r a c t e r s

a r e encompassed i n Mehring's i n t e r i o r monologue, not p r o v i d e d i n

e x t e r n a l c o m m e n t a r i e s . H For the non-white c h a r a c t e r s whom

Mehring cannot see o b j e c t i v e l y as independent from h i m s e l f ,

Gordimer p r o v i d e s r e a l i s t i c t h i r d - p e r s o n d e s c r i p t i o n s , which

u n d e r c u t Mehring's p o i n t of view w h i l e p r o v i d i n g a wider

c o n t e x t .

On t h e s y m b o l i c l e v e l Gordimer uses the A f r i c a n Farm

p a t t e r n of d r o u g h t , and f l o o d , s t e r i l i t y and i r o n i c f e c u n d i t y .

When the r a i n s come, Mehring b e g i n s t o l o s e c o n t r o l of " h i s "

l a n d , " h i s " p e o p l e — a n d h i s f a m i l y , h i s t h o u g h t s , h i s memories,

h i s f u t u r e . Around M e h r i n g , who views the farm as another d a r k ,

m y s t e r i o u s woman t o conquer, l i k e h i s "gypsy" m i s t r e s s and the

Po r t u g e s e g i r l , t he a s s o c i a t i o n s between sex and death accumu­

l a t e . F i n a l l y t he l a n d , i n the pe r s o n of a muddy-complexioned

" c o l o u r e d g i r l , " t a k e s him t o i t s h o s t i l e , p o s s i b l y murderous,

bosom. Mehring's d i s o r i e n t e d s t a t e a t the end o f the n o v e l

makes what e x a c t l y happens t o him u n c l e a r . U n l i k e H elen's

o b t r u s i v e , t o o neat summation a t t h e end o f The L y i n g Days,

Mehring's end i n The C o n s e r v a t i o n i s t i s ambiguous, and i n f a c t

d e p i c t e d as u l t i m a t e l y i r r e l e v a n t .

177

At the same time as the r i s i n g of the w a t e r s s i g n a l s the

d e s t r u c t i o n o f M e h r i n g , and the w h i t e Southern A f r i c a n power

s t r u c t u r e t h a t he r e p r e s e n t s , i t s i g n a l s r e n e w a l , even

r e s u r r e c t i o n , f o r b l a c k Southern A f r i c a . 1 2 w h i l e t h e body of

th e murdered b l a c k man i s a C h r i s t symbol, i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e i s

p o l i t i c a l r a t h e r than r e l i g i o u s . The c o n n e c t i o n s between th e

R e s u r r e c t i o n and the r e v o l u t i o n a r e apparent i n the f o l l o w i n g

d e s c r i p t i o n s o f the body and t h e farm:

. . . a l l the farm has f l o w e r e d and burgeoned from him, s u c k i n g h i s s t r e n g t h l i k e n e c t a r from a g r a s s s t r a w — ( 2 3 7 ) . But v i o l e n c e has f l o w e r e d a f t e r seven y e a r s ' d r o u g h t , v i o l e n c e as f e c u n d i t y , w e a t h e r i n g as humus, r i s i n g as sap ( 2 4 3 ) .

F i n a l l y a t the f u n e r a l of the unknown man:

There was no c h i l d o f h i s p r e s e n t , but t h e i r c h i l d r e n were t h e r e t o l i v e a f t e r him. They had put him away t o r e s t , a t l a s t ; he had come back. He took p o s s e s s i o n of t h i s e a r t h , t h e i r s ; one of them ( 2 5 2 ) .

The B i b l i c a l imagery and language of The C o n s e r v a t i o n i s t

c a l l t o mind S c h r e i n e r ' s use of such imagery and language i n

A f r i c a n Farm. By means of r e f r a i n s Gordimer b r i n g s the s u b t e x t

of r e s u r r e c t i o n - r e v o l u t i o n t o the s u r f a c e . She a g a i n uses t h i s

t e c h n i q u e , a l o n g w i t h i n t e r i o r monologue and remembered or

i m a g i n a r y d i a l o g u e s , i n B u r g e r ' s Daughter. One i m p o r t a n t

r e f r a i n i n B u r g e r ' s Daughter, which r e f e r s t o the c h i l d r e n ' s

i n h e r i t a n c e from t h e i r f a t h e r s , and the c h i l d r e n l e a d i n g the

f a t h e r s , i s p r e f i g u r e d i n The C o n s e r v a t i o n i s t . Mehring's son

T e r r y r e j e c t s h i s f a t h e r ' s l i f e of a c c u m u l a t i o n and d o m i n a t i o n ;

178

he r e f u s e s t o f i g h t i n Namibia (where, we a r e reminded, h i s

f o r e f a t h e r s k i l l e d 19,000 H e r e r o s ) — a n d i n a r e l a t e d g e s t u r e ,

r e f u s e s h i s f a t h e r ' s a g g r e s s i v e form of h e t e r o s e x u a l i t y .

T e r r y ' s hippiedom i s an a c c u s a t i o n of M e h r i n g , who says t o him,

" I know what you say when you don't speak, s i t t i n g t h e r e w i t h

your body i n i t s p e n i t e n t ' s r a g s f o r a l l t h e s i n s of the

f a t h e r s " ( 1 3 3 ) . He reminds T e r r y t h a t the farm w i l l be h i s

s o m e d a y — " I t a l l b e l o n g s t o you. I t w i l l a l l b e l o n g t o you"

( 1 4 2 - 4 3 ) — a n d t h a t he won't be a b l e t o escape the g u i l t and

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of o w n e r s h i p .

I n The C o n s e r v a t i o n i s t Gordimer b r i n g s t o g e t h e r the themes,

imagery and r e f r a i n s of w h i t e S o u t h e r n A f r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e

b e g i n n i n g w i t h S c h r e i n e r . Her achievement i s t o t r a n s p o s e them

i n t o a b l a c k A f r i c a n p e r s p e c t i v e , b r i n g i n g t o the s u r f a c e the

b u r i e d b l a c k body t h a t i s the s u b t e x t not o n l y of her e a r l y

work, but of a l l o f the S c h r e i n e r - l n s p i r e d w h i t e l i t e r a t u r e of

A f r i c a . The theme of i n h e r i t a n c e which began w i t h the l a n d l e s s

orphans, Waldo and L y n d a l l , and c o n t i n u e d i n L e s s i n g ' s landed

w h i t e s e t t l e r c h i l d r e n ("They t r y t o r e p u d i a t e the p a s t , but

t h a t i s not so easy") i s g i v e n new meaning i n The Conserva­

t i o n i s t , i n which the d i s i n h e r i t e d b l a c k A f r i c a n s s y m b o l i c a l l y

r i s e up t o c l a i m t h e i r i n h e r i t a n c e , f l o o d i n g and f e r t i l i z i n g the

s t e r i l e , d r o u g h t - s t r i c k e n l a n d of the w h i t e s . I n B u r g e r ' s

Daughter Gordimer e x p l o r e s y e t a n other v a r i a t i o n on t h e complex

theme of i n h e r i t a n c e i n t h e p r e - r e v o l u t i o n a r y S o u t h e r n A f r i c a n

c o n t e x t .

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B u r g e r ' s Daughter

I n B u r g e r ' s Daughter (1979) Gordimer r e t u r n s t o the s u b j e c t

of her f i r s t n o v e l t w e n t y - s i x y e a r s e a r l i e r : female coming o f

age. The p l o t s of the two n o v e l s a r e q u i t e s i m i l a r . H elen Shaw

comes of age w i t h the coming t o power of the A f r i k a n e r N a t i o n a l ­

i s t s ; her r e s u l t i n g p o l i t i c a l d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t p r e c i p i t a t e s her

p e r s o n a l d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t and c r e a t e s c o n t r a d i c t i o n s t h a t f o r c e

her t o examine the p r e m i s e s o f her l i f e , t o j o u r n e y from South

A f r i c a i n s e a r c h of s e l f . Rosa Burger comes of age d u r i n g the

t r e a s o n t r i a l s and s u p p r e s s i o n of communism i n t h e f i f t i e s and

s i x t i e s . She t o o r e b e l s a g a i n s t her p a r e n t s , e x p l o r e s new ways

of l i v i n g , and l e a v e s f o r Europe.

Sex i s s u b v e r s i v e l y l i n k e d w i t h b l a c k n e s s i n B u r g e r ' s

Daughter as i n The L y i n g Days. Rosa l i k e H elen i s s e n s u a l l y

a t t r a c t e d t o b l a c k p e o p l e and t h e i r c u l t u r e . L i k e o t h e r

Gordimer c h a r a c t e r s she has a b l a c k a l t e r ego. However, the

parameters of t h i s n o v e l a r e d i f f e r e n t . For one t h i n g , Rosa i s

the daughter o f a prominent communist; her r e b e l l i o n a g a i n s t her

p a r e n t s and t h e i r k i n d , her reason f o r l e a v i n g South A f r i c a , her

a t t r a c t i o n and commitment t o b l a c k p e o p l e a r e much more complex

than are H e l e n ' s i n The L y i n g Days. Not s u r p r i s i n g l y , B u r g e r ' s

Daughter, which i s i d e o l o g i c a l l y and t h e m a t i c a l l y more

s o p h i s t i c a t e d , i s a l s o more f o r m a l l y complex than Gordimer's

f i r s t n o v e l .

H e len's s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d f i r s t - p e r s o n n a r r a t i o n o f The L y i n g

Days r e f l e c t s the l i m i t s of her p e r c e p t i o n : an i n t e l l i g e n t ,

s e n s i t i v e , m i d d l e - c l a s s g i r l , she i s born i n t o s h e l t e r e d

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" n o r m a l i t y " ; her s t a g e s o f growth f o l l o w a p r e d i c t a b l e p a t t e r n .

The p o l i t i c a l c r i s i s f o r l i b e r a l E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g South A f r i c a n s

i n t e r v e n e s , c r y s t a l l i z e s her p e r s o n a l i t y , and s e t s the p a t t e r n

o f her f u t u r e . I n B u r g e r ' s Daughter, as i n Gordimer's p r e v i o u s

n o v e l s , t h e d e t e r m i n i n g p u b l i c and p o l i t i c a l e v e n t s a r e f i l t e r e d

t h r o u gh p r i v a t e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n : the f o c u s i s on the i n n e r

e x p e r i e n c e of t h e p r o t a g o n i s t . But i n t h i s n o v e l , Gordimer uses

her most complex time scheme and n a r r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e , which

r e f l e c t both Rosa's s u p e r i o r p o l i t i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g and her

more c o m p l i c a t e d c i r c u m s t a n c e s . Gordimer has s a i d about

B u r g e r ' s Daughter t h a t " s t y l e r e a l l y grew out of c o n t e n t " ("'A

S t o r y f o r t h i s P l a c e and Time'" 109). I t i s w r i t t e n i n s p a r e ,

p r e c i s e p r o s e , l e s s d i s c u r s i v e than the s t y l e o f The L y i n g Days,

more c o n c e n t r a t e d and a l l u s i v e .

Gordimer uses p o i n t o f view as a major s t r u c t u r i n g d e v i c e .

There are two v o i c e s and t h r e e l e v e l s o f n a r r a t i o n i n B u r g e r ' s

Daughter. T y p i c a l l y , an event i s n a r r a t e d from the l i m i t e d

p o i n t of view o f a t h i r d p e r s o n ; Rosa r e t e l l s i t i n the f i r s t

p e r s o n ; f i n a l l y she c o n f e s s e s t h e deeper t r u t h o f t h a t same

e v e n t . So t h e r e a r e l e v e l s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , o f t r u t h i n

f a c t . Rosa's a c t i o n s a r e u s u a l l y not what they appear; they a r e

i n t e r p r e t e d d i f f e r e n t l y from the l i m i t e d p o i n t s of view of her

f r i e n d s and t h e p o l i c e s u r v e i l l a n c e , f o r i n s t a n c e . F u r t h e r m o r e ,

t h e r e a re o t h e r l a y e r s o f p r e t e n s e , as i n Rosa's p r e t e n d e d l o v e

f o r N o e l de W i t t , w h i c h , she c o n f e s s e s , was i n f a c t l o v e .

The use o f dashes t o p u n c t u a t e d i a l o g u e conveys the sense

of c o n v e r s a t i o n s e t w i t h i n the f l o w o f memory. I t i s not always

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easy t o t e l l who i s s p e a k i n g , but t h i s too i s congruent w i t h the

sense of Rosa s p e a k i n g e s s e n t i a l l y t o h e r s e l f , s p e a k e r s and

l i s t e n e r s i n her c o n v e r s a t i o n s b e i n g dead or u n r e a c h a b l e . T h i s

sense of a r e f r a i n i n Rosa's mind i n her p r i s o n c e l l i s r e i n ­

f o r c e d by p h r a s a l r e f r a i n s i n the t e x t (a d e v i c e which Gordimer

used i n The C o n s e r v a t i o n i s t ) : "Now you a r e f r e e . . . . Now you

a r e f r e e . . . now he i s deadl Dead!" ( 6 2 - 6 3 ) . Or, "There i s

more t o i t . More than you guessed . . . more than I knew or

wanted t o know. . . . S t i l l more t o i t than you knew" ( 6 3 ) .

Gordimer d e s c r i b e s her t e c h n i q u e i n B u r g e r ' s Daughter as an

e x t e n s i o n of r e a l i s m d i c t a t e d by the s u b j e c t :

I t ' s t o get i n c r e a s i n g l y a t what i s r e a l l y t h e r e . I suppose i t comes about through f i n d i n g t h a t i f you are d r i l l i n g s t r a i g h t ahead, so t o speak, you a r e c o n s t a n t l y s l i p p i n g and g l a n c i n g o f f what i s i n the p e r s o n , o f f the t r u e c e n t e r of t h e i r m o t i v a t i o n and the c o n g l o m e r a t i o n of c i r c u m s t a n c e s and i n h e r i t e d a t t i t u d e s t h a t make up the i n n e r p e r s o n a l i t y ( I n t e r ­view w i t h Stephen Gray, Contemporary L i t e r a t u r e 265).

She p r e s e n t s Rosa, t h e n , as a " c o n g l o m e r a t i o n o f c i r c u m s t a n c e s

and i n h e r i t e d a t t i t u d e s . " The " t r u e c e n t e r of [Rosa's]

m o t i v a t i o n , " however, remains e l u s i v e , o bscured f i n a l l y by t h a t

complex of c i r c u m s t a n c e s and a t t i t u d e s t h a t Gordimer so c a r e ­

f u l l y b u i l d s around her c h a r a c t e r . The n o v e l ' s e p i g r a p h i s from

Claude L e v i - S t r a u s s : " I am the p l a c e i n which something has

o c c u r r e d , " which a g a i n emphasizes the i n d i r e c t e x p l a n a t i o n o f

Rosa's c h a r a c t e r . Rosa r e c o u n t s what has o c c u r r e d t o and around

her i n an attempt t o answer the q u e s t i o n , "Who am I ? " That t h i s

q u e s t i o n i s never c o n c l u s i v e l y answered, t h a t Rosa remains

m y s t e r i o u s , i s t o some e x t e n t a f a i l i n g o f t h e n o v e l . However,

when a t t h e end Rosa i s p u r p o s e l y withdrawn by the a u t h o r , who

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r e p l a c e s her f i r s t p e r s o n n a r r a t i o n w i t h the v o i c e o f a t h i r d

p e r s o n , we must a l l o w t h a t Gordimer i s making a statement about

the u l t i m a t e p r i v a c y o f a p u b l i c p e r s o n a l i t y .

Gordimer e x p l a i n s her use of v o i c e and p o i n t of view i n the

n o v e l as an attempt t o d e s c r i b e the l i f e o f a p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i s t

h i d d e n under " l a y e r s o f p r o t e c t i v e c o l o u r i n g , " and d i v i d e d i n t o

"compartments." She s t a t e s :

Rosa, who i s h e r s e l f a g i r l l i k e any o t h e r g i r l . . . has r o l e s imposed upon her by her mother and f a t h e r ; underneath those r o l e s t h e r e ' s her own. . . . So t h e r e a r e t h r e e r o l e s somehow t o be conveyed by the same c h a r a c t e r . I t came t o me, when I was p o n d e r i n g the book, s i n c e she was someone who had so much imposed upon her from t h e o u t s i d e ; s i n c e t h e s e were p e o p l e who l i v e d w i t h l a y e r s of p r o t e c t i v e c o l o u r i n g i n o r d e r t o c a r r y out what they thought was t h e i r purpose i n l i f e ; s i n c e i t has been my own e x p e r i e n c e , knowing p e o p l e l i k e t h a t t h a t t h e r e a r e i n f i n i t e g r a d a t i o n s of i n t i m a c y . . . . L i f e l i v e d i n compart­ments, w e l l , how do you approach somebody l i k e t h a t ? And so the i d e a came t o me of Rosa q u e s t i o n i n g h e r s e l f as o t h e r s see her and whether what they see i s what she r e a l l y i s . And t h a t developed i n t o another s t y l i s t i c q u e s t i o n — i f you're g o i n g t o t e l l a book i n the f i r s t p e r s o n , t o whom a r e you t a l k i n g ? "'A S t o r y f o r t h i s P l a c e and Time'" 108).

Thus she i n v e n t e d Conrad and Ka t y a as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f

c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t modes of l i v i n g , a g a i n s t whom Rosa t e s t s ,

q u e s t i o n s , e x p l a i n s and j u s t i f i e s her own, f i n a l l y coming a t t h e

end of the book t o ad d r e s s her f a t h e r , L i o n e l .

J u d i e Newman su g g e s t s t h a t the theme of the b u r i e d body i n

The C o n s e r v a t i o n i s t i s c a r r i e d i n t o B u r g e r ' s Daughter i n the

c h a r a c t e r of Rosa, whose p e r s o n a l i t y we unbury as we read

t h r o u g h the l a y e r s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s u r r o u n d i n g h e r , and as she

u n b u r i e s / d i s c o v e r s h e r s e l f ("Prospero's Complex: Race and Sex"

i n Nadine Gordimer's B u r g e r ' s D a u g h t e r ) . 1 3

183

The book b e g i n s w i t h a t h i r d - p e r s o n d e s c r i p t i o n of f o u r ­

t e e n - y e a r - o l d Rosa Burger w i t h o t h e r s w a i t i n g a t the doors of

the p r i s o n where her mother i s d e t a i n e d ; the book ends f o u r t e e n

y e a r s l a t e r w i t h a d e s c r i p t i o n of some of the same peopl e w a i t ­

i n g a t the doors of the same p r i s o n where Rosa Burger i s now

d e t a i n e d . We know the d a t e s of the a r r e s t s , which a r e

h i s t o r i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t , as a r e the month and year i n which

Rosa was b o r n . Rosa's d a t e s , a n n i v e r s a r i e s and f e s t i v a l s a r e

thos e of the s t r i k e s , a r r e s t s and t r i a l s of the South A f r i c a n

Communist P a r t y , of which her p a r e n t s were, f i r s t , l e a d i n g

members and, l a t e r , c e l e b r a t e d m a r t y r s . L i o n e l , a d o c t o r , and

Cathy, a u n i o n o r g a n i z e r , were m a r r i e d the week of a g r e a t

m i n e r s ' s t r i k e on the W i t w a t e r s r a n d . And so the f a m i l y h i s t o r y

c o n t i n u e s , t h rough the Mineworkers' Union s t r i k e t r i a l , her

f a t h e r ' s a c q u i t t a l and r e a r r e s t , t h e l e g a l d i s s o l u t i o n of the

Communist P a r t y i n 1950, the Treason T r i a l of 1957, and the

underground o p e r a t i o n s of the n i n e t e e n - s i x t i e s , d u r i n g which

p e r i o d her f a t h e r was a r r e s t e d a g a i n , t o d i e i n the t h i r d year

of h i s l i f e s e n t e n c e . W h i l e the main c h a r a c t e r s a r e f i c t i o n a l ,

the p u b l i c e v e n t s a r e h i s t o r i c a l ; they a re c h r o n i c l e d a t l e n g t h ,

i n f a c t checked w i t h Rosa by L i o n e l ' s b i o g r a p h e r . But t h e s e

i n c o n t r o v e r t i b l e f a c t s , t h e s e d a t e s which form the Burger f a m i l y

album, o n l y b e g i n t o answer Rosa's q u e s t i o n of "Who am I ? " She

c o n s i d e r s the p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y i n the l o n g monologues i n which

she a d d r e s s e s t h r e e p e o p l e who a r e c l o s e t o h e r , or a d d r e s s e s

h e r s e l f t h r ough them, i n an attempt t o reach beyond the f a c t s ,

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the i l l u s t r i o u s or n o t o r i o u s d a t e s (depending on one's p o l i t i c a l

p e r s p e c t i v e ) t o the i n n e r meaning of e v e n t s , t o the p r i v a t e

r e l a t i o n s h i p s of a p u b l i c f a m i l y .

To t h i s p u r p o s e , t h e n , she p r e s e n t s t h r e e p e r s p e c t i v e s o f

the opening scene o u t s i d e the p r i s o n . F i r s t , i n an o b j e c t i v e

t h i r d p e r s o n v o i c e , Rosa d e s c r i b e s h e r s e l f a t the p r i s o n g a t e s :

i n her s c h o o l u n i f o r m , w i t h unwashed h a i r and prominent e a r s .

She then d e s c r i b e s h e r s e l f t h r ough the eyes of one of her

p a r e n t s ' comrades as a brave young h e r o i n e " d e d i c a t e d t o the

s t r u g g l e . " (Here a re echoes o f Martha Quest's or Anna Wulf's

i r o n y about the l e f t - w i n g e r s and her own r e l a t i o n s h i p t o them.)

Rosa then s w i t c h e s t o the more s u b j e c t i v e f i r s t p e r s o n :

When they saw me o u t s i d e the p r i s o n , what d i d they see?

I s h a l l never know. I t ' s a l l c o n c o c t e d . I s a w — s e e — t h a t p r o f i l e i n a hand-held m i r r o r d i r e c t e d towards another m i r r o r . . . . i t ' s i m p o s s i b l e t o f i l t e r f r e e of what I have l e a r n t , f e l t , t h o u g h t , the s u b j e c t i v e p r e s e n c e of the s c h o o l g i r l . She's a s t r a n g e r about whom some i n t i m a t e f a c t s a r e known t o me, t h a t ' s a l l (13-14) .

She goes on t o l i s t t he " i n t i m a t e f a c t s " about her s c h o o l ­

g i r l s e l f w h i c h , i f they do not r e v e a l the e l u s i v e t r u t h , a t

l e a s t connect the p u b l i c Rosa w i t h a p r i v a t e one; the

"courageous h e r o i n e " i s a c h i l d l i k e o t h e r c h i l d r e n , f o r whom

Cathy Burger i s Mom: "Dear Mom, Hope you are a l l r i g h t . Dad and

I a r e f i n e . . . " reads the note she has smuggled i n s i d e t o

a s s u r e her mother t h a t L i o n e l has not y e t been a r r e s t e d , a l o n g

w i t h an o l d eiderdown g i v e n her by her A f r i k a n e r grandmother.

Another p r i v a t e f a c t i s t h a t Rosa i s m e n s t r u a t i n g :

185

The i n t e r n a l l a n d s c a p e of my m y s t e r i o u s body t u r n s me i n s i d e o u t , so t h a t i n t h a t p u b l i c p l a c e on t h a t p u b l i c o c c a s i o n . . . I am w i t h i n t h a t monthly c r i s i s of d e s t r u c t i o n , the p u r g i n g , t e a r i n g , d r a i n i n g of my own s t r u c t u r e (15-16).

Rosa's f i r s t p e r s o n d e s c r i p t i o n i s almost s u r r e a l i s t i c ; i t

i s c e r t a i n l y s y m b o l i c : the g r e a t studded door, the b a n a l note

w i t h a h i d d e n meaning, her grandmother's q u i l t , and t h e

m e n s t r u a l cramps a r e l i k e r i t u a l i s t i c elements i n an i n i t i a t i o n

ceremony, i n which w i t h one hand Rosa assumes her p a r e n t s '

a c t i v i s t m a n t l e , w h i l e c l u t c h i n g i n the o t h e r hand th e t a l i s m a n

of her A f r i k a n e r t r i b a l r o o t s . Her d u a l i n h e r i t a n c e i s under­

s c o r e d by her f u l l name, which i s Rosa M a r i e : f o r the communist

r e v o l u t i o n a r y Rosa Luxemburg and her grandmother M a r i e B u r g e r .

