When the Sun Sets over Suburbia: Class and Subculture in Bruce Beresford's Puberty Blues

INTERNATIONAL CONFEDERATION OF FREE TRADE UNIONS ( ICFTU)

DECEMBER 2001

A TRADE UNION GUIDE

TO GLOBALISATION

International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU)5, Bd. Albert IIB - 1210 BrusselsBelgiumTel. (32 2) 224.02.11Telefax (32 2) 201.58.15E-mail [email protected]

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FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

PA RT I

GLOBALISATION AND SOLIDARITY1. THE MEANING OF GLOBALISATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

The components of globalisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

• Foreign Direct Investment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

• Financial markets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Box: The Global Economic and Financial Crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

• Deregulation and liberalisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Box: Social Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

• Globalisation and the Public Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Box: Trade and Investment Agreements and the Public Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

• Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

The meaning of globalisation for workers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2. THE INTERNATIONAL TRADE UNION STRUCTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Over one hundred years of international trade unionism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Box: The ITF and How it Started . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

International trade union organisations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

• Organisations for national centres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Box: Trade Union Relations - National and International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

• Organisations for national trade unions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Box: Which is my ITS? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

3. SECURING RIGHTS AND SETTING STANDARDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

The universality and indivisibility of trade union rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Box: ILO Conventions No. 87 and 98 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

International Labour standards and the ILO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Box: The Principles of the Declaration of Philadelphia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

• A tripartite organisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Box: ACTRAV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

4. AN INTERNATIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR SOCIAL JUSTICE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Box: The ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

International financial institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Box: The IFBWW Campaign for the Incorporation of Workers’ Rights

in World Bank Procurement Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Workers’ rights in trade and investment agreements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Box: WTO Debacle could mark beginning of Globalisation with a Human Face . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Box: The General System of Preferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

The national response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

5. MULTINATIONAL ENTERPRISES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Box: Multinationals, some Facts and Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

This guide is also available on

the ICFTU web-site.

This is the address:

http://www.icftu.org/pubs/globalisation

The term 'International Trade Secretariats'

(ITSs), which is used throughout this guide, has

always been a difficult term to understand.

At their General Conference in Prague (January

2002), a few days before this brochure was

printed, the ITS have decided to call themselves

'global union federations'.

It was, however, too late to change the term ITS

to 'global union federation' throughout the

text.

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Box: The ICEM and cybercampaings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

• Organising campaigns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Box: ITGLWF, Organising EPZ’s in the Dominican Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

• General campaigns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Box: The International Trade Union Campaign Against Child Labour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

When to campaign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

How to campaign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

APPENDICES1. THE INTERNATIONAL TRADE SECRETARIATS

(PRACTICAL INFORMATION) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

2. OTHER INTERNATIONAL TRADE UNION ORGANISATIONS (PRACTICAL INFORMATION) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

3. THE ILO DECLARATION ON FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES AND RIGHTS AT WORK AND THE FUNDAMENTALILO CONVENTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

4. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE ILO TRIPARTITE DECLARATION OF PRINCIPLES CONCERNING MULTINATIONAL ENTERPRISES AND SOCIAL POLICY AND AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OECD GUIDELINES FOR MULTINATIONAL ENTERPRISES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

5. THE ICFTU/ITS BASIC CODE OF LABOUR PRACTICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

6. THE NEW CODES OF CONDUCT (PAPER BY DWIGHT JUSTICE AND NEIL KEARNEY) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

7. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

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MNE’s and trade unions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

MNE’s and governments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Box: PSI and water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

International instruments and codes of conduct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Box: The revised OECD Guidelines for multinational enterprises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Box: Global Compact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

International industrial relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

• Company councils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

Box: UNI Multinational Union Alliances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Box: European Works Councils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

• Framework agreements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Box: The Danone - IUF Agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

PA RT I I

THE INTERNATIONAL DIMENSION OF TRADE UNION WORK6. SOLIDARITY, NOT CHARITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Recognising the international dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Box: Is there an International Connection? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

The first step is to join . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Box: MUA Dispute Summary - ITF Campaign against Union Busting

in the Australian Port Industrie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Who joins what . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Box: The IMF, the Global Union for Metalworkers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

7. PRACTICAL INTERNATIONAL SOLIDARITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

The range of international solidarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Requesting and showing international solidarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

• Appreciating differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

• Respecting structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Box: Requesting Solidarity: A Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

Box: Showing Solidarity: A Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Box: Solidarity messages work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

8. COMPANY INFORMATION AND RESEARCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Finding information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Box: Facts about the Enterprise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Box: Researching Companies on the Web . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Research and the international dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Box: Investors - Pension Funds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

Box: An Example: PSI, Information and Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

9. THE INTERNATIONAL TRADE UNION CAMPAIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Why campaign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

• Trade union rights campaigns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Box: Reporting Format on Violations of Trade Unions Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

• Company campaigns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

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members, local unions, national unions, national centres and international tradeunion organisations - can play a decisive role. This trade union “users’ guide” toglobalisation is one part of a larger and ongoing effort to build stronger, globaltrade unionism which can better contribute to the protection of human dignity andfreedom for workers and in particular to social and economic progress and justice.

Guy RyderICFTU General Secretary

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lobalisation is a reality. It can be a harsh reality. The world has becomeeven more aware following massive terrorist attacks that there is an important rolefor global governance and regulation and that lives are at stake. Terrorism haschanged this debate, but it only makes more important and vital the issues and thestrategies discussed in this document.

Globalisation affects our lives as citizens and as trade unionists. Trade unions aretrying to construct globalisation with a human face, to put in place some rules atthe international level that will protect workers’ rights. To do this requires tradeunionists to actively and effectively participate in the international debate, to engagecorporations and governments and international bodies in a dialogue over workers’rights, social issues, and the responsibilities of globalisation.

This guide is intended to help leaders and members of national and local tradeunions discuss issues related to globalisation. It is also designed as a tool for inte-grating the international dimension into trade union work. It is clear that the glob-al economy is having an impact on workers, their families, and their communities.And that makes the need to connect and influence workers and their unions acrosscountry borders even more compelling. As we all seek ways to understand globali-sation and build stronger and more effective international trade union solidarity,effective participation by trade unionists in the international trade union movementis essential.

We share the same trade union principles across national boundaries as well aslocally and regionally. They include the right of all workers to join or form inde-pendent trade unions and the belief in and commitment to a universal applicationof minimum labour standards. We also need to be better able to engage employersat the international level. To carry out these objectives, this common mission, thereare democratic trade union organisations to make international trade union soli-darity real, practical and effective.

At the ICFTU World Congress held in 1996, which had as its central theme the“challenge of globalisation”, as well as at the last World Congress in 2000, speak-er after speaker talked about the problems of working men and women in a con-tinuously changing world. These were issues like insecurity of employment, worriesabout pay, increased intensity of work, authoritarian management, union busting,discrimination, children at work instead of at school, dangerous and unhealthyworking conditions and the difficulty of effectively communicating our message.

All of these are familiar trade union issues, but were approached from anotherangle, that of globalisation and the growing impact of world business on workers’lives, whether they are working for multinational or other enterprises or in the pub-lic sector.

It is clear that international trade union solidarity - co-operation between union

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PART 1

GLOBALISATION AND SOLIDARITY

1. THE MEANING OF GLOBALISATION

Globalisation is a degree of interdependence which goes far beyond simple expansionof international trade, the main indication of the internationalisation of the economy inthe past. It includes integration of production across national boundaries with signifi-cant increases in international investment by multinational enterprises. The productionof automobiles, for example, which for nearly a century was concentrated geographi-cally and at national level, is now done at a global level, with cars often being assem-bled from component parts which are produced by large numbers of supplier compa-nies in dozens of countries. General Motors, for example, has a global presence in morethan 200 countries, manufacturing operations in 50 countries and it has 30.000 sup-plier companies world-wide.

Globalisation is not just a change in production and supply relationships. It isaffecting the service sector, delivery and sale of both private and public services,although still adapted to local markets and conditions, are increasingly comingfrom multinational enterprises. One aspect of globalisation is the extensive andcomplex network of suppliers which often exists.

Globalisation also means unprecedented rapid and massive movement of capital.This interdependence and integration is facilitated and accelerated by new tech-nology, particularly information technology (IT).

Although globalisation is linked to a number of technological and other changeswhich have helped to link the world more closely, there are also ideological ele-ments which have strongly influenced its development. A “free market” dogmahas emerged which exaggerates both the wisdom and role of markets, and of theactors in those markets, in the organisation of human society. Fashioning a strat-egy for responsible globalisation requires an analysis which separates that whichis dogma from that which is inevitable. Otherwise, globalisation is an all too con-venient excuse and explanation for anti-social policies and actions which under-mine progress and break down community.

Globalisation as we know it has profound social and political implications. It canbring the threat of exclusion for a large portion of the world’s population, severeproblems of unemployment, and growing wage and income disparities. It makes itmore and more difficult to deal with economic policy or corporate behaviour ona purely national basis. It also has brought a certain loss of control by democrat-ic institutions of development and economic policy.

The gap between the rich and the poor is widening all over the world. In 1960, theincome gap between the 20% richest and the 20% poorest countries in the world

he purpose of this guide is to explore some of the practical implicationsof the growing integration of the world economy for workers and their tradeunions. The Guide is intended for use in trade union education and as a referencebook for trade unionists involved in international work.

This Guide is divided into two parts. Part I considers the implications of globalisa-tion for trade unions and describes the international trade union movement. Itexamines the main objectives of the international trade union movement; defend-ing and promoting trade union rights and labour standards as well as building aninternational framework for economic and social justice. It concludes by consider-ing the challenges of multinational enterprises to the traditional role of trade unionsand how trade unions are co-operating internationally to engage common employ-ers.

Part II is devoted to the practical implications of meeting the challenges of globali-sation for all trade union organisations - whether they are local or national unionsor national centres. It stresses joining and participating in the appropriate interna-tional trade union organisations, with special emphasis on the role of InternationalTrade Secretariats (ITS). It considers the experience of trade unions in giving andreceiving international solidarity and the importance of gathering and sharinginformation about multinational enterprises (MNE’s). MNE is the term used in thisguide, another widely used term is transnational companies (TNCs). An MNE is acompany that owns or controls production or service facilities in at least two coun-tries.

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This guide has been prepared by Global Unions. It is the fruit of cooperation betweenthe ICFTU, the ITS and TUAC.

We would like to express our special appreciation to ACTRAV, the ILO's Bureau forWorkers' Activities. ACTRAV's support has made it possible to publish this guide. Thisis but one example of the extensive assistance provided to trade unions all over theworld by ACTRAV. For more information on the work of ACTRAV, please check theoverview on their services found in a box at the end of chapter three, the chapter onthe ILO. More extensive information is available on their web-site at

http://www.ilo.org/public/english/dialogue/actrav/

INTRODUCTION

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erful and visible aspect of globalisation today than world trade. In addition, animportant share of world trade takes place within those enterprises. It is estimat-ed by UNCTAD that the share of intra-firm trade in total is approximately onethird of the total. A result of this is that the growth of international production isnot only linking markets but is increasingly linking the production systems of indi-vidual countries as well, which is different from what happened in internationalintegration in the past.

Financial Markets

The Bretton Woods exchange rate system, which was created after World War II toprovide a degree of international exchange rate stability and which resulted in the cre-ation of international financial institutions such as the International Monetary Fund(IMF) and the World Bank, collapsed in the 1970’s and flexible exchange rates wereintroduced. Many capital controls at the national level were removed. This was fol-lowed in the 1980’s by significant deregulation of the financial sector. The result hasbeen enormous movement of capital around the world. Daily financial transactionsamount to well over US$ 1.5 trillion (US$ 1,500 billion). Cross border lending hasexploded and new financial institutions are developing and restructuring constantly.

Financial markets and the key players in those markets have developed a role whichhas severely limited the powers of national governments. The deterioration of nation-al sovereignty has not been replaced by effective international rules governing thosemarkets, as has been shown by the speculative contagion behind the economic andfinancial crisis, which began in 1997 in Asia and spread around the globe. Anotherthing which has clearly been shown by this crisis is that the local workers are the mainvictims. They have to live with the devastating consequences of a globalisation thathas gone wrong (see box).

There is a growing certainty within the international trade union movement and,indeed, the global community at large, that something needs to be done to preventfurther negative results from an escalation of these processes. Over the years, theICFTU has made many proposals for measures to be taken to prevent this, mainly byseeking to introduce effective new international regulations of those processes.

One aim is to dampen speculation by making it more costly to the financial traders andto reduce the risk of large-scale financial collapse. One suggested measure is the Tobintax, the taxation of short-term financial transactions, as a way of helping to correct themarket without sacrificing any of the benefits that capital mobility provides.

A new architecture for global financial stability and sustainable development is need-ed, with reform of the IMF and World Bank, so that their programmes promote goodgovernance and respect for human rights and fundamental labour standards, increasedemployment, poverty reduction and the provision of public services in key areas.

The goal of these measures is to orient the operations of financial markets away fromspeculative transactions and short-term profit-taking and towards facilitating long-term, productive investment which creates good, secure employment. They would

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was 30 to 1. This rose to 60 to 1 in 1990 and to around 75 to 1 at the end of thelast century. The World Bank says that income levels in Sub-Saharan Africa havefallen by 0.7% a year over the last twenty years while average incomes in indus-trialised countries grew by 2.0% a year. Over the last ten years, the highly paidwithin the industrialised countries have seen their incomes rise much faster thanthe average, while a growing number of families depend on insecure, low-paid jobsor social benefits.

The challenge of globalisation is not to try to make it go away or to pretend it doesnot exist. It is to find ways to manage change and regulate and structure globalisa-tion so that it is subject to the popular will, supports fundamental rights, and bringsprosperity to as many people as possible. The global task of trade unions is to affectpolicy at the international level, convince governments and enterprises to assumethe responsibilities of globalisation, and engage in practical, effective solidarity.

The Components of globalisation

Globalisation is the result of several developments and processes which are gener-ally linked together. These include: • The growth and relative importance of foreign direct investment, which provides

a greater role for multinational enterprises;• The internationalisation of financial markets; • The development and diffusion of communication and transport technology; • Deregulation and liberalisation;• Privatisation of the public sector.

Foreign Direct Investment

International economic interdependence over the past 30 years has been driven inlarge part by a dramatic growth of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI - the creationof productive assets by foreigners or the purchase of assets by foreigners). Untilthe 1970’s, international activity was mostly in the form of exchange of goods andservices between nation-states - trade being the driving force of the internationaleconomy. Since that time, there has been a growing importance of the movementof capital in the global economy. A central role in this changing system is playedby multinational enterprises, institutions which engage in Foreign DirectInvestment. A company is not a multinational company just because it sellsexports overseas, it has to have actually moved part of its operations to anothercountry by investing abroad.

International trade during the 1980’s grew twice as fast as Gross DomesticProduct (GDP). And Foreign Direct Investment grew twice as fast as trade. Thisrepresents a growing role for multinational enterprises in the world economy.

According to the 2000 World Investment Report by UNCTAD (United NationsConference on Trade and Development), the sales by foreign operations of multi-nationals in 1999 amounted in total to US$14,000 billion. This was nearly twiceas high as the value of world exports. In other words, FDI is a much more pow-

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The 1980’s and 1990’s saw a broadening of the global market as many developingcountries, particularly in Asia, received a great deal of investment and developedtheir exports. With the collapse of the Soviet bloc, many formerly centrally plannedeconomies increased their participation in and exposure to the global market as well.

During this period a lot of developing countries have also moved towards a marketeconomy, many of them under the pressure of structural adjustment programmes ofthe IMF or the World Bank, with an emphasis on export. Economic reforms ofteninvolved privatisation of large, state-owned enterprises and a dramatic reduction ofpublic services.

One of the main driving forces responsible for the increase in global trade has beenthe creation of a framework of intergovernmental trade agreements at global andregional levels. At a global level, discussions at the GATT (the precursor of the WorldTrade Organisation- WTO) over the past 50 years have led to a world with fewer andfewer restrictions on trade and to world-wide agreements on trade liberalisation in anincreasing number of sectors. At the regional level, the establishment of free tradeareas and other regional economic arrangements has stimulated a higher level of tradewithin the countries participating. Nearly every part of the world has its own form ofregional free trade agreement or group, including the European Union in Europe,SADC in Africa, MERCOSUR and the Andean Pact in South America, NAFTA inNorth America, ASEAN in South East Asia or APEC for the Asian and Americancountries on both sides of the Pacific.

There is no doubt that the acceleration of integration has led to new relationships andrealities. International production has become a central structural characteristic of theworld economy.

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encourage governments and the international agencies to tackle the social problemswhich are often the underlying cause of financial tension and instability. And, theywould support sustainable development which combines structural adjustment withsocial justice.

Deregulation and Liberalisation

Most countries have, often as a result of global, regional, and bilateral trade andinvestment negotiations, lowered barriers to trade and investment. These barriersinclude trade quotas and tariffs as well as national capital controls. Althoughderegulation and liberalisation occur at different speeds in different countries, thetrend is world-wide. The major financial institutions, such as the IMF and theWorld Bank, are also partly responsible through encouraging and facilitating theintroduction of market-based economic policies in their programmes.

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THE GLOBAL ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL CRISIS“The Asian and Russian economic and financial meltdowns have pushed a third of theworld economy into recession. Those who have borne the brunt are working people,the poor and in particular women. In Asia living standards have collapsed and unem-ployment has surged; in Russia one quarter of the labour force has not been paid forsix months. Spreading bankruptcies are leading to more widespread destitution. Thereremains a real risk of the crisis spreading to Latin America and Africa, which are alreadyexperiencing a fall in growth and a setback to prospects for employment and povertyreduction. Other areas, notably the European Union (EU) and United States, haveexperienced continuing, though slowing growth, but the global economy is inter-linkedand falling trade and dangerously volatile stock markets threaten to trigger a truly glob-al recession with falling demand and output and a devastating impact on employment.

The fundamental cause of the crisis was the mismanagement of economic and socialpolicies underpinning globalisation and the pursuit of financial liberalisation without ade-quate national and international frameworks of regulation.

Massive flows of short-term credit and portfolio investment were released on emergingfinancial markets without systems of accountability, transparency and prudential regula-tion. Bankers and financial institutions made enormous errors of judgement, the cost ofwhich are massive job losses not least in the finance sector. The crisis has revealedendemic problems of corruption and institutional failure highlighted by the collapse ofhedge funds such as Long Term Capital Management.

Since the start of the current crisis in Thailand in July 1997, the Bretton Woods Institutions(the IMF and the World Bank), and the Group of Seven industrial countries’ governments,which dominate international economic policy-making, have followed a strategy of contain-ment. As the toll of victims mounts, it is now clear that containment has failed. The crisesin the global economy dominated discussions at this year’s Annual Meetings of the IMF andthe World Bank, but governments failed to agree on effective action. The G7 countriesmust take further concerted action to inject demand into the world economy so as to staveoff a global recession by restoring growth and stimulating job creation. Going beyond theOctober 1998 statement of Finance Ministers and Central Bankers, they must also put inplace a regulatory framework to ensure that the current contagion can never happen again.”

(Extract from an ICFTU-TUAC statement on the global economic crisis, December 1998)

SOCIAL EUROPEThe success of integration in the European Union over the past forty years has hadmuch to do with the incorporation of social elements from the very start. While theseelements were just a beginning which the European trade unions have had to fight hardto improve upon, that beginning was crucial in ensuring that economic and socialprogress were mutually reinforcing throughout that time.

In 1957, the Treaty which established the European Community provided a basic frame-work of rules for trade and investment which gave the member countries confidencethat they would benefit from economic integration. The Treaty included social compo-nents, primarily to sta-rt with in the area of occupational health and safety. These ulti-mately led to the drafting of the European Union's Social Charter. Secondly, the Treatyincluded a social fund for development in poorer regions. Although this was fairly smallto begin with, again it gave the poorer countries confidence that they would be com-pensated for the costs of adopting higher standards. Thirdly, the Treaty included provi-sions for democratic consultation.

Of course, much has improved since 1957 due primarily to sustained trade union strug-gle, including the finalisation of the Social Charter (properly called the CommunityCharter of the Fundamental Social Rights of Workers) in 1989, the expansion of thesocial and regional funds and the provision of effective tripartite consultation throughthe Economic and Social Committee of the EU, as well as the constitution of an elect-ed European Parliament since 1979. More recently, an extensive sectoral social dialogue


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sector regularly indulges in senseless expenditure find economic justification forthe debts of the former, while condemning those of the latter. The repeatedlyimposed prescription for downsizing the public sector, leaving the role of job cre-ation entirely to the private sector, is part of this same dogma. So is the incessantcampaign for privatisation of public services which, in practice, has often failed tolive up to expectations. The artificial separation of the public and private sectors,both integral and inter-dependent parts of societies and economies, is very dan-gerous and must be vigorously challenged.

The obsession with the public deficit and the debt is also at the root of the repeat-ed attacks on the public sector. In the wake of globalisation, the need to rationalisepublic finances is used to justify recurrent cuts in public expenditure. Tackling thedeficit and the debt has been used as a pretext for attacking certain public servicessuch as education and health, and social programmes. Although advocated on thebasis of rationalising public finances, it is being used to undermine the role of theState. And when austerity is not imposed from outside by an organisation such asthe IMF, it is introduced by national governments themselves. On this point, itshould be recalled that the single European currency, the Euro, was not introducedpainlessly, the pursuit of convergence criteria leading several governments to adoptmany restrictive measures.

Increased competition, as a result of globalisation, has had an impact on fiscal terri-tory. Powerful employers’ lobbies have for many years been opposing almost allforms of taxation, but, in particular, taxes on the wage bill, which finance social pro-grammes. Free trade and the free circulation of capital have led to competitionbetween national tax systems, resulting in widespread erosion of tax income and thecreation of a social deficit. Every country is under pressure to align its measures withthe lowest common denominator. But we are now seeing that these strategies haveliterally suffocated the public sector in several countries by draining it of funds.

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Globalisation and the Public Sector

Globalisation has also served as a pretext for advocates of a “free market” ideol-ogy to seriously challenge the role of the State. This offensive has changed the rel-ative balance that has existed between the public and private sector and which waspart of a post-Second World War consensus in developed countries. There hasbeen much talk of the decline of the welfare state, with some rejecting it and claim-ing that it is ineffective.

In addition to reshaping social security systems to meet demands for greater flex-ibility from private enterprises, a number of countries have challenged the role ofthe State as the provider of public services. In some countries the management ofsocial programmes of last resort has even been entrusted to the private sector.

The notion of, on the one hand, the public sector as an ineffective and wastefulgiant and, on the other, the private sector as an effective and responsible actor,however misleading, has caused enormous damage. One would think that publicinvestments, no matter how vital, are a waste and private investments, no matterhow foolish, are wise. In many cases, ideology has replaced a pragmatic examina-tion of the facts. As a consequence, in some countries, crucial sectors such as edu-cation and health have been more or less dismantled and, in effect, handed over toprivate interests.

The international trade union movement considers these policies to be based onan economic analysis which is completely removed from reality. This approachconsiders that government, by its very nature, is a drain on a country’s collectivewealth which is entirely generated by the private sector. This concept of the func-tioning of the economy is founded on the false premise that there is a system ofwealth-creating activities on one side (the private sector) which finances a systemof non-commercial activities on the other side (the public sector). If this line of rea-soning is followed, does it mean for example that vocational training, which isgenerally a public sector activity, should be considered unproductive?

The same unconditional advocates of the “free market” who assert that the pri-vate sector habitually makes wise, well considered investments while the public

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TRADE AND INVESTMENT AGREEMENTS AND THE PUBLIC SECTORMajor agreements on trade and investment are a characteristic of globalisation which is hav-ing an effect on the public sector. Education is a good example of this.

The link between major trade and investment agreements and public services such aseducation is not obvious. However, agreements on international trade and investmentdo not concern the economy alone. They help shape all aspects of the collective life ofour societies. In addition, the trend towards privatisation affects some of these services.Also, it is important to remember that the 1994 General Agreement on Trade inServices (GATS) was the first multilateral agreement covering trade in all services.

The GATS includes a commitment to steadily liberalise trade in the sector through reg-ular negotiations. At the world level, it was also the first multilateral agreement oninvestment, as it targets not only cross-border trade but all possible means of supplyinga service, including the right to establish a commercial presence on the export market.Education services, particularly higher education, are now an integral part of these nego-tiating rounds which are carried out at regular intervals under the auspices of the WorldTrade Organisation (WTO). In the jargon of this institution, education has become a

has developed through a series of joint committees. Also, as a result of the MaastrichtTreaty, extensive powers have been given to the European social partners to draw uplegislative proposals, as they did for example in the area of part-time work as well as onfixed-term contracts.

These different factors - social legislation, social funds and democratic consultation -contributed greatly, and perhaps even guaranteed, the success of the European Union.The struggle for the social dimension of European integration is far from over with tradeunions fighting for both social and economic progress. Social and trade union and humanrights considerations will be equally crucial in determining the success or failure of thedifferent economic integration agreements being developed around the world.


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well as build ties with suppliers and customers. As there is often less need for prox-imity, it is easy for many MNE’s to work from and in any part of the world. Theuse of newer techniques, such as e-mail, internet and video-conferences, reduceproblems of distance.

The use of IT has changed the way major companies do business. Technology andthe software that comes with it also make it possible to trade previously un-trad-able services. A good example of this is education where we are witnessing theemergence of “virtual universities” which link up with their students via the inter-net or other distance learning technologies.

The use of technology not only facilitates working across borders, it also bringschanges in work relations. More and more people are working at home or in callcentres. Production techniques are also changing. Old systems for the mass pro-duction of standard products are being replaced by methods that allow shorterproduction runs of more differentiated products.

Technology also facilitates the rapid flow of capital world-wide, making the glob-al capital market a reality. The fact that international financial transfers can bedone in a few seconds is not only changing the way companies behave, but is alsofurther encouraging financial speculation and instability.

This flexibility and mobility of production can place great pressure on workers. Itcreates new challenges for trade unions, to adapt to this new environment andrethink approaches and strategies. One of the ways for unions to adapt is to makeuse of these new technologies themselves, in order to approach the speed and effi-ciency of the companies with which they are dealing. Such technologies increasethe possibilities for communication, which is vital for international solidarity, aswell as making information gathering more accessible for many unions (for exam-ple, there are web sites which specialise in giving daily updates of news surround-ing big companies).

The meaning of globalisation for workers

All this leads to a globalisation which challenges workers and their trade unions.There is the pressure put on governments to deregulate and, increasingly, to abdicatetheir role. A nation-centred system with national social and economic policies helpedto create a degree of social justice and economic equity. This nationally basedapproach has come under severe pressure. Due to the diminished role of nationalinstitutions, there has been a certain shift towards the world level, but without aninternational framework and institutions in place which can deal effectively withissues of justice and equity.

An additional challenge for trade unions is the changing nature of the employer.In a world where capital is much more mobile than workers, different forms ofbusiness organisation and relationships have been created which can shift employ-ment and threaten collective bargaining relationships.

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Technology

The technological revolution in information processing, communications and

transportation made it much easier to create a global production chain and distri-

bution networks. It makes it easier for companies to integrate their subsidiaries as

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market like any other, meaning that governments should notify the WTO of their mech-anisms and degree of openness towards foreign enterprises. This takes place at a timewhen the rapid development of new technologies is accelerating trade in services.

The WTO recognises that international trade in education services has grown substan-tially, particularly in higher education. The growing number of students travelling abroadfor their studies, the exchanges and links between teachers and researchers, theincrease in the international marketing of programmes, the establishment of “localbranches” of universities and the elaboration of international co-operation mechanismsbetween educational establishments from different countries confirm this trend.

International trade in educational services takes different forms and the liberalisation ofthis trade can have very different repercussions accordingly. For example, promotingexchanges between students or researchers has very different implications for a publiceducation service than opening the door to the international marketing of educationprogrammes by the private sector.

With the signing of the GATS, several countries agreed, to varying degrees, to open uptheir education sector to international trade. In some cases, this could translate intoincreased pressure for the privatisation of the sector. The Multilateral Agreement onInvestment (MAI), which was being negotiated at the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and originally proposed to cover the broad ser-vice sector, followed the same dynamic as the GATS and could have accelerated the lib-eralisation of the trade in services. The extent to which the countries of the OECDwould have liberalised the different sectors would only have become clear once thenegotiations had been concluded.

As the MAI is dead, eyes are now on the WTO where we may still see the start of newdiscussions on the establishment of a multilateral framework for investment. A newround of negotiations on the liberalisation of international trade at the WTO mayinclude and affect education and other parts of the public sector. The need to have goodquality and democratically controlled public services is a trade union priority at theinternational level and one of the areas where globalisation must be properly andresponsibly managed.

It must therefore be clarified in the current GATS negotiations, that countries can main-tain the right to exempt public services (for example, education, health, water and postalservices), and socially beneficial service sector activities from any WTO agreement cov-ering the service sector, including at sub-national levels of government. Explicit referenceto social and environmental concerns in the negotiations is required, in order to preventthe conclusion of any agreements that undermine vital and socially beneficial service sec-tor activities and/or the ability of governments to enact domestic regulations, legislationand other measures necessary to safeguard, monitor and develop such services.

Countries must have the right to take a future decision to increase the public sector rolein their services sectors (for example following a change of government) without facinga WTO dispute, as would be expected under current WTO rules.


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2. THE INTERNATIONAL TRADE UNION STRUCTURE

Over One Hundred years of Trade Unionism

The pioneers of international co-operation were the International TradeSecretariats (ITS). ITS are world-wide federations of unions which unite workersbased on industry, craft or occupation. Several were formed in the late nineteenthcentury and, by 1914, 33 ITS had been established. The very first internationaltrade union organisations were established in 1889, when the InternationalFederation of Boot and Shoe Operatives, the International Federation of TobaccoWorkers and the International Typographical Secretariat were created.

In the beginning, they were fairly informal structures, co-operating on a practicallevel with exchange of information on the craft, trade or industry, helping travel-ling journeymen, and discouraging the international transport of strike-breakers.Around 1900, they had already enlarged their co-operation to areas such as organ-isational assistance, international strike support and international standard setting.

The first international trade union organisation composed of national centresgrew out of a conference in 1901 where the most important European nationaltrade unions decided to create an international body. First established as theInternational Secretariat of Trade Union Centres, the organisation was renamed in1913, becoming the International Federation of Trade Unions (IFTU).

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Partly as a result of the rootless character of MNE’s, a lot has changed, includingthe introduction of new management methods, sometimes “best practice”, but toooften “worst practice”, and the threat to relocate to countries with lower social orenvironmental standards and no independent trade unions. New forms of workorganisation have been established as well as changes in the employment relation-ship. A long list of examples can be given from outsourcing, subcontracting, con-tract labour and other various forms of precarious employment. Globalisation hasalso helped to extend the market and the responsibility for goods produced underextreme forms of exploitation such as child labour or forced labour.

As a result of these changes, one of the fundamental goals of organised labour, takingworkers’ rights out of competition by establishing fundamental common standards, isunder direct attack. Competitiveness and flexibility are the loudly proclaimed objectivesof enterprises in the global environment. They put workers into increasingly fierce com-petition with each other, put pressure on the social safety net and, at times, effectivelyundermine workers’ rights which were won through many years of struggle.

It was argued that this corporate agenda, adopted by many political leaders, wassupposed to lead to more jobs and higher living standards. Instead, it leads to aworld of increasing division between rich and poor, within and among nations,increasing wealth and power for an elite, declining living standards for many andgrowing insecurity for large numbers of working people.

The international trade union movement is seeking ways to incorporate into theglobalisation process the protections which were achieved in many countries at thenational level and to enable workers and their unions to participate effectively inthe global economy and in building a democratic framework for it. Competitivepressures should be more on companies to produce quality products and servicesand less on governments to sacrifice the interests of their people to attract andkeep investment. Workers’ rights and decent conditions should not be drivendown by competitive pressures in a situation where workers are, in effect, biddingagainst other workers for lesser quality jobs.

The challenge facing trade unions in the era of globalisation is to ensure that struc-tural change and adaptation are achieved without compromising the goals of fullemployment and social justice. We have to convince governments that it is essentialto act urgently to increase and spread more evenly world economic growth. Whetherat regional or at world level, it is clear that if basic workers’ rights are to be safe,they must be integrated into any agreements related to economic integration.

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THE ITF AND HOW IT STARTEDIn April 1896, Havelock Wilson, leader of Britain's National Sailors' and Firemen's Union, wasmaking plans to hold an international meeting of sailors and firemen, build around theInternational Socialist Trade Union Meeting in July in London. Happening at that time, a docksdispute in Rotterdam was to become the catalyst which made many begin to recognise thepotential of an international organisation of seafarers and dockers.

The Rotterdam strike had been caused by plans by the largest employer in the port to effectivelycut wages by 25 per cent. The whole port was on strike and the military had been mobilised.

When he arrived, Wilson found about 40 British ships caught up in the dispute and obtained asteam launch to visit every vessel and ask the crews to attend a meeting that evening. Attendedby 600 seafarers and striking dockers, the meeting, which was closely observed by the police,resolved that British crews would refuse to load or discharge their cargoes until the strike wasresolved. The strike ended successfully.

Wilson's experiences in Holland had clearly strengthened his determination and as the date ofthe Socialist International Congress grew nearer, the central council of the InternationalFederation of Dock and River Workers was formed. Later that month, a fully international meet-ing of the central council of the international federation was held, thus qualifying it as the firstever meeting of what was to become the ITF. There were representatives from Great-Britain,Belgium, Sweden, USA, Germany, Netherlands and France. This meeting was followed two dayslater by a further international gathering during which reports were received from 87 ports inEurope and demands were drawn up to present to shipping and port employers.

The optimism and determination continued in the federation's second-ever leaflet, published inOctober 1896: "The order to our men is 'prepare for action', for there is no knowing at what hourthe capitalists of the shipping industries may open fire. Let them. But remember through it all, ourwhole fight is not to fight down capitalists but to raise the standard of the workers, and if the lat-ter be done by peaceful means so much the better, say we. If the employers by their stubbornrefusal to negotiate, compel rougher work, then on their heads will rest the responsibility."


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of trade union leaders. Much of this activity is carried out by the ICFTU regionalorganisations.

The ICFTU regional organisations are the African Regional Organisation (AFRO),based in Nairobi, the Inter-American Organisation of Workers (ORIT), based inCaracas, and the Asia-Pacific Regional Organisation (APRO), based in Singapore.Although part of the ICFTU structure and covered by agreed policies, the regionalorganisations have considerable autonomy to develop regional priorities and activities.

They represent the trade union movement with regional inter-governmental bod-ies, on trade and other agreements negotiated on a regional basis, and they alsomaintain relations with NGO’s and other groups. In this representation function,their work is similar to that performed by the ICFTU, TUAC and ITS at the glob-al level.

More information on the ICFTU can be found on the ‘ICFTU, what it is, what itdoes’ page.http://www.icftu.org/displaydocument.asp?DocType=Overview&Index=990916422

There are also regional trade union bodies which are not part of the ICFTUstructure. One such organisation, which plays a significant role in protecting theinterests of workers in Europe, is the European Trade Union Confederation(ETUC), based in Brussels. The ETUC was founded in 1973 and is composedlargely of ICFTU-affiliated national centres. It includes organisations inWestern, Central and Eastern Europe. Its activities include representing tradeunion interests with the European Union. The ICFTU has a co-ordinating coun-cil composed of affiliates in Central and Eastern Europe which is an additionalway for those organisations to discuss their common needs and interests andwork with the ICFTU.

The Trade Union Advisory Committee (TUAC) to the Organisation for EconomicCo-operation and Development (OECD), based in Paris, represents national tradeunions centres of the member countries of the OECD with the OECD. MostTUAC affiliates are also affiliated with the ICFTU. TUAC has consultative statuswith the OECD and its various committees. It co-operates closely with the ICFTUand ITS on a wide variety of economic policy, sectoral and other issues (includingeducation and training, public sector management, steel, and maritime transport).The 30 OECD member countries include most countries in Europe, Canada, theUnited States, Australia, New Zealand, the Republic of Korea and Mexico (for afull list, see appendix 2, section on TUAC).

TUAC seeks to ensure that global markets are balanced by an effective socialdimension. Through regular consultations with various OECD committees, thesecretariat, and member governments, TUAC develops consensus positions amongits affiliates and represents those positions with the OECD on a wide range of pol-icy issues.

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The period between the wars was one of name changes, the establishment and dis-appearance of new international organisations, and schisms.

Following the Second World War, the World Federation of Trade Unions (WFTU)was established. In 1949, the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions(ICFTU) was founded, largely by national trade union centres which had left theWFTU over the issue of Communist domination of that organisation. The WFTUremained in existence, but lost most of its membership after the changes in Centraland Eastern Europe in the 1990’s.

The ICFTU, which is based on the principle that legitimate unions must be con-trolled by their members and not by governments, employers or political parties,is now by far the largest international trade union confederation. There is also theWorld Confederation of Labour (WCL), a relatively small organisation based onChristian social principles.

Also in the immediate post-war period (1948), a body was created to representtrade unions in connection with recovery programmes in Europe. This organi-sation later became the Trade Union Advisory Committee to the OECD(TUAC).

International trade union organisations

Organisations for national centres

The International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU) brings togetherworkers from 221 national centres in 148 countries and territories. Collectively,156 million members are represented. It is governed by democratic structures,including a Congress held every four years and an Executive Board which meetsannually. Both bodies determine policies for the organisation. There are also com-mittees which help develop policies and initiate and review activities. The head-quarters of the ICFTU are in Brussels.

A major part of the work of the ICFTU is in the area of representing trade unioninterests at the international level. Representation includes speaking at public fora,reports, statements, campaigning, lobbying and similar actions in a wide range ofareas, providing a voice for the international labour movement with internationalorganisations, governments, Non-Governmental Organisations (NGO’s) and others.

This is done, amongst other things, through active and targeted interventions onsuch priorities as the defence of trade union rights and the pursuit of greater socialand economic justice in connection with structural adjustment and development.

Being an effective, global voice for working people involves more than the crucialrole of effectively participating in the international debate. One of the other pri-orities of the ICFTU is, for example, to strengthen national centres. This is notonly through defence of their interests at the international level, or in some casestheir very right to exist. It is also through such activities as training and education

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As part of its activities, TUAC prepares and presents, in co-operation with its affil-iates, the ICFTU and the ETUC, a statement to the annual Ministerial Conferencewhich brings together Finance Ministers from member countries. Since the begin-ning of the G-7 summits in 1975, that statement has served as the basis for discus-sions with heads of states and various ministries at national and international level.

Organisations for national trade unions

The organisations bringing together national trade unions on an internationallevel are the ITS. They are autonomous, self-governing and democratic organisa-tions and are associated with the ICFTU. Their role has expanded with globalisa-tion, as they have grown in membership and have been called upon to play agreater role by affiliates confronted with problems that do not respond to purelynational solutions.

Unlike the ICFTU, which represents national centres, ITS have as members nation-al unions, which represent workers from a specific sector, industry or occupation.

ITS defend the interests of their affiliates in practical ways through various meth-ods, including:• Solidarity and organisational work, which may include financial assistance or

co-ordination of actions against employers or governments; • Information and research (of particular importance in dealing with multination-

als) and providing useful publications and studies; • Engaging in campaigns and creating public awareness; and• Representation of affiliate interests with MNE's, with international organisa-

tions at the intergovernmental level, such as through sectoral work at theInternational Labour Organisation (ILO), and with other organisations in theinternational trade union movement;

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TRADE UNION RELATIONS - NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL(ICFTU-ITS)

Individual NationalUnions

National Centres for Trade Unions

International TradeSecretariats (ITSs)

InternationalConfederation of FreeTrade Unions(ICFTU)

affiliation affiliation

affiliation

ICFTU-ITS Parnership

WHICH IS MY ITS?Finding out the one or more ITS with which to seek affiliation, is not difficult. They aredivided by sector, industry or occupation. The following list provides information on the

categories of workers represented by each ITS:

EI (Education International):educators, teachers, lecturers and other employees in education.

ICEM (International Federation of Chemical, Energy, Mine and GeneralWorkers' Union):

Energy sector, electricity sector, chemical industries, rubber and plastics industry, dia-monds, gems, ornaments and jewellery production, ceramics industry, paper and cellu-lose production, glass industry, cement industry, environmental protection industries,

coal mining, mineral mining and stone and sand production.

IFBWW(International Federation of Building and Wood Workers):construction industry, timber industry, forestry and allied sectors.

IFJ (International Federation of Journalists):print media, broadcasting, film and television, news agencies, press offices, public-rela-

tions agencies and new electronic media.

IMF (International Metalworkers' Federation):production workers and salaried employees in the automobile industry, aviation and

aerospace industry, electrical engineering and electronics, mechanical engineering, shipbuild-ing, iron and steel production, non-ferrous metals as well as metal-processing industry.

ITF (International Transport Workers' Federation):transport industry.

ITGLWF (International Textile, Garment and Leather Workers' Federation):textile, garment and leather sector.

IUF (International Union of Food, Agricultural, Hotel, Restaurant, Catering,Tobacco and Allied Workers' Association):

food and drink sector, hotel, restaurant, catering and tourism services, agriculture andplantation farming and tobacco processing.

PSI (Public Services International):employees in public administrations, enterprises and institutions of regional

authorities, public corporations, foundations, public institutions; in companies generating anddistributing gas, electricity and water, of waste management; in the environmental, social andhealth sector; in public educational, cultural and leisure-time facilities as well as other publicinstitutions, administrations and companies delivering public services; employees in interna-tional institutions which have been established by states or communities of states. Teachers

and employees of nationally operated postal and railway services are explicitly excluded.

UNI (Union Network International):UNI is the result of the merger on 1 January 2000 of CI (Communications International), FIET

(International Federation of Commercial, Clerical, Professional and Technical Employees), IGF(International Graphical Federation) and MEI (Media and Entertainment International)

• employees in the postal and telecommunications services.• salaried employees in industry; business service; information technology; commerce;

financial services; social insurance and private health care; property services; tourism,professional and managerial staff.

• newspaper sector, magazine sector, book publishing sector, advertising and PR agencies,job-printing companies, packaging and paper processing.

• technicians and others employed in broadcasting and television, film production, pro-jection and other media, the advertising industry, theatres and similar artistic and

entertainment industries.


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International labour standards and the ILO

The International labour Organisation (ILO) emerged in 1919 after a devastatingwar when it was given a special responsibility to contribute to world peace. Itsconstitution begins with the statement that “universal and lasting peace can beestablished only if it is based upon social justice.”

Inherent in the establishment of the ILO was the recognition that freedom of asso-ciation contributes to democracy and stability inside and among nations. Thedevelopment of a system of international labour standards was seen as helping toreduce international tensions which contribute to economic rivalry, social ten-sions, and war. Interdependence was already clearly recognised at the time asshown by the following passage from the constitution: “The failure of any nationto adopt humane conditions of labour is an obstacle in the way of other nationswhich desire to improve the conditions in their own countries.”

Although the link between the rights and conditions of workers in different coun-tries and the economy has always existed, a formal recognition of this came onlyin 1944 with the ILO’s Declaration of Philadelphia, which states that “labour isnot a commodity.” It is that distinction between the labour of a human being andproduct markets which is the essential economic basis for the protection of work-ers. A few years later, in 1946, the ILO became the first specialised agency associ-ated with the United Nations.

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3. SECURING RIGHTS AND SETTING STANDARDS

The Universality and Indivisibility of Trade Union Rights

The fundamental concern of the trade union movement has been the struggle tosecure the right of workers to form and join independent trade unions and to bar-gain collectively with their employer. This is the very basis of trade union organi-sation and is still its highest priority. Defending trade unions and trade unionrights under attack from any government is a main activity for the internationaltrade union movement.

The basic trade union rights are the right to form or join a trade union, the rightto bargain collectively and the right to strike. These trade union rights are humanrights and, as all human rights, they are universal and indivisible. General rightsfor trade unionists are enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights,its covenants as well as in most national constitutions and labour codes. For exam-ple, article 23 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights includes the follow-ing: “everyone has the right to form and to join trade unions for the protection ofhis interests”.

Of particular importance for international trade union campaigns are the conven-tions of the ILO. These provide an opportunity to approach disputes via an addi-tional angle: by putting pressure on the government of the countries concernedthrough the ILO. The fundamental trade union rights are those defined in the ILOconventions No. 87 on freedom of association and No. 98 on the right to collec-tive bargaining.

International trade union organisations have been fighting since their inception toget these rights recognised by all governments and employers. Conventions No. 87and No. 98 are integral parts of what is needed to combat the excesses of global-isation: a strong set of labour standards securing the principal labour rights whichcan be used to confront the social actors with their responsibilities.

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THE PRINCIPLES OF THE DECLARATION OF PHILADELPHIAThe General Conference of the International Labour Organisation meeting, in itsTwenty-sixth Session in Philadelphia on the 10th of May 1944, adopted a declaration ofthe aims and purposes of the International Labour Organisation and of the principleswhich should inspire the policy of its Members.

The main principles of the declaration are:1. Labour is not a commodity.2. Freedom of expression and association are essential to sustained progress.3. Poverty anywhere constitutes a danger to prosperity everywhere.4. The war against want requires to be carried on with relentless vigour within each

nation, and by continuous and concerted international effort in which the represen-tatives of workers and employers, enjoying equal status with those of governments,join with them in free discussion and democratic decision with a view to the promo-tion of the common welfare.

ILO CONVENTIONS NO. 87 AND 98ILO convention No. 87 on Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right toOrganise, adopted in 1948, has been ratified by over 130 countries.

It declares: • That workers can establish and join organisations of their choice without prior agree-

ment from the state.• That trade unions cannot be dissolved or suspended by the state.• That they are free to create federations and confederations which, in turn can affiliate

at the international level.

ILO convention No. 98 on the Right to Organise and Collective Bargaining was adopt-ed in 1949. Nearly 150 countries have ratified it.

• It extends worker protection against acts of anti-union discrimination.

• It encourages and protects the process of voluntary negotiation between workers andemployer organisations to regulate terms and conditions of employment by means ofcollective agreements.

• It does not deal with public servants “engaged in the administration of the State” whoare covered by Convention 151 (1978).


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Other main functions of the ILO include formulating international policies andprogrammes to promote basic human rights, improve working and living condi-tions and enhance employment opportunities. It has an extensive programme ofinternational technical co-operation formulated and implemented in an activepartnership with constituents to help countries in making these policies effectivein practice. These efforts involve training, education, research and publishing.

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A tripartite organisation

The International Labour Organisation (ILO) is based in Geneva and is the majorinternational body dealing with labour and labour related issues. It is also the onlybody in the UN system which is tripartite, with representation of workers, employ-ers and governments. The ILO currently has over 170 member countries.

From the beginning it was recognised that interference in markets is necessary toprotect rights from the village to the world. Legislative protections in such areasas wage and working hours laws, health and safety protection, and other labourstandards are such “interference”. So are collective bargaining agreements. Bothattempt to create a system of competition which is not based on exploitation ofworkers. Globalisation, without mechanisms to support fundamental workers’rights, can put workers back into competition and lead to a race to the bottom, ascountries reduce wages, taxes, welfare benefits and other social or environmentalprotections to make themselves more competitive.

This is why one of the most important functions of the ILO is the development ofinternational labour standards. These are Conventions and Recommendations,adopted by the tripartite International Labour Conference. Through ratificationby the member States, Conventions are intended to create binding obligations toput their provisions into effect. Recommendations provide guidance on policy, leg-islation and practice. These standards cover a wide range of issues in the world ofwork, including freedom of association, the right to organise and bargain collec-tively, forced labour, child labour, equality, labour administration, industrial rela-tions, employment policy, working conditions, social security, occupational safetyand health. So far, more than 180 conventions and even more recommendationshave been adopted.

The ILO is not only charged with developing international conventions and rec-ommendations, it also has a system of supervision which monitors efforts by mem-ber governments to ratify conventions. The ILO also examines laws and practicesin terms of their conformity to ILO standards. That system includes a Committeeof Experts which examines compliance with a list of conventions each year and acommittee at the annual International Labour Conference which discusses thereport of the Experts and, in turn, reports to the full conference.

In addition, the ILO Governing Body, which guides the work of the ILO alongwith the annual International Labour Conferences, has a Committee on Freedomof Association which analyses complaints from trade union and employers’ organ-isations concerning violations of the right to organise. It is this committee, in co-operation with the committee of Experts which has defined the jurisprudence ofConventions 87 and 98 to include the right to strike.

The ILO also holds sectoral meetings, bringing together people from workers’ andemployers’ organisations, as well as from governments’ representatives, doingwork in a specific sector.

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INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANISATION - BUREAU FORWORKERS' ACTIVITIES (ACTRAV)

As the main link between the International Labour Office and workers, the Bureau forWorkers' Activities (ACTRAV) co-ordinates all the activities of the Office related toworkers and their organisations, both at headquarters and in the field.

The International Labour Organisation (ILO), whose executive secretariat is theInternational Labour Office, is the only tripartite agency of the United Nations. In it,governments, as well as employers and workers are represented on an equal footing.

MissionACTRAV's mission is to maintain close relations with the trade union movementthroughout the various countries of the world, to provide it with the support of the International Labour Office in endeavours to strengthen it, enhance its influence and itsactivities in the defence and promotion of the interests and rights of workers. ACTRAV:• Is the link between the International Labour Office and one of its key components: the

workers• Ensures that the concerns of trade unions are incorporated into all the activities of the

International Labour Office • Enables trade union organisation to make full use of the potential of the Office.• Enables the Office to count on the support of trade unions in promoting and attaining

its goals

GoalsSocial justice, fundamental rights at work, the defence and expansion of social protec-tion, full employment and equality are the overarching goals of the ILO, and are encap-sulated in the concept of "Decent Work". ACTRAV contributes to the attainment ofthese objectives by supporting trade union activities in a wide range of fields:• Promoting the fundamental rights and principles at work• Collective bargaining and social dialogue• Combating the exploitation of child labour• Improving working conditions and the environment• Fighting unemployment and underemployment• Worker education and training, especially through the ILO Training Centre in Turin

TeamMuch more than a department of officials, ACTRAV likes to think of itself as a team ofseasoned trade unionists representing the world's various regions and experienced inthe work of international trade union solidarity. Our specialists work from the Office'sGeneva headquarters, as well as from its regional bureaux in the field and in multidisci-plinary teams, where they contribute "trade union sensitivity". The ACTRAV team:• Prepares the case files that will help worker representatives put together their argu-

ments for the Annual Conference of the ILO, the Governing Body, regional and sec-toral conferences and in the Office's various activities

• Assists worker delegates as they take part in these activities• Brings the trade union elements to all initiatives and activities carried out by other

departments and sectors in the ILO


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4. AN INTERNATIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR SOCIAL JUSTICE

Of course it is one thing to establish a standard and quite another to observe one.One of the most important concerns of trade unions with respect to globalisationis that international competition has caused a failure to respect labour standardsas governments participate in a race to the bottom.

Some violations have been caused or aggravated by government implementation ofIMF or World Bank conditions or other international pressures. Many complaints havebeen related to government failure to force corporations to respect trade union rights.But most come from authoritarian governments who fear any independent force insociety, and particularly trade unions, which have a popular base and, therefore, power.

The adoption of the Declaration on fundamental workers’ rights in 1998 was onlyone of the episodes in a struggle to establish and strengthen the observance of inter-national labour standards as part of an international economic framework. It com-plements efforts to establish links between workers’ rights and international eco-nomic activity.

International Financial Institutions

The ICFTU has led efforts to intervene with the international financial institutionsto encourage them to examine the social effects of their policies and to consultwith trade unions. Those bodies have also been asked to urge governments to co-operate with the social partners on the development and implementation of eco-nomic policies. There has been some progress. The International Monetary Fundand the World Bank have become more open to dialogue and social measures are,in some cases, given serious consideration. The World Bank has involved theICFTU and the ITS in the production of its annual World Development Reportson several occasions.

The ICFTU, together with the Workers Group of the ILO, has been making effortsto get that organisation more active in trying to influence the policies and meth-ods of the international financial institutions. The trade union movement is seek-

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ILO DECLARATION ON FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES AND RIGHTS AT WORKAs the main link between the International Labour Office and workers, The InternationalLabour Conference, at its 86th Session in 1998, adopted a declaration on workers’ rightsbased on the fundamental conventions of the ILO, the principles of which governments areconsidered obligated to respect by virtue of their ILO membership. The eight main ILOlabour conventions on which the new Declaration is based are: No. 87 and 98 on therights to freedom of association and collective bargaining, No. 29 and 105 on the abolitionof forced labour, No. 100 and 111 on the prevention of discrimination in employment andequal pay for work of equal value and No. 138 and 182 on child labour. The effective appli-cation of this Declaration would strengthen respect for workers’ rights and help reducethe negative effects of globalisation. The ICFTU led the effort to create this Declarationand its effective follow-up procedure.

• Follows up and analyses the evolution in the field of national, regional, industry-basedand international trade union movements.

• Uses its resources and expertise to serve the cause of strengthening and developingworkers' organisations.

ActionsACTRAV's work concept, which includes an active presence in the field, training orinformation seminars, cooperation projects, briefings, studies and publications, is anaction dynamic designed to promote the fundamental rights of workers, values of socialjustice and concepts of equality. ACTRAV is stepping up its activities:• International campaigns to promote the ratification of ILO conventions• Organising colloquia and seminars on subjects of interest and topicality to workers• Representations to ILO Member governments to secure the respect and implementa-

tion of their commitments• Project implementation and technical co-operation and assistance in the field• Training of trade union leaders• Conduct of specific programmes pertaining to labour issues

A source of informationThanks to its close ties with trade union organisation across the world, its presence inthe field in various regions and to its training activities, ACTRAV is at the centre of avast network for information on the trade union movement. This information is placedat the service of the International Labour Office and its constituents and of the publicat large through the media, universities and NGOs. The principal vehicles for this infor-mation are:• A quarterly review Worker Education, published in three languages (English,

Spanish and French) and devoted to analysis and forward studies. It draws on thebest specialists from the world of work and deals with topics that will be tomor-row's burning issues.

• The ACTRAV web pages (www.ilo.org/public/french/dialogue/actrav/index.htm) constitutea wealth of information on the activities of the International Labour Office, targeted atworkers.

• Human Rights at Work, a monthly online bulletin on ACTRAV activities• ACTRAV Info, regular communiqués on positions taken by the International Labour

Office affecting workers and on the positions of the Workers Group within the organ-isation's various forums.

• A wide variety of publications, manuals, brochures and practical guides on a broadspectrum of issues of interest to workers

Contactse-mail:[email protected]:www.ilo.org/public/french/dialogue/actrav/index.htmTel: ++4122799 7021Fax ++4122 799 65 70

Whether it is the situation regarding industrial accidents in Tonga or the arrest of atrade unionist in Latin America or actions taken by African trade unions to combatHIV/AIDS, ACTRAV will be able to put you in touch with the persons who are mostknowledgeable about the matter and who can furnish you with information. TheACTRAV network spans the globe:• The major international trade union confederations accredited to the ILO• The major international industry-based trade union federations (construction, ser-

vices, power, metal-working, transport, food, agriculture, etc.)• Over 500 national trade union organisations• Through ACTRAV, the other departments and specialised divisions of the International

Labour Office• LO and ACTRAV representatives in the field• The advisory multidisciplinary teams• The training Centre in Turin, which plays a key role in worker education activities.


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Workers’ rights in trade and investment agreements

The ICFTU has an ongoing campaign to link workers’ rights with trade agree-ments. It has traditionally been referred to as the “social clause” or the “workers’rights clause”. It is one way of addressing the problem of nations trying to gainunfair advantage through the exploitation of workers and the violation of theirmost fundamental rights. The idea of a workers’ rights clause is to ensure that fun-damental workers’ rights embodied in the ILO Declaration on FundamentalPrinciples and Rights at Work become an integral part of trade agreements. Thiswould require close co-operation on implementation between the World TradeOrganisation and the ILO. A workers’ rights clause could make it easier for work-ers to form unions. It would ensure that all governments took serious measures totackle child labour and other abuses of basic workers’ rights. It would provide apartial counterweight to the negative pressures on good labour relations in theglobal economy and could influence the behaviour of powerful corporations.

The focus of this work is the World Trade Organisation (WTO). Concrete measureshave not yet been taken by the WTO on developing this linkage, due to the opposi-tion of many right-wing governments in the WTO and the fear of some developingcountries about protectionism. However, there is growing interest in the issue by gov-ernments. The ICFTU has been endeavouring to ensure that the WTO should set upa working group or a forum on the subject of labour standards and trade. The devel-opments surrounding the WTO conference in Seattle in 1999, and actions at a num-ber of later international meetings in different cities around the world, caused for thiscampaign to make the news headlines world-wide. (see box)

The ICFTU has, as a part of this ongoing campaign, been providing information tothe WTO and to member governments on fundamental workers’ rights legislationand practices in connection with reviews of the trade policies of individual countries.

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ing, through discussions at the highest levels, to convince those institutions that itis necessary to adopt policies that lead to both social and economic progress.“One-size-fits-all” austerity programmes, imposed on countries in need of assis-tance, overemphasise methods like privatisation, balancing state budgets throughdrastic cuts in public services and the use of high interest rates, without giving suf-ficient attention to the social consequences to workers, who are often the first vic-tims of such adjustment programmes. Another way to try to influence World Bankpolicies is shown by the IFBWW campaign for minimum labour standards in loanagreements (see box).

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Some success has been achieved as the Bank recently announced that it would upgrade theoptional sub clauses on labour contained in the Standard Bidding Documents (SBD) to thestatus of mandatory. Some wording on environmental procurement will also be included inthe new SBD’s. However, it is unlikely that the texts will include clauses incorporating thecore labour standards - the Bank policy on freedom of association in particular does notallow for such a development at this time. The Bank is, however, considering the inclusionof some wording to give effect to ILO Convention No. 182 to ensure that the worst formsof child labour are not employed on Bank funded projects.

The IFBWW has also managed to achieve some success at project level. The ChadCameroon Pipeline project involves a consortium of three major oil companies: Exxon,Chevron and Petronas. In June 2000, the Bank approved a loan package for the projectdespite strong international opposition from environmental groups and human rights organ-isations. In consequence the Bank insisted on the creation of a review board to monitor thespending of the oil revenue; this includes civil society and the ICFTU affiliate in Chad hasbeen invited to participate. The Bank has also established its own independent monitoringagency. In October 2000, the IFBWW met with the Bank’s senior energy economist for theAfrica region and discussed IFBWW involvement in monitoring and verification of labourconditions in the project. The IFBWW and its affiliates in the region aim to secure a col-lective agreement applicable to workers in both Chad and Cameroon.

THE IFBWW CAMPAIGN FOR THE INCORPORATION OFWORKERS’ RIGHTS IN WORLD BANK PROCUREMENTDOCUMENTS

Every year, the World Bank is providing loans for a vast amount of development pro-jects throughout the world. The average annual lending of the Bank for developmentprojects is now US$ 22 billion. This amounts to about 30,000 contracts per year whichare given to companies by borrowers of World Bank funds.