From th e shape of the n o v e l which b e g i n s and ends at the

p r i s o n , i t seems t o be a memoir or c o n f e s s i o n spoken i n the

p r i s o n c e l l where Rosa has chosen t o embrace her f a t e as

B u r g e r ' s d a u g h t e r . As she says a t the end o f P a r t One, which i s

a d d r e s s e d t o Conrad, " I may have been t a l k i n g t o a dead man,

o n l y t o m y s e l f " ( 2 1 0 ) . W i t h i n t h i s c i r c u l a r shape, Gordimer

t e l l s a s t o r y of r e b e l l i o n , s e l f - d o u b t , mixed a l l e g i a n c e s , and

escape t h a t i s an i r o n i c t w i s t on The S t o r y of an A f r i c a n Farm,

Martha Quest, and her own L y i n g Days. B u r g e r ' s Daughter s t a n d s

i n a s i m i l a r r e l a t i o n t o The L y i n g Days as From Man t o Man does

t o A f r i c a n Farm. I t a l s o h a r k s back t o c e r t a i n r o m a n t i c

elements o f Out of A f r i c a .

Rosa, l i k e H elen Shaw, r e b e l s a g a i n s t her p a r e n t s and

the o r d e r t h e y r e p r e s e n t — b u t o n l y a f t e r t h e i r d e a t h s . For her

as f o r H e l e n s e x u a l l o v e i s s u b v e r s i v e i n undermining her

186

a l l e g i a n c e / i n t h i s c a s e , t o the Cause. L i k e H e l e n and the

o t h e r h e r o i n e s , Rosa dreams of g o i n g abroad t o f i n d her freedom,

and she succeeds f o r a t i m e . But t h i s p l o t o f the h e r o i n e seek­

i n g s e l f - f u l f i l l m e n t beyond the narrow round of an o p p r e s s i v e

c o l o n i a l s o c i e t y i s t u r n e d on i t s head i n B u r g e r ' s Daughter.

Whereas L y n d a l l and her h e i r s t u r n t h e i r p e r s o n a l s t r u g g l e s i n t o

t h e p r o g r e s s i v e p o l i t i c s of f e m i n i s m , s o c i a l i s m and r a c i a l

e q u a l i t y , Rosa i s t r a p p e d by her i n h e r i t e d commitment t o the

p o l i t i c s of r e v o l u t i o n . So t o f r e e h e r s e l f she must s t a r t by

abandoning t h a t commitment. I n s t e a d of t u r n i n g outward t o the

b l a c k s or l o o k i n g f o r s o l i d a r i t y w i t h o t h e r women, Rosa t u r n s

inward t o t r y t o f i n d the s e l f t h a t has been s u b o r d i n a t e d t o her

f a m i l y and t h e Cause.

Gordimer has r e c o u n t e d her f a s c i n a t i o n w i t h the c h i l d r e n

and g r a n d c h i l d r e n of South A f r i c a n communists, who, i n s t e a d of

r e v o l t i n g a g a i n s t t h e i r p a r e n t s ' b e l i e f s and way o f l i f e ,

" s i m p l y took up the t o r c h " i n "a r e l a y r a c e of g e n e r a t i o n s "

("'A S t o r y f o r t h i s P l a c e and Time'" 100). B u r g e r ' s Daughter

e x p l o r e s the l i m i t s o f t h a t commitment, by making Rosa " d e f e c t "

from her f a m i l y . " D e f e c t " i s Rosa's word ( f i r s t used on page

264 and r e p e a t e d s e v e r a l t i m e s ) , and i t p o i n t s up the dilemma of

her q u e s t f o r l i b e r a t i o n : t h a t she can o n l y become f r e e t h rough

b e t r a y a l and f l i g h t . As John Cooke o b s e r v e s , "By p u t t i n g

[Rosa's] d e f e c t i o n i n such s t a r k t erms, Gordimer makes her

s t r o n g e s t statement of the need, whatever the consequences, of a

c h i l d t o c l a i m a l i f e o f her own" The N o v e l s of Nadine Gordimer

( 8 1 ) .

187

When t h e burden o f b e i n g B u r g e r ' s daughter i s l i f t e d a f t e r

her f a t h e r ' s death i n p r i s o n , Rosa becomes a p r i v a t e p e r s o n ,

h i d i n g from, c u t t i n g her t i e s w i t h the comrades. She r e t r e a t s

t o her h i p p y f r i e n d Conrad's c o t t a g e , w h i c h , h i d d e n on an

overgrown e s t a t e s c h e d u l e d f o r d e m o l i t i o n , does not o f f i c i a l l y

e x i s t . There she undergoes a k i n d of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s : she

r e g r e s s e s and a c c u s e s , j u s t i f i e s and c o n f e s s e s t h e s e c r e t s of

the Burger house. She t e l l s Conrad:

I was s t r u g g l i n g w i t h a monstrous resentment a g a i n s t the c l a i m — n o t . o f the Communist P a r t y I —of b l o o d , shared genes, the semen from which I had i s s u e d and the body i n which I had grown. I s t a n d o u t s i d e the p r i s o n w i t h an eiderdown and h i d d e n messages f o r my mother. . . . Two hundred and seventeen days . . . w h i l e the w i t n e s s e s came i n and out t h e dock condemn­i n g my f a t h e r . My mother i s dead and t h e r e i s o n l y me, t h e r e , f o r him. Only me. My s t u d i e s , my work, my l o v e a f f a i r s must f i t i n w i t h the t w i c e - m o n t h l y v i s i t s t o t he p r i s o n , f o r l i f e , as l o n g as he l i v e s — i f he had l i v e d . . . . I have no p a s s p o r t , because I am my f a t h e r ' s d a u g h t e r . P e o p l e who a s s o c i a t e w i t h me must be p r e p a r e d t o be s u s p e c t because I am my f a t h e r ' s d a u g h t e r . . . . And now he i s dead! . . . and I knew I must have wished him t o d i e ; t h a t t o e x u l t and t o sorrow were the same t h i n g f o r me (62-6 3 ) .

"Now you a r e f r e e " i s t h e r e f r a i n of t h i s s e c t i o n , as Rosa

l e a r n s from t h e f e c k l e s s Conrad how t o be s e l f i s h and i r r e s p o n ­

s i b l e , how t o be the c h i l d she never was. ("I don't g i v e a f u c k

about what's ' u s e f u l , ' " Conrad t e l l s h e r , " . . . When I f e e l ,

t h e r e ' s no 'we,' o n l y • i • " 5 2 ) . But Rosa, f u l l of compromising

knowledge, cannot f u l l y r e l a x her guard or speak c o m p l e t e l y

t r u t h f u l l y t o anyone; her f u l l c o n f e s s i o n i s made t o the Conrad

who went m i s s i n g i n a s a i l b o a t on the I n d i a n Ocean, whom she

t e l l s : "There i s more t o i t . More than you guessed or wormed

out o f me i n your c u r i o s i t y and envy . . ." ( 6 3 ) .

188

Her f i r s t attempt t o d e f e c t , Rosa t e l l s t he absent Conrad,

was out of l o v e f o r Noel de W i t t , a p o l i t i c a l p r i s o n e r w i t h

whom, i r o n i c a l l y , she had been made t o a c t the r o l e o f f i a n c e e

i n o r d e r t o pass messages from her f a t h e r . I t was her s e c r e t

a n g u i s h a t h a v i n g t o h i d e her r e a l f e e l i n g s under a p o l i t i c a l l y

e x p e d i e n t l i e t h a t began t o a l i e n a t e her from her p a r e n t s . When

the young man went i n t o e x i l e a b r o a d , Rosa s e c r e t l y t r i e d t o

o b t a i n a p a s s p o r t t o f o l l o w him; but u n s u c c e s s f u l , because o f

co u r s e she was B u r g e r ' s d a u g h t e r , she was l e f t t o nurse her

f u r t i v e , r e s e n t f u l l o v e .

Sex i n o t h e r Gordimer f i c t i o n i s p o r t r a y e d as a s o c i a l or

p o l i t i c a l a c t through which the h e r o i n e sheds her a l o n e n e s s and

e n t e r s i n t o a wider r e l a t i o n s h i p of which her l o v e r i s o n l y the

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e or c a t a l y s t . T h i s i s a k i n t o Out o f A f r i c a i n

which Karen B l i x e n ' s l o v e a f f a i r w i t h Denys F i n c h - H a t t o n i s i n

p a r t an e x p r e s s i o n of her l o v e a f f a i r w i t h A f r i c a . I n

S c h r e i n e r , the s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f L y n d a l l , Rebekah and

B e r t i e b r i n g o n l y p a i n and death ( a l t h o u g h a t l e a s t Rebekah i s

a l l o w e d the compensatory j o y s of motherhood). S c h r e i n e r ' s

h e r o i n e s e x p r e s s t h e i r c o n n e c t i o n t o the p u b l i c , male w o r l d

t h r ough p l a t o n i c i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h i d e a l i z e d male f i g u r e s .

L e s s i n g i s b a s i c a l l y c y n i c a l about s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s ; f o r

Martha Quest, l i k e S c h r e i n e r ' s c h a r a c t e r s , m a r r i a g e and

pregnancy a r e t r a p s , men a r e m o s t l y d i s a p p o i n t i n g and u n r e l i ­

a b l e . A l t h o u g h Martha i s g i v e n a male i n t e l l e c t u a l mentor, J o s s

Cohen, her r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h him i s more a m b i v a l e n t than

L y n d a l l ' s w i t h Waldo or Rebekah's w i t h Mr. Drummond. Helen

189

Shaw's r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e l e s s d i a g r a m m a t i c , f a l l i n g somewhere i n

between Dinesen's romance, S c h r e i n e r ' s p l a t o n i c communion, and

L e s s i n g ' s r e a l i s t i c s e x u a l i t y .

Rosa has t h r e e l o v e a f f a i r s , p l u s an e s s e n t i a l l y p l a t o n i c

f r i e n d s h i p w i t h Conrad which echoes the n o n - s e x u a l i n t i m a c y of

L y n d a l l and Waldo. As Rosa t e l l s Conrad, "And you know we had

s t opped making l o v e t o g e t h e r months b e f o r e I l e f t , aware t h a t i t

had become i n c e s t " ( 7 0 ) . Conrad i s Rosa's p r e t e n d b r o t h e r , who

h e l p s her d e f e c t from the Burger house; " B a a s i e , " t h e b l a c k

f o s t e r b r o t h e r of her c h i l d h o o d , i s "the v o i c e from home" who

e f f e c t s her r e t u r n . Rosa's a f f a i r w i t h B e r n a r d C h a b a l i e r i n

F r a nce i s g l o r i o u s l y s e x u a l , p h y s i c a l l y and e m o t i o n a l l y

l i b e r a t i n g . But t o remain t h e r e , t o t a k e up the r o l e of

C h a b a l i e r ' s m i s t r e s s , would be t o l o s e her freedom, she d e c i d e s .

The n o v e l i s an e x p l o r a t i o n of t h e meaning of freedom. At

f i r s t Rosa f i n d s freedom i n the r e l e a s e from her f a m i l y — t h e

freedom t o be p r i v a t e and s e l f - c o n c e r n e d . But she i s a l s o " f r e e

t o u n d e r s t a n d " how much she has l o s t by b e i n g B u r g e r ' s d a u g h t e r .

Emerging from th e f e r v i d i n t i m a c y of Conrad's c o t t a g e t o seek

the g r e a t e r freedom of anonymity, she r e n t s a f a c e l e s s f l a t ,

t a k e s a job i n the o f f i c e of an i n v e s t m e n t banker, and w i t n e s s e s

the " f r e e , " n o n p o l i t i c a l d eath of a w h i t e tramp on a park bench.

T h i s event l i k e her l a t e r e n c o u n t e r w i t h a mad o l d woman i n

F r a n c e , reminds Rosa t h a t nowhere i s one f r e e from s u f f e r i n g .

"To be f r e e i s t o become almost a s t r a n g e r t o o n e s e l f : "

Rosa says "the n e a r e s t I ' l l ever get t o s e e i n g what they saw

o u t s i d e the p r i s o n " ( 8 1 ) . Throughout the n o v e l t h e r e i s a

c o u n t e r p o i n t between "freedom" and " p r i s o n . " Rosa r e t u r n s t o

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the image of her s e l f as a c h i l d o u t s i d e her mother's p r i s o n , t o

her f a r c i c a l p r i s o n l o v e a f f a i r w i t h N o el de W i t t , and t o the

memory of her f a t h e r i n p r i s o n . I t i s i n Rosa's memory of

L i o n e l ' s l a s t p u b l i c speech i n c o u r t b e f o r e he was sentenced

t h a t the r e f r a i n s of " p r i s o n " and "freedom" come t o g e t h e r , are

p r e s e n t e d not as o p p o s i t e s but as complements. L i o n e l B u r g e r ,

about t o be condemned t o a l i f e s e n t e n c e , h o l d s t h e courtroom

s p e l l b o u n d f o r two hours as he e x e r c i s e s h i s l a s t r i g h t t o f r e e ,

p u b l i c speech; he j u s t i f i e s the aims and means of the Communist

P a r t y and t h e A f r i c a n N a t i o n a l C o n g r e s s , e n d i n g w i t h an a t t a c k

on the s t a t e ' s concept of g u i l t and i n n o c e n c e : " I would be

g u i l t y o n l y i f I were i n n o c e n t of w o r k i n g t o d e s t r o y r a c i s m i n

my c o u n t r y " ( 2 7 ) . Thus the condemned man pronounces moral

judgement on t h o s e who condemned him. A f t e r the s e n t e n c e i s

pronounced, "There was a s p l i t second when e v e r y t h i n g s t o p p e d ;

no b r e a t h , no h e a r t b e a t , no s a l i v a , no f l o w o f b l o o d e x c e p t her

f a t h e r ' s . . . . He a l o n e . . . gave o f f the heat of l i f e " ( 2 8 ) .

Condemned t o l i f e i n p r i s o n he i s p a r a d o x i c a l l y p o w e r f u l , v i t a l

and f r e e . 1 4

Elsewhere i n the book Rosa i s s c o r n f u l and i r o n i c about her

f a t h e r ' s e v e r - h o p e f u l o l d comrades, t y p i f i e d by the T e r b l a n c h e

f a m i l y who have s u b o r d i n a t e d t h e i r l i v e s t o the f u t u r e v i c t o r y

which has receded from them year by y e a r , as t h e i r e f f o r t s and

s a c r i f i c e s have ended i n f a i l u r e : more r e s t r i c t i v e l a w s , g r e a t e r

r e p r e s s i o n , the entrenchment of t h e w h i t e power s t r u c t u r e .

Almost s n e e r i n g , she comments w i t h some of Martha Quest's i r o n y :

"There i s n o t h i n g but f a i l u r e u n t i l the F u t u r e i s a c h i e v e d "

( 1 2 5 ) . Rosa c o n f r o n t s the T e r b l a n c h e d a u g h t e r — h e r c o u n t e r p a r t —

191

w i t h the b l e a k r e c o r d o f t h e i r p a r e n t s :

— A n d y o u ' l l go i n s i d e . L i k e them. Y o u ' l l come o u t . L i k e t h e m — ( 1 2 5 ) .

I l o o k e d a t h e r , i n c i t i n g us. —What c o n f o r m i s t s : the c h i l d r e n of our p a r e n t s — ( 1 2 7 ) .

C l a r e T e r b l a n c h e s c o f f s a t " b o u r g e o i s freedoms," but Rosa

a p p l i e s f o r a p a s s p o r t : a l i f e of her own, abr o a d . " I don't

know how t o l i v e i n L i o n e l ' s c o u n t r y " she c r i e s ( 2 1 0 ) . She i s

t o r n between her f a t h e r ' s i d e a l s o f freedom and her own need t o

be f r e e of him. She i s tempted by t h e "warm b r e a s t " of Mrs.

T e r b l a n c h e , t o w h i c h , "one can come home a g a i n and . . . go t o

p r i s o n " ( 1 1 4 ) . She i s tempted even more by the proud and

gorgeous Winnie Mandela f i g u r e , M a r i s a Kgosana, f o r whom, l i k e

L i o n e l , freedom and p r i s o n a r e not a dichotomy. Rosa meets her

i n a department s t o r e : "I'm j u s t back from t h e I s l a n d [ t h e

p r i s o n on Robben I s l a n d ] — . How s p l e n d i d l y she made the

t r i p . . . . She doesn't have t o f i n d a solemn f a c e , acknowledge

the d i s t a n c e between the p r i s o n and the c o s m e t i c c o u n t e r " ( 1 3 6 ) .

M a r i s a Kgosana, l i k e L i o n e l Burger t h a t day i n c o u r t , i s v i t a l

and f r e e ; as L i o n e l d i d she c a s t s a ma g n e t i c , p h y s i c a l s p e l l , t o

which Rosa responds as t o a r e v e l a t i o n : To t o u c h i n women's tok e n embrace a g a i n s t the l i v e , n i g h t cheek o f M a r i s a , s e e i n g huge f o r a second the l a k e - f l a s h of her eye, the l i l a c - p i n k o f her i n n e r l i p a g a i n s t t h e t r a n s l u c e n t - e d g e d t e e t h , t o e n t e r f o r a moment the i n v i s i b l e magnetic f i e l d o f the body o f a b e a u t i f u l c r e a t u r e and r e c e i v e on o n e s e l f i t s i m p r i n t . . . t h i s was t o immerse o n e s e l f i n ano t h e r mode of p e r c e p t i o n . As near as a woman can get t o the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f the w o r l d a man seeks i n the beauty of a woman. M a r i s a i s b l a c k ; n e a r , t h e n , as w e l l , t o the w h i t e way of u s i n g b l a c k n e s s as a way of p e r c e i v i n g a s e n s u a l r e d e m p t i o n , as r o m a n t i c s do, or of p e r c e i v i n g f e a r s , as r a c i a l i s t s do. i n my f a t h e r ' s house the one was seen as t h e obverse of the o t h e r ,

192

two s i d e s of f a l s e c o n s c i o u s n e s s . . . . But even i n t h a t house b l a c k n e s s was a sensuous-redemptive means of p e r c e p t i o n . Through b l a c k n e s s i s r e v e a l e d the way to the f u t u r e . . . . I f e l t i t i n M a r i s a ' s p r e s e n c e , a f t e r so l o n g . . . (134-35).

T h i s passage i s the s t r o n g e s t e v o c a t i o n of the meaning of

b l a c k n e s s f o r the w h i t e c h a r a c t e r s i n the n o v e l s , not o n l y of

Gordimer, but a l s o of D i n e s e n , L e s s i n g (and i n d i r e c t l y , of

S c h r e i n e r , whose i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h b l a c k n e s s i s h i d d e n or

b u r i e d ) . Seen from v e r y c l o s e range, M a r i s a i s d e s c r i b e d as a

b e a u t i f u l n i g h t " c r e a t u r e , " a c o l l e c t i o n of s u r f a c e s on which

l i g h t and c o l o r p l a y — a s a n a t u r a l o b j e c t ( l a k e , l i l a c ) or f o r c e

(magnetic f i e l d ) . T h i s e v o c a t i o n o f a b l a c k woman i s r e m i n i s ­

cent of Dinesen's d e s c r i p t i o n s o f Masai w a r r i o r s and Somali

g i r l s as b e a u t i f u l n a t u r a l o b j e c t s , as one w i t h the a n i m a l s and

l a n d f o r m s of A f r i c a . Rosa, l i k e Karen B l i x e n , c o n n e c t s w i t h

" A f r i c a " t h r o u g h her r o m a n t i c v i s i o n of M a r i s a . And by e x t e n ­

s i o n she c o n n e c t s w i t h a deeper, f r e e r , more a u t h e n t i c p a r t of

h e r s e l f , w h i c h , as she n o t e s , i s the i n s p i r a t i o n f o r her

p o l i t i c a l commitment t o her p a r e n t s ' and M a r i s a ' s v i s i o n of the

f u t u r e : "Through b l a c k n e s s i s r e v e a l e d the way t o the

f u t u r e . . . ." 1 5

M a r i s a , the essence of b l a c k n e s s , has her o p p o s i t e i n

Brandt Vermeulen, the essence of " w h i t e n e s s " i n the South A f r i c a

of the n o v e l : he i s c o l d , c l e v e r , d i s s i m u l a t i n g , h y p o c r i t i c a l ,

c r u e l , v i o l e n t — a n d p o w e r f u l . Rosa goes t o him t o b a r g a i n f o r

her p a s s p o r t . Whereas Gordimer's d e s c r i p t i o n s of b l a c k

c h a r a c t e r s a r e i n v a r i a b l y s y m p a t h e t i c and o f t e n a d m i r i n g , the

w h i t e c h a r a c t e r s , e xcept f o r the B u r g e r s , are found w a n t i n g i n

v a r i o u s ways, r a n g i n g from b e i n g weak and u n a t t r a c t i v e t o e v i l .

193

Vermeulen, the " e n l i g h t e n e d A f r i k a n e r , " i s a w h o l l y s i n i s t e r

c h a r a c t e r , made more v i l l a i n o u s by h i s engaging manner and

c u l t u r e d t a s t e . I n c r o s s i n g h i s t h r e s h o l d Rosa e n t e r s f o r the

f i r s t time the w o r l d of power and p r i v i l e g e which her f a t h e r

disowned. She k n o w i n g l y c o n s o r t s w i t h the enemy, t u r n i n g t o her

own advantage h i s need t o j u s t i f y a p a r t h e i d ; i f the government

can a f f o r d t o a l l o w B u r g e r ' s daughter her p o l i t i c a l r i g h t s , i t

w i l l p r o v i d e e v i d e n c e t h e " l i b e r a l i z a t i o n " i s w o r k i n g , and t h a t

the regime has n o t h i n g t o f e a r .

As were p r e v i o u s c h a r a c t e r s , Vermeulen i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by

h i s s u r r o u n d i n g s ; h i s house i s one more s t a g e i n Rosa's movement

from t h a t l e g e n d a r y house of her f a t h e r , t o Conrad's f a i r y - t a l e

c o t t a g e , the c h a r a c t e r l e s s o f f i c e b l o c k , the d u l l shabby house

of the w h i t e communists, and the warm, crowded house of M a r i s a ' s

c o u s i n i n Soweto. B r a n d t ' s house i s d e s c r i b e d i n more d e t a i l

than the o t h e r s ; t h e s e d e t a i l s , t o g e t h e r w i t h e x t e n s i v e

q u o t a t i o n s from h i s p o l i t i c a l p h i l o s o p h y are r e c o r d e d i n the

t h i r d p e r s o n w i t h l i t t l e a u t h o r i a l comment or response from the

p o l i t e , e n i g m a t i c Rosa. The "New A f r i k a n e r " i s thus l e d t o

i n c r i m i n a t e h i m s e l f : On one of the w a l l s o f t h i s house an o i l of h e r o i c p r o p o r t i o n s : the v i s i t o r ' s eye matched t o i t a number of o t h e r s i n the room. A l l were composed r a d i a l l y from f i g u r e s which seemed f l u n g down i n the c e n t r e of the canvas from a h e i g h t , s p r e a d l i k e a s u i c i d e on a pavement, or backed up a g a i n s t a w a l l , seen from the s i g h t s of the f i r i n g squad. Brandt Vermeulen was e v i d e n t l y a p a t r o n of t h e p a i n t e r ( 1 8 1 ) .

'What we are d o i n g here may f r i g h t e n the w o r l d , but what i s b o l d and marvelous i s always a l i t t l e t e r r i b l e t o some . . .' (186 ) .

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When Rosa r e c o u n t s her v i s i t s t o Vermeulen i n the f i r s t

p e r s o n , her d i s t a s t e f o r and h o r r o r of the man a r e more c l e a r l y

e x p r e s s e d :

He gave me an i n f o r m a l l u n c h e o n - t y p e a d d r e s s on the h o n o u r a b l e e v o l u t i o n o f D i a l o g u e , b e g i n n i n g w i t h P l a t o . . . and c u l m i n a t i n g i n 'the V o r s t e r i n i t i a t i v e , * t h e d i a l o g u e of p e o p l e s and n a t i o n s . With me he was s e l f - e n g a g e d i n t h a t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y on the human s c a l e ; f o r him h i s a f t e r n o o n s w i t h Rosa were ' D i a l o g u e ' i n p r a c t i c e .

O t h e r s , l e s s f a s t i d i o u s - m i n d e d than he, pursue the human s c a l e i n the rooms s u p p l i e d w i t h o n l y the b a s i c f u r n i s h i n g o f i n t e r r o g a t i o n , w i n n i n g over enemies brought out of s o l i t a r y c onfinement t o s t a n d on t h e i r f e e t u n t i l t h e y d r op, k i c k e d , b e a t e n , doused and t e r r o r i z e d i n t o s u b m i s s i o n ( 1 9 4 ) .

I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t Rosa i s female and t h a t Brandt i s

male. He examines her as a c o n n o i s s e u r of b e a u t i f u l t h i n g s ,

i d l y n o t i n g t h e " p a i n t e r l y c o n t r a s t " between her " c o o l i e - p i n k "

d r e s s and the "greeny-bronze" l i g h t s of her s k i n ( 1 8 1 ) .

F a s c i n a t e d w i t h what she r e p r e s e n t s , he adds Rosa t o h i s

c o l l e c t i o n . As she p u t s i t , "There I was, f i n a l p r o o f of h i s

e c l e c t i c i s m — s i t t i n g , a t l a s t — i n h i s house b e s i d e the t o r s o

w i t h the t r a n s v e r s e v a g i n a [ a n o t h e r of h i s g r o t e s q u e works of

a r t ] . . . ( 1 9 3 ) .

The images of v i o l e n c e t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e Vermeulen c u l m i ­

n a t e i n a f i n a l h o r r i f y i n g , a lmost s u r r e a l v i s i o n of p a i n and

c r u e l t y . A b l a c k man i s b e a t i n g a donkey:

I d i d n ' t see the whip. I saw agony. . . . Not s e e i n g the whip, I saw the i n f l i c t i o n of p a i n broken away from the w i l l t h a t c r e a t e s i t , b roken l o o s e , a f o r c e e x i s t i n g o f i t s e l f . . . gone beyond the c o n t r o l of the humans who have spent thousands of y e a r s d e v i s i n g i t ( 2 0 8 ) .

I n the e l e m e n t a l t o r t u r e of the donkey by i t s d e s p e r a t e ,

b r u t a l i z e d master she sees "the sum of s u f f e r i n g " i n her

195

c o u n t r y , which she, caught between p i t y f o r the donkey and f o r

the man, i s h e l p l e s s t o s t o p . I t i s then t h a t she a d m i t s , " I

don't know how t o l i v e i n L i o n e l ' s c o u n t r y . "

P a r t Two o f the n o v e l t a k e s p l a c e i n "Katya's c o u n t r y , " the

French R i v i e r a . K a t ya i s L i o n e l ' s f i r s t w i f e , and Rosa address

t h i s p a r t of her memoir t o h e r . Gordimer's e v o c a t i o n of the

South of France i s of marvelous l i g h t , g r a c e , s e n s u a l i t y and

openness ( l i k e the Sea s e c t i o n of The L y i n g D a y s ) . Even the

a r c h i t e c t u r e d i s p l a y s f o r Rosa the " i n n o c e n c e and s e c u r i t y of

b e i n g open t o a l l l i v e s around . . ." ( 2 2 4 ) , i n c o n t r a s t t o the

s e c r e c y and i n s e c u r i t y of her l i f e i n South A f r i c a . F reed from

the burden of b e i n g B u r g e r ' s d a u g h t e r , u n a f r a i d , u n f e t t e r e d ,

Rosa d e d i c a t e s h e r s e l f t o p l e a s u r e , she comes i n t o f u l l aware­

ness of her p h y s i c a l b e i n g . Gordimer's France i s a p l a c e i n

w h i c h — a l w a y s i n c o n t r a s t t o South A f r i c a — p e o p l e are i n harmony

w i t h t h e i r b e a u t i f u l s u r r o u n d i n g s , w i t h the l i v i n g h i s t o r y o f

t h e i r a r c h i t e c t u r e . (Compare t h i s t o the d e s c r i p t i o n of the

Rand i n The L y i n g Days.)

However her r o l e as "the l i t t l e Rose," Bernard C h a b a l i e r ' s

m i s t r e s s , i s s l i g h t l y u n r e a l . She i s s t r u c k by the m i x t u r e of

t r i v i a l i t y and d e s p e r a t i o n i n the l i v e s o f K a t y a and her a g i n g

f r i e n d s . As a woman, she f e a r s t h e i r f a t e : t o be an abandoned

m i s t r e s s whose l i f e , once she i s no l o n g e r young and p r e t t y ,

w i l l be a c o l l e c t i o n of mementoes. As Gordimer s a i d about t h i s

p a r t of the book, " . . . K a t y a , r u n n i n g away from p o l i t i c a l

s u f f e r i n g , has s i m p l y postponed what i s coming" ("'A S t o r y f o r

t h i s P l a c e and Time'", 111).

196

So Rosa i n her l o v e a f f a i r w i t h France remains p e r i p h e r a l ,

a t o u r i s t , an o u t s i d e r , j u s t as she i s c a s t i n the t a n g e n t i a l

r o l e of "the o t h e r woman" i n her a f f a i r w i t h a m a r r i e d p r o ­

f e s s o r . A l t h o u g h Rosa's Europe i s warm, s e n s u a l , and o r g a n i c —

i n c o n t r a s t t o Rebecca's c o l d , dead, m e c h a n i c a l Europe i n

A Guest of H o n o u r — b o t h Europes a r e u n r e a l , i r r e l e v a n t museums.

Thus Rosa, l i k e Rebecca and H e l e n , i s drawn back t o South

A f r i c a , t o the p r i s o n t h a t i s her home. Rosa, committed by

b i r t h t o the o p p o s i t i o n , d e c i d e s t h a t "no one can d e f e c t . "

In f a c t the whole p a t t e r n of the n o v e l , from i t s b e g i n n i n g

o u t s i d e t h e p r i s o n g a t e s , s u g g e s t s t h a t Rosa w i l l meet the f a t e

of her p a r e n t s . Her s o j o u r n i n the South of F r ance i s p o r t r a y e d

as a dream, f u l l of d e l i g h t , but i n s u b s t a n t i a l . Rosa i s g r e a t l y

tempted t o assume the i d e n t i t y o f f e r e d her i n F r a n c e , which

would f i t her f o r o r d i n a r y h a p p i n e s s . As she t e l l s K a t y a ,

"Bernard C h a b a l i e r ' s m i s t r e s s i s n ' t L i o n e l B u r g e r ' s daughter;

she's c e r t a i n l y not a c c o u n t a b l e t o the F u t u r e . . ." (304). But

Rosa, l i k e a h e r o i n e i n c l a s s i c a l t r a g e d y , cannot s e p a r a t e her

i n d i v i d u a l d e s t i n y from the F u t u r e which from the b e g i n n i n g has

c a s t a shadow over the pages of the s t o r y .

In the t h i r d and l a s t movement of the n o v e l , Rosa's r e t u r n

t o South A f r i c a , the t r a g i c p a t t e r n r e a s s e r t s i t s e l f ; the f i n a l

s t a g e of the drama i s e n a c t e d , or r a t h e r , i n t o n e d . For Rosa

h e r s e l f , i n s p i t e of her monologue t o L i o n e l , r e c e d e s as an

i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r so t h a t the r e s o l u t i o n of her s t o r y i s

i n t e r p r e t e d t h rough o t h e r eyes.

A f t e r the Soweto u p r i s i n g of 1976, Rosa i s a r r e s t e d i n a

sweep of p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i s t s . B e f o r e t h a t , however, her s t o r y

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b r e a k s down i n t o a s e r i e s of s h o r t documents; t h a t i s t o say,

the s t o r y of Rosa as an i n d i v i d u a l ends w i t h her r e t u r n t o South

A f r i c a . The author p r e s e n t s t h i r d - p e r s o n d e s c r i p t i o n s of Rosa's

known a c t i v i t i e s from the p o i n t s of view of both the s e c u r i t y

p o l i c e and her f r i e n d s . She a t t e n d s a t r e a s o n t r i a l . She has a

c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h a Soweto p a r e n t . A b l a c k s t u d e n t s ' pamphlet

i s r e p r o d u c e d . There i s a d e s c r i p t i o n of a p r i s o n v i s i t w i t h

Rosa which echoes the f i r s t p r i s o n scene i n the book. And

f i n a l l y a l e t t e r from Rosa t o K a t y a :

I t bore the stamp of the P r i s o n s Department i n P r e t o r i a , but t h i s aroused no i n t e r e s t i n the handsome postman who stopped i n f o r a pernod when he d e l i v e r e d the m a i l , because he c o u l d not read E n g l i s h and d i d not know where P r e t o r i a was . . . . t h e r e was a r e f e r e n c e t o a watermark of l i g h t t h a t came i n t o the c e l l a t sundown e v e r y e v e n i n g . . . something L i o n e l Burger once mentioned. But the l i n e had been d e l e t e d by the p r i s o n c e n s o r . [Katya] was never a b l e t o make i t out (361) .

That i s our l a s t communication from Rosa, from the i r o n i c d i s ­

t a n c e of the postman and the c e n s o r . As Rosa i s removed from

our v i e w , by her a r r e s t and the s u s p e c t e d a c t i v i t i e s t h a t l e d up

t o i t , by the p o l i t i c a l c r i s i s of 1976-77, by her assumption of

the Burger m a n t l e , we a r e reminded of her q u e s t i o n t o h e r s e l f i n

the f i r s t pages: "When they saw me o u t s i d e the p r i s o n , what d i d

they see?"

Rosa M a r i e B u r g e r , who has t r i e d t o f r e e h e r s e l f from the

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n h e r i t e d from her p a r e n t s , i s r e c l a i m e d by her

f a m i l y : a t the end of the book she passes i n t o myth, becomes a

p u b l i c f i g u r e whose m o t i v a t i o n s we cannot p e n e t r a t e . Rosa

a d d r e s s e s her f a t h e r i n the language of s l o g a n s and " c a t c h -

p h r a s e s " (her word) which t a k e on the cadence of a chorus i n

198

Greek t r a g e d y ; t h e s e r e p e a t e d p h r a s e s r i s e i n volume i n the l a s t

pages. The c h o r u s , which has been i n the background, comes t o

t h e f o r e w i t h o r a c u l a r pronouncements from th e c a t e c h i s m of the

f a i t h f u l :

No one can d e f e c t . I don't know the i d e o l o g y : I t ' s about s u f f e r i n g . How t o end s u f f e r i n g . And i t ends i n s u f f e r i n g . Yes i t ' s s t r a n g e t o

l i v e i n a c o u n t r y where t h e r e are s t i l l h e r o e s . L i k e anyone e l s e , I do what I can ( 3 3 2 ) .

Our c h i l d r e n and our c h i l d r e n ' s c h i l d r e n . The s i n s of the f a t h e r s ; a t l a s t the c h i l d r e n avenge on the f a t h e r s the s i n s o f the f a t h e r s . T h e i r c h i l d r e n and c h i l d r e n ' s c h i l d r e n ; t h a t was the F u t u r e , f a t h e r , i n hands not f o r e s e e n ( 3 4 8 ) .

These l a s t s e n t e n c e s a r e a r e f e r e n c e t o the Soweto

c h i l d r e n , who, i g n o r i n g t h e d i r e c t i v e s of t h e i r e l d e r s ( i n c l u d ­

i n g the ANC and t h e Communist P a r t y ) , took the r e v o l u t i o n i n t o

t h e i r own hands. By a s s e r t i n g the power of the c h i l d r e n over

the f a t h e r s , i s Rosa c l a i m i n g her own independence from her

e l d e r s ? Has s h e — a s L i o n e l and M a r i s a d i d , but i n her own w a y —

p a r a d o x i c a l l y found freedom i n p r i s o n ? Freedom i s the n o v e l ' s

main r e f r a i n . P r i s o n i s t h e main r e c u r r i n g image, the s e t t i n g

f o r p u b e r t y , l o v e , d e a t h — a n d f i n a l l y f o r freedom? For c l e a r l y

Rosa f i n d s h e r s e l f , ends her g u e s t , at t h e end of the n o v e l .

For the f i r s t t i me she i s d e s c r i b e d as g i r l i s h , as l o o k i n g l i k e

a f o u r t e e n - y e a r - o l d (her age a t the b e g i n n i n g of t h e n o v e l ) .

Rosa's g i r l i s h l o o k c o u l d i m p l y t h a t she has s u r r e n d e r e d her

a d u l t w i l l t o her p a r e n t s ' c ause. She p a i n t s scenes of France

from memory, which i m p l i e s r e g r e t f o r the l i f e she c o u l d have

l e d t h e r e . On t h e o t h e r hand, she might have r e c l a i m e d her

c h i l d h o o d by a c t i n g — l i k e t h e Soweto c h i l d r e n — o f her own

199

v o l i t i o n , by r e t u r n i n g t o L i o n e l ' s and Cathy's p r i s o n on her own

terms. A l t h o u g h the e n d i n g i s e q u i v o c a l , we a r e asked t o

concede the p o s s i b i l t y t h a t Rosa has found contentment i n what

appears t o be a p e r v e r s e r e n u n c i a t i o n of o r d i n a r y h a p p i n e s s . As

Gordimer has s a i d about Rosa, "she r e t u r n s t o South A f r i c a

because t h a t i s where she b e l i e v e s she i s most f u l l y a l i v e "

(What Happened t o B u r g e r ' s Daughter 2 0 ) .

I n t h e c o n t e x t of the n o v e l s of O l i v e S c h r e i n e r , Rosa's

h e r o i s m reminds one not of the foredoomed L y n d a l l , whose b r i g h t

f i r e of r e b e l l i o n i s q u i c k l y e x t i n g u i s h e d , but r a t h e r of

Rebekah, whose c a n d l e burns t h r o u g h the l o n g n i g h t s i n her

s t u d y / c e l l where she c r e a t e d a f r e e space w i t h i n the s e v e r e

c o n s t r a i n t s of her m a r r i e d l i f e i n Capetown. Rosa's p r i s o n

c e l l , f i t t e d w i t h a m a k e s h i f t desk and e a s e l , i s r e m i n i s c e n t of

Rebekah's t i n y s t u d y . Gordimer's h e r o i n e s , as v e r s i o n s of h e r ­

s e l f , are p r i m a r i l y w i t n e s s e s and r e c o r d e r s — l i k e Rebekah, they

a r e s u r v i v o r s . E xcept f o r Rosa, whose r o l e of w i t n e s s i s passed

on t o o t h e r women, Gordimer's h e r o i n e s must s u r v i v e t o f i n i s h

t h e i r s t o r i e s . D o r i s L e s s i n g ' s h e r o i n e s t o o are s u r v i v o r s and

r e c o r d e r s ; Martha Quest and the n a r r a t o r of Memoirs of a

S u r v i v o r weather the f i r e storms of the f u t u r e t o document the

a f t e r m a t h of n u c l e a r c a t a s t r o p h e .

Gordimer's e x p l a n a t i o n of her n o v e l ' s theme echoes

L e s s i n g s ' d e s c r i p t i o n of C h i l d r e n o f V i o l e n c e twenty y e a r s

e a r l i e r , as t h a t of the i n d i v i d u a l c o n s c i e n c e i n r e l a t i o n t o the

c o l l e c t i v e . Gordimer has s a i d about B u r g e r ' s Daughter: "The

theme of my n o v e l i s human c o n f l i c t between the d e s i r e t o l i v e a

p e r s o n a l , p r i v a t e l i f e and the r i v a l c l a i m o f s o c i a l

200

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o one's f e l l o w man—human advancement" (What

Happened t o B u r g e r ' s Daughter 2 3 ) . With B u r g e r ' s Daughter,

Gordimer has caught up w i t h L e s s i n g ' s theme o f t h e i n n e r

c o n f l i c t s o f a woman communist i n Southern A f r i c a . Gordimer's

n o v e l i s a l s o c o m p a r a b l e — i n s k i l l , f o r m a l c o m p l e x i t y and

a m b i t i o u s n e s s o f s u b j e c t — t o L e s s i n g ' s m a s t e r p i e c e , The Golden

Notebook (whereupon she abandoned h i s t o r i c a l l y and a u t o b i o -

g r a p h i c a l l y s p e c i f i c s u b j e c t m a t t e r ) , i n B u r g e r ' s Daughter,

t h e n , Gordimer meets the p o l i t i c a l r a d i c a l i s m and gr a s p o f

p u b l i c e v e n t s t h a t was so marked i n the L e s s i n g of the f i f t i e s

and s i x t i e s . Gordimer t r i e s t o a r r i v e a t "what's r e a l l y t h e r e "

through a c o l l a g e of n a r r a t i v e v o i c e s and l e v e l s of i n t e r p r e t a ­

t i o n r e m i n i s c e n t o f L e s s i n g ' s t e c h n i q u e i n The Golden Notebook.

Both works e x p l o r e the i n t e r f a c e between p r i v a t e and p u b l i c ,

p e r s o n a l and p o l i t i c a l , by u n t a n g l i n g the v a r i o u s t h r e a d s o f one

woman's l i f e , r e v e a l i n g both what i s unique and what i s

h i s t o r i c a l l y t y p i c a l i n her p e r s o n a l i t y and d e c i s i o n s . 1 6

The memoirs and n o v e l s c o n s i d e r e d so f a r a r e a l l t o some

e x t e n t a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l . B u r g e r ' s Daughter i s t h e l e a s t

d i r e c t l y s o , but t h e most p r o f o u n d l y concerned w i t h the r e l a t i o n

between t r u t h and f i c t i o n . F i r s t o f a l l i t i s f i c t i o n a l i z e d

h i s t o r y . L i o n e l Burger i s a f r e e but r e c o g n i z a b l e v e r s i o n of

Bram F i s c h e r , a prominent A f r i k a n e r lawyer and communist who was

i m p r i s o n e d f o r l i f e . 1 7 S e c o n d l y , Gordimer's n o v e l i s a h i s t o r y

o f t h e South A f r i c a n p o l i t i c a l o p p o s i t i o n from 1 9 4 6 , t h e year of

the B u r g e r s * m a r r i a g e , t o 1 9 7 7 , when Rosa was i m p r i s o n e d . The

main e v e n t s of t h e c h a r a c t e r s ' l i v e s a r e marked by h i s t o r i c a l

m i l e s t o n e s from the 1946 miner's s t r i k e , t he coming t o power of

201

the A f r i k a n e r N a t i o n a l i s t s i n 1948 (when Rosa was b o r n ) , the

Treason T r i a l o f 1957, the S h a r p e v i l l e massacre i n 1960, t o the

Soweto r i o t s i n 1976, which c o i n c i d e w i t h Rosa's r e t u r n t o South

A f r i c a . The documentary a s p e c t of B u r g e r ' s Daughter, t o g e t h e r

w i t h Gordimer's f r e q u e n t (and m o s t l y u n a t t r i b u t e d ) q u o t a t i o n

from banned s o u r c e s , are a way of smuggling t h e f o r b i d d e n

d i s c o u r s e of the Communist P a r t y , ANC, B l a c k C o n s c i o u s n e s s

Movement and b l a c k s t u d e n t s ' o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n t o the South

A f r i c a n n o v e l .

The p o l i t i c a l element of B u r g e r ' s Daughter deepened when

d u r i n g the w r i t i n g of the n o v e l Gordimer was o v e r t a k e n by r e a l

e v e n t s . She has s a i d t h a t :

. . . you must remember t h a t Soweto o v e r t o o k me w h i l e w r i t i n g t h a t book. T h i s i s what I t h i n k i s so i n t e r e s t i n g about w r i t i n g — h o w c l o s e l y connected you a r e , not i n a j o u r n a l i s t i c way, but i n e s c a p a b l y c onnected w i t h e v e n t s . . . . Rosa would have come back t o South A f r i c a ; t h a t was i n e v i t a b l e . There would have been a d i f f e r e n t e n d i n g , though, w i t h o u t the Soweto r i o t s . But t h a t shows how t h e r e i s a l o g i c a l p a t t e r n t o what i s happening here ( I n t e r v i e w w i t h Stephen Gray, Contemporary L i t e r a t u r e 269).

That i s t o s a y , the l o g i c of h i s t o r y and the l o g i c of f i c t i o n

a r e s i m i l a r . I n any c a s e , Gordimer's statement shows how she

c o n s c i o u s l y t r a n s f o r m s h i s t o r y i n t o f i c t i o n , how she works

w i t h i n the parameters of r e a l e v e n t s , r e c e n t e v e n t s which have

s c a r c e l y had time t o j e l l , t o be " o b j e c t i v e l y " i n t e r p r e t e d by

h i s t o r i a n s .

Because of t h e n o v e l ' s f i d e l i t y t o h i s t o r y i t ran i n t o

t r o u b l e w i t h the South A f r i c a n c e n s o r s . I n What Happened t o

B u r g e r ' s Daughter, Gordimer r e c o u n t s the banning and subsequent

202

unbanning of the n o v e l . She uses t h i s p o s t s c r i p t t o the

p u b l i s h i n g h i s t o r y of the book t o p u b l i c i z e the a b s u r d i t i e s and

i n e q u i t i e s of t h e c e n s o r s h i p r e g u l a t i o n s , w h i c h , she a r g u e s ,

s e l e c t i v e l y f r e e the work of some w h i t e w r i t e r s w h i l e

s u p p r e s s i n g the work of most b l a c k w r i t e r s i n an attempt t o

d i v i d e the l i t e r a r y community.

A l a s t a s p e c t of the n o v e l t o c o n s i d e r i s the a u t o b i o ­

g r a p h i c a l element. O b v i o u s l y , Gordimer does not have much i n

common w i t h Rosa, or w i t h most of the o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s . I t i s

i n the theme of the a l l u r e of d e f e c t i o n v e r s u s the o b s c u r e r

compensations of commitment t h a t Gordimer seems t o be making a

p e r s o n a l s t a t e m e n t . She may not be i n imminent danger of

i mprisonment, l i k e the communists she p o r t r a y s , but w i t h each

new volume of f i c t i o n , and w i t h her e s s a y s and speeches, she

s k a t e s ever c l o s e r t o the danger of b e i n g s i l e n c e d ; the s i t u ­

a t i o n f o r w h i t e r a d i c a l s l i k e h e r s e l f i s becoming ever more

u n t e n a b l e . B u r g e r ' s Daughter i s on one l e v e l her own statement

of commitment t o remain i n South A f r i c a , w i t h a l l the

s a c r i f i c e s , c o n f l i c t s and danger t h a t d e c i s i o n e n t a i l s .

203

Notes - Nadine Gordimer

^Conor C r u i s e O'Brien p u r s u e s t h e s e comparisons i n h i s r e v i e w o f B u r g e r ' s Daughter, " W a i t i n g f o r R e v o l u t i o n , " c o n c l u d i n g t h a t Gordimer i s " l i v i n g and w o r k i n g i n a c u l t u r e t h a t i s c l o s e r t o n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y R u s s i a than i t i s t o the contemporary West," and t h a t i n her w r i t i n g " t h e c o n d i t i o n s of South A f r i c a n l i f e have produced a g l o r i o u s anachronism" ( 2 7 ) .

2 I have t a k e n the b i o g r a p h i c a l d e t a i l s from Robert F. Haugh, Nadine Gordimer as w e l l as from Gordimer's own e s s a y s and i n t e r v i e w s , i n p a r t i c u l a r her r e v e a l i n g P a r i s Review i n t e r v i e w i n 1983. Of t h e f o u r w r i t e r s Gordimer's p e r s o n a l l i f e seems l e a s t r e l e v a n t t o her f i c t i o n , but one might note t h a t she m a r r i e d young and s u b s e q u e n t l y d i v o r c e d , l i k e L e s s i n g , and now l i v e s w i t h her husband o f many y e a r s ; between them t h e y have t h r e e c h i l d r e n .

3 F o r i n s t a n c e , Gordimer has w r i t t e n t h a t , "Growing up i n a g o l d - m i n i n g town i n South A f r i c a as a member of a w h i t e m i n o r i t y , t o b e g i n w i t h , my p a r t i c u l a r s o l i t u d e as an i n t e l l e c t u a l - b y - i n c l i n a t i o n was so complete t h a t I d i d not even know I was one . . ." ( I n t r o d u c t i o n t o S e l e c t e d S t o r i e s 1 1 ) .

4 I n "Two Cheers f o r S o c i a l i s m : Nadine Gordimer and E.M. F o r s t e r , " D o r i a n H a a r h o f f d i s c u s s e s the i n f l u e n c e o f F o r s t e r on Gordimer, a r g u i n g t h a t Gordimer r e p l a c e s F o r s t e r ' s r e l u c t a n t l i b e r a l i s m w i t h s o c i a l i s m .

^The i n f o r m a t i o n on Gordimer's l i t e r a r y i n f l u e n c e s i s t a k e n from her e s s a y s : " L e a v i n g S c h o o l — I I , " "A W r i t e r i n South A f r i c a , " and "Notes o f an E x p r o p r i a t o r " .

^ I n t e r e s t i n g l y , as C h r i s t o p h e r Heywood has shown, one of Lawrence's models was O l i v e S c h r e i n e r ( " O l i v e S c h r e i n e r ' s I n f l u e n c e on George Moore and D.H. Lawrence").