A large part of the money is invested in the construction industry, with contracts inhousing, public buildings and infrastructure generating employment for thousands ofworkers.

The International Federation of Building and Wood Workers (IFBWW) believes that“the development assistance role played by the Bank, together with the volume ofemployment created by funded activities, places the Bank under an implied obligation topromote and protect workers’ rights”.

For this reason, the IFBWW argues that a workers’ rights clause should be included inWorld Bank agreements. As a majority of the projects are in developing countrieswhere trade unions are often discriminated against and where workers’ rights are oftennot sufficiently protected, the IFBWW believes that including labour standards inWorld Bank agreements would help promote and safeguard the fundamental rights ofworkers world-wide.

The idea is to incorporate the ideas of the eight ILO fundamental conventions (No. 87and 98 on freedom of association and the right to bargain collectively, No. 29 and 105on the abolition of forced labour, No. 100 and 111 on the prevention of discriminationin employment and equal pay for work of equal value, No. 138 and 182 on child labour)in loan agreements with the World Bank and to make it possible to disqualify biddersfrom the bidding process if they do not observe these minimum labour standards.

The inclusion of a workers’ rights clause in the World Bank Procurement Guidelines andStandard Bidding Documents would provide for the observance of minimum labourstandards by not only the direct borrowers themselves, but also by all contractors andsubcontractors under the project funding. This way firms involved in the bidding processwould not get contracts simply because they were the best at cutting costs throughexploitation of workers.

The IFBWW is, through meetings with the World Bank and through co-operation withaffiliated unions, calling for these provisions to be mandatory as opposed to the currentguidelines which do include some provisions on workers’ rights issues, but only on a vol-untary basis.


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On investment issues, the international trade union movement has also insisted onlinkage. At the WTO, the OECD and with UN agencies, in particular the UnitedNations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), the ICFTU, TUACand ITS have argued that investors must have responsibilities for good behaviourassociated with new investment rights. National governments should maintainand, in many cases, increase their respect for basic workers’ rights as part of inter-national investment agreements. The failure of the Multilateral Agreement onInvestment (MAI) showed that future agreements must be more balanced andrespond to the concerns of trade unions and other elements of civil society.

Simultaneously with pressures for global integration, regional economic and trad-ing blocs - for example, the European Union and NAFTA - have developed. Thisfurther limited the prerogatives of individual governments, in part because multi-national enterprises were able to influence the development of regional and glob-al trade and investment policies and agreements. MNE’s managed to see theirinterests reflected as measures to protect investors are increasingly incorporated inregional agreements and hundreds of bilateral agreements. Trade unions areincreasingly playing a role in relation to the growing number of bilateral trade andinvestment negotiations (e.g. New Zealand – Hong Kong, Japan – Korea, UnitedStates – Australia and EU – Mercosur).

At the regional level, the ICFTU Regional Organisations, AFRO, APRO andORIT, have promoted linkage in the context of regional and sub-regional tradeand economic agreements as well as providing support to global efforts. InEurope, the ETUC has fought to include the social dimension in all aspects ofEuropean integration. An example of this is the European Union GeneralisedSystem of Preferences (GSP) which now includes certain basic workers’ rights as aresult of a trade union campaign by the ICFTU and the ETUC (see box).

More information on the workers’ rights clause can be found in the ICFTUbrochure entitled: “building workers’ human rights into the global trading system”. The brochure is available on the ICFTU web-site:“http://www.icftu.org/displaydocument.asp?Index=991209328. It can also beobtained through contacting the ICFTU.

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For more information on this, please go to the ICFTU page on ‘country reportsfor the WTO’:http://www.icftu.org/list.asp?Language=EN&Order=Date&Type=WTOReports&Subject=ILS

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THE GENERALISED SYSTEM OF PREFERENCES (GSP)

In May 1998, the European Union adopted a new Generalised System of Preferences(GSP), providing trade incentives to benefit developing countries. The new GSP includesspecial incentives to countries respecting the fundamental ILO conventions on tradeunion rights (ILO conventions 87 and 98) and the prohibition on child labour (ILO con-vention 138). The prohibition of forced labour (ILO conventions 29 and 105) has beenpart of GSP since 1995 and led to the indefinite suspension of Burma from the EU’s GSPwith effect from March 1997. This was a result of a joint campaign by the ICFTU, theETUC, the ITGLWF and the European Trade Unions Federation of Textiles, Clothing andLeather (ETUF/TCL), which called for the European Commission to open a formal inves-tigation into forced labour in Burma and involved intense lobbying by trade unionists in the15 EU member states.

WTO DEBACLE COULD MARK BEGINNING OF GLOBALISATION WITH A HUMAN FACE

In December 1999, the much-heralded WTO Ministerial Conference in Seattle, which somehad expected would lead to the start of a “Millennium Trade Round”, collapsed in acrimo-nious failure. One of the main reasons was the WTO’s failure to deal with how trade andinvestment affected social, environmental, development and gender questions. There was anoverall feeling that WTO policies and practices are not fair for developing countries, and thatthe economic policies and practices of organisations like the WTO, World Bank and IMF arehaving a negative impact on peoples’ lives - especially those living in developing countries.

Seattle got the message across that if governments don’t pay attention to basic human rightsat the workplace, to making trade achieve benefits for women and men in developing coun-tries, and to addressing the environmental implications of globalisation, then the whole agen-da of world trade talks risks breaking down.

All over the world, trade unions participated in the ICFTU lobbying campaign in the run-upto and throughout the conference, which, combined with the massive public demonstrationorganised on the eve of the ministerial by our American affiliate, the AFL-CIO, contributedto that message.

Sadly, however, the WTO hasn’t learned much since Seattle as can be seen from an ICFTUstatement, issued in April 2001.

The ICFTU statement argues that little of substance has changed since Seattle to indicatethat any of the underlying reasons for the failure of the 3rd WTO Conference have changed.Governments and their trade negotiators must heed the lessons of Seattle if they are toregain public confidence in the multilateral trading system.

The WTO should draw lessons from the controversy in Seattle provoked by that WTOmeeting’s failure to address developing countries’ concerns. Democratic reforms are need-ed to ensure that all WTO members (particularly the least developed) are able to take partfully in all WTO activities and procedures.

The ICFTU statement further stresses the long-standing WTO issue of core labour stan-dards, one which has been gaining in importance ever since Seattle. The urgency of the needfor labour standards to be respected at the WTO is shown by the number of export pro-cessing zones that has all but doubled in just five years while China, a huge country that sys-tematically violates fundamental workers’ rights, is generally expected to become a memberof the WTO in the near future.

“It is therefore a priority to protect the fundamental rights of workers in developing coun-tries and elsewhere against unscrupulous governments or employers who seek to gain anunfair advantage in international trade through the violation of core labour standards”, thestatement argues.

This pessimistic view of the trend in the WTO was confirmed by the results of theMinisterial meeting in Doha (Qatar) in November of 2001. Although a new round of nego-tiations was agreed and some advances were made in certain areas related to development,no progress was made on support for core labour standards nor in the area of co-opera-tion between the WTO and the ILO.


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5. MULTINATIONAL ENTERPRISES

The international trade union world has devoted much attention to multinationalenterprises as their role in the world economy has increased steadily in the decadesfollowing the Second World War. At the beginning of this new century, the com-bined sales of the top 200 corporations exceed the combined income of all coun-tries minus the largest ten. More than 50 of the world’s leading 100 economies areMNE’s, not countries.

The conduct of MNE’s is not necessarily better or worse than that found in pure-ly national or local companies. They are, at times, better placed to carry improve-ments in working conditions and development. However, they can also help drivea race to the bottom.

Foreign direct investment (FDI) is a very important factor in all this, as it is one of themain forces behind the growing power of MNE’s. FDI involves more than multina-tionals establishing a facility in a country. It includes a wide and complex variety ofinvestments, ventures and co-operation schemes. FDI may be the purchase of con-trolling interests in established enterprises, including privatised state operations, jointventures with national firms or other MNE’s, consortiums involving several compa-nies or other forms of co-operation, including licensing and operating agreements.

MNE’s and trade unions

The overall behaviour of MNE’s has changed. One trend, for instance, is the changeof management methods towards more important local organisations. It is often nolonger a question of one big decision maker at the top and a lot of followers. Ascompanies grow bigger, more responsibilities are given to local management. Sadly,lower national social standards may be one of the reasons for this change. It is this

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The national response

This guide emphasises the role of international trade union co-operation in meeting thechallenge of globalisation. An important part of making progress at the regional andinternational levels on establishing a social framework for globalisation and some rulesfor the global market, is the full and effective involvement of trade unionists in their owncountries. Collective action by governments is necessary if globalisation is to mean morethan the sacrifice of social protections and workers’ rights and the erosion of democracy.

Democratic governments still respond to national concerns. The success of efforts to re-link social and economic progress will depend on the activities of trade unionists wherethey live and vote. Trade unions must shape the national response to globalisation byputting pressure on their governments to support and not inhibit constructing the inter-national framework. Pressure of the global marketplace and international competitionhas all too often led many governments to adopt the wrong response by de-linking socialand economic progress.

Social dialogue between governments, trade unions, employers and other representativesbodies is also necessary to build consensus over national social and economic develop-ment goals and means of action. Strong social institutions, including free trade unions,are vital to the development of human resources and the mediation of disputes about theallocation of resources.

The competitive advantage will lie with those countries that have strong social cohesionbuilt on investment in education and training, health-care and a sound industrial rela-tions system, founded on core labour standards. The most successful countries, bothdeveloped and developing, will be those with institutions that are able to balance andrebalance the market pressures of flexibility and dynamism with the social pressures forsecurity and dignity. People must be entitled to a say on their terms and conditions ofemployment, and on economic development.

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MULTINATIONALS - SOME FACTS AND FIGURES

• TNCs comprise over 690.000 foreign affiliates established by some 63.000 parentcompanies.

• Total foreign assets of the top 100 TNC’s amounted to US$ 1.79 trillion in 1997,increasing by 7.2% to US$ 1.92 trillion in 1998. Between 1993 and 1995, foreign assetsof the top 100 TNC’s increased by 30%.

• Total foreign sales of the top 100 TNC’s amounted to US$2.06 trillion in 1998. Foreignsales of the top 100 TNC’s increased by 26% between 1993 and 1995.

• Total employment of the top 100 TNC’s amounted to about 12.700.000 in 1998, withforeign employment at around 6.500.000.

• In 1998, 92 of the top 100 TNCs were headquartered in the European Union, theUSA, Canada or Japan. Only one came from a developing country.

• The annual Foreign Direct Investment inflow in 1996 was US$ 359 billion. Thisincreased to US$ 464 billion in 1997 and US$ 644 billion in 1998. It reached US$ 865in 1999. So FDI grew by 29.4% in 1997, 38.7% in 1998 and 27 % in 1999. The FDIinflow for 1995 had reached an almost 6-fold increase over the level for 1981-1985;over the same period world trade increased by little more than half.

(source: UNCTAD World Investment Report 2000)

The EU is, however, not alone in implementing workers’ rights clauses in its GSP. The USAalready included workers’ rights as a condition for access to its GSP since 1984 as the resultof efforts by the AFL-CIO. Under this procedure, many countries have been subject to inves-tigation and some countries have lost their GSP status as a result of violations of workers’rights. In some such cases, the countries concerned have undertaken sufficient steps toimprove respect for workers’ rights (such as amending their labour laws or allowing tradeunions to hold free congresses) for them to be readmitted to the United States’ GSP.

GSP is a system providing either reduced tariffs or no tariffs for a significant range of exportsfrom developing countries. It was first set up in 1971 with the aim of promoting developmentand raising the living standards of people in developing countries. The GSP is formally recog-nised by the WTO. GSP schemes are operated by the overwhelming majority of industrialisedcountries including the United States, Canada, Japan, Norway, Switzerland, Australia, and NewZealand, as well as the EU.

At the time of writing, negotiations were ongoing in the EU that may further change the GSPSystem. One example is that the prohibition of discrimination may be added as part of the GSP.


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The international trade union movement is particularly concerned about excep-tions to labour laws and/or practices such as investment incentives. Sometimessuch exceptions are part of EPZ creation or may even apply to whole regions orcountries. As trade liberalisation continues and tariff barriers are reduced, EPZ’smay become less important elements of development policy. Such a change willnot, however, reduce the temptation to lure investment through exploitation.

More information on EPZ’s can be found in the ICFTU brochure entitled: “Behind thewire”. The brochure is available on the ICFTU web-site: “http://www.icftu.org/displaydoc-ument.asp?Index=990917141”. It can also be obtained through contacting the ICFTU.

As they grow bigger and more powerful, MNE’s become more important for theirrespective governments. They are seen as important contributors to their homeeconomy and may become part of government foreign policy priorities. The gov-ernments of the most developed market economies determine the economic policiesof the key multilateral financial institutions which in turn promote an agenda ofprivatisation, deregulation, and encouragement of foreign direct investment, fur-ther strengthening the position of MNE’s.

As a direct consequence of privatisation, MNE’s are also playing an important rolein the public services sector world-wide, where some of them are more motivatedby profit than by service to the public. In many countries, MNE’s already operatein a wide range of areas which have been traditionally part of the public sector.Some examples are: utilities (water, energy, telecommunications and transport),public services (environmental services such as refuse collection, health care, pris-ons, housing, social services, etc.) and support services (cleaning, catering, infor-mation technology, finance, facilities security, etc.).

International instruments and codes of conduct

There are two major corporate codes of conduct which international business, aswell as governments and trade unions have pledged to support: the ILO TripartiteDeclaration of Principles concerning Multinational Enterprises and Social Policy

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context that good and enforceable corporate business principles and some form ofglobal social partnership become important.

In dealing with MNE’s, it is important, but not always easy, to identify the realdecision-makers in the company. For example, on labour relations issues, the headoffice often says that all decisions are made by local management. Local manage-ment may say that they have no control because decisions are being made else-where. Although, decision-making is, in fact, not the same within every company,one must assume that there is some role for the parent company. It may be neces-sary to establish that the ultimate responsibility is at the headquarters level, espe-cially if corporate behaviour violates fundamental workers’ rights.

This is one of many areas where ITS play a central role. They are the best placedorganisations for dealing with problems arising out of these complex situations,simply because this is their field of work and they have the experience, informa-tion and necessary connections with unions inside industries all over the world.

Another aspect of globalisation is the increasing power of MNE’s. MNE’s have thepower to disrupt collective bargaining agreements or bargaining structures. With theever present threat of relocation to countries with low wages, low standards and a lowdegree of organisation, MNE’s are in a strong position to put pressure on trade unionsand their workers, as well as their governments, to accept whatever they are proposing.

Also a consequence of the new “world order” is the ability for MNE’s to do busi-ness in countries which were inaccessible a few years ago. MNE’s have the possi-bility to operate in countries where external control of their practices is difficult ifnot impossible (China, for example). Add to this a very complex structure of sub-contractors, sub-subcontractors (often with steps further down the line), suppliers,outsourcing, networks, etc., and the need for strong international trade unionstructures, with the necessary expertise and financial resources, becomes apparent.

MNE’s and Governments

The growing role of MNE’s in the world economy has affected the behaviour ofnational and local governments. Sometimes it seems as if there is as much or morecompetition among governments for investment than there is among companiesfor market share. There are all kinds of incentives, from tax holidays and infras-tructure construction to training assistance and special laws.

One such incentive is the creation of Export Processing Zones (EPZ’s), also calledFree Trade Zones (FTZ’s), which allow parts to come in, be assembled or pro-cessed and exported without entering into the domestic economy, thus avoidingcustoms payments. There is a heavy concentration of women workers in exportprocessing zones. They are often subjected to ill treatment and violation of theirrights, in some cases extreme exploitation and abuse. Workers in EPZ’s are alsousually employed when they are young and are often dismissed after a few yearsof service. EPZ’s can be found in all regions of the world.

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PSI AND WATER

Although PSI (Public Services International) is of the opinion that it is better for essen-tial public services to be provided by governments, it wants both public and privatewater companies to agree to an international set of standards (the PSI Water Code) thataims to protect this essential service and the workers that provide it from exploitation.More than one billion people lack access to safe drinking water and proper sanitation.Safe and clean drinking water is essential to our world, as are fair labour practices.

The Code is a set of standards aimed at public and private utilities currently deliveringwater services. In addition to recognising labour standards the code sets out safeguardsfor safe and clean drinking water, sound systems of sewage disposal and water resourcemanagement. It is particularly directed towards private sector companies either oper-ating or planning to operate public water services. The signing of the code reflects acommon effort to address issues related to public service obligations, democratic reg-ulation, environmental standards and fair labour practices.


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tool for trade unionists discussing codes with employers (see appendix 5). This codecan also be found at the ICFTU’s web-site: “http://www.icftu.org/displaydocument.asp?Index=990917146”More information on codes of conduct can be found in the article ‘The new codesof conduct’, which is attached as appendix 6.

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and the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises, which has been revisedin June 2000 (see box and Appendix 4). They both cover a whole range of issues,including industrial relations, health and safety, and the environment.

There are also hundreds of unilaterally adopted corporate codes of conduct, somebetter in content than others. The ICFTU believes that all such codes should includethe fundamental workers’ rights standards incorporated in the 1998 ILO Declaration.

Next to this, there are a number of framework agreements which have been nego-tiated by some ITS. Unlike unilateral codes, these are negotiated agreements withprocedures to resolve problems.

The existence of corporate codes of conduct may indicate some sense of corporateresponsibility or may simply result from brand name vulnerability to public pres-sure. Regardless of type, it may be useful to know about such codes and to use themto help try to change the relationship with the company or open up a dialogue.They may, at times be useful as a way to measure corporate behaviour and seekimprovements in that behaviour, particularly as part of larger efforts to get compa-nies to accept some of the responsibilities of globalisation.

The ICFTU has developed its own code of conduct which can be used as a reference

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THE REVISED OECD GUIDELINES FOR MULTINATIONALENTERPRISES

The OECD Ministerial Council meeting in Paris, on 27 June 2000, adopted significantrevisions to the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises originally approved in1976 (see Appendix 4). The revised Guidelines include the full list of workers’ rights asenumerated in the ILO Declaration of Principles on Fundamental Rights at Work. Otherchanges in the text include a reference to MNE responsibilities related to sub-contrac-tors and suppliers, and respecting human rights in general.

Of particular importance was the decision to formally extend the coverage of theGuidelines to include the world-wide operations of multinationals based in countriesadhering to the instrument (30 OECD Members, plus Argentina, Brazil, Chile).

The major weakness, however, of the Guidelines in the past had not been the text, but theimplementation by Governments. Although the Guidelines represent the expectations ofgovernments from countries that headquarter the largest MNE’s in the world, measureshave been weak to promote and encourage respect for the Guidelines. The revision has,among other things, resulted in a special Procedural Guidance to improve the performanceof National Contact Points (NCP). They are designed to promote and increase the effec-tiveness of the Guidelines and to contribute to the resolution of issues involving breachesof the Guidelines. This can include making recommendations to multinationals on how toimplement the Guidelines. It also ensures greater review by the OECD on the functioningof NCP’s, including through reporting and annual meetings.

The global reach of the Guidelines should open up possibilities for improving the behaviourof global corporations beyond the OECD area.

(see appendix 4 for more on the ILO Declaration and the OECD Guidelines)

GLOBAL COMPACT – WHAT IT IS, WHAT IT ISN’T

Also part of the Corporate Social Responsibilty debate, but not a regulatory instrumentor code of conduct itself, is the Global Compact. It is a value-based platform designedto promote institutional learning and social and other dialogue. While it promotes goodpractice by corporations, it does not endorse companies. The Global Compact involvesall the relevant actors, with strong involvement from the beginning by the internationaltrade union movement.

The idea for the Global Compact was first launched by Kofi Annan, the SecretaryGeneral of the United Nations, at the annual World Economic Forum in Davos in jan-uary 1999. He asked business to be socially responsible and do its part by “demon-strating good global citizenship wherever it operates”.

Business is called upon to support nine basic principles, derived from the UniversalDeclaration of Human Rights, the ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work, and the 1995 Copenhagen Social Summit, and the Rio Declaration of the UNConference on Environment and Development (the Earth summit).

These nine principles are:

Human Rights:

1. Support and respect the protection of international human rights within their sphereof influence; and

2. Make sure their own corporations are not complicit in human rights abuses.

Labour Standards:

3. Freedom of association and the effective recognition of the right to collective bar-gaining;

4. The elimination of all forms of forced and compulsory labour;

5. The effective abolition of child labour; and

6. The elimination of discrimination in respect of employment and occupation.

Environment:

7. Support a precautionary approach to environmental challenges;

8. Undertake initiatives to promote greater environmental responsibility; and

9. Encourage the development and diffusion of environmentally friendly technologies.

To engage in the Compact, companies and other appropriate organizations are asked tohave their chief executive officer or executive director send a letter to the UnitedNations Secretary-General. It should express a clear commitment to support theCompact and its nine principles, and a willingness to participate in its activities.Participating companies are asked to post on the Global Compact website at least oncea year concrete steps they have taken to act on any of the nine principles in their owncorporate domains, and the lessons learned from doing so. The Compact also invitesparticipants to work with the UN and its agencies in partnership projects.


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In spite of the fact that there are a few practical problems with this system, includingthe expense of holding international meetings, the complications of trade union plu-ralism, and language barriers, regional and world councils continue to be vital tradeunion links. Information technology can facilitate building networks inside compa-nies and can become “virtual” company councils or can contribute to the work ofexisting structures. Company councils are established and maintained by ITS.

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International Industrial Relations

Although the economy is global, there is no legal framework for any form of inter-national industrial relations. Even the ILO conventions, while developed at theinternational level, are intended to be applied by national governments. The prin-ciples contained in those conventions, however, are valid for globalisation as well.

An international framework for social justice should logically include a frame-work for industrial relations. But just as the earliest trade unions and collectiveagreements preceded a national legal framework, it would be reasonable toexpect that international industrial relations will evolve as MNE’s becomeengaged in one way or another with international trade union organisations.

Although there are no legal obligations on individual companies or industries torecognise trade union organisations or engage in negotiations at the internation-al level, limited international social dialogue is beginning, not just in the contextof the ILO’s tripartite structure, but with individual enterprises as well. On thetrade union side, structures already exist - ITS - which can form part of the basisfor international industrial relations at both industry and company levels.

Company Councils

Trade unions already have established world company councils, regional compa-ny councils and formal as well as informal networks of trade unions representingworkers employed by the same company. These are, for the most part, structureswhich organise meetings where trade unionists from different countries, butworking for a common employer, can get together to discuss a wide range ofissues. They are used for different purposes, from improving conditions at homethrough the experience of others to real global co-operation in trade union work.

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Some months following a meeting of Kofi Annan with business, a delegation of interna-tional trade union leaders, General Secretaries Bill Jordan of the ICFTU, Fred vanLeeuwen of EI, Ron Oswald of the IUF, and Neil Kearney of the ITGLWF, met the UNSecretary General. Their discussions and a subsequent joint statement stressed theneed for rules for the global economy and the important role of international social dia-logue between trade unions and employers. The joint statement says:

“Global markets require global rules. The aim should be to enable the benefits of glob-alisation increasingly to spread to all people by building an effective framework of mul-tilateral rules for a world economy that is being transformed by the globalisation of mar-kets. The meeting agreed that the Global Compact should contribute to this process byhelping to build social partnerships of business and labour.”

More information can be found on the UN’s Global Compact web-site:http://www.unglobalcompact.org and on the “trade unions and the global compact”web-site:http://www.icftu.org/displaydocument.asp?Index=991209234

UNI MULTINATIONAL UNION ALLIANCES

Union Network International (UNI) has for some time grappled with how to tackle andinterface with the ever expanding multinational corporations that are operating in UNI’ssectors. In an effort to co-ordinate the action of affiliates and to put truly global pres-sure on these MNE’s, UNI has developed a strategy of Multinational Union Alliances.

UNI is now operating four Union Alliances dealing with specific multinationals. The mostactive of these Alliances are the SBC/Ameritech, Cable & Wireless (C&W), Telefónica,National Australia Bank, Barclays Bank African Alliance, France Telecom, QuebecorGroup, OTE and the Atlantic Alliances. They have met on regular occasions and all nowpublish regular newsletters that are distributed amongst affiliated unions dealing with thespecific MNE. All the alliances have also developed and published web pages.

These UNI Multinational Union Alliances were established because:• almost all new initiatives by established operators, or new companies, are hostile to

trade union organisation and recognition.• trade unions have to react quickly to these new patterns of ownership.• the trade union response has to involve genuine international solidarity actions and the

devotion of resources to organising.• trade unions have to pool resources and share information across country boundaries

in order to counter the global approach to business displayed by MNE’s.

The purpose of the alliances is to:• increase the leverage of member organisations through greater joint activity.• share information and offer solidarity support when any affiliate of the alliance is

engaged in collective bargaining.• undertake common activity to support organising.• provide all possible support from the host country union for members of any other

affiliate who are working in the host country.

Alliance activities have included:• analysing and publishing comparisons of company reports..• publishing a comprehensive list of the companies’ global investments.• analysing and publishing comparisons in the case of Cable & Wireless employment con-

tracts.• participation in Annual Stockholders Meeting.• international days of action in the case of both the Ameritech and the Telefónica

alliances.• initiation of European Works Councils.• negotiation and signing of Framework Agreements

A practical example of the Ameritech Alliances activities was that, for the first time inhistory, leaders of unions from around the world having members in Ameritech compa-nies, were present at the 1998 Ameritech annual shareholders meeting in Chicago tosend a clear message to the company managers and directors. Along with hundreds ofmembers of the Chicago-area local unions of the Communications Workers of America(CWA) and the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers (IBEW), union leadersfrom UNI, Belgium, Denmark, Hungary and the USA held a press conference outsidethe venue and then attended the shareholders meeting.


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Framework Agreements

Framework agreements negotiated between MNE’s and ITS are agreements on cer-tain principles which, while they do not constitute collective bargaining agree-ments in the same sense as agreements reached at the national or local levels, pro-vide a rights framework to encourage recognition and bargaining to take place atthose levels.

There are many possible structures, involving different types of information andconsultation arrangements and the inclusion of one or more references to interna-tionally recognised standards. The ILO conventions 87 and 98 on the right toorganise and collective bargaining are of particular relevance in this process.Follow-up, review, and monitoring mechanisms may also be incorporated.

More information on framework agreements can be found the following articleon the ICFTU web-site:http://www.icftu.org/displaydocument.asp?Index=991209382.

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Inside the European Union, under the European Works Council Directive, a systemis in place which requires multinational enterprises to have meetings with represen-tatives of the workers for information and consultation purposes. (see box below)

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Ameritech Alliance partners also held an international days of action in June 1998 andDecember 1999, with each of the alliance partners taking some form of action in theirrespective countries. On these days, thousands of Ameritech workers all wore the samebadge as a symbol of their solidarity and support for the efforts of the AmeritechAlliance.

These actions were a huge success showing Ameritech that wherever they may try tooperate, an Ameritech Alliance Union will be there. Successful meetings, workers ral-lies, marches, news conferences and radio interviews were held. Each of the unionsinvolved concentrated its efforts on their local concerns as Ameritech workers. Theseincluded support for jobs and the right to organise, ensuring that the company investsin its people by giving them training, education and personal development, retaining col-lective bargaining agreements and limiting contracting out. The December 1999 actionday concentrated on working time.

A similar international solidarity day was held by the Telefónica Alliance in January 1999.This led to further action which culminated with the signing of a framework agreement fol-lowed in April 2001 by a Code of Conduct between UNI, the Telefónica unions and theTelefónica company. These agreements were also instrumental in ensuring that there wasconsultation between the company and unions over restructuring in Chile in July 2001.

Another alliance activity carried out by UNI is the analysis of the different collectiveemployment contracts of Cable & Wireless operating companies. The analysis showedthat Cable & Wireless workers are better off when they are part of a collective employ-ment contract and that the standard individual contract that is being offered to Cable &Wireless workers in the United Kingdom is most definitely inferior. It also showed thatthere are significant discrepancies between the conditions being offered in differentC&W companies, even though they may be operating in similar geographic and eco-nomic areas.

The C&W working group intends to use this information to ensure that there are min-imum conditions of employment for all C&W workers regardless of the country ofoperation.

EUROPEAN WORKS COUNCILS

The European Works Council Directive (EWC) requires every company employingmore than 1000 workers in the EU, with over 150 in at least two member countries, toestablish an EWC. The EU’s Council of Ministers adopted the Directive on 22September 1994, and exactly two years later it entered in force, via transposition laws,in 14 EU member states plus Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein.

Even before the EWC Directive took effect on 22 September 1996, 430 European WorksCouncils were already operating, in around 400 different multinational companies. Somelarge firms, active in a variety of economic sectors, opted to establish several councils atbranch level. The very first EWC came into being in 1985 in the French multinational.Nevertheless, many companies that are covered by the EWC Directive have yet to cre-ate an EWC.

At the end of 1997, the UK’s opt-out was reversed, the UK extension Directive wastransposed and it entered into force on 15 December 1999. This increased the numberof companies covered by the EWC Directive to a total of 1,835. By the end of 2000,640 EWCs were already in operation.

Fifteen thousand EWC members are now experiencing the needs and challenges ofinternational trade union co-operation. For example, among the established EWCs, 32%faced a transnational merger or acquisition in 2000. These mergers often increase thedistance between the workers and decision-makers in multinational companies. EWCshave the opportunity to build bridges here.

The increasing co-operation between the employee representatives from different coun-tries also lays new foundations for international trade union solidarity. Trade unionistswithin the same enterprise no longer just hear about one another, they also meet inEWCs, talk together, and develop joint action. Yet language difficulties, cultural differencesand different industrial relations systems can create obstacles. To overcome this, tradeunions are organising co-ordination, training and support for their members in EWCs.