? A l a n Lomberg t r a c e s the metaphors i n the n o v e l , which he sees as b e i n g " b u i l t on a p a t t e r n of water imagery l i n k e d by an u n d e r l y i n g n o t i o n of rhythm, music and t h e b l o o d " ( " W i t h e r i n g I n t o T r u t h : The Romantic R e a l i s m of Nadine G o r d i m e r " ) . He does not however l i n k t h e s e symbols o f s e n s u a l s e l f - d i s c o v e r y t o the e x p l o r a t i o n o f b l a c k n e s s or t o Helen's p o l i t i c a l awakening.

^Gordimer p u r s u e s the p a r a l l e l s between the two meanings of " s u p e r f i c i a l " by d e s c r i b i n g A t h e r t o n as "the superimposed A f r i c a . . ." ( 1 4 6 ) . T h i s p a r a l l e l s L e s s i n g ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f S a l i s b u r y as " l i g h t l y s c r a t c h e d on the s u r f a c e of the s o i l . . ." (Martha Quest 221).

204

^Gordimer's words a r e , "He had come back" ( 1 6 3 ) , which she has d e s c r i b e d as an a l l u s i o n t o " A f r i k a l Mayibuye!" ( I n t e r v i e w w i t h Stephen Gray, Contemporary L i t e r a t u r e 2 6 8 ) .

l u F o r i n s t a n c e , Abdul R. janMohamed sees Gordimer's use of myth i n The C o n s e r v a t i o n i s t as " r e m i n i s c e n t of I s a k Dinesen's use o f m y t h i c c o n s c i o u s n e s s t o t r a n s c e n d the o p p o s i t i o n between s e l f and o t h e r " ( 1 2 4 ) .

^ R o w l a n d Smith n o t e s t h a t , "A f e a t u r e of w h i t e , E n g l i s h -language f i c t i o n o f the s e v e n t i e s i s the r e p e a t e d use of the i n t e r n a l monologue or i n t e r i o r debate i n n o v e l s whose p r o t a g o n i s t s a r e obsessed w i t h power, ownership and i d e n t i t y . . . . By t u r n i n g i n w a r d , t o the p s y c h o l o g y of derangement, t h e a u t h o r s t r y t o make an i m p l i c i t comment on the p r e s e n t " ("The S e v e n t i e s and A f t e r . . . " 197).

l^Gor d i m e r h e r s e l f mentions the " r e s u r r e c t i o n " theme of the n o v e l , e x p l a i n i n g "There's a s u g g e s t i o n of something t h a t has been p l a n t e d , t h a t i s g o i n g t o grow a g a i n " ( P a r i s Review i n t e r v i e w 114). Her e x t e n s i v e use of Z u l u r e l i g i o u s p o e t r y as e p i g r a p h s r e i n f o r c e s the r e l i g i o u s - p o l i t i c a l or i n s p i r a t i o n a l message.

^Newman f i n d s s p e c i f i c images of t h e b u r i e d body i n Bu r g e r ' s Daughter: i n the scene i n which Rosa and C l a i r e f i n d a used s a n i t a r y n a p k i n ( 1 2 9 ) , and i n the scene between Rosa and " B a a s i e " i n which Rosa t r i e s t o "bury" him (3 2 2 ) .

1 4 S t e p h e n Clingman p o i n t s out t h a t i n L i o n e l ' s speech and els e w h e r e i n t h e n o v e l Gordimer r e p r o d u c e s t h e v e r b a l and w r i t t e n s t a t e m e n t s o f such banned a c t i v i s t s and w r i t e r s as Bram F i s c h e r , Steve B i k o , Joe S l o v o , Marx and L e n i n (The No v e l s of Nadine Gordimer 186-87). These q u o t a t i o n s a r e another example of Gordimer's b l e n d i n g of documentary and f i c t i o n i n B u r g e r ' s Daughter.

1 5 G o r d i m e r i s c r i t i c a l o f the a p p e a l o f b l a c k n e s s f o r w h i t e s : " I t h i n k the sensuous-redemptive t h i n g i s dangerous," but she acknowledges f e e l i n g something o f i t h e r s e l f ("'A S t o r y f o r t h i s Time and P l a c e ' " 112).

1 6 I t i s f i t t i n g t o use Georg L u k a c s ' t e r m i n o l o g y o f c r i t i c a l r e a l i s m ( i . e . t he h e r o [ i n e ] as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e type i n whose i n d i v i d u a l s i t u a t i o n the c o n f l i c t s o f a s o c i e t y and p e r i o d a r e most c l e a r l y m i r r o r e d ) t o d e s c r i b e L e s s i n g ' s and Gordimer's n o v e l s , f o r both w r i t e r s have been i n f l u e n c e d by the M a r x i s t c r i t i c .

^ L i o n e l ' s background, d a t e s and a c t i v i t i e s c l o s e l y resemble a l t h o u g h t h e y do not a c c o r d e x a c t l y w i t h Bram F i s c h e r ' s (1908-1975). See e n t r i e s on F i s c h e r i n From P r o t e s t t o C h a l l e n g e , V o l . 3, 304 and V o l . 4, 29.

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Chapter Seven

C o n c l u s i o n : From the " A f r i c a n Farm" t o A z a n i a

B u r g e r ' s Daughter i s t h e l a s t " A f r i c a n Farm" t e x t , t h a t i s ,

the l a s t s t o r y of a w h i t e h e r o i n e s e t i n w h i t e - r u l e d A f r i c a .

The end o f the n o v e l , which d e s c r i b e s the Soweto s t u d e n t s '

u p r i s i n g and t h e p a r a d o x i c a l l y t r i u m p h a n t s o r o r i t y of the j a i l e d

r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s , a n t i c i p a t e s a b l a c k - r u l e d A z a n i a i n whose

l i t e r a t u r e the theme of the w h i t e c o l o n i a l h e r o i n e ' s dilemma

w i l l be o b s o l e t e and i r r e l e v a n t . I n t h e two n o v e l s p u b l i s h e d

a f t e r B u r g e r ' s Daughter, J u l y ' s P e o p l e and A S p o r t o f N ature

Gordimer t e s t s her p r e - r e v o l u t i o n a r y h e r o i n e i n r e v o l u t i o n a r y

c o n d i t i o n s : Maureen Smales i s found w a n t i n g , w h i l e H i l l e l a

Kgomani p a r t i c i p a t e s i n the new o r d e r .

Gordimer's i m a g i n a t i v e engagement w i t h p o s t c o l o n i a l

r e a l i t i e s i s p a r a l l e l e d i n the o t h e r major w h i t e w r i t e r s i n her

c o u n t r y , B r i n k and C o e t z e e , i n whose r e c e n t n o v e l s t h e r e i s a

s i m i l a r s h i f t of f o c u s from w h i t e - d e t e r m i n e d i s s u e s t o b l a c k -

d e termined i s s u e s , and from w h i t e c h a r a c t e r s t o non-white

c h a r a c t e r s . F i c t i o n , which a n t i c i p a t e s h i s t o r y , i s r e h e a r s i n g

the new s o c i e t y w h i c h , s t r u g g l i n g t o be born i n B u r g e r ' s

Daughter, t r i u m p h a n t l y u n f u r l s i t s f l a g i n A S p o r t o f N a t u r e .

The c e r e m o n i a l b i r t h o f A z a n i a i s w i t n e s s e d by H i l l e l a , who,

r e s p l e n d e n t i n her West A f r i c a n robes and h e a d d r e s s , has a p l a c e

of honor b e s i d e the new Prime M i n i s t e r ' s w i f e , a Winnie Mandela

f i g u r e who resembles Rosa's f r i e n d and comrade M a r i s a Kgosana.

F i n a l l y , we t u r n from t h i s v i s i o n o f Gordimer's A f r i c a n i z e d

w h i t e h e r o i n e t o the b l a c k women w r i t e r s who a r e the s u c c e s s o r s

2 0 6

o f S c h r e i n e r , D i n e s e n , L e s s i n g and Gordimer. B e s s i e Head and

M i r i a m T l a l i a r e the major female v o i c e s i n b l a c k Southern

A f r i c a n f i c t i o n . A p p r o p r i a t e l y , Head's n o v e l Maru has d i r e c t

l i n k s w i t h S c h r e i n e r , whom she too c l a i m s as a f o r e m o t h e r .

Head's c r i t i c a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h S c h r e i n e r i n d i c a t e s t h a t her

h e r i t a g e i s s t i l l p r e s e n t and can y e t be o f use i n the

l i t e r a t u r e o f S o u t h e r n A f r i c a .

T l a l i ' s n o v e l Amandla, on t h e o t h e r hand, does not admit o f

w h i t e r e f e r e n c e p o i n t s . I t i s s e t i n the t u m u l t o f Soweto i n

1976 which shaped t h e e n d i n g of B u r g e r ' s Daughter. But i n

c o n t r a s t t o Gordimer's i n d i r e c t account of t h e s e s i g n i f i c a n t

e v e n t s (which as a w h i t e she was unable t o w i t n e s s ) T l a l i ' s

a ccount i s t h a t o f an i m p a s s i o n e d w i t n e s s . A l t h o u g h the main

a c t o r s and s p e a k e r s i n her s t o r y a r e the boys and young men who,

w i t h o u t o r g a n i z e d l e a d e r s h i p , t a k e c o n t r o l of t h e p e o p l e ' s

s t r u g g l e , she uses her female p o i n t o f view t o d e p i c t the

complementary r o l e o f t h e Soweto women—mothers, grandmothers,

w i v e s and g i r l f r i e n d s — d u r i n g the c r i s i s .

U s i n g t h i s o u t l i n e o f the s h i f t of f o c u s i n r e c e n t f i c t i o n

from the w h i t e - d o m i n a t e d microcosm o f the " A f r i c a n Farm" t o the

independent n a t i o n of A z a n i a , I b e g i n by summarizing the

" A f r i c a n Farm" m a t e r i a l t h r o u g h the l e n s o f f o u r s h o r t s t o r i e s

by S c h r e i n e r , D i n e s e n , L e s s i n g and Gordimer which d i r e c t l y t r e a t

the w h i t e h e r o i n e ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h a b l a c k c h a r a c t e r . The

s h a r p e r f o c u s and l a r g e r g r a i n o f the s h o r t f i c t i o n p r o v i d e s a

more i n c i s i v e p i c t u r e than do the n o v e l s , which t r e a t the

h e r o i n e ' s o v e r a l l development, o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the

2 0 7

w h i t e c o l o n i a l g i r l or woman and, i n the case of t h e s e s t o r i e s ,

the b l a c k man who i s p o r t r a y e d as her a n t a g o n i s t : her v i c t i m and

a t t a c k e r .

"Dream L i f e and R e a l L i f e "

S c h r e i n e r , D i n e s e n , L e s s i n g and Gordimer have a l l made

e x t e n s i v e use of the s h o r t s t o r y form. S c h r e i n e r p u b l i s h e d

t h r e e volumes of the p o e t i c s h o r t f i c t i o n s which she termed

"dreams," " v i s i o n s , " and " a l l e g o r i e s , " i n a d d i t i o n t o s e v e r a l

r e a l i s t i c s t o r i e s . For S c h r e i n e r , who a f t e r the e a r l y s u c c e s s

o f A f r i c a n Farm spent the r e s t of her l i f e t r y i n g t o complete

From Man t o Man, s t o r i e s , a l o n g w i t h e s s a y s and speeches, seem

t o have been a more manageable form, i t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t the

w o n d e r f u l " P r e l u d e " or " C h i l d ' s Day" which she added t o From Man

t o Man i n 1888 was c o n c e i v e d and w r i t t e n " i n a f l a s h " as a

s e l f - c o n t a i n e d t e x t which i s an i l l u m i n a t i n g m i n i a t u r e o f the

l a r g e r work. I t s c l a r i t y of language, i t s t i g h t s t r u c t u r e and

s p a r e s y m b o l i c images make "The C h i l d ' s Day" more c o m p e l l i n g

than the n o v e l as a whole, as i t s e t s out S c h r e i n e r ' s theme of

d i v i d e d i d e n t i t y i n s h a r p , c l e a r m o t i f s . A much e a r l i e r s t o r y ,

"Dream L i f e and R e a l L i f e , " f u n c t i o n s s i m i l a r l y as a coda f o r

The S t o r y o f an A f r i c a n Farm, t h r o w i n g i n t o r e l i e f the c o n f l i c t s

o f t h a t n o v e l . 1

"Dream L i f e and R e a l L i f e " i s the s t o r y of the s h o r t l i f e

of J a n n i t a , an orphaned Danish g i r l who i s i n d e n t u r e d t o a

b r u t a l Boer f a r m e r . She i s , t h e n , a w h i t e c h i l d , l i k e L y n d a l l

208

and Waldo, who i s m i s t r e a t e d , as they were, by a w h i t e master

and m i s t r e s s , and who dreams, as t h e y do, of a b e l o v e d l o s t

f a t h e r . The p o i n t a t which J a n n i t a ' s s t o r y e n r i c h e s A f r i c a n

Farm i s where i t r a i s e s t o the s u r f a c e the s u p p r e s s e d element of

L y n d a l l and Waldo's o p p r e s s i o n : t h e i r a l i e n a t i o n from the b l a c k

l a b o r e r s and " c o l o u r e d " s e r v a n t s who a r e t h e i r p a r t n e r s i n

s u f f e r i n g . A f r i c a n Farm p r o v i d e s few g l i m p s e s i n t o t h e l i v e s

and emotions of the non-white c h a r a c t e r s , but such scenes a r e

r emarkable f o r t h e mutual h o s t i l i t y of t h e b l a c k and w h i t e

c h a r a c t e r s . S c h r e i n e r ' s n e g a t i v e p o r t r a y a l o f non-whites i s

r a t i o n a l i z e d by t h e i r a n t a g o n i s t i c a t t i t u d e toward the

v i c t i m i z e d w h i t e s . T h i s antagonism i s most o b v i o u s i n t h e scene

i n which th e house s e r v a n t s laugh g l e e f u l l y when l o y a l O l d O t t o

i s d r i v e n from th e farm by Bonaparte B l e n k i n s .

S c h r e i n e r ' s d e p i c t i o n o f r a c i a l h o s t i l i t y i s even more

p o i n t e d i n "Dream L i f e and R e a l L i f e , " i n which J a n n i t a i s

t r i c k e d and k i l l e d by a f e l l o w s e r v a n t . F i r s t D i r k the H o t t e n ­

t o t s t e a l s one o f t h e g o a t s f o r which she i s r e s p o n s i b l e ; then

the Boer farmer b e a t s her f o r her l a p s e , w i t h the H o t t e n t o t ' s

whip. That n i g h t , a c h i n g and hungry, she i s i n s p i r e d t o run f o r

freedom by the s i g h t of a s p r i n g buck bounding i n the m o o n l i g h t :

"Away, away, away! I — I a l s o ! " she c r i e s ( 2 3 ) . The next n i g h t

J a n n i t a i s awakened i n her h i d i n g p l a c e i n the r o c k s by the

H o t t e n t o t , a Bushman and an E n g l i s h navvy who a r e r o a s t i n g the

s t o l e n g o a t . When she o v e r h e a r s t h e i r p l a n t o r a i d the Boer

farm and murder the f a m i l y i n t h e i r beds, she runs t o warn her

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master. The members of the f a m i l y hear her c r i e s and save

t h e m s e l v e s , but J a n n i t a i s k i l l e d by the t h r e e c r i m i n a l s . I n

the l a s t s e n t e n c e , the moon, which had gu i d e d the g i r l t o

freedom and then back t o s e r v i t u d e , now s h i n e s on "a l i t t l e

new-made heap of round s t o n e s " ( 4 8 ) . The E n g l i s h m a n , t o whom

the g i r l a p p e a l e d as a f e l l o w w h i t e t o spare her l i f e , i s a t

l e a s t haunted by the murder (as i s the Bushman); D i r k the

H o t t e n t o t , however, i s immune t o p i t y .

The o p p o s i t i o n between "dream l i f e " and " r e a l l i f e " i n the

s t o r y , between the f a n t a s y of freedom r e p r e s e n t e d by the s p r i n g

buck l e a p i n g i n t h e m o o n l i g h t and the a c t u a l i t y of s e r v i t u d e

w i t h i t s p a i n , hunger and p o w e r l e s s n e s s , p r e f i g u r e t h e s e themes

i n A f r i c a n Farm. The metaphor of the hunted a n i m a l i n A f r i c a n

Farm i s even c l e a r e r h e r e , as w e l l as the c h i l d ' s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n

w i t h w i l d c r e a t u r e s and the i n a n i m a t e forms—moon, r o c k s , and

p l a n t s — w h i c h s h e l t e r , and s u c c o r h e r . T h i s makes the l a c k of

sympathy between J a n n i t a and D i r k a l l the more s t r i k i n g . The

g i r l ' s r e a d i n e s s t o g i v e her l i f e t o save the farmer who b e a t s

and s t a r v e s her i s f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e of J a n n i t a / S c h r e i n e r ' s

c o n f u s e d l o y a l t i e s . Caught between the i d e n t i t y of s e r v a n t and

ma s t e r , t h a t i s between t h e opposing camps of b l a c k and w h i t e ,

she i s damned by b o t h . S c h r e i n e r ' s a n a l y s i s — t h a t the g i r l ' s

w o r s t enemy i s not the master but the f e l l o w s e r v a n t ( t h a t i s

not the w h i t e but the b l a c k ) — i m p l i e s t h a t the r e a l c o n f l i c t i s

between the r a c e s : J a n n i t a ' s u l t i m a t e l o y a l t y i s t o the w h i t e s ,

i n s p i t e of her m i s t r e a t m e n t .

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The v i o l e n c e t h a t i n d i r e c t l y k i l l s L y n d a l l and Waldo i n

A f r i c a n Farm i s i n "Dream L i f e and R e a l L i f e " e x p l i c i t ; the

h o s t i l i t y o f the a r i d l a n d , c r u e l sun and u n f e e l i n g n a t i v e s ,

t h a t i s , the h o s t i l i t y of A f r i c a t o the w h i t e s e t t l e r , i s here

m a n i f e s t i n D i r k ' s t r e a t m e n t of J a n n i t a ; S c h r e i n e r ' s orphan

c h i l d r e n , who l i e o u t s i d e the p r o t e c t i o n of the w h i t e l a a g e r ,

a r e undefended t a r g e t s f o r the b l a c k s ' rage a g a i n s t t h e i r own

d i s p o s s e s s i o n and f o r c e d s e r v i t u d e .

" K i t o s c h ' s S t o r y "

The v i o l e n c e of the A f r i c a n farm d e p i c t e d i n S c h r e i n e r ' s

s t o r y a l s o d i s r u p t s t h e p a s t o r a l w o r l d of Dinesen's farm. The

a c c i d e n t a l deaths o f two b l a c k c h i l d r e n , Denys' p l a n e c r a s h ,

a l o n g w i t h d i s e a s e , f i r e and f i n a n c i a l c o l l a p s e , d e s t r o y the

" r e a l l i f e " of Karen B l i x e n ' s farm, t r a n s f o r m i n g i t i n t o the

"dream l i f e " of I s a k Dinesen's Out of A f r i c a .

I n terms o f s t r u c t u r e , her a n e c d o t a l A f r i c a n memoirs a r e

more l i k e a u n i f i e d s t o r y sequence than a n o v e l . L o o k i n g a t the

book as a s e r i e s o f s t o r i e s , as i n f a c t the a u t h o r has i n v i t e d

us t o do w i t h her d i v i s i o n s and s u b t i t l e s , r e v e a l s some of the

t e n s i o n s o f the farm, by h e l p i n g us t o f o c u s l e s s on t h e o v e r ­

powering f i g u r e o f B l i x e n / D i n e s e n and more on t h e numerous b l a c k

c h a r a c t e r s who p e o p l e her book.

Out of A f r i c a i s d i v i d e d i n t o f i v e s e c t i o n s , each o f which

c o n t a i n s s e v e r a l t a l e s . The f o u r t h s e c t i o n , "From an immigrant's

Notebook," c o n s i s t s o f t h i r t y - t w o e n t r i e s : s h o r t s t o r i e s ,

p a r a b l e s , f a b l e s , and r e f l e c t i o n s , r a n g i n g from a few s e n t e n c e s

t o a few pages. The fo u r - p a g e " K i t o s c h ' s S t o r y , " the l o n g e s t

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p i e c e i n t h i s s e c t i o n , i s n o t a b l e f o r i t s d e p i c t i o n s of w h i t e

b r u t a l i t y a g a i n s t the b l a c k man, a s u b j e c t which i s not d i r e c t l y

t r e a t e d e l s e w h e r e i n Out of A f r i c a . The s t o r y i s b u r i e d i n a

s e c t i o n where Dinesen seems t o have f i l e d her m i s c e l l a n e o u s

m a t e r i a l which d i d not q u i t e f i t w i t h i n the p a t t e r n of the t e x t ,

m a t e r i a l which would have d i s r u p t e d i t . A l t h o u g h t h e r e i s a

s u r p r i s i n g amount of v i o l e n c e and death i n Out o f A f r i c a , i t i s

p r e s e n t e d as a p p a r e n t l y random, or as m y s t e r i o u s l y f a t e d ; i t i s

not m a l i c i o u s , no one i s a t f a u l t . But the human bloodshed and

the c o n s i d e r a b l e a n i m a l b l o o d s h e d i n the memoirs p o i n t t o an

u n d e r l y i n g s t r a i n of danger and c r u e l t y i n Dinesen's Eden. What

she makes of the i n c i d e n t d e s c r i b e d i n " K i t o s c h ' s S t o r y , " which

o b v i o u s l y d i s t u r b e d h e r , i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of her s t r a t e g y f o r

p r e s e n t i n g p a i n f u l e v e n t s i n a p o s i t i v e , e n n o b l i n g l i g h t .

K i t o s c h , the s e r v a n t o f a w h i t e s e t t l e r , was accused by h i s

master of r i d i n g the s e t t l e r ' s h o r s e , and f o r t h i s o f f e n s e t i e d

up, f l o g g e d s e v e r e l y , and l e f t t o d i e . The w h i t e c o u r t found

the s e t t l e r i n n o c e n t o f murder on the grounds t h a t K i t o s c h had

l o s t h i s d e s i r e t o l i v e and so had w i l l e d h i s own d e a t h .

D inesen p r e s e n t s t h e s e f a c t s i n the tone of one who i s i n

o b v i o u s sympathy w i t h the b l a c k man; thus the r e a d e r e x p e c t s her

t o be c r i t i c a l o f the c o u r t ' s f i n d i n g s . But Dinesen i n f a c t

embraces the c o u r t ' s v e r d i c t , u s i n g i t t o p o r t r a y K i t o s c h ' s

death as a h e r o i c a s s e r t i o n of f r e e w i l l , as t h e o n l y a c t of

d i g n i t y a v a i l a b l e t o him under th e c i r c u m s t a n c e s .

D inesen's making of K i t o s c h i n t o a t r a g i c hero has the

e f f e c t of d e f l e c t i n g r e s p o n s i b i l i t y from the man who beat him t o

death f o r a minor i n f r a c t i o n . A l s o , her c e l e b r a t i o n o f the

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i n d i v i d u a l ' s w i l l , making h i s death an a s s e r t i o n of freedom, has

the e f f e c t of d e f l e c t i n g blame from the c o l o n i a l s o c i e t y w i t h

i t s system of human e x p l o i t a t i o n . F i n a l l y , her empathy w i t h

K i t o s c h has the e f f e c t o f d e f l e c t i n g the q u e s t i o n o f her own

g u i l t , as t h e f e u d a l m i s t r e s s of the hundreds o f " s q u a t t e r s " on

her own farm.

L e s s i n g and Gordimer

The L e s s i n g and Gordimer s t o r i e s , i n c o n t r a s t , a r e s t u d i e s

of w h i t e g u i l t — a n d b l a c k anger. Rather than S c h r e i n e r ' s dream

or a l l e g o r i c a l mode, or Dinesen's a d a p t a t i o n of the t r a d i t i o n a l

o r a l t a l e , t hey employ the s p a r e form of the modern s h o r t s t o r y ,

which f o c u s e s on a c e n t r a l moment w i t h i t s a t t e n d a n t image or

symbol i n t o which c h a r a c t e r and a c t i o n a r e compressed, from

which meanings and c o n n e c t i o n s r a d i a t e . Whereas i n a n o v e l one

e x p e c t s some k i n d of r e s o l u t i o n , a s t o r y i s re s o n a n t w i t h

meaning t h a t t h e w r i t e r i s not n e c e s s a r i l y c a l l e d upon t o

r e s o l v e . I t s c e n t r a l image can be one of c o n t r a d i c t i o n .

I n t h e i r s h o r t s t o r i e s L e s s i n g and Gordimer s o l v e some o f

the t h e m a t i c , s t r u c t u r a l and s t y l i s t i c problems of t h e i r n o v e l s .

For example, i n L e s s i n g ' s n o v e l s the i n d i v i d u a l , t y p i c a l and

a r c h e t y p a l d i m e n s i o n s of c h a r a c t e r do not always mesh. She

s o l v e s t h i s problem i n The Golden Notebook by means of the

f o r m a l s t r a t e g y of h a v i n g her h e r o i n e s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y break her

l i f e i n t o the b l a c k , r e d , y e l l o w and b l u e notebooks, w i t h i n t h e

u n i f y i n g s t r u c t u r e of the g o l d e n notebook. The s h o r t s t o r y

o f f e r s her an o t h e r f o r m a l s t r a t e g y f o r d e p i c t i n g the i n t e r a c t i o n

o f the p e r s o n a l , p o l i t i c a l and m y t h i c w i t h i n one c h a r a c t e r or

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s i t u a t i o n . The epiphany which i s the f o c u s of many of her

s t o r i e s i s a moment of p o e t i c i n t e n s i t y i n r e a l i s m , i n which the

o r d i n a r y i s r e v e a l e d as n u m i n o u s — i n which t h e r e i s a momentary

u n i t y between t h e n a t u r a l and s u p e r n a t u r a l , the r e a l i s t i c and

r o m a n t i c , the t y p i c a l and a r c h e t y p a l , the h i s t o r i c a l and

u n i v e r s a l .

The e p i p h a n y , t h e n , i s a moment of u n i t y and t r a n s f o r m a ­

t i o n ; i t opens d o o r s ; i t su g g e s t s p o s s i b i l i t i e s . As such Nadine

Gordimer uses i t t o i m a g i n a t i v e l y overcome the b a r r i e r s between

the r a c e s t h a t a re a c e n t r a l problem i n her f i c t i o n . I n her

s t o r i e s the epiphany i s o f t e n a moment of c o n t a c t between a

b l a c k and w h i t e p e r s o n i n which a range of s o c i a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s

i s e n v i s i o n e d , i n which the f u t u r e i s made m a n i f e s t . The s t o r y

form a l s o seems t o have h e l p e d Gordimer t o f i n d s a t i s f a c t o r y

e n d i n g s f o r her f i c t i o n s . I n her e a r l y n o v e l s , such as The

L y i n g Days and O c c a s i o n f o r L o v i n g , the en d i n g s a re a r t i f i c i a l ;

t h e y do not a r i s e l o g i c a l l y out of the t e x t . I n the l a t e r

n o v e l s , The C o n s e r v a t i o n i s t , B u r g e r ' s Daughter, and J u l y ' s

P e o p l e , she a l l o w s the endings t o be ambiguous; they embody

r a t h e r than r e s o l v e the dilemmas posed by t h e t e x t s . T h i s

s t r a t e g y , which i s r e l a t i v e l y r e c e n t i n her n o v e l s , has been

apparent i n her s t o r i e s from the b e g i n n i n g of her c a r e e r . She

o f t e n l e t s t he c e n t r a l event or encounter of a s t o r y c a r r y the

burden of meaning, imagery and symbolism, thus f r e e i n g the l a s t

s e n t e n c e s f o r ( o f t e n i r o n i c ) r e f l e c t i o n .

Whereas t h e compressed form o f the s h o r t s t o r y a i d s

Gordimer i n terms of s t r u c t u r e , i t a i d s L e s s i n g i n terms of

s t y l e . I n her s t o r i e s she i s f o r c e d t o choose words more

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c a r e f u l l y , t o t i g h t e n her p r o s e , t o be more aware of language,

which i n her n o v e l s i s too o f t e n workaday, f l a t , r e p e t i t i v e and

awkward.

"The O l d C h i e f Mshlanga" and the Myth of White Eve

"The O l d C h i e f Mshlanga," p u b l i s h e d one year b e f o r e Martha

Quest, i s not o n l y one o f L e s s i n g ' s b e s t s t o r i e s but a l s o a

paradigm of her a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l A f r i c a n f i c t i o n . I t i s a key

t e x t i n the " A f r i c a n Farm" l i t e r a t u r e , a s t o r y which summarizes

the major themes and m o t i f s o f a l l f o u r w r i t e r s , w i t h i n the

u n i f y i n g metaphor of White Eve. More d i r e c t l y than Martha

Quest, i t i s about t h e e n c o u n t e r between w h i t e and b l a c k .

The s t o r y ' s e l e v e n pages have a n o v e l i s t i c t ime range, as

t h e c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r grows from e a r l y c h i l d h o o d t o l a t e

a d o l e s c e n c e . Through i t s p a t t e r n o f l i t e r a r y a l l u s i o n L e s s i n g

d e p i c t s her female c h a r a c t e r as r e a d e r and a r t i s t i n the A f r i c a n

c o l o n i a l s e t t i n g , thus "The Old C h i e f Mshlanga" i s L e s s i n g ' s

e q u i v a l e n t o f "The C h i l d ' s Day," f i l l i n g the gaps of c h i l d h o o d

and w r i t e r s h i p i n Martha Quest's s t o r y .

The f i r s t s e c t i o n , n a r r a t e d i n t h e t h i r d p e r s o n , p l a c e s the

s m a l l w h i t e g i r l i n the s e t t i n g o f the farm and v e l d , which f o r

her i s o b s c u r e d by the images of E n g l i s h p o e t r y and European

f a i r y t a l e s :

. . . the N o r t h e r n w i t c h , b r e d of c o l d N o r t h e r n f o r e s t s would s t a n d b e f o r e her among the m e a l i e f i e l d s , and i t was t h e m e a l i e f i e l d s t h a t faded and f l e d , l e a v i n g her among the g n a r l e d r o o t s o f an oak, snow f a l l i n g t h i c k and s o f t and w h i t e . . . . i t was the v e l d t h a t seemed u n r e a l : the sun was a f o r e i g n sun, and the wind spoke a s t r a n g e language.

215

The b l a c k p e o p l e on the farm were as remote as the t r e e s and the r o c k s . They were an amorphous b l a c k mass . . . f a c e l e s s , who e x i s t e d merely t o s e r v e . . . (11 - 1 2 ) .

An a r r o g a n t l i t t l e C h i e f t a i n e s s , or " N k o s i k a a s " as she i s c a l l e d

by i n f e r i o r s , she c a r e l e s s l y commands and torm e n t s the b l a c k

p e o p l e on the farm. N e i t h e r t hey nor farm nor v e l d a r e r e a l t o

h e r , l o s t as she i s i n the rhythms o f an a l i e n language, the

images of an a l i e n l i t e r a t u r e .

I n the second s e c t i o n o f the s t o r y the s m a l l g i r l i s an

a d o l e s c e n t ; t h e n a r r a t i v e v o i c e changes from t h e t h i r d t o the

f i r s t p e r s o n , m i r r o r i n g the i n c r e a s e i n t h e p r o t a g o n i s t ' s s e l f -

awareness. The t e r s e s e n t e n c e s l e n g t h e n and t a k e on a solemn

p a s t o r a l cadence. L e s s i n g i s b u i l d i n g up t o an epiphany; time

s l o w s , and f o r a moment, s t o p s :

One e v e n i n g , when I was about f o u r t e e n , I was w a l k i n g down the s i d e o f a m e a l i e f i e l d t h a t had been newly p l o u g h e d , so t h a t the g r e a t r e d c l o d s showed f r e s h and t u m b l i n g t o the v l e i beyond, l i k e a choppy r e d sea; i t was t h a t hushed and l i s t e n i n g hour, when the b i r d s send l o n g sad c a l l s from t r e e t o t r e e , and a l l the c o l o u r s o f e a r t h and sky and l e a f a r e deep and g o l d e n (1 2 - 1 3 ) .

R e d o l e n t of Lawrence, Hardy and Wordsworth, t h i s and s i m i l a r

passages r e f l e c t t he i n f l u e n c e of l i t e r a t u r e on the n a r r a t o r and

her a u t h o r . Even the i n c i d e n t announced by the p a s s a g e — a n

unexpected but f a t e f u l m e e t i n g , a m y s t e r i o u s g l i m p s e i n t o

another mode of l i f e t h a t w i l l change her o w n — i s a p a t t e r n from

Hardy or Wordsworth, y e t the d e s c r i p t i o n of n a t u r e a l s o shows

t h a t the n a r r a t o r i s s e e i n g her A f r i c a n s e t t i n g i n a new way;

she i s l o o k i n g outward t o t h e w o r l d around her r a t h e r than

inward t o a p r i v a t e w o r l d of books.

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I t i s t h e magic time of t w i l i g h t . The g i r l meets the f i r s t

b l a c k man whom she cannot i g n o r e , because he does not immed­

i a t e l y s t e p a s i d e from the p a t h " i n r e s p e c t f o r my p a s s i n g . " He

i s C h i e f Mshlanga, the h e r e d i t a r y r u l e r o f the l a n d now owned by

her f a t h e r . A proud and d i g n i f i e d f i g u r e , i t i s he who e x a c t s

c o u r t e s y from "the l i t t l e N k o s i k a a s " (whose t i t l e now seems

a b s u r d ) . I n the l i g h t of her encounter w i t h the C h i e f , the g i r l

b e g i n s t o q u e s t i o n her f a m i l y ' s r i g h t t o the l a n d , and the

l e g i t i m a c y of w h i t e - s e t t l e r r u l e . She s a y s :

Not l o n g a f t e r w a r d s I read i n an o l d e x p l o r e r ' s book the p h r a s e : " C h i e f Mshlanga's c o u n t r y . " I t went l i k e t h i s : "Our d e s t i n a t i o n was C h i e f Mshlanga's c o u n t r y , t o the n o r t h of the r i v e r ; and i t was our d e s i r e t o ask h i s p e r m i s s i o n t o p r o s p e c t f o r g o l d i n h i s t e r r i t o r y . "

The phrase "ask h i s p e r m i s s i o n " was so e x t r a ­o r d i n a r y t o a w h i t e c h i l d , brought up t o c o n s i d e r a l l n a t i v e s as t h i n g s t o use, t h a t i t r e v i v e d those q u e s t i o n s , which c o u l d not be s u p p r e s s e d : they fermented s l o w l y i n my mind ( 1 4 ) .

The encounter w i t h C h i e f Mshlanga has opened her eyes t o the

b l a c k r e a l i t y of A f r i c a . With t h i s new v i s i o n , t h e images of

s t o r y b o o k England b e g i n t o drop from her eyes. Says the g i r l :

When I saw a n a t i v e a p p r o a c h i n g , we o f f e r e d and took g r e e t i n g s ; and s l o w l y t h a t o t h e r l a n d s c a p e i n my mind f a d e d , and my f e e t s t r u c k d i r e c t l y on the A f r i c a n s o i l , and I saw t h e shapes of t r e e and h i l l c l e a r l y (14) .

The images from E n g l i s h l i t e r a t u r e may be a l i e n t o the

S o u t h e r n A f r i c a n l a n d s c a p e , but i t s p a t t e r n s a r e not a l i e n t o

the e x p e r i e n c e o f the w h i t e s e t t l e r c h i l d . L e s s i n g b u i l d s a

s i m i l e between her c h a r a c t e r ' s p r o g r e s s i v e s o c i a l awareness and

the poem she was r e a d i n g a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f the s t o r y ,

217

Tennyson's "Lady of S h a l o t t . " I m p r i s o n e d i n her tower by a

m y s t e r i o u s c u r s e , the Lady of S h a l o t t watches the w o r l d i n a

m i r r o r and weaves i t s scenes i n t o a t a p e s t r y . " H a l f s i c k of

shadows," she i s drawn from her m i r r o r t o the window f o r a

g l i m p s e of L a n c e l o t , g l o r i o u s i n the sun, r i d i n g t o Camelot.

The m i r r o r c r a c k s , the t a p e s t r y comes undone, and she d i e s ,

f l o a t i n g down the r i v e r t o Camelot. L i k e t h e Lady of S h a l o t t ,

L e s s i n g ' s w h i t e A f r i c a n g i r l b r e a k s her enchantment, t u r n i n g

from a p a l l i d , secondhand p i c t u r e of E n g l a n d , t o a v i b r a n t and

t a n g i b l e A f r i c a . As L e s s i n g q uotes i n the b e g i n n i n g of the

s t o r y , "Out f l e w the web and f l o a t e d wide;/The m i r r o r c r a c k ' d

from s i d e t o s i d e " (Tennyson 11. 115-16).

I n the t h i r d s e c t i o n of the s t o r y , now f a s c i n a t e d by the

"slow i n t i m a t e dance of l a n d s c a p e and men," she t r e s p a s s e s onto

Government l a n d , "which had never been c u l t i v a t e d by w h i t e men,"

t o v i s i t the r e s e r v e where the C h i e f and h i s son, her f a m i l y ' s

cook, s t i l l govern t h e i r v i l l a g e . She d i s c o v e r s a new c o u n t r y :

I had e n t e r e d a c o m p l e t e l y f r e s h type of l a n d s c a p e . I t was a wide green v a l l e y , where a s m a l l r i v e r s p a r k l e d , and v i v i d green w a t e r - b i r d s d a r t e d over the r u s h e s . The g r a s s was t h i c k and s o f t t o my c a l v e s , the t r e e s s t o o d t a l l and s h a p e l y ( 1 6 ) .

A l o n e i n t h i s E d e n i c c o u n t r y which has remained untouched by

w h i t e men, she has a second e p i p h a n y , t h i s time a p r e m o n i t i o n of

s u p e r n a t u r a l t e r r o r ; s u d d e n l y she p e r c e i v e s the l a n d as h o s t i l e

and menacing, as i f she has d i s t u r b e d "something o l d and e v i l ,

something dark and b i g and angry." The v i l l a g e i t s e l f i s

p e a c e f u l , o r d e r l y , and p r o s p e r o u s , w i t h g o a ts g r a z i n g on l u s h

g r a s s , h u t s " l o v i n g l y d e c o r a t e d " w i t h g e o m e t r i c p a t t e r n s , and a

218

branch of the r i v e r " l y i n g l i k e an e n c l o s i n g arm" t o p r o t e c t the

s e t t l e m e n t . But the g i r l i s r e c e i v e d by the C h i e f w i t h p o l i t e

d i s p l e a s u r e . She knows t h a t she s h o u l d not have come:

. . . t h e r e was now a queer h o s t i l i t y i n the l a n d s c a p e , a c o l d , h a r d , s u l l e n i n d o m i t a b i l i t y t h a t walked w i t h me, as s t r o n g as a w a l l , as i n t a n g i b l e as smoke; i t seemed t o say t o me: you walk here as a d e s t r o y e r . I went s l o w l y homewards, w i t h an empty h e a r t : I had l e a r n e d t h a t i f one cannot c a l l a c o u n t r y to h e e l l i k e a dog, n e i t h e r can one d i s m i s s the p a s t w i t h a s m i l e i n an easy gush of f e e l i n g , s a y i n g : I c o u l d not h e l p i t , I am a l s o a v i c t i m ( 1 9 ) .

Her p r e m o n i t i o n o f d e s t r u c t i o n i s f u l f i l l e d ; C h i e f Mshlanga

and h i s p e o p l e are removed t o f a c i l i t a t e w h i t e s e t t l e m e n t . The

g i r l makes a l a s t v i s i t t o the s i t e of the v i l l a g e t o f i n d i t

now i n r u i n s .

Rather than merely an embryonic v e r s i o n o f the A f r i c a n

volumes of C h i l d r e n of V i o l e n c e , "The Old C h i e f Mshlanga" i s i n

a sense a f u l l e r and c l e a r e r account of the dilemma of the w h i t e

s e t t l e r g i r l/woman. I t t r e n c h a n t l y d e v e l o p s the c e n t r a l i s s u e

of the c o n f l i c t between her r o l e as " l i t t l e m i s t r e s s " and her

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h the C h i e f and h i s p e o p l e . Yet as a s t o r y

r a t h e r than a n o v e l , i t s bones do not need t o be f l e s h e d out

w i t h the r e a l i s t i c d e t a i l s of the g i r l ' s l i f e . L e s s i n g does not

even judge i t n e c e s s a r y t o g i v e her c h a r a c t e r a name. The s t o r y

b e a r s i n s t e a d the C h i e f ' s name, thus making h i m — a n d what he

r e p r e s e n t s , proud but d i s p o s s e s s e d b l a c k A f r i c a — t h e i r o n i c

c e n t e r of the s t o r y . H i s f a t e d e t e r m i n e s the g i r l ' s , whose

namelessness s t r e s s e s her secondary r o l e . As a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e

t y p e , she c o r r e s p o n d s not o n l y t o Martha Quest but t o a l l

L e s s i n g ' s w h i t e A f r i c a n c h a r a c t e r s as w e l l as t o the " A f r i c a n

Farm" p r o t a g o n i s t s of S c h r e i n e r , Dinesen and Gordimer.

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The s p l i t i n t h e h e r o i n e ' s c o n s c i o u s n e s s engendered by

E n g l i s h and European l i t e r a t u r e , w i t h which the f i r s t s e c t i o n o f

t h e s t o r y i s c o n c e r n e d , r e c a l l s "The C h i l d ' s Day," i n which

young Rebekah i s d i v i d e d between Queen V i c t o r i a and the Bushman

s t o n e , E n g l i s h and A f r i c a n c u l t u r e . L e s s i n g ' s d e s c r i p t i o n i s

even c l o s e r t o Gordimer's d e s c r i p t i o n o f the p e r n i c i o u s

i n f l u e n c e of E n g l i s h f a i r y t a l e s on Helen's p e r c e p t i o n i n The

L y i n g Days. The change of h e a r t which the n a r r a t o r undergoes i n

"The Old C h i e f Mshlanga" a l s o c o r r e s p o n d s t o the changes which

Rebekah and Helen make i n t h e i r a t t i t u d e s toward A f r i c a n s .

L e s s i n g ' s c h a r a c t e r ' s c l a i m t h a t , " . . . t h i s i s my h e r i t a g e

t o o ; I was b r e d h e r e ; i t i s my c o u n t r y as w e l l as t h e b l a c k

man's c o u n t r y ; and t h e r e i s p l e n t y of room f o r a l l o f us. . ."

(15) i s v e r y much l i k e Rebekah's d e c i s i o n t o t a k e down her

i m a g i n a r y w a l l s h u t t i n g out b l a c k A f r i c a , and Helen's h e s i t a n t

embrace of b l a c k n e s s . T h i s p a t t e r n i n L e s s i n g ' s s t o r y a l s o

c o r r e s p o n d s t o Karen B l i x e n * s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h A f r i c a , her

attempt t o make the c o u n t r y her own. I n each of t h e s e t e x t s the

w h i t e h e r o i n e i s u l t i m a t e l y r e j e c t e d by an i n d i f f e r e n t or

h o s t i l e l a n d .

The imagery of Eden i n L e s s i n g ' s s t o r y i s a l s o r e m i n i s c e n t

o f D i n e s e n , but whereas i n Out o f A f r i c a t h e h e r o i n e d i s c o v e r s

the b l i s s f u l freedom and c r e a t i v e power of Adam, i n "The O l d

C h i e f Mshlanga" she d i s c o v e r s h e r s e l f as "a d e s t r o y e r . "

L e s s i n g ' s h e r o i n e p l a y s the r o l e of Eve, whose t r e s p a s s onto

b l a c k l a n d i s m y s t e r i o u s l y i n s t r u m e n t a l i n e x p e l l i n g the C h i e f

and h i s p e o p l e from t h e i r p a r a d i s e . By r e a c h i n g out t o them she

220

t r a n s g r e s s e s the r u l e s o f a p a r t h e i d , f o r which she i s p u n i s h e d

by becoming a l i e n a t e d from both the f a l s e Eden of the w h i t e s ,

which i s based on i g n o r a n c e of A f r i c a n h i s t o r y and c u l t u r e , and

t h e t r u e Eden of the b l a c k s , which her v i s i t m e t a p h o r i c a l l y

d e s p o i l s .

As we have seen, t h i s myth of the w h i t e h e r o i n e as Eve

e x p e l l e d from the A f r i c a n garden o p e r a t e s i n a l l the " A f r i c a n

Farm" t e x t s . For L y n d a l l and Waldo t o seek knowledge, whether

i n t e l l e c t u a l or c a r n a l , i s a dangerous a c t of r e b e l l i o n f o r

which they a r e e x p e l l e d from the farm. S c h r e i n e r ' s o s t r i c h farm

i n the d e s e r t i s an i r o n i c garden of Eden, which blooms o n l y a t

the end o f the n o v e l , when L y n d a l l and Waldo have been

d e s t r o y e d .

I n From Man t o Man the Eve myth i s more complex, as

Rebekah's s t a n c e moves from a r r o g a n t i n n o c e n c e , i n which she

c l a i m s the A f r i c a n garden as her own, t o a p a i n f u l f a l l from

g r a c e , as she a c q u i r e s knowledge and e x p e r i e n c e . F i n a l l y she

r e c l a i m s the g a r d e n — i n t h e form of a farm f o r h e r s e l f and her

c h i l d r e n — a f t e r h a v i n g r e a l i z e d t h a t she must s h a r e i t w i t h the

A f r i c a n s .

The myth of Eden i s an e x p l i c i t metaphor i n Out o f A f r i c a ,

i n which Karen B l i x e n as Adam, and by e x t e n s i o n i s a k Dinesen as

God, r e c r e a t e s P a r a d i s e i n Kenya. But w i t h the l o s s of her

P a r a d i s e B l i x e n becomes more l i k e Eve than Adam; i n her weak­

n e s s , i n her m o r t a l i t y , she i s more female than male. I t i s

s p e c i f i c a l l y as a woman t h a t she e n t e r s i n t o the s u f f e r i n g of

the A f r i c a n s and comes t o empathize w i t h them, a l t h o u g h , as

221

" K i t o s c h ' s S t o r y " shows, she i s u n w i l l i n g t o acknowledge her own

g u i l t as s e t t l e r and m i s t r e s s .

D inesen's use of the Eden myth r a i s e s the q u e s t i o n of what

r o l e the b l a c k s p l a y i n t h i s w h i t e c o l o n i a l model of A f r i c a , i n

one sense t h e y a r e p a r t of the garden's f a u n a , c r e a t e d f o r

Adam's use and p l e a s u r e , named by him as B l i x e n names " h e r "

a n i m a l s — a n d " h e r " A f r i c a n s . I n another sense the o r i g i n a l

i n h a b i t a n t s of the w h i t e s ' garden a r e , l i k e Adam and Eve,

e x p e l l e d , thus c a s t i n g the w h i t e s e t t l e r s (and B l i x e n h e r s e l f )

i n t h e S a t a n i c r o l e of i n v a d e r and d e s t r o y e r . There emerges i n

Dinesen and i n the o t h e r t e x t s a c o n f l i c t between the w h i t e s '

v i s i o n o f A f r i c a as t h e i r p a r a d i s e , complete w i t h b l a c k s e r v a n t s

t o p e r f o r m t h e i r l a b o r s , and the v i s i o n of A f r i c a as a p r e -

c o l o n i a l b l a c k p a r a d i s e d e s t r o y e d by w h i t e s . L e s s i n g ' s "Old

C h i e f Mshlanga" exposes t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n h e r e n t i n t h e s e

o p p o s i n g v i s i o n s , i l l u s t r a t i n g how u n t e n a b l e i s White Eve's

p o s i t i o n .

"The O l d C h i e f Mshlanga" i l l u m i n a t e s the Eve myth i n the

Martha Quest n o v e l s as w e l l . Throughout C h i l d r e n of V i o l e n c e

Martha p u r s u e s her v i s i o n of P a r a d i s e , b e g i n n i n g w i t h her I d e a l

C i t y on the v e l d , c o n t i n u i n g t h r o u g h her b e l i e f i n the s o c i a l i s t

New J e r u s a l e m , and then her inward j o u r n e y s e t i n the f o u r - g a t e d

c i t y of London. Martha f i n a l l y f i n d s Eden on a remote i s l a n d i n

the N o r t h A t l a n t i c , among the s u r v i v o r s o f the T h i r d World War;

i t i s from t h i s reduced s o c i e t y t h a t a new w o r l d w i l l be b o r n ,

s u g g e s t s L e s s i n g .