There is a clear trade union trend towards supporting EWCs and demanding improve-ments in the Directive on which they are based, and there are high hopes for this revi-sion of the EWC Directive. Another notable development is the number of easternEuropean and extra-European members joining the EWCs.

The search for successful EWC co-operation means a steep learning curve. Most of thecouncils have been set up since 1996 and still need time to develop their potential. Butcontinuous progress is being made, reflected in the growing number of EWCs and, mostof all, by advances in the way they work.

(by Peter Kerckhofs, ETUI)


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PA RT I I

THE INTERNATIONAL DIMENSION OF TRADE UNION WORK

Part II focuses on some of the most practical aspects of international solidarity includ-ing the importance of affiliation to international organisations and the basic sugges-tions for requesting and providing assistance internationally. Part II also stresses thevital role of obtaining and sharing information as well as some elements for successin international trade union campaigns.

6. SOLIDARITY, NOT CHARITY

Whether they know it or not, workers who try to organise a trade union or who findthemselves in a difficult collective bargaining situation, have trade unions all over theworld on their side. International trade union solidarity can give strength to workersin crises and in more and more cases each year, it has made a difference. But interna-tional solidarity means more than answering calls for help from workers in desperatesituations. International solidarity includes a wide range of mutual assistance.

Trade unions can show solidarity by sharing information about the commonemployer with trade unions in other countries. Trade unions, by consulting withtheir foreign counterpart before making decisions that affect the members of theircounterpart unions, are also showing solidarity. Ensuring that the internationalactivities of a trade union also contribute to the strengthening of the organisationsof the international trade union movement is showing solidarity as well.

Recognising the international dimension

The foundation of international solidarity is the recognition by trade unions that thereis an international dimension to their work. At the very least, consideration of theinternational dimension should take place where there are any international commer-cial connections. Such connections may not be readily apparent. Sometimes there isan international solution to a problem with no international aspect. For instance,respect for trade union rights is always an international concern.

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IS THERE AN INTERNATIONAL CONNECTION?

There are many situations where international solidarity may help to resolve a serious prob-lem or dispute with a company and where international co-operation should be considered.

A company may be:• committing violations of trade union rights;• a multinational enterprise, in particular, one with other organised locations;• a multinational enterprise covered by an ITS framework agreement; • a supplier to a multinational or foreign company;• a subcontractor of a supplier or even further down the production chain;• performing work inside a country under contract with a foreign company or govern-

ment or with international bodies;• operating in a sector which is dominated by multinationals;• active in a sector where there are certain standards (perhaps set by multinationals);

THE DANONE - IUF AGREEMENT

A significant breakthrough in international industrial relations are the agreementsbetween the IUF and the French food industry giant Danone (formerly BSN). In 1988the General Secretary of the IUF and Director of Human Resources of Danonesigned a "Common Viewpoint" which pledged both management of the MNE and thetrade unions representing Danone employees to work jointly in five areas: trainingand skills development, access to company information by trade unions, promotinggender equality, trade union rights and employment.

Since the adoption of this pioneering agreement the company meets annually withtrade unions grouped under the banner of the IUF. Progress has been made to fleshout the meaning of union - management co-operation in each of the five areasthrough a series of "framework agreements" reached internationally but whoseimplementation is left to bargaining at either the national or local level. In 1989"framework agreements" were reached spelling out the minimum social and eco-nomic information that workers and their trade unions would need in order tounderstand their respective divisions of the company and an agreement on equaltreatment between men and women which pledged the formulation of an action planand joint initiatives to achieve this goal.

In 1991 the IUF and Danone announced the development of joint training programsand in May 1994 the IUF and Danone signed an historic charter on trade union rightsin which Danone agreed to guarantee the full exercise of recognised trade unionrights throughout all of its operations. In 1996 came another historic agreement toconstitute a global Information and Consultation Committee, made up of manage-ment representatives and trade union delegates under the co-ordination of the IUF,with regions outside Europe being represented by the IUF Regional Secretaries forAfrica, Asia/Pacific, Latin America and North America. This Committee is mandatedto negotiate and implement practical measures on a wide range of policy issues. Thiswas followed in 1997 by the signing of a “Joint Understanding in the Event of Changesin Business Activities Affecting Employment or Working Conditions”.

The experience has been that local managements are not always prepared to put intoeffect many of the innovations in the framework agreements and that progress madeat the local level is not always reported to the IUF. Nor have all trade unions takenadvantage of the opportunities provided by the framework agreements. For instance,although the company employs a high proportion of women in its manufacturing facil-ities, only a few women's committees have been established at workplace level andfew have been established within the unions. Nevertheless, the agreements have led to concrete programs with respect to equality and training at the local level and theyare steps that build the international industrial relations that trade unions will needto meet the challenges of MNE’s. The lesson is that understandings between tradeunions and MNE’s reached internationally increase rather than decrease the impor-tance of local trade union organisations.


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Of course, international solidarity is not a substitute for strength at the work placeor for proper planning and strategy in dealing with an employer. In fact, the inter-national dimension should be part of the planning process and incorporated intothe trade union’s overall strategy.

The first step is to join

It takes much more than a speech, a resolution or a good intention to build aninternational trade union movement. Following the same logic as in building anytrade union, the first step is to join. Just as workers build permanent, independentand representative organisations that are trade unions, the international tradeunion movement is built with permanent independent and representative organi-sations. The legitimacy of trade unions as the representatives of workers comesfrom the extent and involvement of their memberships and their democratic struc-tures. The ability of a trade union to represent workers requires legitimacy, but italso requires a permanent and independent organisation established and support-ed by the workers themselves. For workers and their trade unions, the logicalresponse to globalisation is to strengthen the permanent and independent organi-sations that constitute the international trade union movement.

Solidarity, unlike charity, is a two-way street. It means accepting mutual responsi-bility. The essence of solidarity is mutual aid. And the most effective and mean-ingful assistance to workers can be delivered through organisation. Affiliating tothe appropriate international trade union organisation is an important steptowards international solidarity.

Of course, joining is only the first step. Participating in meetings, solidarity actionsand campaigns, following-up requests for or seeking information, responding toquestionnaires and circulars are all part of building a strong international tradeunion movement.

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THE ITF CAMPAIGN AGAINST UNION BUSTING IN THE AUSTRALIANPORT INDUSTRY

Prior to the dispute described in this account, the Maritime Union of Australia (MUA) already tookstrike action against the introduction of legislation outlawing secondary boycott action by Australianunions, a major concern being the effect the legislation would have on the Australian unions’involvement in the ITF Flags of Convenience Campaign.

In what was clearly a concerted attack by the government on the union’s existence, fromSeptember 1997 on, a series of attempts were made to introduce non-union cargo handlingoperations on the Australian coast. On each occasion, international support action co-ordi-nated by the ITF with effective back up from the ACTU (Australian Council of Trade Unions,the Australian affiliate of the ICFTU) and ICFTU was successful in defending the union.

In September 1997, the first shot was fired when a new stevedoring company in the portof Cairns attempted to replace MUA members with non-union dockers. Rapid internationalsupport organised by the ITF, involving seafarer and docker affiliates in both Singapore andthe United States, resulted in the non-union contract being cancelled and in a major publicrelations disaster for the government, which had admitted that it was backing the scheme.

In placing demands on workers, many employers, including multinational compa-nies, find it convenient to appeal to national interests by stressing internationalcompetition. Just as workers must distinguish between those interests they sharewith the employer and those they do not, trade unionists must distinguish wherepurely national considerations are the most important and where they are not.Recognising the international dimension means recognising that globalisation isincreasing the occasions where international solidarity applies.

Ideally, every national trade union should have someone who deals with interna-tional questions and who is responsible for contact with international trade unionorganisations. It is essential that the person or persons responsible for interna-tional affairs work closely with other parts of the trade union involved in suchareas as organising, research and collective bargaining, so that international con-tacts and solidarity become an integral part of trade union life. If there are localstructures which have the responsibility for dealing with companies, they shouldbe connected in some way with the person or persons who are responsible forinternational work.

International affairs should be a regular part of trade union education. Workersshould not be dependent exclusively on the press, employers or the government forinformation. The union has a duty to provide the opportunity for members tobecome informed about all aspects of trade unionism. Just as international soli-darity is becoming more important, so does the need for including internationalissues in the labour education programmes of trade unions. Experiences showthat, once trade union members, including shop stewards and other officers, areexposed to international solidarity questions, they quickly appreciate their impor-tance. Trade unions should therefore consider organising courses on internationaltrade union activity, with a priority given to practical solidarity action.

Training trade union officers and staff to function internationally may also be nec-essary. Although learning about international trade union work is not difficult,nobody is born with this knowledge. In some circumstances, there may be a needto include language training. One potentially valuable way to further develop thecapacity for international work is to send members of staff to the headquarters ofan international trade union body or a trade union organisation in another coun-try to learn and work for a period of time.

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• involved in export;• involved in import;• wholly or partially owned by international investors;• financed by foreign capital (including pension funds);• subject to consumer pressure in other countries; • considering expanding abroad or engaging in activity linked with the global economy;• a company which claims to operate in an ethical manner and be sensitive to worker

and human rights (this may include having a corporate code of conduct);• sensitive about its image abroad;• located in a country where foreign governments and international organisations may

be involved in influencing government policies.


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ITF affiliates did not need the ITF to tell them what to do however, and they continued totake action. Demonstrations in support of the MUA took place outside Australianembassies in several countries including Japan, Korea, India, the Philippines and Russia.

On 17 April, the English High Court discharged the temporary injunction against the ITF,calling it "palpably unjust". Referring to a famous legal ruling that industrial action neededto be immediate to be effective, the judge took the view that the whole sacking exercisehad been planned in advance by Patrick Stevedores which should have given the ITF prop-er notice of the injunction and that it would be unjust to continue to give PatrickStevedores the benefit of what was clearly intended as a pre-emptive strike.

This was followed by a series of court rulings in favour of the MUA. On 23 April, the Australian Federal Court upheld the injunction ordering Patrick Stevedoresto reinstate its workforce (on the same day legal proceedings pending against the ITF inthe English High Court were withdrawn by lawyers acting for Patrick Stevedores).

Although this ruling was appealed twice in the High Court, re-instatement of the workerswas finally ordered on 4 May.

On 7 May, a month to the day after they were forced from their workplaces in the mid-night raid, MUA members were back at work. The ITF sent £25,000 for the support ofMUA members' families, who worked for free pending settlement of the dispute.

On the same day the ICFTU submitted a Freedom of Association complaint to the ILOagainst the Australian government on the grounds that the workers were sacked becausethey were members of a union. The ITF and the ACTU supported the complaint.

However, attacks against the union continued. On 23 May the Australian Competition andConsumer Commission announced it was seeking an injunction against the MUA to pre-vent any international ban of ships or any domestic boycotts. At the same time PatrickStevedores applied to the Federal Court to have the union's registration cancelled anddamages sought under the Trade Practices Act.

The ITF asked affiliates to keep up international pressure until a union-backed settlementwas reached. Demonstrations and solidarity action by affiliates continued. The ‘ColumbusCanada’, loaded by Patrick Stevedores non-union labour in Australia, arrived in May at thePort of Los Angeles. ITF-affiliated ILWU longshore workers refused to cross a mass soli-darity picket line of some 1,500 labour and harbour community activists. The ship wasstranded off the US coast for over two weeks and was eventually obliged to return its non-union loaded cargo, including up to 60 containers of meat and dairy products, to Australia.

Reports were also received in May that one of the vessels loaded with non-union labour,the ‘CGM Gauguin’ was diverted from Bombay after the ITF affiliated dockers unions therewarned it would be targeted. On 11 May, hundreds of demonstrating Japanese tradeunionists met the Australian ‘Endeavour’ to protest about the use of non-union stevedor-ing labour to work the ship in Australia. Similar gatherings took place in Yokohama on 8May and 10 May in Nagoya.

Final agreement was reached between the MUA and Patrick Stevedores at the beginningof September 1998. The agreement included the payment by Patrick Stevedores of finan-cial guarantees demanded from the union by the Australian Competition and ConsumerCommission. As a result of the agreement, which included generous voluntary severancepackages for workers leaving the industry and the maintenance of union agreements forPatrick Stevedores employees, all outstanding legal action have been ceased. In London,lawyers for Patrick Stevedores withdrew the outstanding legal proceeding against the ITFand agreed to pay approximately £120,000 of the ITF’s legal costs.

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A second and even more extraordinary dispute developed in December when the MUAdiscovered that a group of serving Australian soldiers had been flown to Dubai in theUnited Arab Emirates (UAE) to undergo training in the operation of cargo handling equip-ment. This activity, organised in a country where trade unions are illegal, was clearlydesigned to train strike breakers beyond the reach of the ITF. Following several days ofactivity in which the UAE government and the world’s ship operators were clearly warnedthat all Dubai shipping faced possible action by ITF unions if this scheme went ahead, a del-egation consisting of National Secretary of the MUA, the ITF General Secretary and theITF Dockers Section Secretary visited the UAE Embassy in London on 12 December toraise the ITF's concerns with Embassy staff.

At the same time, strong support statements were made by the ACTU in Melbourne andthe ICFTU in Brussels and a resolution of support was adopted by the Workers Group atthe ILO Regional meeting in Bangkok. Twenty-four hours later the UAE governmentannounced that the scheme was being suspended and the visas of the trainees cancelled.

In January 1998 it became clear that the Cairns and Dubai operations were simply prepa-rations for a major assault on union conditions in Australian ports, organised, with gov-ernment backing, by the National Farmers Federation (NFF), an ultra-conservative agri-cultural producers body. The NFF announced that it had agreed with one of the two mainstevedoring companies to lease a part of a terminal in Melbourne in which it would use itsown (non-MUA) workers. The ITF once again made clear that any ships using this facilitywould be targeted for action world-wide. Various legal threats were made both by theNFF and by the government against the MUA and the ITF.

On April 7, the dispute escalated massively. Without any warning, all dockworkersemployed by Patrick Stevedores Inc. (a total of over 2000 people) were dismissed. Securityguards with dogs moved into the facilities to remove workers forcibly. Several wereinjured. At the same time, non-union workers, trained over the past few weeks by the NFFin Melbourne were brought into key facilities to begin operating cargo handling equipment.

Although initiated by Patrick Stevedores, a subsidiary of Lang Corporation, this moveclearly had the full support and encouragement of the Australian government. WorkplaceRelations Minister Peter Reith issued a press statement welcoming the sackings at thesame time he was officially informed of them. The government raised a bank credit of A$250m to finance the substantial redundancy payments which would have been due to theworkers under their collective agreement. The company and the government therebymade it clear that they had declared war on the union.

In response to the waterfront invasion, legal action was taken by the MUA, who obtaineda Federal Court injunction outlawing the sackings. The ruling was declared unenforceableby Patrick Stevedores so the MUA was forced to continue the battle in the courts.

Meanwhile, the ITF had immediately announced its support for the union and informed itsaffiliates about the case. Members of the International Longshore & Warehouse Union onthe West Coast of the United States were arrested on April 8, during protests in supportof the MUA. Japanese dockers included support for the MUA in their spring offensive, aftera mass meeting on the evening of 8 April, and the ITF's seafaring affiliate in Japan, the AJSU,donated 1 million yen (US$ 7,700) to the MUA to assist the families of the sacked dockers.

On 10 April there came an unprecedented legal attack in the English Courts on the rightof the ITF to carry out its central function of co-ordinating international solidarity. PatrickStevedores, with the obvious connivance of the Australian government, secured a tempo-rary seven-day injunction in the English High Court designed to stop the London-basedITF Secretariat from taking any action against Patrick Stevedores' economic interests.


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tional support in disputes. The affiliates of ITS should be the focal point for chan-nelling information and requests in this process, on their own behalf and on behalfof the local level union structures that may be the primary party in the action.

Sometimes trade unions represent workers in more sectors than are covered by a sin-gle ITS. In such cases, it is important for the trade union to affiliate with and par-ticipate in more than one ITS. Unless this is done, not all of the members of the unionwill be represented internationally and they will not benefit from these services andinternational links. Generally, trade unions with membership in different sectors - asthose sectors are divided internationally - should affiliate to the various ITS on thebasis of the members the trade union represents in a given industry or sector.

Through working with an ITS, valuable bilateral relations with affiliated tradeunions in other countries may be established. This can complement the solidaritywhich is provided by the ITS itself. In some circumstances, the national centres canalso be very helpful in assisting their affiliates with international work and inestablishing contacts with other unions.

The ITS share common principles with the ICFTU but they are autonomousorganisations composed of, and controlled by, affiliated national unions. There aremany differences in ITS structures and in the services provided by them. Thesereflect their respective histories and traditions, as well as the nature of the indus-tries or sectors in which they work and the trade unions which they represent.

Descriptions of each ITS can be found in the box entitled ‘which is my ITS?’ inpart I, chapter 2 and also in appendix 1.

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Who joins what?

The building blocks of the international trade union movement are national tradeunion organisations, that is national unions and national centres. These are theorganisations that affiliate with the international trade union organisations.

National centres, which group the trade unions in a country in order to provide avoice for all workers in the communities of their respective countries, have theirown international organisation, the International Confederation of Free TradeUnions (ICFTU). The ICFTU, a democratic organisation representing the over-whelming majority of the world’s trade unions, is the leading international tradeunion organisation for national centres.

Just as national centres provide the collective voice for workers to influence thepolicies of governments in their respective countries, the ICFTU provides the voicefor workers with international organisations such as the various bodies of theUnited Nations system. Just as national centres are the means by which tradeunions forge common policies, the ICFTU is the vehicle for the world’s trade unionsto achieve common ground. Just as national centres defend the right of workers tojoin trade unions and work to ensure that trade unions play an important role innational economic and political life, the ICFTU fights for the universal applicationof workers’ rights and promotes the role of trade unions everywhere.

More than ever, workers must engage the intergovernmental organisations thatcan shape international economic and political relations and policies. But, just astrade unions must assert their legitimacy in order to sit at the bargaining table, thestruggle to win a seat where the international framework for globalisation isformed, requires organisation.

Moreover, the struggle for trade union rights is an international struggle thatrequires a global voice for organised workers. The ICFTU provides the linkbetween those countries where trade unions rights are respected and those wherethey are not. This role could not be played if the ICFTU represented state-con-trolled or employer dominated labour organisations.

These same functions are performed on a regional basis by the ICFTU organisa-tions composed of national centres in these regions: AFRO in Africa, ORIT in theAmericas and APRO in Asia.

The international organisations of national trade unions, the International TradeSecretariats (ITS), group trade unions by industry or sector. Because ITS affiliatesare directly engaged with employers, the ITS are the international trade unionorganisations with the closest contact and familiarity with multinational and otherenterprises. For trade unions, the ITS are the best international sources of informa-tion about industries, sectors and enterprises. They are also the best means for tradeunions to share this kind of information internationally and they are the primaryand best means for engaging the common employer internationally. In almost allsituations, they are the most effective means for a trade union to obtain interna-

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THE IMF - THE GLOBAL UNION FOR METALWORKERS

The International Metalworkers' Federation (IMF), founded in 1893, representsalmost 23 million members in 193 unions in 101 countries world-wide. Headquartersare in Geneva, Switzerland, where world-wide activities are co-ordinated with a net-work of regional offices in: Eastern and Southern Africa (Johannesburg), Asia (Tokyo,New Delhi and Kuala Lumpur), Latin America (Santiago, Chile). In recent years, par-ticularly in view of the globalisation of the economy, emphasis has been on develop-ing regional activities.

The IMF is one of the largest and oldest of the International Trade Secretariats, organ-ising workers, both blue- and white-collar, in industries such as steel, non ferrous met-als and ore mining, mechanical engineering, shipbuilding, automobile, aerospace, electri-cal and electronics.

The thrust of IMF activities is determined by the Action Programme adopted at theIMF's 29th World Congress, in San Francisco in 1997, in which a strategy was drawn upfor, among other priorities: building a global metalworkers' movement through organis-ing the unorganised and giving international solidarity more impetus; dealing with MNE’sthrough negotiating corporate codes of conduct and creating information strategies;implementing countervailing union power through developing an alternative economicprogramme, securing workers' rights, and ensuring that economic development is sus-tainable. Forty percent of the IMF's income is earmarked for international solidarityassistance and is used to help newly established unions to develop.

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7. PRACTICAL INTERNATIONAL SOLIDARITY

International solidarity works, particularly if it accompanies and supports effec-tive national action. In some countries, the mere threat of action by internationaltrade union organisations has been sufficient to achieve settlements, secure thereinstatement of sacked union leaders or end legal attacks on unions.

The range of international solidarity

Perhaps the best known part of international solidarity is the co-ordination of protestor solidarity messages, but it is much more than that. It involves other activities, includ-ing participating in international campaigns, establishing contacts or organising meet-ings between those trade unions which represent the workers employed in the coun-tries where a multinational company operates. It may also mean co-ordinating public-ity, exchanging experiences, intervening with inter-governmental and other organisa-tions, or participating in world or regional company councils and other formal andinformal networks of trade unions organised around specific multinational companies.

Solidarity can also be financial, although means may be limited. Trade unions mayface massive costs because of attacks by employers or governments, fines or otherlegal actions which threaten their ability to defend their members’ interests.

In recent years, there has been a significant tightening in legal restrictions on unionrights to take industrial action around the world. Secondary boycott action and otherforms of solidarity have been amongst the principal targets for anti-union legislation.Employers have also become much more aggressive in using the law. Sanctions thatcan be used against trade unions for even minor breaches of the law are often out ofall proportion to the seriousness of the action, including huge fines for damages,seizure of assets or even imprisonment of officials.

It is clear that trade unions must work vigorously to amend and repeal these anti-union laws and to secure the right to undertake solidarity action both nationally andinternationally. Globalisation should not combine increased freedom of action forcompanies across boundaries while restricting the rights of workers to act globally.Experience shows that the law can also be an excuse as well as a genuine reason fornot taking action. It is much easier to simply say “the law prevents us from doing any-thing”, rather than “we can do the following”. As some doors close, others may open.Delivering effective international solidarity action should mean concentrating onwhat can, rather than on what cannot be done.

Solidarity does not necessarily have to be prompted by a dispute. There is also thework of anticipating and preventing disputes through, for example, established rela-tions with a company which may include a global agreement. Solidarity is a way ofthinking which is best expressed through democratic organisation and participation.

Requesting and showing international solidarity

The essence of solidarity is requesting and providing assistance. These acts arerarely as simple as they sound. The amount and quality of help offered is influ-

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Using modern communication techniques, the IMF keeps abreast of developments in themetal industry, servicing its member unions by research on economic and social issues,providing educational background and monitoring trade union and human rights in themetal industry. The IMF publishes comprehensive reports on trends in internationalmetal industries. It also produces a quarterly magazine, Metal World, as well as provid-ing the NewsBriefs service, a weekly newsletter by e-mail, to keep its affiliates wellinformed.

In addition to organising industrial and regional conferences, the IMF brings togethertrade union representatives to discuss international union policy on subjects such asworking time, new technology, industrial democracy and workplace health and safety.The IMF, jointly with its affiliated unions, has organised many meetings of WorldCompany Councils, bringing together workers from the same company employed in dif-ferent countries. The IMF also defends the interests of metalworkers in bodies such asthe ILO, the OECD and various United Nations agencies, as well as in discussions withofficials of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. It is an active partnerwith other ITS and the ICFTU.


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international level is the importance of respecting the structures of, and relationshipsbetween, trade union organisations. Trade unions are democratic organisations.Respecting other trade unionists’ structures is not being bureaucratic, it is simplyrespecting trade union democracy. Sometimes trade unions, in attempting to requestor show international solidarity, do things that they would not think of doing with-in their own countries. Often, the reasons for this are unfamiliarity with other coun-tries or with international organisations. Sometimes, in an emergency, appeals forhelp are made to anyone and every one and insufficient attention is given to theimportance of informing or consulting the various organisations that should beinformed or consulted first. Although such action is understandable, these simpleoversights may mean that valuable time is lost owing to unnecessary misunder-standings. It is best and most effective to apply a sort of trade union golden rule -treat others the way you would like and expect to be treated.

Both in requesting and showing solidarity, it is important to keep the fabric ofaffiliations and counterparts in mind. The ICFTU and ITS have identified the fol-lowing situations where informing and consulting other trade union organisationsis especially important for successful international trade union co-operation:

1. Trade union counterparts should be informed and consulted when contactingnon-trade union organisations or trade union organisations in other countriesthat do not share a common international affiliation;

2. National trade unions should involve their national centre when contactingnational centres in other countries;

3. ITS affiliates should inform the ITS of bilateral requests for assistance;4. National centres should inform the ICFTU and its regional organisations of

requests for assistance made by organisations from other countries; and5. When solidarity actions or campaigns involve at least one national centre or the

ICFTU, national centres in other countries where assistance is sought should beinformed or included in the campaign.

National trade unions have several routes to request and show solidarity - through thenational centre, directly with foreign counterparts and through their ITS. As alreadystated, in cases involving particular companies, the most efficient means of securinginternational co-operation is nearly always to begin to build support through the ITS.

Although in some cases it is possible that the ITS and others may not be able tohelp, one should not assume that this is the case. In addition, if a trade union dis-covers that the international relationships of an employer are outside of its indus-try and beyond the jurisdiction of its ITS, the union should go ahead and contactthe ITS anyway. ITS have relationships with one another and work together inmany such situations. The ITS also co-operate with the ICFTU, the TUAC andothers. In many circumstances, national centres can, and do, contribute to inter-national solidarity on specific disputes with companies.

In very serious cases, it may be useful if a representative of another trade union, whichhas a collective bargaining agreement with the parent company, and/or an ITS repre-

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enced by how it was requested. For trade unions, requesting and showing inter-national solidarity involves many of the same principles that apply nationally, butthere are also some important differences.

Appreciating differences

One important difference is really only a matter of degree. It is easy to over-esti-mate the understanding that trade unionists in other countries may have of any sit-uation. Trade unionists often think that things must work about the same way inother countries as they do at home. One should not assume that trade unions inother countries will understand every system of industrial relations or the labourpractices in another country. Lack of understanding by others of specific, relevantfeatures of laws or practices can limit the effectiveness of solidarity. In showingsolidarity, foreign trade union organisations may need to answer questions aboutindustrial relations and labour practices in the country concerned. Such questionscould arise, for example, in meetings with the company concerned, its overseaspartners, government officials or the media.

This also applies to the details of a particular dispute. What may be widely report-ed or is common knowledge in one country may not be reported or known at allin other countries. Even the ITS, which is likely to have more information, cannotbe expected to have all the relevant details unless they are provided. Failure to pro-vide full and accurate information has on occasion led to serious setbacks for thetrade union seeking help. This has occurred where trade unions, sending solidari-ty messages or making representations to the home country management of anMNE, have had their facts challenged or corrected by the government or theMNE. In the most serious of these situations, the basis of solidarity is destroyedalong with the credibility of the trade union seeking help. At the very least, thegovernment or MNE has been provided with an excuse.

Trade unions requesting trade unions in other countries to undertake specific activitiesmay, at times, be disappointed by the response their requests receive. Some activities,which in the eyes of the requesting organisation would seem to be very effective, aresometimes not possible or appropriate in other countries. On the other hand, tradeunions in other countries may be able to achieve the desired result by using other means.

Another difference in international activity is the time that it may take to getsomething done. Because international meetings are expensive and take a longtime to organise, they are not held very often. Good working relationshipsbetween individual trade unionists in different countries often take some time todevelop. Other practical problems such as language differences can also add time.Because the required time and effort to provide information, assistance or co-ordination may be greater than anticipated, the importance of contacting inter-national organisations early should not be under-estimated.

Respecting structures

One way where requesting and showing solidarity is similar at both the national and

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sentative visits the union and personally learns, on the spot, about the dispute orproblem. This may also considerably strengthen the commitment to and effectivenessof international solidarity action. Another way is for workers or officials from theunion in dispute to visit, with ITS backing, other countries to generate solidarity.

A few general principles for contacting the ITS, which make international solidar-ity work easier, are mentioned in the checklists on requesting and showing soli-darity. Of course, the general principles in these checklists should also be appliedby national centres in their relationship with the ICFTU.

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SHOWING SOLIDARITY: A CHECKLIST1. Respond on a routine basis. The most frequent request for solidarity is a request to send a letter, fax or e-mail message,based on information contained in the circular describing the specific situation. Many ITS affiliates respond to nearly all requests for solidarity messages.

In many situations, the timely arrival of a sizeable number of protest or support messages can have a positive impact.

2. Try to meet specific requests. There may be times when your organisation will be the only good source for specific information on a particular company or subsidiary in your country. An ITS may receive manyrequests from affiliates for information on trade union organisation within a MNE.Sometimes the ITS does not have that information on file. In other cases, one affiliate asksthe ITS to transmit a request to another affiliate in the company’s home country, so that theyintervene on its behalf. While it is not always possible to meet such requests, the ITS mustbe able to report back to the affiliate making the request to say what, if any, action was taken.

3. Advise the ITS on what it can do to facilitate your responses to requests for solidarity actions.

For example, where there are language differences, it may be of help for the ITS to provide a model letter in the appropriate language. Tell the ITS precisely what it shoulddemand/request and/or what action you are seeking from the MNE, the government orothers.

4. Send copies of messages, and information on any other action taken, to the ITS. This helps the ITS provide updated information on actions, and to evaluate the status ofa specific action. This also includes sending press releases.

REQUESTING SOLIDARITY: A CHECKLIST

1. Give early notice. If it is anticipated that a strike or major dispute could arise, send complete backgroundinformation to the ITS, if possible before the crisis begins. Too often requests for actionare made after the conflict is already so advanced that the possibilities for effective inter-national intervention are limited.