222

The myth of C r e a t i o n , F a l l and the q u e s t f o r a new P a r a d i s e

i s a c e n t r a l theme i n the Canopus s e r i e s , and apparent t o o i n

t h e s e a r c h f o r wholeness or r e i n t e g r a t i o n i n The Golden Notebook

and Memoirs of a S u r v i v o r . That s e a r c h f o r the I d e a l C i t y , the

p r i m a l u n i t y of s e l f , s o c i e t y and n a t u r e , i s the p o s i t i v e s i d e

of the Eve myth i n L e s s i n g . The n e g a t i v e s i d e o f the quest i s

t h e theme of a l i e n a t i o n and e x i l e , s y m b o l i z i n g t h e h e r o i n e ' s

e x p u l s i o n from the Garden. Martha the q u e s t e r i s always l e a v i n g

a phase i n her l i f e , always r e j e c t i n g a s e t of d i s c r e d i t e d

i d e a l s , as she l e a v e s p a r e n t s , f r i e n d s , l o v e r s , husbands,

c h i l d r e n , houses and c o u n t r i e s . L e s s i n g ' s l a t e r f i c t i o n

p r o v i d e s more e v i d e n c e f o r her b e l i e f t h a t a l i e n a t i o n i s the

i n e v i t a b l e c o n c o m i t a n t of the q u e s t f o r i d e a l u n i t y . A l ' i t h ,

t he h e r o i n e o f The M a r r i a g e s Between Zones Three Four and F i v e ,

s u c c e s s f u l l y completes her m a r r i a g e , t h a t i s , her q u e s t t o

i n t e g r a t e t h e o p p o s i n g a s p e c t s o f two zones i n the i n t e r e s t s of

mutual e v o l u t i o n . But ( l i k e Undine) she emerges as an a l i e n i n

both the zones of her b i r t h and of her m a r r i a g e ; the end of the

n o v e l f i n d s her p u r s u i n g a l o n e l y quest (which resembles

S c h r e i n e r ' s " A l l e g o r y o f the Hunter") t o r e a c h the r a r e f i e d

h e i g h t s o f Zone Two.

With a d i f f e r e n t emphasis, Gordimer t o o employs the myth of

the w h i t e h e r o i n e as Eve i n the b l a c k Garden. I n The L y i n g Days

she uses the image of South A f r i c a as a w h i t e P a r a d i s e , b u i l t

over t h e g r a v e s o f d i s p l a c e d and e x p l o i t e d b l a c k s . I n The L y i n g

Days and subsequent f i c t i o n she d e v e l o p s the p a r a l l e l image of

b l a c k South A f r i c a as the t r u e Eden, from which the w h i t e s are

223

a l i e n a t e d i n t h e i r p r i v i l e g e d but s t e r i l e e n c l a v e s . These i d e a s

a r e s p e l l e d out i n B u r g e r ' s Daughter, i n which b l a c k n e s s i s

" r e d e m p t i v e , " i n which Rosa t r i e s and r e j e c t s t h e f a l s e P a r a d i s e

o f the Fr e n c h R i v i e r a t o f i n d redemption i n a South A f r i c a n

j a i l . I n B u r g e r ' s Daughter communism i s a r e l i g i o n , i t s

a d h e r e n t s i n s p i r e d by the v i s i o n o f the i d e a l s o c i e t y o f "the

F u t u r e . " To Rosa, her f a t h e r ' s house was a v e r s i o n of t h a t

f u t u r e P a r a d i s e : a house pervaded w i t h the l o v e and shared

commitment o f t h e f a i t h f u l of a l l r a c e s . She l e a v e s t h a t house

when her f a t h e r d i e s , t o b e g i n her que s t f o r a p e r s o n a l , p r i v a t e

p a r a d i s e . But she u l t i m a t e l y r e j e c t s the i d e a l of a p r i v a t e

p a r a d i s e , c h o o s i n g i n s t e a d t o r e c l a i m or r e c r e a t e t h e l o s t

p a r a d i s e of the Burger house i n p r i s o n .

I f B u r g e r ' s Daughter i s t h e a p o t h e o s i s o f the myth o f Eve

i n t h i s l i t e r a t u r e , J u l y ' s P e o p l e i s i t s i r o n i c e p i l o g u e .

Maureen, t h e r e f u g e e from t h e w h i t e c i t y , i s welcomed i n t o the

A f r i c a n Garden, o n l y t o f i n d t h a t she c a n ' t endure l i v i n g i n i t ;

i n her d e s p e r a t i o n she f l e e s J u l y ' s s a n c t u a r y f o r a w o r l d t h a t

p r o b a b l y no l o n g e r e x i s t s .

" I s There Nowhere E l s e Where We Can Meet?"

Gordimer e x p l i c i t l y c o n n e c t s the metaphor of the f a l s e

P a r a d i s e w i t h the image of the cemetery. The l a s t s entence of

L e s s i n g ' s "Old C h i e f Mshlanga" p r e f i g u r e s the m o t i f of the

b u r i e d b l a c k body i n Gordimer's f i c t i o n . The g i r l n a r r a t e s :

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The s e t t l e r l u c k y enough t o be a l l o t t e d t h e l u s h warm v a l l e y ( i f he chose t o c u l t i v a t e t h i s p a r t i c u l a r s e c t i o n ) would f i n d s u d d e n l y , i n t h e m i d d l e of a m e a l i e f i e l d , t h e p l a n t s were growing f i f t e e n f e e t t a l l , t he weight of the cobs d r a g g i n g a t t h e s t a l k s , and wonder what unsuspected v e i n o f r i c h n e s s he had s t r u c k ( 2 1 ) .

L e s s i n g ' s s e t t l e r e x p l o i t s the " r i c h n e s s " of t h e l a n d

n o u r i s h e d by t h e c o r p s e o f t h e C h i e f ' s v i l l a g e . Gordimer's

w h i t e South A f r i c a n s a r e c o n f r o n t e d by the r i s i n g o f the b u r i e d

body as b l a c k s r e c l a i m t h e i r b i r t h r i g h t . I n a key e a r l y

Gordimer s t o r y , " I s There Nowhere E l s e Where We Can Meet?"

(1947) she b e g i n s t o e n v i s i o n the r e v o l u t i o n , l o n g b e f o r e i t had

e n t e r e d i n t o her n o v e l s . As she e x p l a i n s i n t h e I n t r o d u c t i o n t o

her S e l e c t e d S t o r i e s ;

. . . a s h o r t s t o r y i s a concept t h a t the w r i t e r can ' h o l d ' , f u l l y r e a l i z e d , i n h i s i m a g i n a t i o n , a t one t i m e . A n o v e l i s , by c o m p a r i s o n , s t a k e d o u t , and must be t a k e n p o s s e s s i o n of s t a g e by s t a g e ; i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o c o n t a i n , a l l a t once, the p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f c o n c e p t s i t u l t i m a t e l y may use. . . . A s h o r t s t o r y o c c u r s , i n the i m a g i n a t i v e sense. To w r i t e one i s t o e x p r e s s from a s i t u a t i o n i n t h e e x t e r i o r or i n t e r i o r w o r l d the l i f e - g i v i n g d r o p — s w e a t , t e a r , semen, s a l i v a — t h a t w i l l s p r e a d an i n t e n s i t y on the page; burn a h o l e i n i t ( 1 5 ) .

Gordimer's d e s c r i p t i o n o f the c o n c e p t i o n o f her s t o r i e s

echoes S c h r e i n e r ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f "The C h i l d ' s

Day" as coming upon her " i n a f l a s h . " Gordimer's s t o r y

" I s There Nowhere E l s e Where We Can Meet?" a l s o h a r k s back t o

S c h r e i n e r i n i t s p l o t . I n c o n t r a s t t o Dinesen's K i t o s c h and

L e s s i n g ' s C h i e f Mshlanga, who a c h i e v e n o b i l i t y t h r o u g h p a s s i v e

s u f f e r i n g a t t h e hands o f t h e i r w h i t e o p p r e s s o r s , Gordimer's

anonymous b l a c k m a n — l i k e S c h r e i n e r ' s H o t t e n t o t i n "Dream L i f e

and R e a l L i f e " a t t a c k s a w h i t e woman. Gordimer's t r e a t m e n t of

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r a c i a l v i o l e n c e , however, i s more complex than S c h r e i n e r ' s

d e p i c t i o n of A f r i c a n s as b r u t e s ; t h e s u b j e c t of " I s There

Nowhere E l s e Where We Can Meet?" i s an i m p l i c i t l y s e x u a l and

p a r a d o x i c a l l y l o v i n g r a c i a l e n c o u n t e r , which p r e s a g e s Rosa's

s e a r i n g e n c o u n t e r w i t h " B a a s i e " i n B u r g e r ' s Daughter.

The two f i g u r e s a r e i s o l a t e d i n a s i l e n t r u r a l l a n d s c a p e

whose c o l d smoky a i r and grey sky a r e d e s c r i b e d as s e a - l i k e .

The ragged man and w e l l - c l a d woman pass d r e a m i l y u n t i l he

sud d e n l y c o n f r o n t s h e r , g r a b b i n g f o r her handbag and p a r c e l .

She g r a p p l e s w i t h him, i n e x p l i c a b l y e c s t a t i c :

. . . he snatched a t the s k i r t o f her coat and j e r k e d her back. Her f a c e swung up and she saw the waves of a grey sky and a crane b r e a s t i n g them, b e a u t i f u l as the f i g u r e h e a d o f a s h i p ( 1 9 ) .

When he f i n a l l y g a i n s p o s s e s s i o n o f the handbag and p a r c e l she

i s f l o o d e d ' w i t h "a sudden r e l i e f " — l i k e a s e x u a l r e l e a s e — a f t e r

which she f i n d s h e r s e l f back on the s a f e f a m i l i a r road o f

(w h i t e ) houses and gardens. Sweat, which i s here s y m b o l i c of

semen, soaks her c l o t h e s . H e s i t a t i n g a t the gate of the f i r s t

house, she d e c i d e s not t o c a l l t h e p o l i c e . "Why d i d I f i g h t ? "

she asks h e r s e l f , "Why d i d n ' t I g i v e him the money and l e t him

go?" ( 2 0 ) . Having c o l l u d e d i n t h e i r e n c o u n t e r — h a v i n g s t r u g g l e d

w i t h him j o y f u l l y — s h e cannot now b e t r a y him or her f e e l i n g s

about him t o the a u t h o r i t i e s .

Whereas L e s s i n g ' s w h i t e g i r l i n "The Old c h i e f Mshlanga"

t u r n e d away from the E d e n i c b l a c k v i l l a g e l i k e "a d e s t r o y e r , "

Gordimer's c h a r a c t e r t u r n s away from the w h i t e s ' g a t e " l i k e an

i n v a l i d , " her power d i m i n i s h e d . She has had an i n t i m a t e ,

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shaming c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h b l a c k p o v e r t y and d e s p e r a t i o n ("His

r e d e y e s , and the s m e l l and t h o s e c r a c k s i n h i s f e e t . . . " 2 0 ) .

More p r o f o u n d l y , she has shocked h e r s e l f by g r a p p l i n g w i t h the

man: as an e q u a l , as an a d v e r s a r y , and as the t i t l e of the s t o r y

i m p l i e s , as a l o v e r . I n the d r e a m - l i k e atmosphere of the s t o r y

the w h i t e h e r o i n e e n c o u n t e r s her b l a c k d o u b l e , her a l t e r ego,

her animus, her p l a t o n i c l o v e r , her Waldo. He emerges from the

l a n d s c a p e and i s r e a b s o r b e d by i t , l i k e an emanation of the

A f r i c a n l a n d . He i s a s s o c i a t e d , i n t h e a r i d w i n t e r scene w i t h

i t s s t i n g i n g d r y a i r and v e l d f i r e s , w i t h w a t e r : the sea-grey

s k y , and "the l i f e - g i v i n g d r o p — s w e a t , t e a r , semen, s a l i v a — t h a t

w i l l s p r e a d an i n t e n s i t y on the page; burn a h o l e i n " the s t o r y

o f t h e w h i t e A f r i c a n h e r o i n e .

For Gordimer, f i n a l l y , moves beyond the a l i e n a t i o n o f

L e s s i n g ' s , D inesen's and S c h r e i n e r ' s White Eve e x i l e d from t h e

A f r i c a n Garden. I n the r i s i n g up of the b u r i e d b o d i e s , i n the

v i o l e n t e n c o u n t e r between w h i t e and b l a c k , she e n v i s i o n s the New

J e r u s a l e m : A z a n i a , i n which b l a c k s t a k e t h e i r r i g h t f u l p l a c e as

l e a d e r s , and w h i t e s a r e f r e e d o f t h e i r c e n t u r i e s - o l d g u i l t .

On t h e B l a c k A f r i c a n Farm: J u l y ' s P e o p l e

I n her n o v e l s from A Guest of Honour t o B u r g e r ' s Daughter,

Gordimer d e v e l o p s a r a d i c a l v i s i o n o f A f r i c a i n which her

c h a r a c t e r s i n c r e a s i n g l y d e f i n e themselves i n the c o n t e x t of the

b l a c k l i b e r a t i o n s t r u g g l e . I n J u l y ' s P e o p l e she t a k e s the next

s t e p of s e t t i n g e v e n t s i n the immediate a f t e r m a t h o f a South

A f r i c a n r e v o l u t i o n , i n t h i s n o v e l the c l a s s i c r e l a t i o n s h i p of

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w h i t e m i s t r e s s and b l a c k s e r v a n t undergoes an i r o n i c r e v e r s a l ,

as Maureen Smales and her f a m i l y t a k e r e f u g e i n t h e v i l l a g e

headed by t h e i r e x - s e r v a n t , J u l y . I n a r e v e r s a l o f the

s i t u a t i o n o f the b l a c k p e r s o n who must l e a v e h i s or her v i l l a g e

f o r a c o n f u s i n g new c i t y l i f e a t the mercy of w h i t e employers,

Maureen f i n d s h e r s e l f d i s o r i e n t e d and h e l p l e s s i n J u l y ' s

v i l l a g e ; her c h i l d r e n , who a d j u s t more q u i c k l y t o t h e i r new

r o l e s , become s t r a n g e r s t o h e r . Maureen i s an o r d i n a r y w h i t e

m i d d l e - c l a s s woman, w i t h o u t Rosa B u r g e r ' s h e r o i c s t a t u r e ; when

f a c e d w i t h the new o r d e r her main emotion i s a n x i e t y . When a t

the end o f the n o v e l she runs b l i n d l y toward the sound o f a

h e l i c o p t e r , no l o n g e r c a r i n g which army i t b e l o n g s t o , or

whether i t s s o l d i e r s w i l l a t t a c k or r e s c u e h e r , she i s r u n n i n g

away from u n b e a r a b l e u n c e r t a i n t y , toward some k i n d o f r e s o l u t i o n

o f her s i t u a t i o n , even i f t h a t r e s o l u t i o n i s d e a t h .

The e n d i n g o f J u l y ' s P e o p l e , "she r u n s , " i s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t

from the c o n t r i v e d e n d i n g of The L y i n g Days, which i t echoes:

"I'm not r u n n i n g away," Helen c l a i m s somewhat i n s i n c e r e l y ,

en r o u t e t o Europe. Maureen's f l i g h t i s a l s o r e m i n i s c e n t of the

ending of The Gra s s i s S i n g i n g , i n which Mary Turner runs i n t o

the bush where she knows Moses i s w a i t i n g t o k i l l h e r . However

i n J u l y ' s P e o p l e the A f r i c a n bush i s not t h e h e a r t of d a r k n e s s ,

as i t i s i n L e s s i n g ' s n o v e l : a p r o j e c t i o n of w h i t e f e a r s and

v i o l e n t i m a g i n i n g s , p e o p l e d by f a c e l e s s savages who a r e

i n s t r u m e n t s o f the w h i t e death w i s h . J u l y ' s v i l l a g e i s d e p i c t e d

as an o r d e r l y r u r a l s o c i e t y w i t h a w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d s t r u c t u r e

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and g u i d e l i n e s f o r b e h a v i o r . I t i s a r e a l i s t i c A f r i c a n s e t t i n g

t o which the members of the Smales f a m i l y a d j u s t w i t h v a r y i n g

degrees of s u c c e s s . I n t h i s s e t t i n g t hey have no power (even

t h e i r gun and t r u c k , which t h e y j e a l o u s l y guard as i n s t r u m e n t s

of a u t h o r i t y , a r e t a k e n from them). Except f o r some p r a c t i c a l

e n g i n e e r i n g s k i l l s t h a t Maureen's husband s h a r e s w i t h the

v i l l a g e r s , the Smales and t h e i r f a n t a s i e s a r e i r r e l e v a n t t o the

i n h a b i t a n t s o f J u l y ' s remote hamlet.

I n J u l y ' s P e o p l e the f o c u s of w h i t e A f r i c a n f i c t i o n has

f i n a l l y moved away from a w h i t e p r o t a g o n i s t who has been

g r a n t e d , by the c o l o n i a l government or the independent w h i t e

regime, the power t o determine the l i v e s o f b l a c k p e o p l e , t o

impose h i s or her v i s i o n upon A f r i c a . The s e t t i n g o f the

" A f r i c a n Farm" has been r e p l a c e d by the A f r i c a n farm t h a t

preceded and w i l l o u t l a s t w h i t e s e t t l e m e n t . I n J u l y ' s P e o p l e

the w h i t e l i t e r a r y concept of the " A f r i c a n Farm" i s c o n f r o n t e d

by the t r u e A f r i c a n farm. I n J u l y ' s P e o p l e the b l a c k s are no

l o n g e r v i c t i m s , no l o n g e r s e r v a n t s , thus making Maureen, the

f a m i l i a r f i g u r e o f t h e w h i t e m i s t r e s s , i n t o an anachronism: she

i s an a c t r e s s w i t h o u t a s u p p o r t i n g c a s t , whose r o l e i s o b s o l e t e .

I n Maureen, Gordimer t e s t s the t r a d i t i o n a l w h i t e A f r i c a n h e r o i n e

of t h e l i b e r a l n o v e l and f i n d s her w a n t i n g ; the F u t u r e w i l l be

c r e a t e d w i t h o u t h e r , or i n s p i t e of h e r .

I n a 1983 essay Gordimer d e s c r i b e s l i f e i n contemporary

South A f r i c a as an " i n t e r r e g n u m . . . not o n l y between two

s o c i a l o r d e r s but between two i d e n t i t i e s . . . " ( " L i v i n g i n the

I n t e r r e g n u m " 2 2 ) . She w r i t e s t h a t " i n the eyes of t h e b l a c k

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m a j o r i t y which w i l l r u l e A z a n i a , w h i t e s of former South A f r i c a

w i l l have t o r e d e f i n e t h e m s e l v e s i n a new c o l l e c t i v e l i f e w i t h i n

new s t r u c t u r e s " ( 2 1 ) . A c c o r d i n g t o t h i s v i e w , t o c o n t i n u e t o

w r i t e w i t h i n t h e w h i t e A f r i c a n t r a d i t i o n t h a t began w i t h The

S t o r y of an A f r i c a n Farm, which t r i e d t o d e a l r e a l i s t i c a l l y and

s y m p a t h e t i c a l l y w i t h b l a c k A f r i c a n s from w i t h i n t h e p e r s p e c t i v e

of w h i t e c o l o n i a l hegemony, i s no l o n g e r r e l e v a n t . The w h i t e

A f r i c a n h e r o i n e who c o n t i n u e s t o p l a y L y n d a l l ' s and Rebekah's,

Martha's and Helen's r o l e of i d e n t i f y i n g w i t h the b l a c k p e o p l e

from the s a f e t y of her w h i t e a u t h o r i t y i s , l i k e Maureen Smales,

a n a c h r o n i s t i c . On the o t h e r hand, when t h e r e i s no w h i t e power

s t r u c t u r e w i t h which she i s judged t o be i n c o l l u s i o n , perhaps

she w i l l no l o n g e r be p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y d i v i d e d between the w h i t e

and b l a c k w o r l d s , no l o n g e r a l i e n a t e d from both s o c i e t i e s . When

the b l a c k m a j o r i t y — h e r s y m b o l i c submerged s e l f — i s f r e e ,

perhaps she w i l l be f r e e as w e l l . 2

Maureen Smales, t h e n , seems t o be the f i n a l v e r s i o n of the

female p r o t a g o n i s t s who began w i t h L y n d a l l ; her former w o r l d has

been d e s t r o y e d and she i s l o s t i n the new w o r l d b e i n g c r e a t e d by

the r e v o l u t i o n . She i s d e s c r i b e d a t t h e end of the n o v e l as

l i k e an a n i m a l i n the w i l d ; s t r i p p e d of a l l e m o t i o n a l t i e s and

s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , she i s concerned s o l e l y w i t h her own

s u r v i v a l . Maureen, a l o n g w i t h J u l y , i s now " f r e e , " but f o r her

i t i s e s s e n t i a l l y a n e g a t i v e s t a t e .

To see J u l y ' s P e o p l e as i n many r e s p e c t s a p o s t s c r i p t t o

The S t o r y o f an A f r i c a n Farm i s t o see some of the t h e m a t i c and

s y m b o l i c p a t t e r n s of S c h r e i n e r ' s n o v e l e x p r e s s e d i n t h e i r f i n a l

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form. I f Maureen i s L y n d a l l , J u l y i s Waldo, the a l t e r ego w i t h

which the female p r o t a g o n i s t has a c l o s e but n o n s e x u a l r e l a t i o n ­

s h i p , the male f i g u r e w i t h whom she i d e n t i f i e s , who a c t s out her

f a n t a s i e s o f achievement and i s a s p i r i t u a l or i n t e l l e c t u a l

g u i d e . L i k e L y n d a l l w i t h her S t r a n g e r , Maureen has l i t t l e

r a p p o r t w i t h her husband; J u l y ' s P e o p l e f o l l o w s the s t r i k i n g

p a t t e r n i n t h e s e n o v e l s o f d i v i d i n g male c h a r a c t e r s i n t o e i t h e r

s e x u a l p a r t n e r s or i n t e l l e c t u a l - s p i r i t u a l companions. L y n d a l l ' s

S t r a n g e r i s a d i s t u r b i n g f i g u r e whose r o l e i s c o n f i n e d t o sex;

when w i t h her pregnancy he t h r e a t e n s t o become p a r t of her l i f e ,

L y n d a l l f l e e s from him. T h i s p a t t e r n i s r e p e a t e d i n From Man t o

Man, i n which Rebekah's p u r e l y p h y s i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h her

husband, who i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d as an i n t e l l e c t u a l i n f e r i o r w i t h

g r o s s a p p e t i t e s , s u f f e r s i n comparison t o her c e r e b r a l communion

w i t h Mr. Drummond.

D e s p i t e I s a k Dinesen's g r e a t e r s e x u a l s o p h i s t i c a t i o n — t h e

r e s u l t of her age, e x p e r i e n c e , and m i l i e u — t h e r e i s i n Out of

A f r i c a and i n her l e t t e r s a marked s p l i t between the s e l f i s h ,

r e l a t i v e l y incompetent and u n i n t e l l i g e n t B r o r B l i x e n , w i t h h i s

g r o s s s e x u a l a p p e t i t e s , and t h e g o d l i k e Denys F i n c h - H a t t o n .

W h i l e we a r e g i v e n t o u n d e r s t a n d t h a t Karen B l i x e n ' s r e l a t i o n ­

s h i p w i t h Denys has a s e x u a l component, he i s d e p i c t e d as above

a l l a g r e a t f r i e n d : her l i s t e n e r , t e a c h e r and companion i n

a d v e n t u r e .

L e s s i n g r e p l i c a t e s t h i s p a t t e r n i n Martha Quest, w i t h

J o s s Cohen as Waldo, w h i l e Martha's s e x u a l e n c o u n t e r s are

i n c o n s e q u e n t i a l and u n s a t i s f a c t o r y . I n a l l t h e f i v e

231

C h i l d r e n of V i o l e n c e n o v e l s o n l y Martha's L a w r e n t i a n a f f a i r w i t h

Thomas i n L a n d l o c k e d s t a n d s out as deep and f u l f i l l i n g ; her

m a i n l y n o n - s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h Mark C o l d r i d g e i n The

Four-Gated C i t y i s an example of the c o n t i n u i n g a t t r a c t i o n of

the J o s s or Waldo f i g u r e f o r L e s s i n g .

One of the main c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s between Martha Quest and

The L y i n g Days i s Helen's f r i e n d s h i p w i t h her J e w i s h Waldo, J o e l

A a r o n , whom she f i n a l l y a d mits t h a t she l o v e s when he i s s a f e l y

on h i s way t o I s r a e l . Gordimer, however, b r e a k s the s p l i t

between sex and i n t e l l e c t i n her male c h a r a c t e r s . Her d e p i c t i o n

of s e x u a l i t y i s g e n e r a l l y much more p o s i t i v e than i n the o t h e r

w r i t e r s ; i t i s a v e h i c l e f o r communion and knowledge, symbol­

i c a l l y c onnected t o her h e r o i n e s ' e x p l o r a t i o n s of b l a c k n e s s .

There a r e , though, s e v e r a l b l a c k Waldo f i g u r e s i n Gordimer's

n o v e l s , f o r which t h e r e i s a p r e c e d e n t i n D i n e s e n . When i n

Shadows on the Gra s s Dinesen r e c o n s i d e r s the Out of A f r i c a

m a t e r i a l , F a r a h , her Som a l i head s e r v a n t , co-manager, c o n f i d a n t ,

bodyguard and a d v i s e r becomes a more c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r . Her

c l o s e s t A f r i c a n f r i e n d , upon whom she depended as on no one

e l s e , w h i t e or b l a c k , he r e a p p e a r s i n the r o l e of gu i d e and

i n t e r p r e t e r , who mediated between her and A f r i c a ; she c a l l s him

the g a t e k e e p e r t o her memories.

I n L e s s i n g as i n S c h r e i n e r t h e r e a r e few s i g n i f i c a n t b l a c k

c h a r a c t e r s — w h i c h i s somewhat s u r p r i s i n g i n view o f the

p o l i t i c a l message o f most of her A f r i c a n f i c t i o n . Her female

p r o t a g o n i s t s ' e n c o u n t e r s w i t h b l a c k men a r e c o n f i n e d t o the

m i s t r e s s - s e r v a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p ; L e s s i n g ' s emphasis i s on the

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w h i t e s * m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f b l a c k s . Moses i n The Gras s i s

S i n g i n g i s more a f o r c e of n a t u r e than a c h a r a c t e r , an

embodiment o f A f r i c a , as Farah i s , but w i t h o u t Farah's

i n d i v i d u a l i t y .

I n The C o n s e r v a t i o n i s t Gordimer t o o uses an u n d i f f e r e n t i ­

a t e d b l a c k a l t e r ego t o embody A f r i c a f o r her w h i t e p r o t a g o n i s t .

But i n O c c a s i o n f o r L o v i n g and B u r g e r ' s Daughter the b l a c k men

w i t h whom the h e r o i n e s i d e n t i f y as L y n d a l l i d e n t i f i e s w i t h Waldo

ar e r e a l i s t i c c h a r a c t e r s . I n Bu r g e r ' s Daughter Rosa and

" B a a s i e " have a c l o s e , s i b l i n g - l i k e r e l a t i o n s h i p i n c h i l d h o o d ,

deepened by the death o f Rosa's b i o l o g i c a l b r o t h e r . T h e i r

estrangement as a d u l t s i s symptomatic o f the f o r c e s which

s e p a r a t e w h i t e s from b l a c k s i n South A f r i c a n s o c i e t y . When th e y

meet a g a i n t h e i r mutual antagonism i s t h e i r o n l y e m o t i o n a l

o u t l e t ; t h e i r a b i l i t y t o wound each o t h e r i s a k i n d o f l o v e . I t

i s " B a a s i e " who c a l l s Rosa back t o South A f r i c a and g o i n g t o

j a i l i s her way of s e t t l i n g her s c o r e w i t h him. On t h i s l e v e l ,

" B a a s i e " i s Rosa's c o n s c i e n c e , as Waldo i s L y n d a l l ' s s o u l ; thus

the i n s p i r a t i o n a l a s p e c t o f B u r g e r ' s Daughter p a r a l l e l s t he

s p i r i t u a l a s p e c t of A f r i c a n Farm.

I n J u l y ' s P e o p l e one can say t h a t Dinesen's Farah comes

i n t o h i s own. The a u t h o r i t y t h a t he h o l d s i n Out of A f r i c a and

Shadows on t h e Gras s i s now e x p l i c i t , as h i s fond but

cond e s c e n d i n g m i s t r e s s f i n d s h e r s e l f i n t h e p o s i t i o n of

s u p p l i c a n t , her i m p l i c i t dependence on h i s s k i l l and l o y a l t y now

op e n l y e x p r e s s e d . A l s o o p e n l y e x p r e s s e d i n J u l y ' s P e o p l e i s the

angry power of the b l a c k m a j o r i t y , which has simmered under the

233

s u r f a c e i n her o t h e r t e x t s . Even i n S c h r e i n e r t h e b l a c k

c h a r a c t e r s a r e angry; t h e i r h o s t i l i t y i s apparent i n t h e i r

r e a d i n e s s t o t a k e advantage of any weakness i n t h e i r w h i t e

m a s t e r s . I n Dinesen the b l a c k s a r e p o r t r a y e d as l o y a l

r e t a i n e r s , whose p r i m i t i v e s t r e n g t h i s b a r e l y c o n c e a l e d ; her

Somali women and Masai w a r r i o r s a r e l i k e her l i o n s : n o b l e , f r e e

c r e a t u r e s whose savagery i s not t h r e a t e n i n g . I n L e s s i n g b l a c k s

are p o r t r a y e d m a i n l y as v i c t i m s , w i t h whom the h e r o i n e , who a l s o

sees h e r s e l f as a v i c t i m of her c i r c u m s t a n c e s , i d e n t i f i e s ; i t i s

o n l y i n The Gra s s i s S i n g i n g t h a t Moses r i s e s t o t a k e h i s b l o o d y

revenge.

Throughout her f i c t i o n Gordimer d e v e l o p s the image of the

r i s i n g of the b u r i e d b o d i e s from the South A f r i c a n g r a v e y a r d as

a metaphor f o r the b l a c k r e v o l u t i o n . Her cemetery metaphor

e x i s t s i n the e a r l i e r w r i t e r s i n l e s s d i r e c t forms. For

example, the p r e v a i l i n g image of s t e r i l i t y i n A f r i c a n Farm,

c o u p l e d w i t h S c h r e i n e r ' s emphasis on the n a t u r a l and human

p r e h i s t o r y o f the Karoo w i t h i t s r e l i c s o f the e x t i n c t San

c u l t u r e , s u g g e s t s t h a t the Karoo i s a v a s t g r a v e y a r d . D i n e s e n ,

i n t he l e s s sanguine moments o f her memoir, mourns the d e s t r u c ­

t i o n of E a s t A f r i c a by w h i t e c i v i l i z a t i o n . I n "The Iguana" she

uses the example of the i g u a n a , whose luminous c o l o r i n g t u r n s

d u l l grey i n d e a t h , as a symbol f o r the l o s s o f beauty when w i l d

t h i n g s a r e t a k e n out o f t h e i r l i v i n g c o n t e x t . She quotes the

hunte r as s a y i n g , " I have conquered them a l l , but I am s t a n d i n g

amongst g r a v e s , " c o n c l u d i n g t h a t , " i n a f o r e i g n c o u n t r y and w i t h

f o r e i g n s p e c i e s of l i f e one s h o u l d t a k e measures t o f i n d out

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whether t h i n g s w i l l be k e e p i n g t h e i r v a l u e when dead" (Out of

A f r i c a 181).

I n L e s s i n g and Gordimer the l a n d becomes a c t i v e l y h o s t i l e ,

the storms i n The G r a s s i s S i n g i n g and The C o n s e r v a t i o n i s t

e c h o i n g the d e s t r u c t i v e r a i n s o f A f r i c a n Farm. The theme of the

f a i l e d farmer i n S c h r e i n e r , D i n e s e n , L e s s i n g and Gordimer (and

s i m i l a r l y i n E l s p e t h Huxley) i s a n other way t h a t the l a n d

m a n i f e s t s i t s h o s t i l i t y i n t h i s l i t e r a t u r e : by r e j e c t i n g the

i m p o s i t i o n o f the s e t t l e r . The atmosphere of c l a u s t r o p h o b i a

t h a t ( w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of Dinesen) c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e s e t e x t s ,

i n which the p r o t a g o n i s t s p a r a d o x i c a l l y f e e l c o n f i n e d by the

v a s t spaces around them, comes i n p a r t from the h o s t i l e

emanations of the l a n d .

The w h i t e c h a r a c t e r s ' awareness t h a t the l a n d t o which they

own t h e deed i s not r e a l l y t h e i r s r e a c h e s i t s c u l m i n a t i o n i n

J u l y ' s P e o p l e , i n which the A f r i c a n farm no l o n g e r b e l o n g s t o

the w h i t e s , who now work the l a n d a l o n g s i d e the b l a c k s — a n d eat

i t s f r u i t s on s u f f e r a n c e . The theme of c l a u s t r o p h o b i a a l s o

c u l m i n a t e s i n J u l y ' s P e o p l e , i n which Maureen i n h a b i t s her hut

l i k e a p r i s o n e r h i s c e l l . 3

I n A f r i c a n Farm S c h r e i n e r c o n n e c t s the p a t t e r n s of

s t e r i l i t y and c l a u s t r o p h o b i a w i t h p e s s i m i s t i c metaphors of

s l e e p , dream and awakening; the l a t e r w r i t e r s c o n t i n u e t o

d e v e l o p t h e s e c o n n e c t e d metaphors. As S c h r e i n e r does, L e s s i n g

uses dreams and r e v e r i e s as a v e h i c l e of knowledge f o r her

c h a r a c t e r s , whose dreams a r e l i k e a window i n t o the r i c h w o r l d

o f t h e u n c o n s c i o u s . However, d e s p i t e t h e i r r i c h dream-time her

2 3 5

c h a r a c t e r s o f t e n s l e e p v e r y l i t t l e . I n Martha Quest s l e e p i s a

s p e l l spun around Martha and her f a t h e r by the w i t c h - l i k e

Mrs. Quest i n o r d e r t o keep her f a m i l y weak and w i l l - l e s s .

Martha Quest i s , l i k e A f r i c a n Farm, a n o v e l o f awakening, i n

which awakening b r i n g s d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t .

D inesen t a c i t l y acknowledges t h a t the r e a l w o r l d can be

g r i m and d i s i l l u s i o n i n g ; i t i s p a r t l y because of t h i s knowledge

t h a t she c o n c e n t r a t e s on dream, f a n t a s y and i l l u s i o n .

S c h r e i n e r ' s and L e s s i n g ' s dichotomy between f a n t a s y and r e a l i t y

i s not o p e r a t i v e i n her f i c t i o n a l w o r l d , which i g n o r e s r e a l i s t i c

l i m i t a t i o n s . Out of A f r i c a abounds w i t h t h e metaphors of myth,

dream and the t h e a t r e ; i t g l i t t e r s w i t h a r t i f i c e , as does a l l of

I s a k Dinesen's s t o r y t e l l i n g , as does the persona of Dinesen

h e r s e l f .

I t i s only, i n Gordimer t h a t awakening i s d e s i r a b l e ,

p o s i t i v e and f u l f i l l i n g . The L y i n g Days i s a s t o r y of awakening

t o s e n s a t i o n s and emotions o f a l l k i n d s , from the s e x u a l t o the

p o l i t i c a l . A l t h o u g h i t i s o s t e n s i b l y a s t o r y of d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t

t o o , of " w i t h e r i n g i n t o the t r u t h , " Helen's d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t w i t h

the c o n f o r m i s t w o r l d o f the Mine and the f a k e Bohemianism o f the

C i t y l e a d s her toward p r o f o u n d e r awakenings. As each c h a p t e r of

her l i f e c l o s e s ( f o l l o w i n g the n o v e l ' s d i v i s i o n s i n t o Mine, Sea

and C i t y ) a new door opens onto a l a r g e r , more a u t h e n t i c w o r l d .

In g e n e r a l , Gordimer's n o v e l s s t r e s s opening r a t h e r than

c l o s u r e , reawakening r a t h e r than d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t . Even Rosa's

c i r c u l a r j o u r n e y f o l l o w s t h i s p a t t e r n . Her o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r

s e l f - k n o w l e d g e , h a p p i n e s s and achievement seem t o open out as

236

she moves i n s t a g e s from her p a r e n t s ' house t o the beauty and

freedom of K a t y a ' s F r a n c e , but i t i s i n t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f the

c i r c l e , i n her d e c i s i o n t o r e t u r n t o her p a r e n t s ' h o u s e — t o

p r i s o n — t h a t she f i n d s t r u e freedom; i t i s i n t h a t ( e n ) c l o s u r e

t h a t she f i n d s f u l f i l l m e n t .

However, i n J u l y ' s P e o p l e the f u n d a m e n t a l l y o p t i m i s t i c

p a t t e r n of Gordimer's f i c t i o n seems t o end. For Maureen, now

t h a t t h e u n i m a g i n a b l e has happened, t h e r e a r e no more

p o s s i b i l i t i e s . She i s t r u l y t r a p p e d ; her f i n a l b r e a k i n g out i s

no awakening but r a t h e r the b l i n d , f r a n t i c b i d of the c o r n e r e d

a n i m a l . 4

A S p o r t o f N a t u r e : A z a n i a U n f u r l e d

I n J u l y ' s P e o p l e Maureen t r i e s t o read the one book she has

brought w i t h her i n t o the bush (Manzoni's h i s t o r i c a l n o v e l

I P r o m e s s i S p o s i ) . As Gordimer d e s c r i b e s ,

But t h e t r a n s p o r t of a n o v e l , t h e f a l s e awareness of b e i n g w i t h i n another t i m e , p l a c e and l i f e , t h a t was t h e p l e a s u r e of r e a d i n g , f o r h e r , was not p o s s i b l e . She was i n a n other t i m e , p l a c e , c o n s c i o u s n e s s ; i t p r e s s e d i n upon her and f i l l e d her as someone's b r e a t h f i l l s a b a l l o o n ' s shape. She was a l r e a d y not what she was. No f i c t i o n c o u l d compete w i t h what she was f i n d i n g she d i d not know, c o u l d not have imagined or d i s c o v e r e d t h r o u g h i m a g i n a t i o n ( 2 0 ) .

Maureen's a t t i t u d e toward l i t e r a t u r e goes back t o H e l e n

S h a w ' s — a s she h e r s e l f seems t o be an o l d e r v e r s i o n of

Gordimer's f i r s t h e r o i n e . She was, f o r example, a Mine daughter

l i k e H e l e n , i n a town l i k e t h e one i n which H e l e n (and Gordimer)

grew up. For Maureen i n J u l y ' s v i l l a g e , as f o r H e l e n i n the

N a t i v e S t o r e s , the r e a l i t y of A f r i c a i s more f a n t a s t i c , more

m i n d - s t r e t c h i n g , than any f i c t i o n . Near the end of

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J u l y ' s P e o p l e , Gordimer e x p l a i n s Maureen's d i s o r i e n t a t i o n i n

terms which echo Helen's i n the b e g i n n i n g of The L y i n g Days:

"The r e a l f a n t a s i e s o f the bush delude more i n v e n t i v e l y than the

r o m a n t i c f o r e s t s o f Grimm and D i s n e y " ( 1 6 0 ) .

"She was a l r e a d y not what she was": Maureen i s o f f e r e d t h e

p o s s i b i l i t y t o t r a n s f o r m h e r s e l f , t o become a new p e r s o n . She

c o n f r o n t s her p a s t . She i s f o r c e d — i n the n o v e l ' s c e n t r a l

r e l a t i o n s h i p — t o r e d e f i n e her c o n n e c t i o n w i t h J u l y . But she

f a i l s ; u n l i k e her c h i l d r e n (who soon l e a r n t o t r e a t J u l y w i t h

new r e s p e c t ) she cannot f l o u r i s h i n the new s o c i e t y .

Maureen and H e l e n , the good m i d d l e - c l a s s South A f r i c a n s ,

o b e d i e n t d a u g h t e r s and a t l e a s t g r u d g i n g l y l o y a l w i v e s , who

o b s e r v e the l i b e r a l d e c e n c i e s i n t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e i r

b l a c k i n f e r i o r s , are dead-end h e r o i n e s f o r Gordimer. I n H i l l e l a

Kgomani she i n t r o d u c e s an a l t o g e t h e r new t y p e : the " s p o r t of

n a t u r e , " who i s not s u b j e c t t o the e m o t i o n a l t i e s , the laws of

b e h a v i o r , or f i n a l l y , the f a i l u r e o f i m a g i n a t i o n , which b i n d and

l i m i t Maureen and H e l e n . As Gordimer has e x p l a i n e d , the

c h a r a c t e r o f H i l l e l a i s an attempt t o imagine a w h i t e South

A f r i c a n woman who can s u r v i v e , even f l o u r i s h , i n r e v o l u t i o n a r y

c o n d i t i o n s . She has s a i d about the n o v e l : L o o k i n g around me over my l o n g l i f e i n South

A f r i c a , i t somehow seemed t o me i r o n i c t h a t sometimes v e r y unexpected p e o p l e a r e the ones who prove adequate t o the s i t u a t i o n .

I've seen so many w o n d e r f u l p e o p l e f a i l a t i t , p a r t i c u l a r l y p e o p l e who a r e i n some way l i b e r a l l y c ommitted—who do not go beyond l i b e r a l i s m . But somebody l i k e H i l l e l a can sometimes see i n an i n s t i n c t i v e way t h a t so many of t h e s e o t h e r ways of d e a l i n g w i t h the s i t u a t i o n — t h e p o l i t i c a l w a y s — j u s t don't work, and can f i n d her own way ( I n t e r v i e w i n The New York Times Book Review, May 3 1 9 8 7 , 2 2 ) .

238

Not c o m p l e t e l y s u c c e s s f u l as a r e a l i s t i c c h a r a c t e r , H i l l e l a i s a

v i s i o n a r y c h a r a c t e r , a s y m b o l i c f i g u r e t h rough whom Gordimer

t r i e s t o b r i d g e t h e g u l f , f i l l t he " i n t e r r e g n u m " between p r e s e n t

and f u t u r e . Her name, f o r the J e w i s h l e a d e r H i l l e l , which i s

a s s o c i a t e d i n the n o v e l w i t h her Z i o n i s t g r a n d f a t h e r , r e i n f o r c e s

her p r o p h e t i c r o l e . H i l l e l a has i n t e r e s t i n g c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s

w i t h L e s s i n g ' s v i s i o n a r y h e r o i n e s , A l * I t h f o r i n s t a n c e . T h i s i s

not s u r p r i s i n g because A S p o r t o f Nature has U t o p i a n e l e m e n t s .

As a f i c t i o n a l v e h i c l e , t h i s n o v e l c a r r i e s Gordimer f u r t h e r

than she has y e t gone i n d e p i c t i n g a p o s i t i v e f u t u r e : a happy

en d i n g f o r her h e r o i n e as w e l l as f o r the South A f r i c a n

independence s t r u g g l e . H i l l e l a t r i u m p h s because she does not

b e l o n g , because she does not conform, because she i s a s e l f i s h ,

amoral law unto h e r s e l f . Abandoned by her p a r e n t s , r a i s e d by

wel l - m e a n i n g but uncomprehending a u n t s , she f o l l o w s her m i s s i n g

mother's example o f f l o u t i n g m i d d l e - c l a s s m o r a l i t y by l o v i n g

f o r b i d d e n , t h a t i s nonwhite, men. S e x u a l freedom i s her road t o

r e v o l u t i o n . B e g i n n i n g w i t h her f r i e n d s h i p w i t h a " c o l o u r e d "

boy, which a l i e n a t e s her from t h e w h i t e community, she i s

r a d i c a l i z e d by her l o v e f o r the f i c t i o n a l ANC l e a d e r W h a i l a

Kgomani. She avenges W h a i l a ' s death by her m a r r i a g e t o a

p o w e r f u l West A f r i c a n g e n e r a l and sta t e s m a n , w i t h whom, f i n a l l y ,

she watches the f l a g o f A z a n i a u n f u r l over "Whaila's c o u n t r y . "

The a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l a s p e c t o f t h i s a p p a r e n t l y not v e r y

G o r d i m e r - l i k e h e r o i n e i s worth c o n s i d e r i n g . Through a l l o f her

main c h a r a c t e r s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e women, Gordimer p r e s e n t s a s p e c t s

of h e r s e l f and makes p e r s o n a l s t a t e m e n t s . Through Rosa she

239

a f f i r m s her own commitment t o r e m a i n i n g i n South A f r i c a as

w i t n e s s , and i n c r e a s i n g l y , as a c t i v i s t . Through Maureen she

r e j e c t s the good l i b e r a l daughter i n h e r s e l f , t h i s message b e i n g

r e i n f o r c e d by the p a r a l l e l s between Maureen and the more n a k e d l y

a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l H e l e n . Through H i l l e l a she s i g n a l s her

d i s a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h what she sees as the dead v a l u e s of the.

p a s t , i m a g i n a t i v e l y r e i n v e n t i n g a new p e r s o n a l i t y t o f i t a new

c o u n t r y .

A S p o r t o f Nature t a k e s as i t s r e f e r e n c e p o i n t B u r g e r ' s

Daughter. The young Rosa even makes a b r i e f appearance, and

L i o n e l i s mentioned a l o n g w i t h the h i s t o r i c a l heroes of t h e

r e v o l u t i o n , as i f Gordimer, by c r e a t i n g the B u r g e r s , has

a c t u a l l y made them p a r t of South A f r i c a n h i s t o r y . But H i l l e l a ' s

s i t u a t i o n i s s t r i k i n g l y d i f f e r e n t from Rosa's. She i s a f r e e

agent; she does not have t o f i g h t her way through the maze of

f a m i l y and p o l i t i c a l l o y a l t i e s which b i n d Rosa, f o r she b e g i n s

w i t h no e m o t i o n a l or i d e o l o g i c a l baggage. I f Rosa i s s t i l l

s t r u g g l i n g out of "the mother's house," t o f o l l o w John Cooke's

t h e s i s , H i l l e l a has no mother's house. The o p p r e s s i v e mother

who had weakened and deformed a l l o f Gordimer's h e r o i n e s t o some

e x t e n t — w h o was m o d e l l e d a f t e r Gordimer's own m o t h e r — i s here a

f a n t a s y o f l i b e r a t i o n . H i l l e l a ' s mother i s a woman who threw up

m a r r i a g e and motherhood i n t h e a f f l u e n t suburbs t o run away w i t h

a P o r t u g u e s e n i g h t - c l u b d ancer.

C l e a r l y H i l l e l a i s not a f u l l y r e a l i s t i c c h a r a c t e r ; she i s

not bound by the laws of v e r i s i m i l i t u d e t h a t d etermine Helen's

or Rosa's or Martha's f a t e s . She i s e v i d e n c e o f her a u t h o r ' s

240

f r u s t r a t i o n , not so much w i t h the l i m i t s of the r e a l i s t g enre,

but w i t h the p o l i t i c a l s t a l e m a t e f o r w h i t e s i n South A f r i c a ,

w hich l i m i t s what Gordimer can r e a l i s t i c a l l y d e p i c t i n terms of

a h o p e f u l f u t u r e .

However, w h i l e H i l l e l a does not resemble Gordimer's

p r e v i o u s c h a r a c t e r s , she does resemble S c h r e i n e r ' s L y n d a l l , f o r

whom p e r s o n a l freedom and s p e c i f i c a l l y s e x u a l freedom was a key

t o a r e v o l u t i o n a r y new s o c i a l - p o l i t i c a l o r d e r . L y n d a l l ,

s e l f i s h , r e b e l l i o u s , and u n e t h i c a l by the s t a n d a r d s of her

community and contemporary s o c i e t y , was a l s o "a s p o r t of

n a t u r e , " a h a r b i n g e r of S c h r e i n e r ' s f e m i n i s t - s o c i a l i s t U t o p i a .

An i n t e r e s t i n g p a r a l l e l between L y n d a l l and H i l l e l a i s H i l l e l a ' s

Waldo: Sasha, her (w h i t e ) c o u s i n / a d o p t e d b r o t h e r / l o v e r . He i s a

l o n e l y , t o r m e n t e d , i d e a l i s t i c y o u t h , whose m a i n s p r i n g s a r e h i s

l i f e l o n g l o v e f o r H i l l e l a and h i s commitment t o the r e v o l u t i o n .

A f t e r s e v e r a l s p e l l s i n p r i s o n he becomes a p o l i t i c a l r e f u g e e .

I n t e n s e l y l o y a l and s e l f - s a c r i f i c i n g , t h o u g h t f u l and s e n s i t i v e ,

he not o n l y resembles Waldo, but a l s o p l a y s a s i m i l a r r o l e i n

H i l l e l a ' s l i f e t o Waldo's r o l e i n L y n d a l l ' s : she i s the woman of

a c t i o n , w h i l e he i s her c o n s c i e n c e , her s u f f e r i n g s o u l . On the

t e x t ' s s y m b o l i c l e v e l , H i l l e l a and Sasha, the famous emigree and

the anonymous j a i l e d r e v o l u t i o n a r y , work t o g e t h e r t o h e l p b r i n g

about Gordimer's U t o p i a : the independent n a t i o n o f A z a n i a .