In principle, the ITS should be informed of any serious problem in any MNE subsidiaryor other related subsidiary and related problems with governments. The informationmay be useful for some other affiliate or, in some unexpected way, in another context.

2. Provide complete information on the company and the dispute.The full name of the local subsidiary or related unit, the name and title of its CEO (ChiefExecutive Officer), full address, telephone, fax numbers and e-mail addresses, plus what-ever the union knows about its precise relationship to the MNE. Is it a wholly owned sub-sidiary, a franchise, a joint venture or does it have some other relationship with the MNE?Which are its products, its major suppliers, its major customers, its bank connections?

How many employees are there and how many are engaged in the conflict? What is thebackground of the conflict?

It is of particular importance that the ITS is provided with accurate and full information.If an intervention is made and some aspect of the information is wrong or incomplete,it is likely to undermine the credibility of the trade union claims. Mistakes or incomplete information can be very damaging. If, for example, during a dispute, a company has foundto be in violation of the law, but the union has also been found at fault, both pieces ofinformation need to be supplied and explained.

Even if the information is absolutely accurate, it may not be of much use if it is not welldocumented. It is often the details which are convincing and which make a conflict comealive to trade unionists in another country. The same good practice for trade unionwork at home, posing and answering all the right questions starting with why, when,where, who and how apply to making an international case. If some form of complaintmight need to be submitted, whether it is to a supervisory body of the ILO or throughchannels which may be available through an ITS, it is particularly necessary to have allthe details and not a vague recollection of what happened.

Equally important is the speed with which things can be done. If fax numbers can be pro-vided, or even better, e-mail addresses, action can sometimes be taken almost instantly.As some actions will be urgent, this may improve the chances for success considerably.

3. Indicate what do you want the ITS and its affiliates to do?.Solidarity actions may require a variety of tactics. What works in one situation may notwork in another. It is important to have a clear idea of what you think will be effective.

The ITS must have a clear idea of the nature of the dispute. In general, ITS affiliates aremore likely to respond more forcefully to requests for intervention when the disputeconcerns basic principles like trade union rights or union recognition than if it is over acollective bargaining issue which is not an issue of fundamental rights. Accurate infor-mation will help to choose the most effective response.

4. Make regular reports of developments. In order to evaluate the effectiveness of solidarity actions and to keep the unionswhich participate in those actions fully informed at all stages, the ITS must receiveregular reports from the union requesting the intervention. The ITS needs to beinformed promptly of any significant changes or escalation in any dispute. The ITSmust know if and when a dispute has been resolved, and should be advised of theterms of settlement. Win or lose, solidarity partners in other countries should bethanked for their help.

5. Appoint a co-ordinator. It is a very good practice to designate a single person in the union to co-ordinate com-munications with the ITS concerning a dispute, to make these communications as effi-cient and direct as possible.


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8. COMPANY INFORMATION AND RESEARCH

Globalisation not only means that there is now an added dimension for trade unionwork, it also greatly increases the importance of work that many trade unions alreadydo. In two basic areas of trade union work, organising and collective bargaining, thepresence of a multinational enterprise often means additional research and preparation.

Finding information

If unions want to take advantage of whatever international connections may exist, it isnecessary to do at least some basic research. This does not mean that trade unions musthave full-time professional researchers. Much basic research does not have to be costlyor time consuming. It may be enough in certain cases to have some experience withresearch and to know how and where to obtain information.

As most ITS play an important part in company research and in documenting workingconditions in the industry or sector, participation in ITS meetings, exchanging docu-ments, good personal contacts and relations are all of great value for building valuablebackground information. The ITS may be able to help with research or provide tips toaffiliated unions about gathering information. They are also the source for a great dealof information on companies and industries, not only facts and figures, but insights intocorporate practices and cultures. Often the answer to the most difficult questions lies inknowing the right person who can assist in getting it. The ITS may be the best source fora variety of contacts including other trade unions, friendly organisations, local compa-nies or MNE’s. As solidarity is always a two-way street, it is not only important to havegood relations with ITS and their contacts, it is also important for trade unions to haveresources and to serve as contact points themselves. Research is not only important forthe trade union itself, it also means that others can be provided with the information theymay need.

Probably the most essential information about a company is who owns it. Establishingthis contributes to an understanding of the decision-makers and is a first test for the pres-ence of an international dimension. Altogether too often trade unions fail to make thistest only to discover in the middle of a dispute that the company is foreign-owned. Itneeds to be determined whether a company is a wholly-owned or a partially owned sub-sidiary of an MNE, whether it is a joint venture or whether it has some other form offinancial relationships.

A basic fact about ownership is whether a company issues stock, which may be pur-chased by members of the public, or whether it is owned by an individual, a family orothers and is not traded on the stock market. Generally, there is more information onpublicly traded companies and it is easier to obtain. This is because in a lot of countriesthese companies must comply with more reporting requirements than non-public com-panies and because they are studied by organisations supplying information to investors.Companies which do not have stock which is traded on the stock market are not subjectto as much scrutiny. Generally, it takes more effort and a different approach to obtaininformation about these companies.

There is often less public information available on smaller MNE’s, which may be

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Trade unions which are effectively involved in international work take the ITSwork seriously, including helping other trade unions whenever they can, even if itis something as simple as a message of solidarity from time to time. Such activeunions are, of course, the best placed to receive solidarity help from others.International work should be more than the fire brigade or ambulance function. Itis building ongoing relationships, support, and understanding, which will helpeverybody do better work in our common trade union mission. No group of work-ers has a guaranteed immunity from attacks on jobs, union rights or working con-ditions. In some cases trade unions depend for their very survival on the ability ofunions in other countries to deliver solidarity when it is needed.

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SOLIDARITY MESSAGES WORK

One example of the effective use of solidarity messages concerned Coca-Cola in Poland. Atthe time, efforts were made by local management to deny that Coca-Cola was an organisedcompany elsewhere. This denial was met with numerous solidarity messages to Solidarnosc,the ICFTU’s Polish affiliate, from IUF affiliates representing Coca-Cola workers. This was allthat was needed to gain recognition. Through the intervention of the IUF, Coca-Cola metwith Solidarnosc and considerable progress was made, including an agreement to establishhealth and safety committees in company facilities.


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Information on a company can be obtained from government and commercialsources as well as from the company itself. Company press releases, newsletters,bulletins and, for publicly-traded companies, the annual report, are all useful.However, it must be borne in mind that company sources will only contain infor-mation that the company wants to be known.

More critical and analytic information can be obtained from commercial sources.They include general business and financial journals, for example, the FinancialTimes and the Wall Street Journal, as well as national and international trade andindustry publications. Commercial reference books including company directoriesthat are designed to provide information for investors and other businesses are alsoavailable. These books are expensive but may be found in reference libraries.Government records would include corporate and partnership registration records,court records as well as records of regulatory agencies which are often publicly avail-able. The ITS will be familiar with most of the commercial sources of informationavailable about companies in their respective sectors.

Most company, commercial and government sources are also available on theinternet, and increasingly so. As it is still expanding on a daily basis and as moreand more people all over the world gain access to it, the internet has become oneof the most important tools for research. (see box)

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controlled by a financial holding company or which can be privately held. However,in many cases, there is a wealth of information about such companies informallyavailable at the local level in company publications, from transferred managers, etc.

Research, analysis and planning in some form or another will be most effective if it isongoing. In other words, it may be much easier to act if the effort to track companystrategies and changes has already been made on a continuous basis, with or withoutprofessional assistance, rather than trying to do everything in an emergency.

Just as no two disputes are the same, there is no standard set of facts valid for allactions or campaigns. Also, changes make it necessary to update facts and figuresand other information regularly. The set of questions in the box ‘facts about theenterprise’ may be helpful in assembling basic information. In using this, it isimportant to keep in mind that, in case of a dispute, the information should beprovided to other organisations as soon as possible. If you do not have all thefacts, forward the information you have, provided it’s accurate. It is always possi-ble to provide the extra information at a later stage.

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RESEARCHING COMPANIES ON THE WEB

For most trade unionists, once they can find their way around the web, it quickly becomes oneof the prime sources for information and, although not everything can be found on the web, formany it is the first place to go to when facts and figures are needed. One drawback is the factthat most web-sites are published in English, making a basic knowledge of English a necessity insome cases. However, as the web has expanded, this has also been changing.

There are several ways to find the information needed. Most major companies have web-sites oftheir own containing details on most parts of their operations. The majority of them are also reg-ularly updated, making it easy to find recent data. Obviously, companies only put the informationthey want on their own web-site, but it still is a good way to start looking for basic information,such as financial overviews, useful addresses, names of decisions makers, links to subsidiaries, etc.

Other and/or more information may be found on the web-sites of national or international organ-isations who deal with the issues about which information is needed.

These include trade union organisations - the right ITS may have the right information - butalso others, like NGO’s or international organisations, such as the UN or the ILO. Certainlyorganisations who deal with a specific subject, e.g. child labour, human rights or any givencountry, may have precise and comprehensive information. Since these aren’t companyweb-sites, they will also have information which the companies aren’t willing to share withthe world on their own web-sites.

What is the overall economical situation in the sector? In the region? In the country?

Union factsHow many members does your union have?What are the affiliations of the union?Which unions represent other divisions and/or locations of the parent company.What are their affiliations, nationally and internationally? Who can be contacted? What other unions are operating in the sector? Affiliations? Who can be con-tacted on other unions in the sector?What other unions are there in the community

FACTS ABOUT THE ENTERPRISECompany facts:

Name of the company: Address: Tel/Fax: E-mail: Web-site: Branch:Main products or services: How may people are working at the company?What is the financial situation of the company? Do you have access to the com-pany’s financial accounts?

Industrial relationsIs there a collective bargaining agreement in the company? How many employeesare covered by it?Where there any previous industrial disputes? What happened?Have there been any lawsuits against the company or initiated investigations?

Company leadershipWho is on the company’s board of directors? How can they be contacted?Who is the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of the company? How can he or shebe contacted?Who owns the company? Is it privately held, and if so, by who? Or is it publiclyheld, and if so, who are the main shareholders?Are there any pension funds which have shares in the company?

Company relationshipsIs the company part of a larger company? Is it a subsidiary? What is the parent company? Is it organised? Or is it a jointventure, a holding company, etc.?Who is involved?Are there any other company divisions or locations in the same country? Whereare they located? How many people are working there? Are they organised?What are the relationships with other companies such as suppliers or customers?Are the workers in these other companies organised?What other companies operate in the sector or region?


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Other useful information on an MNE may be obtained from the company’s com-petitors, its suppliers and from public officials who deal with the company. Certaininformation, often the most valuable, must be obtained locally. An often under-utilised resource is the information and knowledge of the workers in the compa-ny. While an individual worker may only see a piece of the company, collectively,workers know almost everything about the production and distribution systems,the suppliers and the customers of their company. They will also know the changesthat have occurred or those that are being planned. Trade unions are in the bestposition to gather company information from workers. Company networks builtaround the ITS are the best means to get this information where it is needed.

Research and the international dimension

Just as research, planning and preparation are necessary at the national level,international success may also depend on it. If serious difficulties develop in col-lective bargaining with a multinational firm, for example, and an ITS is contactedafter a strike is underway, or, even worse, after it is lost, it may be very difficult tohelp. If, however, the union is already following the activities of the companyinternationally as well as nationally and if the ITS, and through it, other unionswithin the company, are kept informed about potential difficulties well before thedispute, it is much more likely that international assistance will be helpful.

It may be important to take the international dimension into account when for-mulating negotiating demands. Trade unions will want to understand what con-stitutes best practice or norms in any industry and, perhaps more importantly,what the MNE applies in its operations in other countries. This idea is containedin the ILO Tripartite Declaration of Principles, which provides that an MNEshould make available safety and health information “relevant to their local oper-ations which they observe in other countries.” The Declaration also provides thatMNE’s “provide workers’ representatives with information required for meaning-ful negotiations with the entity involved and, where this accords with local lawand practices, should also provide information to enable them to obtain a true andfair view of the performance of the entity, or where appropriate, of the enterpriseas a whole.”

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Another possibility for information gathering is the use of mailing lists, both private or public. A number of trade union and other organisations, national and international, send regular information on what they do or discover (mostly press releases) to a list of interested subscribersvia e-mail. In most cases, it is sufficient to ask the organisation to add your e-mail address to theirlist to become a subscriber. Some mailing lists even provide the opportunity for every subscriberto send his own information, remarks or questions to the mailing list. It is a perfect way of creating a group of persons and/or organisations for the exchange of information on any givensubject. The difficulty here may be to find out what is interesting and what is not. And possiblyhow to contact the organisation or news-group in question.

Another useful resource focusing on labour is Labourstart (http://www.labourstart.org). This sitecarries labour related news, updated daily, as well as links to ongoing campaigns, labour web direc-tories and includes a section listing a wide variety of internet mailing lists and web fora(http://www.labourstart.org/directory.html).

There are also independent web-sites dedicated to providing information on companies, mainlymultinationals. A drawback here is that, for some of them, in order to get full access to thedatabases, a user fee has to be paid.

Some examples, most of them free of charge, are:Hoover’s online: http://beta.hoovers.com/Corporate information: http://www.corporateinformation.com/Europages: http://www.europages.comMultinational monitor: http://www.essential.org/monitor/monitor_resources.htmlCorporate Watch: http://www.corpwatch.org/The web 100: http://www.w100.com/FreeEDGAR: http://www.freeedgar.com/Company Sleuth: http://www.companysleuth.comAFL-CIO Corporate Pay-watch: http://www.aflcio.org/paywatch/index.htmSocial Funds: http://www.socialfunds.com/Responsible Shopper: http://www.responsibleshopper.org/PR Newswire: http://www.prnewswire.com/

Of special interest is the Global Unions website (http://www.global-unions.org). The site,launched in April 2000, is jointly owned and managed by 12 prominent international tradeunion organisations (ICFTU, TUAC and the 10 ITS). Members of the Global Unions groupuse the site to draw the attention of their partners, their members, and the press to thenews they produce and the campaigns they run. The site incorporates a full text search andan advanced search form, to provide easy access to several hundred pages of information,much of which focuses on multinational companies.

Another source of information are the media-sites on the web. Most major newspapers,magazines, television companies, etc., publish articles and stories on the internet. One ofthe main advantages of this is that they can be retraced months or sometimes even yearsafter the article was released.

Given the enormous amount of web-sites on the internet, with all of them containing lotsof information, the difficulty often lies in finding the right place to look for information. Inthis respect, it is worth-while taking the time and effort to build a list of useful web-siteaddresses. Another tactic is to begin by contacting other people and ask for the addressesof relevant or interesting web-sites.

Another important tool to get to the right place on the web are the various search engines whichexist. These search engines offer the possibility to find information on keywords or categories ofyour choice. There is a wide variety of search engines, so if one doesn’t come up with the rightinformation, try another one. For information on a specific subject, it is likely that a search enginewill exist which is specialised in this topic. Most of the search engines’ names are well known.One of the better ones seems to be Google search (http://www.google.com). A list of differentsearch engines and their descriptions can be found at:http://nuevaschool.org/~debbie/library/research/adviceengine.html.

In searching for one or more keywords, or a combination of them, the search engineexplores the world wide web and gives a list of links, together which a short explana-tion, to the sites it finds which contain the keyword(s). This is a free service and, throughthe use of very powerful computers, search engines come up with a wide variety of linksto relevant sites almost immediately.

Although in general relatively easy, making good use of the system of search engines requiresa little bit of experience and learning, as there are a few techniques involved. It is often nec-essary to refine a search in order to avoid ending up with too many links to web-sites andtoo much information. By way of example, with most search engines, a search for multina-tional Australia will list all pages containing the words multinational or Australia. In search-ing for + multinational +Australia, the result will be a list of pages containing the words multi-national and Australia. In searching for “multinationals in Australia”, the result is a list of linksto all pages containing the phrase “multinationals in Australia”. Also, even though English isthe dominant language on the internet, it is possible to do a search in other languages.


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unions in other countries can be alerted to a potential dispute. Many trade unions,promptly and properly informed about the causes of a dispute, may be able to asktheir members not to handle struck work.

In preparing for a potential dispute, the task of examining other business linkages forpotential vulnerabilities of a firm are more complicated if the firm is a subsidiary ofa foreign MNE. Investors, suppliers, markets and strategic partners are all more like-ly, at least in part, to be located outside the country. While this does not mean thatpressure or influence cannot be brought to bear on these linkages, doing so becomesa longer and more complicated process. Moreover, one or more foreign trade unionsmay need to be involved in any effective strategy involving business linkages. Thisrequires communication and policy co-ordination at the earliest possible moment.Hence the necessity of conducting the investigations long in advance of contractexpiration dates and the need for early involvement of the ITS.

The preparation of an organising campaign involves gathering much of the samekind of information as would be required in preparing for a possible collective bar-gaining dispute. This would include acquiring an understanding of the product pro-duced or the services provided, the market and whether it is international, as well ashow the target facility fits into a chain of production or services. An organising cam-paign can be difficult for the workers concerned and this kind information may becrucial in protecting those workers before and after the trade union obtains recogni-tion. Once again, much information may be available from workers at the facility.

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The international dimension must be included when determining the profitability of acompany, a basic step in preparation for collective bargaining. MNE subsidiaries aresometimes expected to meet a projected target rate of profit set by the parent company.In collective negotiations, trade unions may be informed that, since the enterprise is notattaining that rate of profit, union demands cannot be met. It is often the case, in partic-ular soon after an enterprise has been acquired by a MNE, that the target rate of profitset by the parent company is unrealistically high. Reasons for this may include that theparent company is more familiar with another sector or that the acquisition price hasbeen excessive. In these circumstances trade unions should know what profits other firmsin this sector are earning. It may also be useful to known whether pressures for unrealis-tic or even excessive profit margins are coming from outside investors.

It is often difficult to ascertain the profitability of a particular MNE subsidiary enter-prise or factory from data coming from the enterprise itself. MNE’s make extensiveuse of transfer pricing for their intra-firm transactions which may include the bulk oftheir purchases and sales. Transfer pricing involves setting the prices for internaltransactions within the company higher or lower than market value. This process isoften used to minimise taxation, to help undersell a competitor in a crucial market,to assist another unit in the same MNE or for any number of other reasons relatedto the strategic planning process of the MNE as a whole.

Another basic step in preparing for collective bargaining is understanding the rela-tive strengths of the trade union and the company in the event of a dispute. Since theMNE may have the ability to produce the same product at an enterprise in anothercountry, thus reducing the potential impact of a work stoppage, it is important toknow early on about all of the production sites that could be involved. In that way,

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INVESTORS - PENSION FUNDS

As the equity prices in industrial countries have risen strongly in the 1990’s, and with evermore countries having stock markets, the importance of investment in stocks has grownsignificantly. As a result of this, institutionalised investors, such as pension funds, havebecome an increasingly important source of investment capital in the global economy,owing more and more shares in companies world-wide. In some situations, tracking com-pany investors may be very important.

A lot of research remains to be done on pension funds and their investments, but the sig-nificance of fund investments is already clear. The California Public Employees’ RetirementSystem (CALPERS), the largest US public pension fund, has assets totalling US$ 162 billionand manages pension and health benefits for more than 1.2 million California publicemployees, retirees and their families.

There are thousands of investment funds all over the world and it was estimated that pen-sion fund assets would reach 12,000 billion US$ in the top 15 economies in the year 2000.

The behaviour of companies on workers’ rights is a legitimate consideration in the invest-ment of worker capital. It is often relevant to the stability and performance of the compa-ny. Pension funds may be a major source of investment in a particular enterprise and, insome cases, workers and their trade unions may be involved in the investment decisions ofthese funds. In this context, information about funds and their investments can become animportant tool to convince companies to assume the responsibilities of globalisation. Ascompanies usually listen to the concerns of major investors, considerations of ethics andgood conduct are becoming more of an integral part of doing business.

ITS, INFORMATION AND RESEARCH - THE EXAMPLE OF PSI

DatabasesPSI maintains up-to-date databases in co-operation with research centres in the UK. Thedatabases contain information on companies operating in public services as well as oncompanies trying to obtain public contracts. They also contain information on industri-al relations. The sectors currently covered are: water and waste, energy, healthcare(including support services such as catering and cleaning), computing and telecommuni-cation, public transport and facilities management.

The information contained in the databases is used as a basis for reports of variouskinds. Some reports are used in meetings for PSI affiliates, others are used for cam-paigning purposes, others again become free-standing publications. The information isalso used to help affiliates confronted with privatisation bids from "unknown" compa-nies (enquiry service).

Research NetworkPSI maintains a network of researchers working on privatisation of public services andMNE’s. The network consists of unions with research staff and individual researchers,often connected to universities and/or NGO’s.

More regular communication via e-mail has become the norm between members of thenetwork. This means that researchers without database material can participate in theinformation exchange, provided the material sits on a computer somewhere. Allresearch-work/ communication is carried out in English for a number of reasons: virtu-ally all members of the network can handle English, even though in many cases it is asecond language, translation costs can be avoided and time can be won.

PSI makes use of the web to research companies. Much company information is now avail-able through company web-sites (although it should be kept in mind that company web-sitestell the company side of the story), but also newspaper articles and other material on theweb can support research. PSI uses CDs of various kinds as support for research activities.


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which protect workers’ rights and it is the government which must combat cor-porate lawlessness. Campaigns can be directed at both governments and compa-nies, because many disputes with companies involve violations of trade unionrights. Obviously, such efforts to influence both governments and companies overviolations of trade union rights can be more effective than addressing only the gov-ernment or the company. However, care must always be taken to ensure that thegovernment concerned is not absolved of the ultimate responsibility.

The trade union rights campaign shares many of the purposes and techniques with cam-paigns organised by other well-known human rights organisations. These campaigns seekto provide urgently needed protection to those who have been threatened or imprisonedby shining the spotlight of international publicity, thereby increasing the difficulty and costof continued repression in a specific instance. A common feature of these campaigns is themobilisation of messages from as many organisations and countries as possible. Becauserapid response to appeals for solidarity is essential, the trade union rights campaign can beviewed as an ongoing process. The ICFTU has a committee on Human and Trade UnionsRights consisting of representatives from ICFTU affiliates and of the ITS for the purposeof mobilising trade unions in various ongoing campaigns to protect trade union rights.

Trade union rights campaigns have a “legal” quality to them and for good reason.Violations of trade union rights occur where governments fail to adopt adequatelegislation or where they do not adequately enforce legislation. Violations of tradeunion rights also occur where government policy or law restricts or even prohibitsthe exercise of trade union rights. However, trade union rights are often providedfor in the national constitution, including in countries where these rights are notfully respected. In all such cases, the offending government will be in violation ofestablished international standards and, often, treaty obligations.

A good trade unions rights campaign should relate the situation concerned to theobligations of governments. This means being familiar with the internationalinstruments addressing workers’ rights. It also means recognising whether any sit-uation is a violation of these rights.

Not all violations of trade union rights are as flagrant as the arrest of trade unionists orthe brutal suppression of strikes. Excessive administrative obstacles to trade unionrecognition, unduly long legal procedures, interference in the internal affairs of a tradeunion and failure by the employer to bargain in good faith can constitute violations oftrade unions rights. Sometimes, investment incentives offered by governments to attractinternational business may contain provisions that infringe the rights of workers to jointrade unions and to bargain collectively. In determining whether to mount a trade unionrights campaign, it is important to distinguish trade union rights violations from otherissues. Not everyone who claims to speak for workers is a legitimate workers’ repre-sentative and not every claim asserted across a bargaining table is a right.

As mentioned in the chapter on the ILO, trade union rights are enshrined in theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights and its covenants as well as in other inter-national instruments. They are also embodied in two Conventions of the ILO:

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9. THE INTERNATIONAL TRADE UNION CAMPAIGN

Campaigning is a basic and growing activity for international trade union organi-sations. A campaign may be distinguished from simple solidarity actions such assending solidarity messages in the sense that a campaign involves a series of plannedsteps which may include more than one kind of activity. The key word is planned.All serious campaigns have a beginning, a middle and an end. The beginninginvolves the decision to campaign as well as campaign planning and preparation.

The idea of a campaign is to enlist others to help obtain an objective. Whether acampaign seeks to influence a government or an employer, it is a way of expand-ing a dispute, most often by involving the public. Because publicity and publicrelations are involved in most campaigns, consideration should be given to involv-ing national trade union centres. They are, as they provide a voice for all workers,especially appropriate to convey messages to the general public.

Why Campaign?

Almost all international trade union campaigns have their roots in the recognitionthat trade union rights are indivisible and universal and/or in the need for work-ers to come together to engage their common employer. Not surprisingly, mostinternational trade union campaigns are reactive, that is they are responses to gov-ernment or company actions and to trade union requests for assistance.

Not all international trade union campaigns are reactive, however. Campaigns canbe part of a positive strategy to achieve a trade union objective. The internationaltrade union movement is engaged in various campaigns where the long term objec-tive is to create a binding international framework for business activity that alsoprotects workers. These campaigns, some of which are of long duration, are keyelements in the trade union response to the challenge of globalisation. In recentyears, there has been interest in other positive campaigns, such as organising cam-paigns through international trade union co-operation.

This section considers four different kinds of international trade union campaignsand their purposes.

Trade union rights campaigns

The most common international trade union campaign is the trade union rightscampaign. This kind of campaign is almost always directed at specific governmentswith the object of getting a government to respect or protect the basic trade unionrights of its citizens in a specific situation. International campaigns have addressedinterference with the right of workers to organise, including the dismissal orimprisonment of activists and trade union organisers, limits or bans on tradeunions, for example through excessive registration requirements or other restric-tions, and the suppression of strikes.

If a company is not respecting the rights of workers, the rights violation remainsthe responsibility of the government. It is the government which should adopt laws

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Company Campaigns

Even in countries where trade union rights are not systematically violated, inter-national campaigns are employed to assist a trade union in carrying out some ofits basic functions. Most often, these campaigns concern disputes between a tradeunion and an employer. These disputes may arise over trade union recognition ordifficulties in obtaining a collective bargaining agreement. Unlike the trade unionrights campaigns, which mainly target governments, these campaigns are directedat a specific employer and are usually referred to as company campaigns.

In some countries, where there are many problems related to the legal protectionsfor trade union rights, including low penalties for corporate lawlessness or restric-tions on secondary action, trade unions have sought other means for action to sup-plement those protections provided by labour legislation. The concept of the cor-porate campaign was developed in the late 1970’s and the early 1980’s by someUS trade unions in the face of continuous management opposition to trade unionswith respect to recognition and collective bargaining. The earliest of these cam-paigns were called corporate campaigns because they sought to apply pressure tothe parent corporation by focusing on the company’s financial relationships andon its Board of Directors. These campaigns sought to influence corporate gover-nance (i.e. the means by which a company is directed or controlled) and, in par-ticular, the relationship between the ownership and the management of the com-pany. Some campaigns used shareholder actions to raise issues of corporate socialresponsibility at the annual shareholder meeting of the company.

By the 1980’s, the concept and practice of the corporate campaign in the UnitedStates expanded to include actions which went beyond the structures and relation-ships of the industrial relations framework. These new campaigns came to be called

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Convention No. 87 (Freedom of Association and Protection of the right toOrganise Convention, 1948) and Convention No. 98 (Right to Organise andCollective Bargaining Convention, 1949). The ILO has created the Committee onFreedom of Association in order to examine complaints of violations of these con-ventions, regardless of whether or not the countries concerned have ratified them.National centres, as well as international trade union organisations such as theICFTU and the ITS can submit complaints to this tripartite committee which mustprovide reports with conclusions and recommendations to the ILO GoverningBody. Committee decisions have led to positive changes in many cases, in spite ofthe fact that this procedure can take time and that the ILO has no sanctions otherthan moral pressure on rights violators.

Lodging a good complaint requires accurate, complete, and well-documented informa-tion. This means good co-operation between both local unions and their national unionsand between national and international trade union organisations. The ICFTU has con-siderable expertise and experience in lodging Freedom of Association complaints and reg-ularly co-operates with both national centres and the ITS in preparing and filing them.

The ICFTU has produced a publication, “Stand Up for your Rights”, whichexplains in more detail how to participate in trade union rights campaigns. TheICFTU has also developed a special ‘reporting format on violations of trade unionrights’ (see box) that can be used by the trade unionists to supply the minimuminformation needed to organise solidarity actions and campaigns. The form is alsoused to track trade union rights violations world-wide.

“Stand Up for your rights” can be obtained in printed form from the ICFTU andcan also be found on the ICFTU web-site:http://www.icftu.org/www/english/education/manuals/Standup.pdf

In addition, the ICFTU publishes an “Annual Survey on Violations of TradeUnion Rights”. The 2001 version is available on the ICFTU web-site:“http://www.icftu.org/survey”. It is also available in printed form and can beobtained from the ICFTU.