R e p l a n t i n g the " P e t r i f i e d Garden": Recent Developments i n Souther n A f r i c a n F i c t i o n

The m y t h i c l e v e l of A S p o r t of Nature i s a c o n s c i o u s

attempt on Gordimer's p a r t t o t r a n s c e n d the s t i l l c o n s i d e r a b l e

241

o b s t a c l e s t o the F u t u r e . I t i s a t e c h n i q u e she has used b e f o r e ,

most n o t a b l y i n The C o n s e r v a t i o n i s t . Yet she i s d i s m i s s i v e o f

J.M. Coetzee's use of a l l e g o r y , a c c u s i n g him of t r y i n g t o

d i s t a n c e h i m s e l f from h i s t o r y and p o l i t i c s ( i n "The Idea of

G a r d e n i n g , " Review o f L i f e and Times o f M i c h a e l K ) . A c t u a l l y ,

Gordimer's own need t o e n v i s i o n a f u t u r e u n f e t t e r e d by p r e s e n t

l i m i t a t i o n s n e c e s s i t a t e s a f i c t i o n u n f e t t e r e d by the l i m i t a t i o n s

o f r e a l i s m ; she uses the symbolism of r e v o l u t i o n and U t o p i a f o r

some of the same reasons t h a t Coetzee w r i t e s a l l e g o r i c a l

f i c t i o n . Futhermore, as the work of o t h e r Southern A f r i c a n

w r i t e r s shows, o b l i q u e , p o e t i c , a r c h e t y p a l and v i s i o n a r y modes

a r e perhaps t h e most l o g i c a l ways t o e x p r e s s the i n n e r meaning

of a b l e a k and tormented h i s t o r y i n which the seeds of hope are

b u r i e d . A t h o l and S h e i l a F u g a r d , Andre B r i n k and B e s s i e Head

a l l t o some e x t e n t go beyond c o n v e n t i o n a l r e a l i s m i n t h e i r q uest

t o i l l u m i n a t e the Southern A f r i c a n s i t u a t i o n by r e p r e s e n t i n g the

r e a l i t y below the s u r f a c e of e v e n t s . These w r i t e r s d e velop t h e

metaphors we have found i n S c h r e i n e r , L e s s i n g and Gordimer: of

d r o u g h t , s t e r i l i t y , t h e g r a v e y a r d , f e r t i l i z i n g r a i n / b l o o d , p l a n t

growth and t h e r i s i n g of the b u r i e d b o d i e s , and o f White Eve

a l i e n a t e d from the A f r i c a n g a r d e n . 5

I t i s i n Co e t z e e ' s f i c t i o n t h a t t h e s e image p a t t e r n s

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the " A f r i c a n Farm" l i t e r a t u r e which o r i g i n a t e d

w i t h S c h r e i n e r a r e most v i s i b l e , a r e d e a l t w i t h most s t a r k l y and

s k i l l f u l l y . Magda's s t o r y , I n the Heart of the C o u n t r y , i s the

extreme form of the s t o r i e s o f L y n d a l l , Waldo and Rebekah, of

Karen B l i x e n , Martha Quest, Helen Shaw and Rosa B u r g e r .

242

C o e t z e e ' s image of w h i t e South A f r i c a as "the p e t r i f i e d garden,

b e h i n d l o c k e d g a t e s , near my f a t h e r ' s bones," r e s o n a t e s through

the " A f r i c a n Farm" l i t e r a t u r e . C oetzee's p u r p o s e l y vague

n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y s e t t i n g f i t s S c h r e i n e r ' s p e r i o d ; the i s o l a t e d

d e s e r t s e t t i n g of h i s farm s t r o n g l y resembles h e r s , as does i t s

mood o f boredom, l o n e l i n e s s and p a r e n t a l o p p r e s s i o n . As i n

S c h r e i n e r and L e s s i n g , t h e domesti c c l a u s t r o p h o b i a i s

i n t e n s i f i e d by t h e t e r r i f y i n g freedom of the enormous, empty

l a n d s c a p e . Magda w r i t e s : "Here i n the mi d d l e of nowhere I can

expand t o i n f i n i t y j u s t as I can s h r i v e l t o the s i z e of an a n t .

Many t h i n g s I l a c k but freedom i s not one of them" ( 5 0 ) .

U n l i k e t h e d i s i n h e r i t e d L y n d a l l and Waldo, who l i v e on

s u f f e r a n c e on Tant' S a n n i e ' s l a n d , Magda, as the m i s t r e s s of her

farm, has the power o f Adam t o name and o r d e r her w o r l d a c c o r d ­

i n g t o her i m a g i n a t i o n . But i n her near-complete i s o l a t i o n her

power i s m e a n i n g l e s s ; her freedom d r i v e s her mad. Her garden i n

the w i l d e r n e s s — l i k e H elen's and M e h r i n g ' s — i s a g r a v e y a r d , but

u n l i k e Helen's v i s i o n o f the w h i t e s p i c n i c k i n g on b l a c k g r a v e s ,

Magda's g r a v e y a r d c o n t a i n s t h e bones and i s p e o p l e d by t h e

gh o s t s i n h e r i t e d from her own A f r i k a n e r p e o p l e . T h i s , f i n a l l y ,

i s what she has i n h e r i t e d from her f a t h e r : a garden of sand and

s t o n e s ( l i k e S c h r e i n e r ' s Karoo f a r m ) , i n which "God has

f o r g o t t e n us and we have f o r g o t t e n God;" an Eden ( l i k e Dinesen's

f a r m ) , i n w h i c h , " E v e r t h i n g i s p e r m i t t e d . . . . N o t h i n g i s

p u n i s h e d " ( 1 3 5 ) ; a g r a v e y a r d and a p r i s o n ( l i k e Gordimer's South

A f r i c a ) , which has " p e t r i f i e d " b e h i n d i t s " l o c k e d g a t e s " .

2 4 3

L i k e the g i r l i n "The O l d C h i e f Mshlanga," l i k e Rebekah,

Martha and Gordimer's p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i s t h e r o i n e s , Magda too has

a q u e s t : "the medium, the median t h a t i s what I wanted t o be!

N e i t h e r master nor s l a v e , n e i t h e r p a r e n t nor c h i l d , but the

b r i d g e between, so t h a t i n me the c o n t r a r i e s s h o u l d be

r e c o n c i l e d ! " Magda t r i e s t o make c o n t a c t w i t h b l a c k A f r i c a

u s i n g her own body as a b r i d g e ; l i k e L e s s i n g ' s Mary Turner she

e n t e r s i n t o a r e a l or i m a g i n a r y s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h her

b l a c k s e r v a n t . As i n The Gra s s i s S i n g i n g t h i s p r o f o u n d

t r a n s g r e s s i o n a g a i n s t the f a t h e r , t h i s v e r s i o n of Eve's t r a n s ­

g r e s s i o n a g a i n s t God and Adam, ends i n v i o l e n t d i s c o r d , i n

madness and d e a t h .

I n the Heart of the C o u n t r y , Dusklands and W a i t i n g f o r the

B a r b a r i a n s d e a l d i r e c t l y w i t h the v i o l e n c e which c h a r a c t e r i z e s

the c o l o n i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p , and which e r u p t s s p o r a d i c a l l y i n the

" A f r i c a n Farm" t e x t s from S c h r e i n e r t o Gordimer. I n the women's

t e x t s t h i s v i o l e n c e i s most o f t e n d i r e c t e d toward the w h i t e ,

u s u a l l y f e m a l e , c h a r a c t e r s i n the form of a h o s t i l e l a n d and

p h y s i c a l l y t h r e a t e n i n g b l a c k men. The w h i t e women c h a r a c t e r s

who t r y t o connect w i t h A f r i c a a r e p u n i s h e d w i t h s e n t e n c e s t h a t

range from a l i e n a t i o n and e x i l e t o imprisonment and d e a t h .

A l t h o u g h as w h i t e s t h e y a r e t h e i m p l i e d agents of c o l o n i a l

v i o l e n c e , they r a r e l y p e r f o r m v i o l e n c e a g a i n s t A f r i c a n s ; they

a r e v i c t i m s caught between the w h i t e and b l a c k communities,

pronounced g u i l t y by both s i d e s . L i k e Eve th e y a r e g u i l t y by

d e f a u l t , and l i k e Eve e s s e n t i a l l y p o w e r l e s s . I n f a c t the

a u t h o r s ' c h o i c e of m e t a p h o r s — U n d i n e , the Lady of S h a l o t t , and

244

E v e — r e i n f o r c e s t h e i r h e r o i n e s ' t r a d i t i o n a l female s t r a t e g i e s of

s e l f - s a c r i f i c e , or s e l f - d e s t r u c t i o n , as e x e m p l i f i e d i n L y n d a l l ' s

pregnancy and what was i n e f f e c t her s u i c i d e , i n Martha's

m a s o c h i s t i c m a r r i a g e s , and Mary T u r n e r ' s death w i s h .

But Magda's r e a l or imagined murder of her f a t h e r i s an

example of the a c t i v e r e v o l t t h a t s u r f a c e s i n the more r e c e n t

t e x t s by Coetzee and Gordimer, and has a n t e c e d e n t s i n the

r e v o l u t i o n a r y t r a d i t i o n o f the female Bildungsroman from Jane

Eyre t o Wide Sar g a s s o Sea, from A f r i c a n Farm t o Martha Quest.

Magda's t a k i n g up arms a g a i n s t her f a t h e r , who i n p a r t r e p r e ­

s e n t s the w h i t e male power s t r u c t u r e of c o l o n i z e d A f r i c a , i s an

a c t o f r e v o l u t i o n which e n a b l e s her t o r e c r e a t e the w o r l d o f h i s

farm on her own terms; w i t h t h e death of her f a t h e r the

p a t r i a r c h a l h i e r a r c h y o f f a t h e r , daughter and s e r v a n t s c r u m b l e s ,

and a new e q u a l i t y i s e s t a b l i s h e d among Magda, Hendrik and Anna

( a l t h o u g h C o e t zee's new o r d e r i s i r o n i c , e l u s i v e , and

p h a n t a s m a g o r i c a l , i n c o n t r a s t t o Gordimer's u n i r o n i c , o s t e n s i b l y

r e a l i s t i c v i s i o n of e q u a l i t y i n A S p o r t of N a t u r e ) .

Magda's freedom i s f r i g h t e n i n g because she l i v e s i n an

" i n t e r r e g n u m , " t o borrow Gordimer's word, between the o l d o r d e r

of the w h i t e f a t h e r s and the new o r d e r o f the b l a c k s , which she

has h e l p e d t o b r i n g about. Her farm i s haunted by the g h o s t s o f

South A f r i c a n h i s t o r y and the v i o l e n t p o s s i b i l i t i e s , the pas­

s i o n a t e p r o m i s e s , o f i t s f u t u r e , which she w i l l not s h a r e . Her

s t a t e i s not u n l i k e Rebekah's, or Rosa B u r g e r ' s , whose p r i s o n

c e l l w i t h i t s echoes o f her f a t h e r ' s p r i s o n c e l l i s a nother

v e r s i o n of Magda's l o c k e d garden near her f a t h e r ' s bones.

245

In The H e a r t of the C o u n t r y i s the Coetzee t e x t which b e s t

i l l u m i n a t e s the " A f r i c a n Farm" l i t e r a t u r e . "The N a r r a t i v e of

Jacobus Coetzee," i n which the h u n t i n g of human b e i n g s i s

d e s c r i b e d as b a l d l y as the h u n t i n g of a n i m a l s , exposes the myth

of the w h i t e h u n t e r which D i n e s e n , among o t h e r s , promotes. I n

W a i t i n g f o r the B a r b a r i a n s , h i s South A f r i c a becomes a

n o n s p e c i f i c g e n e r a l i z e d s e t t i n g f o r the decay of an i m p e r i a l

o r d e r , when the l i b e r a l o p p o s i t i o n i s t o r t u r e d a l o n g w i t h the

" b a r b a r i a n s " who are the i n e v i t a b l e i n h e r i t o r s of the c o l o n i z e d

c o u n t r y . I n L i f e and Times of M i c h a e l K (1984), which Gordimer

c r i t i c i z e d f o r i t s f o c u s on " t h o s e who i g n o r e h i s t o r y , not make

i t " ("The Idea of G a r d e n i n g " 3 ) , Coetzee p o r t r a y s the t u r m o i l of

a w h i t e South A f r i c a i n d i s s o l u t i o n through the eyes of one of

the v i c t i m s ; a r e t a r d e d , b r a i n damaged or t r a u m a t i z e d young

" c o l o u r e d " man whose t r e k t o the Karoo farm where h i s mother was

born echoes S c h r e i n e r . M i c h a e l K r e c l a i m s the abandoned l a n d by

r e p l a n t i n g i t , and when he i s d r i v e n from the farm by,

s u c c e s s i v e l y , the g u e r r i l l a s and the army, he makes p l a n s t o

r e t u r n w i t h more seeds.

T h i s damaged, d i s i n h e r i t e d son who r e p l a n t s the A f r i c a n

Farm i s r e m i n i s c e n t of Waldo, who was a l s o a p a s s i v e r e v o l u ­

t i o n a r y . However, M i c h a e l K's b l a c k n e s s e x e m p l i f i e s the t r e n d

i n w h i t e Southern A f r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e f o r b l a c k c h a r a c t e r s t o

p l a y a g r e a t e r r o l e , t o move from the h idden c e n t e r of the t e x t s

t o t h e i r acknowledged c e n t e r . 6

Andre B r i n k , whose A Dry White Season and Rumours of R a i n

c o v e r e d the f a m i l i a r Gordimer c o u n t r y of the a n g u i s h e d c h o i c e s

246

o f w h i t e l i b e r a l s , moves more d i r e c t l y i n t o b l a c k h i s t o r y i n

A Ch a i n of V o i c e s (1982). I n t h a t n o v e l b l a c k and w h i t e n a r r a ­

t o r s p i e c e t o g e t h e r a p o r t r a i t of s l a v e s o c i e t y i n the l a s t

c e n t u r y which c u l m i n a t e s i n an o r g a n i z e d r e v o l t . I n The W a l l o f

the P l a g u e ( 1 9 8 4 ) , B r i n k f o c u s e s on a " c o l o u r e d " woman emigree

who, t o r n between her European and A f r i c a n i d e n t i t i e s ,

u l t i m a t e l y chooses b l a c k n e s s .

As b l a c k South A f r i c a n s f i g h t t o r e c l a i m t h e i r c o u n t r y , the

response o f p o l i t i c a l l y s y m p a t h e t i c w h i t e w r i t e r s seems t o be a

c o n s c i o u s and u n c o n s c i o u s y i e l d i n g of f i c t i o n a l t e r r i t o r y t o

b l a c k c h a r a c t e r s . And more i m p o r t a n t l y , the South A f r i c a n s t o r y

i s p a s s i n g back i n t o the hands o f the non-white peop l e who have

l o n g been o b s c u r e d and d i s t o r t e d by w h i t e w r i t e r s . B l a c k s a r e

r e c l a i m i n g t h e i r l a n d i m a g i n a t i v e l y as w e l l as p h y s i c a l l y , as

the r e c e n t f i c t i o n of such w r i t e r s as M i r i a m T l a l i , M t u t u z e l i

Matshoba ( C a l l Me Not a Man 1979) and N j a b u l o S. Ndebele ( F o o l s

1983) a t t e s t s .

As we a w a i t the new l i t e r a t u r e of an independent South

A f r i c a i n which b l a c k s may f r e e l y p u b l i s h , i t remains t o be seen

whether the c h a r a c t e r s , imagery and i d e a s of S c h r e i n e r ' s S t o r y

of an A f r i c a n Farm, which have so marked the c o l o n i a l A f r i c a n

l i t e r a r y c o n s c i o u s n e s s from Dinesen t o Gordimer, Coetzee and

Head, w i l l c o n t i n u e t o i n f l u e n c e new w r i t e r s such as M i r i a m

T l a l i , whose i n s i d e r p o i n t of view and documentary s t y l e of

s o c i a l r e a l i s m seem q u i t e d i f f e r e n t from the a l i e n a t i o n , i n t r o ­

s p e c t i o n , and more s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y l i t e r a r y s t y l e of S c h r e i n e r

and her s u c c e s s o r s . However, T l a l i ' s p o l i t i c a l c o n t e n t , the

247

d i d a c t i c commentary p r e s e n t e d t h rough her c h a r a c t e r s '

d i s c u s s i o n s and speeches, i s not a l i e n t o Gordimer or L e s s i n g ,

who use the same t e c h n i q u e , or t o S c h r e i n e r , who was as u n a f r a i d

t o make an i d e o l o g i c a l p o i n t i n her f i c t i o n as she was u n a f r a i d

t o t a k e a p o l i t i c a l s t a n d on the major i s s u e s of her day.

I t i s i n t h e n o v e l s o f B e s s i e Head t h a t we f i n d t he most

s u g g e s t i v e r e f e r e n c e s t o S c h r e i n e r and t o the " A f r i c a n Farm"

l i t e r a t u r e i n contemporary b l a c k A f r i c a n f i c t i o n . Head i n h a b i t s

the Southern A f r i c a n " i n t e r r e g n u m " as no o t h e r b l a c k or w h i t e

w r i t e r s do. Born i n South A f r i c a , she i s the i l l e g i t i m a t e

daughter o f a w h i t e woman and a b l a c k man. Her mother was

i n c a r c e r a t e d i n a mental h o s p i t a l f o r t h e d i s g r a c e o f b e a r i n g a

mixed-race c h i l d . Thus i n Head's background i s a r e a l - l i f e

v e r s i o n o f the madwoman-in-the-attic m o t i f which we have t r a c e d

from C h a r l o t t e B r o n t e through D o r i s L e s s i n g . Head, who was

r a i s e d by a " c o l o u r e d " f a m i l y , and worked as a j o u r n a l i s t i n

South A f r i c a , l i v e d i n r u r a l Botswana u n t i l her death i n 1986.

She, l i k e L e s s i n g , was f o r b i d d e n t o r e t u r n "home."7

Head's e a r l y n o v e l s , When R a i n c l o u d s Gather (1960), Maru

(1971) and A Q u e s t i o n of Power (1974), w h i l e s e t i n Botswana,

have as much i n common w i t h w h i t e as w i t h b l a c k A f r i c a n

l i t e r a t u r e . 8 They a r e n o n - r e a l i s t i c , i n t r o s p e c t i v e works, whose

s u b j e c t i s the t o r t u r e d i d e n t i t y o f a woman caught between two

c u l t u r e s , t r y i n g t o f i n d a f o o t h o l d i n t r a d i t i o n a l A f r i c a , and

more p r o f o u n d l y , t r y i n g t o keep her s a n i t y and t o s u r v i v e .

S i g n i f i c a n t l y , she has compared her s i t u a t i o n t o S c h r e i n e r ' s :

248

" I have much i n common w i t h O l i v e S c h r e i n e r — I t o o have a

p i o n e e r i n g r o l e as she d i d . . . . I'm caught between the ti m e s

A f r i c a was not independent and when i t was. She had s i m i l a r

t e n d e n c i e s " ("Bessie Head: E x i l e and Community i n Southern

A f r i c a " 52-53).

Head makes her most d i r e c t l i t e r a r y a l l u s i o n s t o S c h r e i n e r

i n Maru, which i s the s t o r y o f Margaret Cadmore, an o u t c a s t

Bushman or "Masarwa" g i r l . The term "Masarwa," we a r e t o l d , can

a l s o mean " c o l o u r e d " or o f mixed r a c e ; c l e a r l y Head i s making a

p a r a l l e l between the g i r l ' s low, o u t s i d e r s t a t u s among the

Batswana, and her own s i t u a t i o n t h e r e .

The S c h r e i n e r f i g u r e i n Maru i s M a r g a r e t ' s f o s t e r - m o t h e r , a

w h i t e m i s s i o n a r y t e a c h e r and a r t i s t (who g i v e s the g i r l her own

name). Margaret becomes a t e a c h e r and a r t i s t l i k e her f o s t e r -

mother, h a v i n g absorbed her l e s s o n s and s u r p a s s e d h e r . Her

p i c t u r e s i n f u s e v i l l a g e l i f e w i t h the " v i t a l i t y " of Bushman

c u l t u r e , p r o j e c t i n g the s o u l of a " f a c e l e s s , v o i c e l e s s , almost

nameless" p e o p l e whom the Batswana e n s l a v e d as the w h i t e s

e n s l a v e d the b l a c k s . I n an echo o f one of L y n d a l l ' s f e m i n i s t

speeches i n A f r i c a n Farm, "We bear the w o r l d and we make i t , "

M a r g a r e t ' s p i c t u r e s p r o c l a i m : "We a r e the p e o p l e who have the

s t r e n g t h t o b u i l d a new w o r l d ! " (107-08).

In t he r e l a t i o n s h i p between Margaret and her f o s t e r - m o t h e r ,

Head a l l u d e s t o her own r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h her mother's t r i b e ,

and a l s o t o her r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h her l i t e r a r y mother, O l i v e

S c h r e i n e r . Head, l i k e M a r g a r e t , l e a r n s from and then moves

beyond the a r t of her w h i t e " f o s t e r - m o t h e r . " F i n a l l y , when

249

Margaret m a r r i e s Maru, the h e r e d i t a r y k i n g o f the Batswana

v i l l a g e , she becomes s y m b o l i c a l l y i n t e g r a t e d i n t o b l a c k A f r i c a .

I t i s a m a r r i a g e , l i k e t h o s e which end Plomer's T u r b o t t Wolfe

and Gordimer's A S p o r t of N a t u r e : a mixed u n i o n which

s y m b o l i z e s a U t o p i a n f u t u r e i n which r a c i a l and t r i b a l d i s t i n c ­

t i o n s w i l l be submerged i n the c r e a t i o n of "a new w o r l d . " I n

t h i s new A f r i c a the " p e t r i f i e d garden" w i l l be r e p l a n t e d , and

w h i t e or "Masarwa" Eve w i l l be r e a d m i t t e d i n t o the b l a c k Eden.

250

Notes — C o n c l u s i o n

^-According t o the d e d i c a t i o n one o f S c h r e i n e r ' s e a r l i e s t s t o r i e s , "Dream L i f e and R e a l L i f e " was f i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n 1881.

2 J u d g i n g by L o u i s a Dawkins' N a t i v e s and S t r a n g e r s , which i s s e t d u r i n g and a f t e r t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o b l a c k r u l e i n Kenya, the w h i t e e x - c o l o n i a l h e r o i n e i s s t i l l b e s e t by the c o n f l i c t s o f the p a s t . At t h e end o f Dawkins' n o v e l the A f r i c a n - b o r n M a r i e t t a r e l u c t a n t l y d e c i d e s t o e m i g r a t e t o En g l a n d .

^Gordimer makes t h i s e q u a t i o n on pages 88 and 104.

4 I n a f u r t h e r i r o n i c t w i s t on S c h r e i n e r (as w e l l as Dinesen and L e s s i n g who g e n e r a l l y f o l l o w her i n t h e i r d e p i c t i o n of b l a c k c h a r a c t e r s as p a r t of n a t u r e ) Gordimer d e s c r i b e s Maureen as becoming b r u t i s h and a n i m a l - l i k e , i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e c i v i l i z e d mien o f the v i l l a g e r s .

5 A t h o l Fugard's p l a y The Road t o Mecca (1985) , s e t i n S c h r e i n e r ' s K aroo, i s y e t another r e c e n t work t h a t seems t o r e f e r back t o S c h r e i n e r . H i s a g i n g female a r t i s t i s a S c h r e i n e r e s q u e f i g u r e who i s o s t r a c i z e d as a madwoman by her community but n e v e r t h e l e s s g i v e s shape t o her v i s i o n of "Mecca" by a d o r n i n g the " p e t r i f i e d garden" w i t h her s c u l p t u r e .

*>In Foe, C o e t z e e ' s v e r s i o n o f Robinson C r u s o e, the b l a c k c h a r a c t e r , F r i d a y , r e t u r n s t o the mute, h i d d e n p o s i t i o n of "a p u z z l e or h o l e i n the n a r r a t i v e " (121) . i n a t w i s t f a m i l i a r from the " A f r i c a n Farm" s t o r i e s , t h e female n a r r a t o r , F r i d a y ' s m i s t r e s s and g u a r d i a n , b e g i n s t o f e e l t h a t she i s h i s s l a v e (147) . The n o v e l ends w i t h a dream sequence i n which the autho r d i v e s i n t o t he wreck o f the castaw a y s ' s h i p i n s e a r c h of the b u r i e d t r u t h about "Cruso," Susan, and e s p e c i a l l y the t o n g u e l e s s F r i d a y , who u n l i k e t h e w h i t e c h a r a c t e r s has no s t o r y o f h i s own.

^ B i o g r a p h i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n i s t a k e n from " B e s s i e Head: E x i l e and Community i n Southern A f r i c a . "

8 m The C o l l e c t o r of T r e a s u r e s (1977) and A Bewitched C r o s s r o a d s (1984) Head had begun t o speak f o r the Batswana, t o t e l l t h e i r s t o r y , t h u s a l i g n i n g h e r s e l f more c l e a r l y w i t h the b l a c k A f r i c a n l i t e r a r y mainstream.

251

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