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REPORTING FORMAT ON VIOLATIONS OF TRADE UNION RIGHTS

(this is a fictitious, already filled out example from Niger. The details are merely there to givean indication as to what kind of information is needed)

1. Identification of the Sender: Union of Niger Workers Unions, (USTN),B.P. 388, Niamey, Niger

2. Type of Event: arrests for organising a strike3. Date Event Began: 19 March 2001

Date Event Ended (if different): those arrested are still held in jail4. Location of the Event: USTN headquarters, Niamey, Niger5. Description of the Event: following a two-day general strike (18-19 March

2001) demanding payment of back wages, 25 trade unionists were arrested

6. Type of Victim(s):A) Individual Victim names and data on those arrested provided

on a separate sheet

Occupation:Union or other Affiliation: SYNELEC (electric sector workers)Name:Age:Male/Female:Dependents:Name of Spouse:B) collective victim, Union or Other Group: strikers, mainly from the energy sector7. Identification of the Person Responsible for the Violation: police and gendarmes act-

ing on orders from higher authorities8. Source of Information: USTN union witnesses to the arrests9. Follow-up Response:Local Action Taken: immediate protest to authorities, notice given of

a 72-hour general strike (26-28 March) withprotest marches throughout the country if thestrikers are not unconditionally released

Requested International Action: send letters of protest to: President of the Republic of Niger, Niamey, FAX (227) 73 34 3010

10. Other Remarks: humanitarian and legal aid may be neededDate of Report: 25 March 2001


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Organising campaigns

Company campaigns do not always have to be responses to requests for help.They can instead be part of a strategic plan to achieve an objective. This is espe-cially true with respect to the basic trade union mission of recruiting new mem-bers and organising workers into trade unions. There have been several interna-tional organising campaigns to assist trade unions in their effort to organise work-ers employed by specific companies in specific countries.

One reason for international trade union co-operation is the strategic interesttrade unions have in increasing the trade union presence in an MNE. A low levelof organisation or serious gaps in the organisation of an MNE’s workforce can

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strategic or comprehensive campaigns. The idea of a comprehensive campaign is toexpand the conflict in order to provide the trade union with more leverage than itwould otherwise have. It does this by applying pressure in as many ways as practi-cal and by attempting to impose real costs on the targeted company.

In a comprehensive campaign, the company is thoroughly studied with a view to dis-covering any vulnerabilities or “pressure points” that can be used to influence com-pany behaviour. These pressure points include customers or suppliers of the compa-ny as well as investors in the company. Actions taken may not always be directlyrelated to the situation that gave rise to the campaign, but involve other ways to gen-erate negative publicity for the company. In a comprehensive campaign, attempts areoften made to find common ground with others, such as environmental, consumer,community and other groups, which are concerned about some aspect of the target-ed company. Comprehensive campaigns often employ novel publicity techniques.

Not all activities in comprehensive campaigns are directed at generating publicity.Sometimes campaigns include a legal dimension. For example, trade unions mayavail themselves of the public right to intervene in certain regulatory procedures,such as licensing, in order to force greater transparency upon the company and asa means of raising its cost of doing business.

Comprehensive campaign often use the international relationships of the company andtrade union organisations in other countries are asked to participate in these campaigns.

ITS have developed and carried out a number of campaigns in situations wherelimited solidarity actions were not sufficient to resolve a fundamental problem orseries of problems with a company. On broader issues, for example, child labour,the ICFTU has led several campaigns, with the participation and support of ITS.Some of these campaigns included work which focussed on specific MNE’s.

The campaign techniques to put pressure on individual employers, both nationaland multinational, and/or governments differ from one campaign to another. A fewgeneral techniques have been developed which have proven to be very effective butmost strategies for a campaign have to be re-invented on a case-by-case basis, mak-ing it difficult to provide guidelines. Campaigns requires imaginative people digginginto the very essence of a company. They need to come up with new and innovativeways of using the knowledge of a company’s power structure, its economic andfinancial links, and its environment in order to change the company’s behaviour andresolve problems.

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The International Federation of Chemical, Energy, Mine and General Workers’ Unions(ICEM) has always been one of the ITS at the forefront of this evolution, launching thefirst ITS on-line corporate campaign on the internet in 1996, in support of the ultimatelysuccessful USWA struggle against the global tire giant Bridgestone. This was followed bythe “Pay our wages” campaign in support of the struggle by Russian trade unions, againstthe scandal of unpaid wages. In May 1998, the ICEM started a campaign on Rio Tinto,the world’s biggest mining company, called “Nowhere to hide”. It’s ICEM’s biggest andmost sophisticated cybercampaign until now. And it was a wonderful example of howthings can be done.

Hosted by the ICEM web-site, the campaign was built on ICEM’s pioneering cyberpick-et techniques, which had already been successful in the earlier campaigns. The siteincluded links for electronic lobbying of top Rio Tinto executives and of governments.For all those who wanted to take part in it, it was simply a question of adding their nameto the protest letters on the site, which were then automatically sent to Rio Tinto man-agement and/or governments. As Rio Tinto’s own web-site “omitted” to give fax num-bers or e-mail addresses, the ICEM kindly made Rio Tinto’s decision makers accessibleto all web-surfers via a click of a mouse.

With over 400 million people online (early 2001), it is obviously useful if the opportu-nity can be provided to workers everywhere to send e-mail directly to the company.Electronic messages are easy to send from anywhere in the world and they reach thecontacted person almost immediately. Another consideration is that they may reachother people within a company than the normal letter or fax complaints, which are usu-ally addressed to the person responsible for human and industrial relations.

Further links in the Rio Tinto campaign were operational to enable web users to put ques-tions to parliamentarians in countries where the company was mining or exploring. It alsohad links to factsheets with background information on Rio Tinto, links to other unionsinvolved and to press releases on Rio Tinto. These links are important in campaigns, not onlybecause they provide users with more information almost instantaneously, but also becausethey can be used from other web-sites to direct peoples’ attention to your campaign.

The site also had a discussion forum, an overview of the campaign news, an image libraryand an overview of what the campaigns’ objectives were. The site furthermore featuredthe full text of the Rio Tinto stakeholders’ report, a detailed report exposing the multi-national’s most shameful practices.

Several other ITS also have pages on their web-sites for solidarity campaigns and/orurgent actions.

THE ICEM AND INTERNATIONAL CYBERCAMPAIGNS

Since the launch of web-sites by trade unions all over the world, the potential of this tech-nology has quickly become clear. The internet is much more than just a new publicationsmedium. Around the world workers and communities have already been illustrating thisby using the internet as a tool for campaigning. Cybercampaigns, where the internet isthe centre-piece of the campaign, are ideal methods to exchange views on a company, toraise public awareness of a company’s business practises and to give union members aswell as other interested people a chance to forward their concerns to the company.


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General campaigns

Most international trade union campaigns are directed at individual companies orgovernments concerning specific situations. However, international trade unionorganisations are also involved in various general campaigns. More often thannot, these campaigns are initiated by the international trade union organisationsthemselves. They tend to address broad concerns and have long time framesreflecting a long-term strategy. Two examples would be the ICFTU led campaignfor workers’ rights clauses in international trade and investment agreements andthe campaign against child labour, also initiated by the ICFTU.

The international campaign for workers’ rights clauses is co-ordinated by a TaskForce on Trade Investment and Labour Standards consisting of representativesfrom ICFTU affiliates, regional organisations, TUAC, ITS and some positiveNGO’s such as Solidar. Campaign activities have included representations to inter-national organisations, proposals for ICFTU affiliates to present to their respectivegovernments, international conferences, public reports and various publications,regular e-mail discussions and a dedicated web-site. The long-term objective is aninternational framework linking trade and investment to workers’ rights. Thecampaign has involved a number of “sub-campaigns”, with medium and shortterm objectives. For example, these sub-campaigns have sought to secure clausesin specific trade or investment agreements or have used existing clauses such as theworkers’ rights clauses in the European Union’s General System of Preferences(GSP) to deny trade privileges to oppressive regimes such as Burma.

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deprive national trade unions of sufficient countervailing power with the MNE.This can also hinder the ability of trade unions internationally to reach frameworkagreements or establish effective global company councils.

International trade union co-operation in organising campaigns, especially wherean MNE is involved, has certain obvious advantages. It provides ties with thehome-country trade union, shares knowledge of different industrial relations sys-tems and facilitates exchange of information, including corporate research. It canalso help to solve problems which were not anticipated. For example, internation-al organisations can bring in their expertise when dealing with sophisticated anti-union campaigns by companies.

International organising campaigns do not have to involve helping workers organ-ise in more than one country. They can be part of a strategy to increase organisa-tion in one country by, for instance, targeting the suppliers and sub-contractors ofan MNE or by targeting the firms in a specific industry or in an EPZ. The inter-national component can come from the contributions made by trade unions inother countries. These contributions may include providing leverage with eitherthe parent corporation or with the customers or suppliers of the company target-ed for organising. Trade unions can also contribute financial resources or otherresources such as training or legal assistance.

However, as with any organising campaign, the willingness of workers to try tocome together and, often, their ability to overcome their fear are essential.Without this “support on the ground”, international connections will be of lit-tle use.

One should not assume that an MNE that has good relationships in some countrieswill not strenuously oppose trade union organisation in other countries. MNE’soften claim that they leave it up to local management. Whether or not this is, in fact,the policy of the company, trade unions should as a matter of principle, hold the par-ent company responsible for the labour practices of its subsidiary enterprises.

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THE INTERNATIONAL TRADE UNION CAMPAIGN AGAINST CHILDLABOUR

Trade union actionThe trade union movement has fought against the exploitation of children since itsearliest days. It is continuously campaigning against child exploitation in the globaleconomy, aiming at changing the global economic and financial systems: e.g. tacklingpoverty, discrimination and abuses of fundamental human rights.

ITGLWF, ORGANISING, EPZ’S IN THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

On July 22, 1994 workers at the Bibong Apparel Corporation in the Dominican Republicwon the first collective agreement in the long history of that country's Export ProcessingZones (EPZ’s). On November 22, 1995 workers at the Bonahan Apparel Company, anoth-er factory in a Dominican Republic EPZ, signed a collective agreement following a success-ful and legal strike. Both victories were made possible by the courage and tenacity of EPZworkers, and by an extraordinary example of international trade union co-operation.

An international partnership, consisting of the ICFTU-affiliated National Confederationof Dominican Workers (CNTD) and its affiliate, the Federation of Free Zone workers(FENATAZONAS), the ITGLWF and its inter-American regional organisation FITTCC-ORI, the AFL-CIO (the ICFTU’s affiliate in the USA), its American Institute for FreeLabour Development (AIFLD; now part of the Solidarity Centre) and the two AFL-CIOaffiliates which were also ITGLWF affiliates (which have since merged to form UNITE)developed and implemented a well-planned and co-ordinated organising strategy.

The strategy was based on applying pressure to targeted companies and the government indirect support of aggressive organising on the ground by trained organisers followed up withtrade union education of new members. The partnership contributed support for union organ-isers, legal assistance and other technical advice and training. The organising campaigns weresupplemented by pressure on the US-based corporate customers of the targeted companiesand by the use of the workers’ rights provisions in the Generalised System of Preferences (GSP)section of US trade law. After being threatened with losing their trade privileges, the DominicanRepublic reformed its labour code so as to allow trade unions in its EPZ’s.

In the organising campaign at Bibong, the threat of GSP sanctions forced the governmentto enforce its new code against the employer.

The use of GSP sanctions in the Dominican Republic campaigns show how workers’rights clauses in trade agreements would work. The purpose was not to suppressexports but to protect workers - and in the end, no products had been prevented fromexport but a positive change in the status of the workers had been achieved.


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When to campaign

Campaigns are not last minute appeals for help. Nor are they simple pro-nouncements of policy, unaccompanied by any plan to promote or give effectto that policy. Campaigns require both purpose and planning. The decision tocampaign should only be made after it has been determined that all of the ele-ments for a successful campaign are present. These elements include a clearlydefined objective, a strategy to achieve that objective as well as an understand-ing of the required resources.

The decision to campaign should reflect an understanding that the objectivesare realistic. It should also reflect an equally realistic appraisal of the humanand financial resources required and whether they are available. The ability toenlist and motivate both individual volunteers and other organisations shouldbe taken into account. Whether the campaign can attract additional resourcesand how costs might be shared is also part of the decision to campaign.

The decision to launch a company campaign should be made only after a con-siderable amount of corporate research. A campaign relies on accurate infor-mation which will be the source for negative publicity on the targeted compa-ny or its business allies. The initial research must not only be accurate, but alsocomplete. The facts must be true and sustainable under critical examination.

International campaigns require international partners. Throughout the pastdecade the number of requests for international assistance by trade unions,including requests to launch or join a campaign, has increased dramatically. Inmany of these cases, the situation is so serious that it cannot be resolved with-out considerable effort over the long term.

In cases of serious or prolonged violations of trade union rights, the ITS mayco-ordinate a campaign to maximise pressure on the offending company. Sucha decision is only taken after serious deliberation and an examination of whatresources and tactics might be successful in that specific campaign. Two wide-ly recognised priorities for sustained solidarity actions are: - disputes involving the suppression of trade union rights, especially where a

trade union is in danger of being destroyed; and- where the effect of the dispute has wide ranging implications for the entire

trade union movement, either nationally or internationally.

In many cases, the trade union concerned will be in a desperate situation. Tothe extent possible, emergencies should be avoided or anticipated. It is obviousthat there are some situations where it is not possible to prepare properly. But,in many others, positive action before a crisis or dispute can make a big differ-ence. Even in very serious situations where there is the possibility of having acampaign, there may be an opportunity to really get the attention of the com-pany and, ultimately, change its behaviour by acting quickly before the disputeescalates.

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During the last decade, the ICFTU, its affiliates and ITSs are jointly campaigning toend the use of child labour in producing goods and services for local and internationalmarkets. In the different industrial sectors, they are focusing on products such assporting goods, diamonds and gemstones, clothing and textiles, surgical instruments,food, chocolate and tobacco, the hotel and tourism sector and a range of otherindustries.

Key-elements of campaigning to stop child labourDue to trade union campaigns, employers now understand that, while unscrupulouscompanies can make short-term profit by using child labour, eventually their businesseswill suffer. The key-elements of campaigning to stop child labour are:

Research:

• Proper research into the local situation of the children and their families and the waysin which children are drawn (or kept) out of school and into work;

• Analysis of the chain of production and profit, particularly in international trade;

Actions and projects:

• replacing the child workers with adult workers, preferably from the same family;• securing the rights of the adult workers through union organisation;• economic and educational support for the children affected;• pressure, where necessary through the media, on the large companies and political

elite’s which so often profit from child labour;• Getting consumers to put pressure on retailers and brand names to give preference

to suppliers, which respect fundamental labour standards. • raising awareness, locally and internationally, of the problem e.g. by distributing petitions,

organising marches, distributing materials among trade union members and the public;

Building and strengthening of alliances:

• working with the ILO and with community groups and NGO’s, especially through theNGO network developed by the Global March Against Child Labour;

To get involved in stopping child labour: contact your union or national trade union cen-tre. For more information on the current ICFTU Campaign To Stop Child Labour, spe-cific case studies or links to other interesting web-sites:(http://www.icftu.org/focus.asp?Issue=childlabour). Or contact the ICFTU through thefollowing e-mail address: [email protected].

Facts about child labour today• More than 250 million children are at work.• 125 Million of them have never seen inside a class room and many millions more have

a year or two of schooling only.• At least 15 million children make goods for international markets and many millions

more produce for national markets.• Tens of millions of children are subjected to slave-like conditions in domestic service, sex-

ual exploitation, and agriculture or are forced to join armed conflicts, to kill or be killed.

Sign the petition To Stop Child Labour: http://www.icftu.org/petition.asp?Name=childlabour


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advantage of all solidarity partners for international campaigns to be organisedwell in advance. A timeline for the campaign should be prepared showing the envi-sioned stages of the campaign and be used for scheduling events and setting dead-lines for the various tasks involved. The dates for any proposed activity should beset with adequate lead-time and some flexibility should be built into the time-frame. This planning should reflect the international dimension - calendars of par-ticipating organisations in other countries, as well as other important dates inother countries, such as holidays or religious observances, should be taken intoaccount.

Give other organisations a chance to be included in the planning process, such asthe trade unions bodies which need to be involved in the strategy, for examplethose trade unions representing workers who may be affected by the campaign.

The decision when or how to end a campaign is also of critical importance andshould be considered in the planning stages of any campaign. Included in this deci-sion is, of course, a clear definition of objectives so as to be able to measure suc-cess.

For some extensive campaigns, it might be useful to draw up a specific campaignmanual. It is important that members who are to take action know what they arebeing asked to do and also why they are doing it, so that they can participate fullyand answer questions if necessary. This manual can provide all the necessarydetails on the campaign, but may also give information of a more general nature,such as how to deal with the press or how to get political and other support forcampaign objectives.

Communication

Both internal and external communication are central to effective campaigns.Internal communication includes regular follow-up communications and updatesin order to keep co-operating trade union organisations informed of develop-ments. Good internal communication makes it possible to learn what is and whatis not working and to adjust the tactics and strategy accordingly. Moreover, tradeunions carrying out activities will have better results if all partners, and particu-larly the ITS, are fully informed of their activities. It is, for example, important tomake sure that the international trade union organisations receive all of the rele-vant press articles.

Information technology is very useful for campaign communication. When avail-able, e-mail and the internet are wonderful tools for the spreading and exchang-ing of information, since it makes it relatively easy to reach a lot of people in ashort time.

External communication is what a campaign is about - it is the message and howit is transmitted to other people. This means more than good arguments - the argu-ments must be readily understandable and they must reach the people the cam-paign needs to reach.

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Not all international campaigns are global. They can involve only two or threecountries, or a region. Nor do all campaigns have to be elaborate. Some high-ly effective campaigns have involved only a moderate commitment of time andresources. As international trade union links get stronger, solidarity will becomemore integrated into normal trade union activity and will make it possible to getbetter results with a wide range of often limited campaigns and other strategicactivities. On occasion, something as simple as a statement from a foreign unionto the parent company or to another company connected with that company, sothat it is understood that there is a difficulty, may help make things easier. It willlikely, at least, produce a phone call from the company.

How to campaign

No two campaigns are the same and it is not possible to provide a recipe for inter-national campaigning. The ICFTU and the ITS have in recent years examined var-ious international campaigns with a view to drawing conclusions about the lessonslearned. It is clear that co-operation, planning and preparation as well as commu-nication are critical elements in any campaign. Follow-up and evaluation shouldalso be considered as necessary elements in any campaign.

Securing co-operation

Campaigning is not a solitary activity. One objective of any campaign is to secureallies, which usually is best done at the very beginning. At the very least, interna-tional campaigns will require co-operating organisations in other countries andthis co-operation should be secured before any international campaign islaunched.

In planning and carrying out a campaign, it is important to establish the respec-tive responsibilities of co-operating organisations and of individuals within thoseorganisations. One important responsibility is to keep track of all aspects of thecampaign, from its initiation until the end. In some cases, this responsibility maybe largely in the hands of the trade union directly involved in the dispute. In oth-ers, it will be the ITS which carries the primary responsibility for leading the inter-national campaign and generating the necessary solidarity in other countries.There may be involvement of national centres as well as individual unions.However the responsibilities are combined, there needs to be a way of pullingtogether and holding together all of the participants. An unorganised, uncoordi-nated campaign is likely to be frustrating and unproductive. In most cases, it isrecommended that all participating organisations name individuals with clearlyestablished responsibilities, which serve as contact points.

Another means of securing co-operation in extensive campaigns is to organisenational level preparatory meetings or seminars. In some extensive internationalcampaigns international meetings have also been organised.

Planning and preparation

Planning an international campaign, including identifying potential pressurepoints, should be done as much as possible from the very beginning. It is to the


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Suggestions for recruiting volunteers, arranging events, generating publicity andother details of general campaigning can be found in the ICFTU “Manual fororganising campaigns” which can be obtained upon request from the ICFTU andis also on the ICFTU site:http://www.icftu.org/displaydocument.asp?Index=990916423.

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Publicity is, of course, an essential element of almost all campaigns. Internationalcampaigns should take into account the international dimension of publicitywork. The media in other countries may have different needs reflecting differentcultures or markets. Generally, the key is to get people to identify with the cam-paign by relating it to their own experiences or values. The same can be said forthe various materials such as fact sheets, brochures and leaflets, which need to beprepared for the campaign. International trade union organisations can offer valu-able advice on media work and on material development for international cam-paigns.

Trade unions engaged in company campaigns often are aware that, in many sec-tors, the global brand name is one of the most important corporate assets of anMNE. Tremendous advertising resources are spent promoting favourable associa-tions with brand names and MNE’s are able to use this public perception to chargepremium prices. Because of this, companies are prepared to go to extraordinarylengths. They are using the most sophisticated public relations techniques todefend their brand name images. Trade unions will rarely be able to match theresources or sophistication of the company public relations defence and must relyinstead on credibility and substantiated facts. Credibility combined with effectivetrade union action can overcome a company’s public relations machine.

The already-mentioned role of the national centre in campaigns should not beoverlooked. As the manifestation of trade union solidarity in their respective coun-tries, national centres are the organisations with the widest networks and there-fore the most able to marshal the resources of the entire trade union movement tobuild public support for a cause. Even in countries where the role of trade unionsin economic and political life is well established, campaigns are often the publicface of trade unions. Campaign themes should therefore be positive and not defen-sive.

Follow-up and evaluation

It is essential that participating organisations and allies are informed when a cam-paign is over. It is also important to acknowledge the contributions made by thevarious organisations.

It would be useful, however, to go a step beyond that and attempt to analyse thecampaign with a view towards drawing lessons that can be applied to future cam-paigns or international solidarity. Involving international trade union organisa-tions in this process is a good way to insure that the lessons learned will be avail-able to others when the need arises.

More information on how to improve public relations work can be found in theICFTU manual entitled: “Trade Union Press Work – a Training Manual”. Thismanual can be found on the ICFTU web-site at:“http://www.icftu.org/displaydocument.asp?Index=991210319” or it can also beobtained upon request from the ICFTU.

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APPENDIX 1

THE INTERNATIONAL TRADESECRETARIATS

EI (page 81) - ICEM (page 82) - IFBWW (page 83) - IFJ (page 84) - IMF (page 86) -ITGLWF (page 87) - ITF (page 88) - IUF (page 90) - PSI (page 92) - UNI (page 95)

EI - EDUCATION INTERNATIONAL

Represents workers in: educators, teachers, lecturers and otheremployees in education

Established: 1993Affiliation: 305 affiliates in 155 countries with a total

membership of 24 million (2001)General Secretary: Fred Van LeeuwenAddress: Boulevard Albert II, 5, 1210 BrusselsCountry: BelgiumTelephone: ++32-2-2240611Fax: ++32-2-2240606E-mail: [email protected]: http://www.ei-ie.org

Regional organisations

Africa:Lomé: regional office for AfricaPO Box 14058, Lomé, TOGOTel: ++228-21.28.41Fax: ++228-21.28.48E-mail: [email protected]

Americas:San José: regional office for Latin AmericaApartado postal 7174, 1000 San José, COSTA RICATel: ++506-2-83.73.78Fax: ++506-2-83.73.78E-mail: [email protected]

St. Lucia: regional office for North America and the CaribbeanFond Assau Post Office, St. Lucia, ST. LUCIATel: ++1-758-450.58.40Fax: ++1-758-450.52.47E-mail: [email protected]

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Washington: regional office - ICEM NARO1925 K Street, NW Suite 400, Washington DC 20036, USATel: ++1-202-842.78.92Fax: ++1-202-842.78.01E-mail: [email protected]

Asia:Seoul: ICEM - Asia5th Floor, Baeksuk Building, 432-3 Shindang 2-dong, Joon-gu, Seoul 100-452,REPUBLIC OF KOREATel: ++82-2-22.34.18.84 or 85Fax: ++82-2-22.34.18.86E-mail: [email protected]

Eastern Europe: Moscow: ICEM - RussiaAutozavodskaya 6-9 a, Moscow 109280, RUSSIATel: ++7-095-291.68.83Fax: ++7-095-291.68.83E-mail: [email protected]

IFBWW - INTERNATIONAL FEDERATION OF BUILDING ANDWOOD WORKERS

Represents workers in: construction industry, timber industry,forestry and allied sectors

Established: 1934Affiliation: 285 affiliates in 124 countries with a total

membership of 13 million (2001)General Secretary: Anita NormarkAddress: 54, Route des Acacias, PO Box 1412,

CH-1227 Carouge GECountry: SwitzerlandTelephone: ++41-22-827 37 77Fax: ++41-22-827 37 70E-mail: [email protected]: http://www.ifbww.org

Regional organisations:

Africa: Harare: IFBWW regional office15 Mold Crescent, Avondale, Box A1300, Harare, ZIMBABWETel: ++263-4-79 62 94/95Fax: ++263-4-73 51 46E-mail: [email protected]

Ouagadougou: Bureau d’éducation ouvrière FITBB01 Boîte postale 2314, Ouagadougou 01, BURKINA FASOTel: ++226 30 32 53Fax: ++226 30 32 53E-mail: [email protected]

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Asia:Kuala Lumpur: regional office for Asia and the PacificNo. 25, 2nd Floor Jalan Telawi Dua, Bangsar Baru, 59100 Kuala Lumpur,MALAYSIATel: ++60-3-284.21.40 or 21.42Fax: ++60-3-284.73.95E-mail: [email protected]: regional officeC/o COPE, PO Box 2203, Government Buildings, Suva, FIJITel: ++67-9-31.56.64Fax: ++67-9-30.59.45

ICEM - INTERNATIONAL FEDERATION OF CHEMICAL,ENERGY, MINE AND GENERAL WORKERS' UNIONRepresents workers in: sector, electricity sector, chemical industries, rubber andplastics industry, diamonds, gems, ornaments and jewellery production, ceramicsindustry, paper and cellulose production, glass industry, cement industry, envi-ronmental protection industries, coal mining, mineral mining and stone and sandproductionEstablished: 1995Affiliation: 399 affiliates in 108 countries with a total

membership of about 20 million (2001)General Secretary: Fred HiggsAddress: Avenue Emile de Beco 109, 1050 BrusselsCountry: BelgiumTelephone: ++32-2-626.20.20Fax: ++32-2-648.43.16E-mail: [email protected]: http://www.icem.org


Africa: Harare: ICEM AfricaP.O. Box BE 1078, Belvédère, Harare, ZIMBABWETel: ++263-4-33.63.84 or 89Fax: ++263-4-33.63.90E-mail: [email protected]

Americas: Rio De Janeiro: ICEM BrazilRua Visconde de Inhauma 134, 7° Andar – sala 715, Centro Rio De Janeiro,Codige Postal 20094-900, BRAZILTel: ++55-21-25.18.50.59Fax: ++55-21-25.18.50.59E-mail: [email protected]

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General Secretary: Aidan WhiteAddress: IPC Résidence Palace - Bloc C, Rue de la Loi

155, 1040 BrusselsCountry: BelgiumTelephone: ++32-2-235.22.00Fax: ++32-2-235.22.19E-mail: [email protected]: http://www.ifj.org


Africa:Algiers: Algeria Centre Maison de la Presse, 1 Rue Bachir Attar, Algiers, ALGERIATel: ++213-2-67.36.79Fax: ++213-2-67.36.79E-mail: [email protected]

Americas: Venezuela: regional office for Latin AmericaC/o SNTP, Casa Nacional de PeriodistasOficina 3, piso 2, Ala “B”, Avda. Andres Bello, entre Las Palmas y La Salle,Caracas, VENEZUELATel: ++58-2-793.19.96Fax: ++58-2-793.28.83E-mail: [email protected]

Asia: Redfern: Asia-Pacific regional office - project activitiesc/o Media and Entertainment Arts Alliance245 Chalmers Street, Redfern 2016, AUSTRALIATel: ++61-2-93.33.09.99Fax: ++61-2-93.33.09.33E-mail: [email protected]

Tokyo: IFJ Tokyo OfficeItoh Building 203, Kudan Minami 4-2-12, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, T102-0074JAPANTel: ++81-3-32.39.40.55Fax: ++81-3-32.39.40.55E-mail: [email protected]

Europe:Brussels: European Federation of Journalists266 Rue Royale, 1210 BrusselsTel: ++32-2-219.25.28Fax: ++32-2-219.29.76E-mail: [email protected]

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Americas:Panama: regional office FITCMVía Fernandez de Córdoba, Vista Hermosa, local No. 25, Planta Alta, Apartado4518, Panama 5, PANAMATel: ++507-229.29.52 or 229.18.68Fax: ++507-229.18.96E-mail: [email protected]

Asia: Subang Jaya: IFBWW regional officeNo. 7, 1st Floor, USJ 10/1G, 47620 Subang Jaya, Selangor Darul Ehsan,MALAYSIATel: ++60-3-738 33 67Fax: ++60-3-738 77 21E-mail: [email protected]

Tokyo: IFBWW sub-regional office for East Asiac/o Kensetsu-rengo, Yuai-kaikan 20-12, Shiba 2-chome, Minatu-ku, Tokyo 105, JAPANTel: ++81-3-34.54 09 51Fax: ++81-3-34.53.05.82

New Delhi: IFBWW sub-regional office for South Asia8A/80 W E A Karol Bagh, New Delhi 110005, INDIATel: ++91-11-572.83.57Fax: ++91-11-575.59.31E-mail: [email protected]

Melbourne: IFBWW sub-regional office for the Pacific1st Floor, 500 Swanston Street, Carlton, Victoria 3053, Melbourne, AUSTRALIATel: ++61-3-93.49.24.88Fax: ++61-3-93.49.25.80E-mail: [email protected]

Diliman, Quezon City: IPAPO-IFBWW Philippines Project Office801 Garcia Tower, 140 Kalayaan Av. cor. Mayaman St., Diliman, Quezon City,PHILIPPINESTel: ++63 2 924 24 64Fax: ++63 2 924 23 98E-mail: [email protected]

IFJ - INTERNATIONAL FEDERATION OF JOURNALISTS

Represents workers in: print media, broadcasting, film and television, news agen-cies, press offices, public-relations agencies and new electronic media. Membersmust be full-time journalists. Established: 1952Affiliation: 143 affiliates in 104 countries with a total

membership of 450.000 (2001)

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New Delhi: regional office for South AsiaVolga House, 159-A Gautam Nagar, Yusuf Sarai Commercial Complex, New Delhi 110 049, INDIA Tel: ++91-11-651.42.83Fax: ++91-11-685.28.13E-mail: [email protected]

Tokyo: regional office for East Asiac/o Santoku Yaesu Building, 2-6-21 Yaesu, Chuo-ku, Tokyo 104, JAPANTel: ++81-3-32.74.22.88 or 32.74.24.61Fax: ++81-3-32.74.24.76E-mail: [email protected]

ITGLWF - INTERNATIONAL TEXTILE, GARMENT ANDLEATHER WORKERS' FEDERATION

Represents workers in: textile, garment and leather sectorEstablished: 1960Affiliation: 220 affiliates in 110 countries with a total

membership of over 10 million (2001)General Secretary: Neil KearneyAddress: Rue Joseph Stevens 8 (bôite 4), 1000

BrusselsCountry: BelgiumTelephone: ++32-2-512.26.06 or 512.28.33Fax: ++32-2-511.09.04E-mail: [email protected]: http://www.itglwf.org/default.asp


Africa:Dalbridge: African Regional Consultative Committeep/a SACTWU, PO Box 18235, 4014 Dalbridge, SOUTH AFRICATel: ++27-31-201.07.19Fax: ++27-31-201.03.23E-mail: [email protected]

Dakar: African Regional Consultative Committee - francophone Africa sub-committeep/a Syndicat National des Travailleurs de la Bonneterie et de la Confection, Boursedu Travail, 7 Avenue du Président Lamine Gueye, BP 937, Dakar, SENEGALTel: ++221-21.04.91Fax: ++221-23.62.19

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IMF - INTERNATIONAL METALWORKERS' FEDERATION

Represents workers in: production workers and salaried employees in the auto-mobile industry, aviation and aerospace industry, electrical engineering and elec-tronics, mechanical engineering, shipbuilding, iron and steel production, non-fer-rous metals as well as metal-processing industryEstablished: 1904 (1893)Affiliation: 193 affiliates in 101 countries with a total

membership of almost 23 million (2001)General Secretary: Marcello MalentacchiAddress: 54 bis, route des Acacias, Case Postale

1516, 1227 GenevaCountry: SwitzerlandTelephone: ++41-22-308.50.50Fax: ++41-22-308.50.55E-mail: [email protected]: http://www.imfmetal.ch


Africa:Johannesburg: regional office for East and Southern Africa10th Floor, the Braamfontein Centre, Jorissen Street, Braamfontein, SOUTHAFRICA(Mail: PO Box 31016, Braamfontein 2017, Rep. Of South-Africa)Tel: ++27-11-339.18.12 or 18.25 or 18.32Fax: ++27-11-339.47.61E-mail: [email protected]

Americas:Santiago: regional office for Latin America and CaribbeanMonsenor Felix Cabreca No 14, Oficina 33, Esquina Av. Providencia, Santiago, CHILETel: ++56-2-65.50.474 or 477 or 478Fax: ++56-2-65.50.470E-mail: [email protected]

Asia:Kuala Lumpur: regional office for South East AsiaNo. 10-3, Jalan PJS 8/4, Dataran Mentari, Bandar Sunway, 46150 Petaling Jaya,Selangor Darul Ehsan, MALAYSIATel: ++60-3-73.87.904Fax: ++60-3-73.87.902E-mail: [email protected]

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Ouagadougou: African Francophone office1450, Avenue Kwame Nkrumah, 10 BP 13499, Ouagadougou 10, BURKINAFASOTel: ++226-20.53.62Fax: ++226-33.31.01E-mail: [email protected]

Americas: Rio de Janeiro: ITF Inter-American OfficeAv. Rio Branco, 26-11 Andar, CEP 20090-001 Centro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, BRAZILTel: ++55-21-233.28.12/263.19.65Fax: ++55-21-283.03.14E-mail: [email protected]: http://www.itf-americas.org.br

Georgetown: ITF Caribbean sub-regional office198 Camp Street, S Cummingsburg, Georgetown, GUYANATel: ++592-2-71.197/50.820/54.285Fax: ++592-2-50.820E-mail: [email protected]

Asia:Tokyo: regional office for Asia-Pacific Tamachi Kotsu Building, 3-2-22 Shibaura, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-0023, JAPANTel: ++81-3-37.98.27.70Fax: ++81-3-37.69.44.71E-mail: [email protected]

New Delhi: sub-regional office12D College Lane, New Delhi 110001, INDIATel: ++91-11-335.44.08Fax: ++91-11-335.44.07E-mail: [email protected]

Europe:Moscow: sub-regional officec/o ITURR, 11 Staraya Basmannaya, 103064 Moscow, RUSSIATel: ++7-095-262.29.95/262.58.73Fax: ++7-095-923.88.31E-mail: [email protected]: http://www.itf.ru

Brussels: European Transport Workers’ Federation (ETF)22 Rue de Pascale, 1040 Brussels, BELGIUMTel.: ++32-2-285.46.60Fax.: ++32-2-280.08.17E-mail: [email protected]: www.itf.org.uk/ETF/BE/enewsindex.htm

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Americas: Venezuela: FITTVCC/ORIAv. Miranda, entre Comercio y Piar, Edificio Centro Profesional “Los Andes”,Torre A, Piso 3, Oficina 3D, Cagua, Estado Aragua, VENEZUELATel: ++58-244-95.88.13Fax: ++58-244-95.88.13E-mail: [email protected]

Asia: Tokyo: TWARO6th Floor, Zensen Kaikan Building, 8-16, Kudan Minami 4-chome, Chiyoda-ku,Tokyo 102, JAPANTel: ++81-3-32.88.37.25Fax: ++81-3-32.88.37.28E-mail: [email protected]

Europe: Brussels: ERORue J. Stevens 8, 1000 Brussels, BELGIUMTel: ++32-2-511.54.77Fax: ++32-2-511.81.54E-mail: [email protected]

ITF - INTERNATIONAL TRANSPORT WORKERS' FEDERATION

Represents workers in: transport industryEstablished: 1896Affiliation: 578 affiliates in 134 countries with a total

membership of over 4.5 million (2001)General Secretary: David CockroftInternal divisions: railways, road transport, inland waterways,

docks, seafaring, fishery, civil and tourismservices

Address: 49-60 Borough Road, London SE1 1DSCountry: Great-BritainTelephone: ++44-20-74.03.27.33Fax: ++44-20-73.57.78.71E-mail: [email protected]: http://www.itf.org.uk


Africa:Nairobi: African regional officePO Box 66540, Westlands, Nairobi, KENYATel: ++254-2-44.80.18Fax: ++254-2-44.80.20E-mail: [email protected]

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Ahmedabad: Asia and Pacific, South Asia Education Office8/4 Tilak Apartments, Maharashtra Society, Mithakhali, Ahmedabad 380 006, INDIATel: ++91-79-644.40.47Fax: ++91-79-644.40.47E-mail: [email protected]

Haymarket: IUF Australian Consultative Committee (IUF-ACC):Locked Bag 9, Haymarket NSW 1240, AUSTRALIATel: ++61-2-92.81.95.11Fax: ++61-2-92.81.44.80

Tokyo: IUF Japan Co-ordinating Council (IUF-JCC)Sanei Building (Annex 2F), 17-11, 2-Chome, Kyobashi, Chuo-ku, Tokyo 104,JAPANTel: ++81-3-52.50.03.75/6Fax: ++81-3-52.50.03.74E-mail: [email protected]

CaribbeanBridgetown: Regional secretariat for Caribbeanc/o Barbados Workers Union, “Solidarity House”, Harmony Hall, St-Michel, PO Box 172, Bridgetown, BARBADOSTel: ++1-246-426.34.92/5Fax: ++1-246-436.64.96E-mail: [email protected] (Att.: LeVere Richards)

Europe:Brussels: EFFAT (European Federation of Trade Unions in the Food, Agriculture and Tourism sectors and allied branches)38 Rue Fossé-aux-Loups, Boîte No.3, 1000 Brussels, BELGIUMTel: ++32-2-218.77.30Fax: ++32-2-218.30.18E-mail: [email protected]

Zagreb: ICEM/IUF Education Project Southern and Eastern EuropeTrg kralja P. Kresimira, br. 2 (kod EKN), 10 000 Zagreb, CROATIATel: ++385-1-465.57.11Fax: ++385-1-465.57.11E-mail: [email protected]

Vilnius: Baltic Co-ordination OfficeC/o Lithuanian Trade Union of Food Producers, J. Jasinskio 9, 2600 Vilnius, LITHUANIATel: ++370-2-62.61.68 or 70.40 or ++370-2-22.25.21Fax: ++370-2-61.90.78E-mail: [email protected]

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IUF - INTERNATIONAL UNION OF FOOD, AGRICULTURAL,HOTEL, RESTAURANT, CATERING, TOBACCO AND ALLIEDWORKERS' ASSOCIATION

Represents workers in: food and drink sector, hotel, restaurant, catering andtourism services, agriculture and plantation farming and tobacco processingEstablished: 1920Affiliation: 326 affiliates in 118 countries with a total

membership of 10 million (2000)General Secretary: Ron Oswald Address: Rampe du Pont Rouge 8, 1213 Petit-LancyCountry: Switzerland Telephone: ++41-22-793.22.33Fax: ++41-22-793.22.38E-mail: [email protected]: http://www.iuf.org


Africa: Nairobi: IUF Secretariat for AfricaWoodland house, 1st Floor, Moi Avenue, PO Box 11071, Nairobi, KENYATel: ++254-2-31.22.96/7Fax: ++254-2-31.22.98E-mail: [email protected]

America:Montevideo: regional office for Latin Americac/o Wilson Ferreira, Aldunante 1229, Oficina 201 CP 11100, Montevideo,URUGUAYTel: ++598-2-900.74.73 or 902.10.48Fax: ++598-2-903.09.05E-mail: [email protected]: http://www.chasque.apc.org/uita/

Washington: Food and Allied Service Trades Department, AFL-CIO (FAST)815 Sixteenth Street NW, Suite 408, Washington DC 20006, USATel: ++1-202-737.72.00Fax: ++1-202-737.72.08E-mail: [email protected]

Asia:Sydney: regional secretariat for Asia and the Pacific377-383 Sussex Street, Room 5, 8th Floor, Labour Council, Building, Sydney,NSW 2000, AUSTRALIATel: ++61-2-92.64.64.09Fax: ++61-2-92.61.85.39E-mail: [email protected]: http://www.peg.apc.org/~~iufasia/

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Africa and Arab Countries:Lomé: regional office for Africa and Arab CountriesBP 8473, TG Lomé, TOGOTel.: ++228-21.85.52Fax.: ++228.21.28.52E-mail: [email protected]

Braamfontein: sub-regional office for Southern AfricaP.O. Box 32136, ZA Braamfontein 2017, SOUTH AFRICATel: ++27-11-403.77.65/6Fax: ++27-11-403.24.79E-mail: [email protected]

Lebanon: sub-regional office for Arabic speaking countriesYachoui Center - 6th Floor, LB Jal El Dib, LEBANONTel: ++961-4-71.77.38Fax: ++961-9-91.35.67E-mail: [email protected]

Americas: Washington: Inter-American regional office733 15th st. N.W. Suite 324, Washington D.C. 20005, USATel: ++1-202-824.08.80Fax: ++1-202-824.08.81E-mail: [email protected]

Cali Valle: sub-regional office for the Andean regionCarrera 66# 13B-64 Camambù, Casa 15, Cali Valle, COLOMBIATel: ++57-2-33.97.954Fax: ++57-2-31.53.128E-mail: [email protected]

Sao Paulo: sub-regional office for BrazilAlameda Jau 796, Apto. 1007, BR Sao Paulo, Capital 01420-001, BRAZILTel: ++55-11-284.08.40Fax: ++55-11-284.08.40E-mail: [email protected]

Santiago: sub-regional office for Southern ConeLas Nieves No 3477, Dpto No. 95, Vitacura, CL Santiago, CHILETel: ++56-2-207.52.80Fax: ++56-2-245.00.85E-mail: [email protected]

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Moscow: Eastern Europe and Central Asia Office (Moscow)Room 34-27, Leninsky Prospekt 42, 117119 Moskva, RUSSIATel: ++7-095-938.86.17Fax: ++7-095-938.81.89E-mail: [email protected]: http://www.trud.org/iuf

Oslo: Nordisk Union inden for Naerings-og Nydelsesmiddelindustrien (food)c/o NNN, Arbeidersamfunnets pl.1, Postboks 8719 Youngstorget, 0028 Oslo 1, NORWAYTel: ++47-2-220.66.75Fax: ++47-2-236.47.84E-mail: [email protected]

Stockholm: Nordiska Unionen för Hotell-, Café- och Restauranganställda (HRC)c/o Hotell & Restaurang Facket, Box 1143, 111 81 Stockholm, SWEDENTel: ++46-8-781.02.00Fax: ++46-8-411.71.18

Stockholm: Svenska IUL-kommitténC/o SLF, Upplandsgatan 3, Box 1104, 11 181 Stockholm, SWEDENTel: ++46-8-796.29.70Fax: ++46-8-796.29.88

PSI - PUBLIC SERVICES INTERNATIONAL

Represents workers in: employees in public administrations, enterprises and institu-tions of regional authorities, public corporations, foundations, public institutions; incompanies generating and distributing gas, electricity and water, of waste manage-ment; in the environmental, social and health sector; in public educational, culturaland leisure-time facilities as well as other public institutions, administrations andcompanies delivering public services; employees in international institutions whichhave been established by states or communities of states. Teachers and employees ofnationally operated postal and railway services are explicitly excluded. Established: 1907Affiliation: More than 500 affiliates in more than 140

countries with a total membership of 20 mil-lion (2001)

General Secretary: Hans EngelbertsAddress: BP 9, 01211 Ferney-Voltaire CedexCountry: FranceTelephone: ++33-450.40.64.64Fax: ++33-450.40.73.20E-mail: [email protected]: http://www.world-psi.org/

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UNI – UNION NETWORK INTERNATIONAL

UNI is the result of the merger on January 1st 2000 of CI (CommunicationsInternational), FIET (International Federation of Commercial, Clerical,Professional and Technical Employees), IGF (International Graphical Federation)and MEI (Media and Entertainment International)

Represents workers in: employees in the postal and telecommunications services;salaried employees in industry, business service, information technology, com-merce, financial services, social insurance and private health care, property ser-vices, tourism, professional and managerial staff; employees in the newspaper sector, magazine sector, book publishing sector, adver-tising and PR agencies, job-printing companies, packaging and paper processing;technicians and others employed in broadcasting and television, film production,projection and other media, the advertising industry, theatres and similar artisticand entertainment industries.Established: 2000Affiliation: 900 affiliates in 140 countries with a total

membership of about 15.5 million (2000)General Secretary: Philip JenningsAddress: 8-10 Av. Reverdil, 1260 NyonCountry: SwitzerlandTelephone: ++41-22-365.21.00Fax: ++41-22-365.21.21E-mail: [email protected]: http://www.union-network.org

Internal divisions: UNI is divided into 12 sectors: UNI Commerce; UNI Electricity;UNI Finance; UNI Graphical; UNI Hair & Beauty; UNI IBITS (white collar, pro-fessional and IT staff); UNI Media, Entertainment & Arts; UNI Postal; UNIProperty Services; UNI Social Insurance & Private Health Care; UNITelecommunications; UNI Tourism.


Africa:Ndola: UNI-Africa regional officePO Box 71760, Ndola, ZAMBIATel.: ++260-2-61.28.89Fax.: ++260-2-61.30.54E-mail: [email protected]

Abidjan: regional officeVieux Cocody B, 40 Rue du Lycée Technique, Immeuble SCI AIGLE, 01 BP 6811,Abidjan, IVORY COASTTel.: ++225-22.48.73/22.48.60.80Fax.: ++225-22.48.73.65E-mail: [email protected]

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San José: sub-regional office for Central AmericaBarrio Fco., Peralta 100E.25N, Casa Italia, Ofic. Reg IE/ISP, CR San José, COSTA RICATel: ++506-281.17.48Fax: ++506-281.16.15E-mail: [email protected]

Asia:Kuala Lumpur: regional office for Asia and Pacific Region25-2, Jalan Telawi Dua, Bangsar Baru, MY 59100 Kuala Lumpur, MALAYSIATel: ++60-3-28.71.782Fax: ++60-3-28.71.780E-mail: [email protected]

Haryana: sub-regional office for South AsiaHouse No. 61, I-Block, sector 10, Faridabad, 121007 Haryana, INDIATel: ++91-129-526.06.69Fax: ++91-129-28.61.98E-mail: [email protected]

Tokyo: PSI Tokyo office5th Floor, Jichiro Building, 1 Rokubancho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, JAPANTel: ++81-3-32.34.32.70Fax: ++81-3-52.75.54.64E-mail: [email protected]

Europe: Brussels: PSI Liaison Office/Secretariat of the European Federation of PublicService unions45 Rue Royale, 1000 Brussels, BELGIUMTel: ++32-2-250.10.80Fax: ++32-2-250.10.99E-mail: [email protected]

Praha: sub-regional office for Central EuropeW. Churchill Sq. 2, CZ 11359, Praha 3, CZECH REPUBLICTel: ++420-2-24.46.35.59Fax: ++420-2-24.46.35.57E-mail: [email protected]

Bucarest: sub-regional office for South East EuropeStr. Piata Amzei 10-22, Sc. B, Et. 5, Ap. 26, RO Bucuresti Sector 1, ROMANIATel: ++40-1-65.92.559Fax: ++40-1-65.92.559E-mail: [email protected]

Kiev: Sub-regional office for North-East EuropeMaidin Nezalezhnosti 2, 252012 Kiev, UKRAINETel: ++380-44-22.81.249Fax: ++380-44-22.81.249E-mail: [email protected]

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Auckland: regional officePO Box 91-361, Auckland Mall Centre, Auckland 1001, NEW ZEALANDTel: ++64-96.23.00.74Fax: ++64-96.30.31.48E-mail: [email protected]

Europe:

Brussels: UNI Europa regional officeRue de l’Hôpital, 31/Box 9, 1000 Brussels, BELGIUMTel: ++32-2-234.56.56Fax: ++32-2-235.08.70E-mail: [email protected]

Bonn: UNI-project officeE-mail: [email protected]

Bucharest: regional office3, Str. Stefan Cel Mare, Secteur 1, Bucarest, ROMANIATel.: ++40-1-61.93.165Fax.: ++40-1-21.03.072E-mail: [email protected]

Moscow: regional officeE-mail: [email protected]

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Harare: regional officePO Box CR 6030, Harare, ZIMBABWETel: ++263-4-78.06.18 Fax: ++263-4-77.57.94E-mail: [email protected]

Americas:Panama: UNI Americas regional officeTorre Frontenac Calle 50, Piso 5, Panama City , PANAMATel: ++507-269.71.64 or 269.84.26Fax: ++507-269.70.89E-mail: [email protected]

Buenos Aires: regional office Esmeralda 672 – 4° y 5° Piso, 1007 Buenos Aires, ARGENTINATel: ++54-1-325.65.08Fax: ++54-1-325.65.08E-mail: [email protected]

San Jose: regional officeSabana Norte del Edificio ICE, 100 Norte y 50 Este, San Jose, COSTA RICATel: ++506-220.17.91/17.92Fax: ++506-220.17.93E-mail: [email protected]

Asia: Singapore: UNI-Asia & Pacific regional office170 Upper Bukit Timah Road No. 14-03, Bukit Timah Shopping Centre,Singapore 588179, SINGAPORETel: ++65-467.78.88Fax: ++65-468.14.10E-mail: [email protected]

Sri Lanka: regional office327 Air Force Road, Kurana, Katunayake, SRI LANKATel.: ++94-31-330.75Fax.: ++94-31-330.66E-mail: [email protected]

Tokyo: regional office C/o Zendentsu Kaikan 6F 3-6, Kandasurugadai, Chiyodaku, Tokyo 101-0062,JAPANTel.: ++81-3-32.51.33.71Fax.: ++81-3-32.57.08.39E-mail: [email protected]

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ICFTU Offices Representatives:Geneva: ICFTU Geneva OfficeAvenue Blanc 46, 1202 Genève, SWITZERLANDTel.: ++41-22-738.42.02 or 03Fax.: ++41-22-738.10.82E-mail: [email protected]

New York: ICFTU United Nations Office211 East 43rd Street, Suite 710, New York NY 10017, USATel: ++1-212-370.01.80Fax.: ++1-212-370.01.88E-mail: [email protected]

Washington: ICFTU/ITS Washington Office1925 K Street NW, Suite 425, Washington DC 20006, USATel.: ++1-202-463.85.73Fax.: ++1-202-463.85.64E-mail: [email protected]

Rome: ICFTU Permanent Representative to the FAOC/o UIL, Via Lucullo 6, 00187 Roma, ITALYTel.: ++390-6-47.531

Vienna: ICFTU Permanent Representative to the IAEARugierstrasse 12/30, 1220 Vienna, AUSTRIATel.: ++43-1-230.01.40

Vienna: ICFTU Permanent Representative to UNIDOPokornygasse 31/19, 1190 Wien, AUSTRIATel.: ++43-1-369.13.75

Moscow: ICFTU Office for the N.I.S.Ul. Zemlynov Val, 64/1 L. 623, 109004, Moscow, RUSSIATel.: ++7-095-915.78.99Fax.: ++7-095-915.78.99E-mail: [email protected]

Sarajevo: ICFTU South-East European OfficeUlica Valtera Perica 22/III, 71000 Sarajevo, BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINATel.: ++387-33-218.322Fax.: ++387-33-203.305E-mail: [email protected]

Sofia: ICFTU CEE TU Rights Network21 Rue Damian Grouev, Sofia, BULGARIATel.: ++359-2-526.756Fax.: ++359-2-526.756

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APPENDIX 1I

OTHER INTERNATIONAL TRADE UNIONORGANISATIONS + ILO

ICFTU - INTERNATIONAL CONFEDERATION OF FREE TRADEUNIONS

Represents workers in: all affiliated free labour organisations, for the most partnational trade union centresEstablished: 1949Affiliation: 221 affiliates in 148 countries with a total

membership of 156 million (2001)General Secretary: Guy RyderAddress: Boulevard du Roi Albert II, 5, 1210 BrusselsCountry: BelgiumTelephone: ++32-2-224.02.11Fax: ++32-2-201.58.15E-mail: [email protected]: http://www.icftu.org


Americas:Caracas: ORIT (Organización Regional Interamericana de Trabajadores)regional office for North and South AmericaAvda. Andrés Eloy Blanco (Este 2), Edificio José Vargas, Piso 15, Los Caobas,Caracas, VENEZUELATel: ++58-2-578.35.38 or 578.10.92 or 578.27.80Fax: ++58-2-578.17.02E-mail: [email protected]: http://www.ciosl-orit.org

Africa:Nairobi: AFRO (African Regional Organisation) Kenya Re Towers - 4th Floor, Upper Hill, Off Ragati Road, P.O. Box 67273,Nairobi, KENYATeléfono: ++254-2-24.43.36Fax: ++254-2-21.50.72E-mail: [email protected]

Asia: Singapore: APRO (Asian and Pacific Regional Organisation)4th Floor, 73 Bras Basah Road, Singapore 189556, SINGAPORETel: ++65-222.62.94Fax: ++65-221.73.80E-mail: [email protected]: http://www.icftu-apro.org

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Address: 26 Avenue de la Grande-Armée, 75017 ParisCountry: FranceTelephone: ++33-1-55.37.37.37Fax: ++33-1-47.54.98.28E-mail: [email protected]: http://www.tuac.org

ILO - INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANISATION

Established: 1919Director-General: Juan SomaviaAddress: Route des Morillons 4, 1211 Geneva 22 Country: SwitzerlandTelephone: ++41-22-799.61.11Fax: ++41-22-798.86.85E-mail: [email protected]: http://www.ilo.org

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Zagreb: ICFTU CEE Gender ProjectC/o UATUC, Kresimirov trg. 2, 10000 Zagreb, CROATIATel.: ++385-1-465.50.21Fax.: ++385-1-465.50.21E-mail: [email protected]

Hong Kong: ICFTU/HKCTU Hong Kong Liaison Office19/F Wing Wong Commercial Bldg., 557-559 Nathan Road, Kowloon, HONG KONGTel.: ++852-27.70.86.68Fax.: ++852-27.70.73.88E-mail: [email protected]

Amman: ICFTU Amman OfficePOB 925 875, Amman 11110, JordanTel.: ++962-6-560.31.81Fax.: ++962-6-560.31.85E-mail: [email protected]

ETUC - EUROPEAN TRADE UNION CONFEDERATION

Represents workers in: affiliated European national centres and European indus-try federationsEstablished: 1973Affiliation: 74 confederations in 34 countries, 11 indus-

try federations, total membership of 60 mil-lion (2001)

General Secretary: Emilio GabaglioAddress: Boulevard du Roi Albert II, 5, 1210 BrusselsCountry: BelgiumTelephone: ++32-2-224.04.11Fax: ++32-2-224.04.54 or 55E-mail: [email protected]: http://www.etuc.org

TUAC - TRADE UNION ADVISORY COMMITTEE TO THE ORGANI-SATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT

(The 30 member countries of the OECD are: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada,Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland,Ireland, Italy, Japan, Korea, Luxembourg, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand,Norway, Poland, Portugal, Spain, Slovakia, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, UnitedKingdom, United States)

Represents workers in: affiliated national trade union centres in OECD countriesEstablished: 1948Affiliation: 56 affiliates in 30 countries with a total

membership of 70 million (2001)General Secretary: John Evans

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The International Labour Conference,1. Recalls:

(a) that in freely joining the ILO, all Members have endorsed the principles andrights set out in its Constitution and in the Declaration of Philadelphia, andhave undertaken to work towards attaining the overall objectives of theOrganisation to the best of their resources and fully in line with their specificcircumstances;

(b) that these principles and rights have been expressed and developed in theform of specific rights and obligations in Conventions recognised as funda-mental both inside and outside the Organisation.

2. Declares that all Members, even if they have not ratified the Conventions inquestion, have an obligation arising from the very fact of membership in theOrganisation, to respect, to promote and to realise, in good faith and in accor-dance with the Constitution, the principles concerning the fundamental rightswhich are the subject of those Conventions, namely:(a) freedom of association and the effective recognition of the right to collective

bargaining;(b) the elimination of all forms of forced or compulsory labour;(c) the effective abolition of child labour; and(d) the elimination of discrimination in respect of employment and occupation.

3. Recognises the obligation on the Organisation to assist its Members, in responseto their established and expressed needs, in order to attain these objectives bymaking full use of its constitutional, operational and budgetary resources, includ-ing by the mobilisation of external resources and support, as well as by encour-aging other international organisations with which the ILO has established rela-tions, pursuant to article 12 of its Constitution, to support these efforts:(a) by offering technical co-operation and advisory services to promote the rat-

ification and implementation of the fundamental Conventions;(b) by assisting those Members not yet in a position to ratify some or all of these

Conventions in their efforts to respect, to promote and to realise the princi-ples concerning fundamental rights which are the subject of thoseConventions; and

(c) by helping the Members in their efforts to create a climate for economic andsocial development.

4. Decides that, to give full effect to this Declaration, a promotional follow-up,which is meaningful and effective, shall be implemented in accordance with themeasures specified in the annex hereto, which shall be considered as an integralpart of this Declaration.

5. Stresses that labour standards should not be used for protectionist trade purposes,and that nothing in this Declaration and its follow-up shall be invoked or other-wise used for such purposes; in addition, the comparative advantage of any coun-try should in no way be called into question by this Declaration and its follow-up.

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APPENDIX III

THE ILO DECLARATION ON FUNDAMENTALPRINCIPLES AND RIGHTS AT WORK + THEFUNDAMENTAL ILO CONVENTIONS (MAINARTICLES)

THE ILO DECLARATION ON FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLESAND RIGHTS AT WORK

Whereas the ILO was founded in the conviction that social justice is essential touniversal and lasting peace;

Whereas economic growth is essential but not sufficient to ensure equity, socialprogress and the eradication of poverty, confirming the need for the ILO to pro-mote strong social policies, justice and democratic institutions;

Whereas the ILO should, now more than ever, draw upon all its standard-setting,technical co-operation and research resources in all its areas of competence, in par-ticular employment, vocational training and working conditions, to ensure that, inthe context of a global strategy for economic and social development, economic andsocial policies are mutually reinforcing components in order to create broad-basedsustainable development;

Whereas the ILO should give special attention to the problems of persons withspecial social needs, particularly the unemployed and migrant workers, andmobilise and encourage international, regional and national efforts aimed atresolving their problems, and promote effective policies aimed at job creation;

Whereas, in seeking to maintain the link between social progress and economicgrowth, the guarantee of fundamental principles and rights at work is of particu-lar significance in that it enables the persons concerned to claim freely and on thebasis of equality of opportunity their fair share of the wealth which they havehelped to generate, and to achieve fully their human potential;

Whereas the ILO is the constitutionally mandated international organisation andthe competent body to set and deal with international labour standards, andenjoys universal support and acknowledgement in promoting fundamental rightsat work as the expression of its constitutional principles;

Whereas it is urgent, in a situation of growing economic interdependence, to reaf-firm the immutable nature of the fundamental principles and rights embodied inthe Constitution of the Organisation and to promote their universal application;

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III. Global report

A. Purpose and scope

1. The purpose of this report is to provide a dynamic global picture relating to eachcategory of fundamental principles and rights noted during the preceding four-year period, and to serve as a basis for assessing the effectiveness of the assis-tance provided by the Organisation, and for determining priorities for the fol-lowing period, in the form of action plans for technical co-operation designed inparticular to mobilise the internal and external resources necessary to carrythem out.

2. The report will cover, each year, one of the four categories of fundamentalprinciples and rights in turn.

B. Modalities

1. The report will be drawn up under the responsibility of the Director-Generalon the basis of official information, or information gathered and assessed inaccordance with established procedures. In the case of States which have notratified the fundamental Conventions, it will be based in particular on thefindings of the aforementioned annual follow-up. In the case of Memberswhich have ratified the Conventions concerned, the report will be based inparticular on reports as dealt with pursuant to article 22 of the Constitution.

2. This report will be submitted to the Conference for tripartite discussion as areport of the Director-General. The Conference may deal with this report sep-arately from reports under article 12 of its Standing Orders, and may discussit during a sitting devoted entirely to this report, or in any other appropriateway. It will then be for the Governing Body, at an early session, to draw con-clusions from this discussion concerning the priorities and plans of action fortechnical co-operation to be implemented for the following four-year period.

IV. It is understood that:

1. Proposals shall be made for amendments to the Standing Orders of the GoverningBody and the Conference which are required to implement the preceding provi-sions.

2. The Conference shall, in due course, review the operation of this follow-up inthe light of the experience acquired to assess whether it has adequately ful-filled the overall purpose articulated in Part I.

THE FUNDAMENTAL ILO CONVENTIONS (MAIN ARTICLES)

CONVENTION NO. 87 CONVENTION CONCERNING FREEDOM OF ASSOCIATION ANDPROTECTION OF THE RIGHT TO ORGANISE

The General Conference of the International Labour Organisation,

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ANNEX

Follow-up to the Declaration

I. Overall purpose

1. The aim of the follow-up described below is to encourage the efforts made bythe Members of the Organisation to promote the fundamental principles andrights enshrined in the Constitution of the ILO and the Declaration ofPhiladelphia and reaffirmed in this Declaration.

2. In line with this objective, which is of a strictly promotional nature, this follow-upwill allow the identification of areas in which the assistance of the Organisationthrough its technical co-operation activities may prove useful to its Members tohelp them implement these fundamental principles and rights. It is not a substitutefor the established supervisory mechanisms, nor shall it impede their functioning;consequently, specific situations within the purview of those mechanisms shall notbe examined or re-examined within the framework of this follow-up.

3. The two aspects of this follow-up, described below, are based on existing proce-dures: the annual follow-up concerning non-ratified fundamental Conventions willentail merely some adaptation of the present modalities of application of article 19,paragraph 5(e) of the Constitution; and the global report will serve to obtain thebest results from the procedures carried out pursuant to the Constitution.

II. Annual follow-up concerning non-ratified fundamental Conventions

A. Purpose and scope

1. The purpose is to provide an opportunity to review each year, by means of sim-plified procedures to replace the four-year review introduced by the GoverningBody in 1995, the efforts made in accordance with the Declaration by Memberswhich have not yet ratified all the fundamental Conventions.

2. The follow-up will cover each year the four areas of fundamental principles andrights specified in the Declaration.

B. Modalities

1. The follow-up will be based on reports requested from Members under article 19,paragraph 5(e) of the Constitution. The report forms will be drawn up so as toobtain information from governments which have not ratified one or more of thefundamental Conventions, on any changes which may have taken place in theirlaw and practice, taking due account of article 23 of the Constitution and estab-lished practice.

2. These reports, as compiled by the Office, will be reviewed by the Governing Body.3. With a view to presenting an introduction to the reports thus compiled, drawing

attention to any aspects which might call for a more in-depth discussion, the Officemay call upon a group of experts appointed for this purpose by the Governing Body.

4. Adjustments to the Governing Body's existing procedures should be examined toallow Members which are not represented on the Governing Body to provide, in themost appropriate way, clarifications which might prove necessary or useful duringGoverning Body discussions to supplement the information contained in their reports.

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Article 5Workers' and employers' organisations shall have the right to establish and joinfederations and confederations and any such organisation, federation or confed-eration shall have the right to affiliate with international organisations of workersand employers.

Article 6The provisions of Articles 2, 3 and 4 hereof apply to federations and confedera-tions of workers' and employers' organisations.

Article 7The acquisition of legal personality by workers' and employers' organisations, fed-erations and confederations shall not be made subject to conditions of such a char-acter as to restrict the application of the provisions of Articles 2, 3 and 4 hereof.

Article 8 1. In exercising the rights provided for in this Convention workers and employers

and their respective organisations, like other persons or organised collectivities,shall respect the law of the land.

2. The law of the land shall not be such as to impair, nor shall it be so applied asto impair, the guarantees provided for in this Convention.

Article 9 1. The extent to which the guarantees provided for in this Convention shall apply to

the armed forces and the police shall be determined by national laws or regulations. 2. In accordance with the principle set forth in paragraph 8 of article 19 of the

Constitution of the International Labour Organisation the ratification of thisConvention by any Member shall not be deemed to affect any existing law,award, custom or agreement in virtue of which members of the armed forces orthe police enjoy any right guaranteed by this Convention.

Article 10In this Convention the term organisation means any organisation of workers or ofemployers for furthering and defending the interests of workers or of employers.

Part II. Protection of the Right to Organise

Article 11Each Member of the International Labour Organisation for which thisConvention is in force undertakes to take all necessary and appropriate measuresto ensure that workers and employers may exercise freely the right to organise.

CONVENTION 98 CONVENTION CONCERNING THE APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLESOF THE RIGHT TO ORGANISE AND TO BARGAIN COLLECTIVELY


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Having been convened at San Francisco by the Governing Body of the InternationalLabour Office, and having met in its Thirty-first Session on 17 June 1948;Having decided to adopt, in the form of a Convention, certain proposals con-cerning freedom of association and protection of the right to organise, which is theseventh item on the agenda of the session;

Considering that the Preamble to the Constitution of the International LabourOrganisation declares recognition of the principle of freedom of association to bea means of improving conditions of labour and of establishing peace;

Considering that the Declaration of Philadelphia reaffirms that freedom of expres-sion and of association are essential to sustained progress;

Considering that the International Labour Conference, at its Thirtieth Session, unani-mously adopted the principles which should form the basis for international regulation;

Considering that the General Assembly of the United Nations, at its SecondSession, endorsed these principles and requested the International LabourOrganisation to continue every effort in order that it may be possible to adopt oneor several international Conventions;

adopts the ninth day of July of the year one thousand nine hundred and forty-eight, the following Convention, which may be cited as the Freedom ofAssociation and Protection of the Right to Organise Convention, 1948:

Part I. Freedom of Association

Article 1Each Member of the International Labour Organisation for which thisConvention is in force undertakes to give effect to the following provisions.

Article 2Workers and employers, without distinction whatsoever, shall have the right toestablish and, subject only to the rules of the organisation concerned, to joinorganisations of their own choosing without previous authorisation.

Article 3 1. Workers' and employers' organisations shall have the right to draw up their

constitutions and rules, to elect their representatives in full freedom, to organ-ise their administration and activities and to formulate their programmes.

2. The public authorities shall refrain from any interference which would restrictthis right or impede the lawful exercise thereof.

Article 4Workers' and employers' organisations shall not be liable to be dissolved or sus-pended by administrative authority.

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Article 51. The extent to which the guarantees provided for in this Convention shall apply

to the armed forces and the police shall be determined by national laws or reg-ulations.

2. In accordance with the principle set forth in paragraph 8 of article 19 of theConstitution of the International Labour Organisation the ratification of thisConvention by any Member shall not be deemed to affect any existing law,award, custom or agreement in virtue of which members of the armed forces orthe police enjoy any right guaranteed by this Convention.

Article 6This Convention does not deal with the position of public servants engaged in theadministration of the State, nor shall it be construed as prejudicing their rights orstatus in any way.

CONVENTION NO. 29: CONVENTION CONCERNING FORCED LABOUR


Having been convened at Geneva by the Governing Body of the InternationalLabour Office, and having met in its Fourteenth Session on 10 June 1930, and

Having decided upon the adoption of certain proposals with regard to forced or com-pulsory labour, which is included in the first item on the agenda of the Session, and,

Having determined that these proposals shall take the form of an internationalConvention,

adopts the twenty-eighth day of June of the year one thousand nine hundred andthirty, the following Convention, which may be cited as the Forced LabourConvention, 1930, for ratification by the Members of the International LabourOrganisation in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution of theInternational Labour Organisation:

Article 11. Each Member of the International Labour Organisation which ratifies this

Convention undertakes to suppress the use of forced or compulsory labour inall its forms within the shortest possible period.

2. With a view to this complete suppression, recourse to forced or compulsorylabour may be had, during the transitional period, for public purposes only andas an exceptional measure, subject to the conditions and guarantees hereinafterprovided.

3. At the expiration of a period of five years after the coming into force of thisConvention, and when the Governing Body of the International Labour Officeprepares the report provided for in Article 31 below, the said Governing Bodyshall consider the possibility of the suppression of forced or compulsory labour

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Having been convened at Geneva by the Governing Body of the InternationalLabour Office, and having met in its Thirty-second Session on 8 June 1949, and

Having decided upon the adoption of certain proposals concerning the applicationof the principles of the right to organise and to bargain collectively, which is thefourth item on the agenda of the session, and


adopts the first day of July of the year one thousand nine hundred and forty-nine,the following Convention, which may be cited as the Right to Organise andCollective Bargaining Convention, 1949:

Article 11. Workers shall enjoy adequate protection against acts of anti-union discrimina-

tion in respect of their employment.2. Such protection shall apply more particularly in respect of acts calculated to

a) make the employment of a worker subject to the condition that he shall notjoin a union or shall relinquish trade union membership;

b) cause the dismissal of or otherwise prejudice a worker by reason of unionmembership or because of participation in union activities outside workinghours or, with the consent of the employer, within working hours.

Article 21. Workers' and employers' organisations shall enjoy adequate protection against

any acts of interference by each other or each other's agents or members in theirestablishment, functioning or administration.

2. In particular, acts which are designed to promote the establishment of workers'organisations under the domination of employers or employers' organisations,or to support workers' organisations by financial or other means, with theobject of placing such organisations under the control of employers or employ-ers' organisations, shall be deemed to constitute acts of interference within themeaning of this Article.

Article 3Machinery appropriate to national conditions shall be established where necessary,for the purpose of ensuring respect for the right to organise as defined in the preced-ing Articles.

Article 4Measures appropriate to national conditions shall be taken, where necessary, toencourage and promote the full development and utilisation of machinery for vol-untary negotiation between employers or employers' organisations and workers'organisations, with a view to the regulation of terms and conditions of employ-ment by means of collective agreements.

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2. Where concessions exist containing provisions involving such forced or com-pulsory labour, such provisions shall be rescinded as soon as possible, in orderto comply with Article 1 of this Convention.

Article 6Officials of the administration, even when they have the duty of encouraging thepopulations under their charge to engage in some form of labour, shall not putconstraint upon the said populations or upon any individual members thereof towork for private individuals, companies or associations.

Article 71. Chiefs who do not exercise administrative functions shall not have recourse to

forced or compulsory labour.2. Chiefs who exercise administrative functions may, with the express permission

of the competent authority, have recourse to forced or compulsory labour, sub-ject to the provisions of Article 10 of this Convention.

3. Chiefs who are duly recognised and who do not receive adequate remunerationin other forms may have the enjoyment of personal services, subject to due reg-ulation and provided that all necessary measures are taken to prevent abuses.

Article 81. The responsibility for every decision to have recourse to forced or compulsory

labour shall rest with the highest civil authority in the territory concerned.2. Nevertheless, that authority may delegate powers to the highest local authorities

to exact forced or compulsory labour which does not involve the removal of theworkers from their place of habitual residence. That authority may also delegate,for such periods and subject to such conditions as may be laid down in the regu-lations provided for in Article 23 of this Convention, powers to the highest localauthorities to exact forced or compulsory labour which involves the removal ofthe workers from their place of habitual residence for the purpose of facilitatingthe movement of officials of the administration, when on duty, and for the trans-port of Government stores.

Article 9Except as otherwise provided for in Article 10 of this Convention, any authoritycompetent to exact forced or compulsory labour shall, before deciding to haverecourse to such labour, satisfy itself

a) that the work to be done or the service to be rendered is of important directinterest for the community called upon to do work or render the service;

b) that the work or service is of present or imminent necessity; c) that it has been impossible to obtain voluntary labour for carrying out the

work or rendering the service by the offer of rates of wages and conditionsof labour not less favourable than those prevailing in the area concerned forsimilar work or service; and

d) that the work or service will not lay too heavy a burden upon the present popula-tion, having regard to the labour available and its capacity to undertake the work.

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in all its forms without a further transitional period and the desirability of plac-ing this question on the agenda of the Conference.

Article 21. For the purposes of this Convention the term forced or compulsory labour shall

mean all work or service which is exacted from any person under the menace ofany penalty and for which the said person has not offered himself voluntarily.

2. Nevertheless, for the purposes of this Convention, the term forced or compul-sory labour shall not includea) any work or service exacted in virtue of compulsory military service laws for

work of a purely military character; b) any work or service which forms part of the normal civic obligations of the

citizens of a fully self-governing country; c) any work or service exacted from any person as a consequence of a convic-

tion in a court of law, provided that the said work or service is carried outunder the supervision and control of a public authority and that the said per-son is not hired to or placed at the disposal of private individuals, companiesor associations;

d) any work or service exacted in cases of emergency, that is to say, in the eventof war or of a calamity or threatened calamity, such as fire, flood, famine,earthquake, violent epidemic or epizootic diseases, invasion by animal, insector vegetable pests, and in general any circumstance that would endanger theexistence or the well-being of the whole or part of the population;

e) minor communal services of a kind which, being performed by the members ofthe community in the direct interest of the said community, can therefore be con-sidered as normal civic obligations incumbent upon the members of the com-munity, provided that the members of the community or their direct representa-tives shall have the right to be consulted in regard to the need for such services.

Article 3For the purposes of this Convention the term competent authority shall meaneither an authority of the metropolitan country or the highest central authority inthe territory concerned.Article 41. The competent authority shall not impose or permit the imposition of forced or

compulsory labour for the benefit of private individuals, companies or associations.2. Where such forced or compulsory labour for the benefit of private individuals,

companies or associations exists at the date on which a Member's ratification ofthis Convention is registered by the Director-General of the International LabourOffice, the Member shall completely suppress such forced or compulsory labourfrom the date on which this Convention comes into force for that Member.

Article 51. No concession granted to private individuals, companies or associations shall

involve any form of forced or compulsory labour for the production or the col-lection of products which such private individuals, companies or associationsutilise or in which they trade.

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Article 131. The normal working hours of any person from whom forced or compulsory

labour is exacted shall be the same as those prevailing in the case of voluntarylabour, and the hours worked in excess of the normal working hours shall beremunerated at the rates prevailing in the case of overtime for voluntary labour.

2. A weekly day of rest shall be granted to all persons from whom forced or com-pulsory labour of any kind is exacted and this day shall coincide as far as possiblewith the day fixed by tradition or custom in the territories or regions concerned.

Article 141. With the exception of the forced or compulsory labour provided for in Article

10 of this Convention, forced or compulsory labour of all kinds shall be remu-nerated in cash at rates not less than those prevailing for similar kinds of workeither in the district in which the labour is employed or in the district fromwhich the labour is recruited, whichever may be the higher.

2. In the case of labour to which recourse is had by chiefs in the exercise of theiradministrative functions, payment of wages in accordance with the provisionsof the preceding paragraph shall be introduced as soon as possible.

3. The wages shall be paid to each worker individually and not to his tribal chiefor to any other authority.

4. For the purpose of payment of wages the days spent in travelling to and fromthe place of work shall be counted as working days.

5. Nothing in this Article shall prevent ordinary rations being given as a part ofwages, such rations to be at least equivalent in value to the money payment theyare taken to represent, but deductions from wages shall not be made either forthe payment of taxes or for special food, clothing or accommodation supplied toa worker for the purpose of maintaining him in a fit condition to carry on hiswork under the special conditions of any employment, or for the supply of tools.

Article 151. Any laws or regulations relating to workmen's compensation for accidents or

sickness arising out of the employment of the worker and any laws or regula-tions providing compensation for the dependants of deceased or incapacitatedworkers which are or shall be in force in the territory concerned shall be equal-ly applicable to persons from whom forced or compulsory labour is exacted andto voluntary workers.

2. In any case it shall be an obligation on any authority employing any worker onforced or compulsory labour to ensure the subsistence of any such worker who,by accident or sickness arising out of his employment, is rendered wholly orpartially incapable of providing for himself, and to take measures to ensure themaintenance of any persons actually dependent upon such a worker in the eventof his incapacity or decease arising out of his employment.

Article 161. Except in cases of special necessity, persons from whom forced or compulsory labour

is exacted shall not be transferred to districts where the food and climate differ so con-siderably from those to which they have been accustomed as to endanger their health.

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Article 101. Forced or compulsory labour exacted as a tax and forced or compulsory labour

to which recourse is had for the execution of public works by chiefs who exer-cise administrative functions shall be progressively abolished.

2. Meanwhile, where forced or compulsory labour is exacted as a tax, and where recourseis had to forced or compulsory labour for the execution of public works by chiefs whoexercise administrative functions, the authority concerned shall first satisfy itselfa) that the work to be done or the service to be rendered is of important direct

interest for the community called upon to do the work or render the service; b) that the work or the service is of present or imminent necessity; c) that the work or service will not lay too heavy a burden upon the present popula-

tion, having regard to the labour available and its capacity to undertake the work; d) that the work or service will not entail the removal of the workers from their

place of habitual residence; e) that the execution of the work or the rendering of the service will be direct-

ed in accordance with the exigencies of religion, social life and agriculture.

Article 111. Only adult able-bodied males who are of an apparent age of not less than 18

and not more than 45 years may be called upon for forced or compulsorylabour. Except in respect of the kinds of labour provided for in Article 10 of thisConvention, the following limitations and conditions shall apply:a) whenever possible prior determination by a medical officer appointed by the

administration that the persons concerned are not suffering from any infec-tious or contagious disease and that they are physically fit for the workrequired and for the conditions under which it is to be carried out;

b) exemption of school teachers and pupils and officials of the administration ingeneral;

c) the maintenance in each community of the number of adult able-bodied menindispensable for family and social life;

d) respect for conjugal and family ties. 2. For the purposes of subparagraph (c) of the preceding paragraph, the regulations

provided for in Article 23 of this Convention shall fix the proportion of the res-ident adult able-bodied males who may be taken at any one time for forced orcompulsory labour, provided always that this proportion shall in no case exceed25 per cent. In fixing this proportion the competent authority shall take accountof the density of the population, of its social and physical development, of theseasons, and of the work which must be done by the persons concerned on theirown behalf in their locality, and, generally, shall have regard to the economic andsocial necessities of the normal life of the community concerned.

Article 121. The maximum period for which any person may be taken for forced or com-

pulsory labour of all kinds in any one period of twelve months shall not exceedsixty days, including the time spent in going to and from the place of work.

2. Every person from whom forced or compulsory labour is exacted shall be furnishedwith a certificate indicating the periods of such labour which he has completed.

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fit, where medical examination is possible, and that where such medicalexamination is not practicable the person employing such workers shall beheld responsible for ensuring that they are physically fit and not sufferingfrom any infectious or contagious disease,

(c) the maximum load which these workers may carry, (d) the maximum distance from their homes to which they may be taken, (e) the maximum number of days per month or other period for which they

may be taken, including the days spent in returning to their homes, and (f) the persons entitled to demand this form of forced or compulsory labour

and the extent to which they are entitled to demand it. 2. In fixing the maxima referred to under (c), (d) and (e) in the foregoing para-

graph, the competent authority shall have regard to all relevant factors, includ-ing the physical development of the population from which the workers arerecruited, the nature of the country through which they must travel and the cli-matic conditions.

3. The competent authority shall further provide that the normal daily journey ofsuch workers shall not exceed a distance corresponding to an average workingday of eight hours, it being understood that account shall be taken not only ofthe weight to be carried and the distance to be covered, but also of the natureof the road, the season and all other relevant factors, and that, where hours ofjourney in excess of the normal daily journey are exacted, they shall be remu-nerated at rates higher than the normal rates.

Article 191. The competent authority shall only authorise recourse to compulsory cultiva-

tion as a method of precaution against famine or a deficiency of food suppliesand always under the condition that the food or produce shall remain the prop-erty of the individuals or the community producing it.

2. Nothing in this Article shall be construed as abrogating the obligation on mem-bers of a community, where production is organised on a communal basis byvirtue of law or custom and where the produce or any profit accruing from thesale thereof remain the property of the community, to perform the workdemanded by the community by virtue of law or custom.

Article 20Collective punishment laws under which a community may be punished for crimescommitted by any of its members shall not contain provisions for forced or com-pulsory labour by the community as one of the methods of punishment.

Article 21Forced or compulsory labour shall not be used for work underground in mines.

Article 22The annual reports that Members which ratify this Convention agree to make to theInternational Labour Office, pursuant to the provisions of article 22 of theConstitution of the International Labour Organisation, on the measures they havetaken to give effect to the provisions of this Convention, shall contain as full informa-

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2. In no case shall the transfer of such workers be permitted unless all measuresrelating to hygiene and accommodation which are necessary to adapt suchworkers to the conditions and to safeguard their health can be strictly applied.

3. When such transfer cannot be avoided, measures of gradual habituation to the newconditions of diet and of climate shall be adopted on competent medical advice.

4. In cases where such workers are required to perform regular work to which theyare not accustomed, measures shall be taken to ensure their habituation to it,especially as regards progressive training, the hours of work and the provision ofrest intervals, and any increase or amelioration of diet which may be necessary.

Article 17Before permitting recourse to forced or compulsory labour for works of construc-tion or maintenance which entail the workers remaining at the workplaces forconsiderable periods, the competent authority shall satisfy itself(1) that all necessary measures are taken to safeguard the health of the workers

and to guarantee the necessary medical care, and, in particular, (a) that the workers are medically examined before commencing the work and

at fixed intervals during the period of service, (b) that there is an adequate medical staff, provided with the dispensaries,

infirmaries, hospitals and equipment necessary to meet all requirements,and

(c) that the sanitary conditions of the workplaces, the supply of drinking water,food, fuel, and cooking utensils, and, where necessary, of housing andclothing, are satisfactory;

(2) that definite arrangements are made to ensure the subsistence of the familiesof the workers, in particular by facilitating the remittance, by a safe method,of part of the wages to the family, at the request or with the consent of theworkers;

(3) that the journeys of the workers to and from the work-places are made at theexpense and under the responsibility of the administration, which shall facilitatesuch journeys by making the fullest use of all available means of transport;

(4) that, in case of illness or accident causing incapacity to work of a certainduration, the worker is repatriated at the expense of the administration;

(5) that any worker who may wish to remain as a voluntary worker at the end ofhis period of forced or compulsory labour is permitted to do so without, for aperiod of two years, losing his right to repatriation free of expense to himself.

Article 181. Forced or compulsory labour for the transport of persons or goods, such as the

labour of porters or boatmen, shall be abolished within the shortest possibleperiod. Meanwhile the competent authority shall promulgate regulationsdetermining, inter alia, (a) that such labour shall only be employed for the purpose of facilitating the

movement of officials of the administration, when on duty, or for the trans-port of Government stores, or, in cases of very urgent necessity, the trans-port of persons other than officials,

(b) that the workers so employed shall be medically certified to be physically

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Having noted that the Protection of Wages Convention, 1949, provides that wagesshall be paid regularly and prohibits methods of payment which deprive the work-er of a genuine possibility of terminating his employment, and

Having decided upon the adoption of further proposals with regard to the aboli-tion of certain forms of forced or compulsory labour constituting a violation ofthe rights of man referred to in the Charter of the United Nations and enunciatedby the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and


adopts the twenty-fifth day of June of the year one thousand nine hundred andfifty-seven, the following Convention, which may be cited as the Abolition ofForced Labour Convention, 1957:

Article 1Each Member of the International Labour Organisation which ratifies thisConvention undertakes to suppress and not to make use of any form of forced orcompulsory labour

a) as a means of political coercion or education or as a punishment for holdingor expressing political views or views ideologically opposed to the establishedpolitical, social or economic system;

b) as a method of mobilising and using labour for purposes of economic devel-opment;

c) as a means of labour discipline; d) as a punishment for having participated in strikes; e) as a means of racial, social, national or religious discrimination.

Article 2Each Member of the International Labour Organisation which ratifies this Conventionundertakes to take effective measures to secure the immediate and complete abolitionof forced or compulsory labour as specified in Article 1 of this Convention.

CONVENTION NO. 100 CONVENTION CONCERNING EQUAL REMUNERATION


Having been convened at Geneva by the Governing Body of the InternationalLabour Office, and having met in its Thirty-fourth Session on 6 June 1951, and

Having decided upon the adoption of certain proposals with regard to the princi-ple of equal remuneration for men and women workers for work of equal value,which is the seventh item on the agenda of the session, and


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tion as possible, in respect of each territory concerned, regarding the extent to whichrecourse has been had to forced or compulsory labour in that territory, the purposesfor which it has been employed, the sickness and death rates, hours of work, methodsof payment of wages and rates of wages, and any other relevant information.

Article 231. To give effect to the provisions of this Convention the competent authority shall issue

complete and precise regulations governing the use of forced or compulsory labour.2. These regulations shall contain, inter alia, rules permitting any person from

whom forced or compulsory labour is exacted to forward all complaints rela-tive to the conditions of labour to the authorities and ensuring that such com-plaints will be examined and taken into consideration.

Article 24Adequate measures shall in all cases be taken to ensure that the regulations governingthe employment of forced or compulsory labour are strictly applied, either by extendingthe duties of any existing labour inspectorate which has been established for the inspec-tion of voluntary labour to cover the inspection of forced or compulsory labour or insome other appropriate manner. Measures shall also be taken to ensure that the regula-tions are brought to the knowledge of persons from whom such labour is exacted.

Article 25The illegal exaction of forced or compulsory labour shall be punishable as apenal offence, and it shall be an obligation on any Member ratifying thisConvention to ensure that the penalties imposed by law are really adequate andare strictly enforced.

CONVENTION NO. 105 CONVENTION CONCERNING ABOLITION OF FORCED LABOUR


Having been convened at Geneva by the Governing Body of the InternationalLabour Office, and having met in its Fortieth Session on 5 June 1957, and

Having considered the question of forced labour, which is the fourth item on theagenda of the session, and

Having noted the provisions of the Forced Labour Convention, 1930, and

Having noted that the Slavery Convention, 1926, provides that all necessary mea-sures shall be taken to prevent compulsory or forced labour from developing intoconditions analogous to slavery and that the Supplementary Convention on theAbolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade and Institutions and Practices Similar toSlavery, 1956, provides for the complete abolition of debt bondage and serfdom,and,

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Having been convened at Geneva by the Governing Body of the InternationalLabour Office, and having met in its Forty-second Session on 4 June 1958, and

Having decided upon the adoption of certain proposals with regard to discrimi-nation in the field of employment and occupation, which is the fourth item on theagenda of the session, andHaving determined that these proposals shall take the form of an internationalConvention, and

Considering that the Declaration of Philadelphia affirms that all human beings,irrespective of race, creed or sex, have the right to pursue both their material well-being and their spiritual development in conditions of freedom and dignity, of eco-nomic security and equal opportunity, and

Considering further that discrimination constitutes a violation of rights enunciat-ed by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights,

adopts the twenty-fifth day of June of the year one thousand nine hundred andfifty-eight, the following Convention, which may be cited as the Discrimination(Employment and Occupation) Convention, 1958:

Article 11. For the purpose of this Convention the term discrimination includes

a) any distinction, exclusion or preference made on the basis of race, colour sex,religion, political opinion, national extraction or social origin, which has theeffect of nullifying or impairing equality of opportunity or treatment inemployment or occupation;

b) such other distinction, exclusion or preference which has the effect of nulli-fying or impairing equality of opportunity or treatment in employment oroccupation as may be determined by the Member concerned after consulta-tion with representative employers' and workers' organisations, where suchexist, and with other appropriate bodies.

2. Any distinction, exclusion or preference in respect of a particular job based onthe inherent requirements thereof shall not be deemed to be discrimination.

3. For the purpose of this Convention the terms employment and occupationinclude access to vocational training, access to employment and to particularoccupations, and terms and conditions of employment.

Article 2Each Member for which this Convention is in force undertakes to declare and pur-sue a national policy designed to promote, by methods appropriate to national con-ditions and practice, equality of opportunity and treatment in respect of employmentand occupation, with a view to eliminating any discrimination in respect thereof.

Article 3Each Member for which this Convention is in force undertakes, by methodsappropriate to national conditions and practice

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adopts the twenty-ninth day of June of the year one thousand nine hundred andfifty-one, the following Convention, which may be cited as the EqualRemuneration Convention, 1951:

Article 1For the purpose of this Convention

a) the term remuneration includes the ordinary, basic or minimum wage orsalary and any additional emoluments whatsoever payable directly or indi-rectly, whether in cash or in kind, by the employer to the worker and arisingout of the worker's employment;

b) the term equal remuneration for men and women workers for work of equal valuerefers to rates of remuneration established without discrimination based on sex.

Article 21. Each Member shall, by means appropriate to the methods in operation for

determining rates of remuneration, promote and, in so far as is consistent withsuch methods, ensure the application to all workers of the principle of equalremuneration for men and women workers for work of equal value.

2. This principle may be applied by means ofa) national laws or regulations; b) legally established or recognised machinery for wage determination; c) collective agreements between employers and workers; or d) a combination of these various means.

Article 31. Where such action will assist in giving effect to the provisions of this

Convention measures shall be taken to promote objective appraisal of jobs onthe basis of the work to be performed.

2. The methods to be followed in this appraisal may be decided upon by theauthorities responsible for the determination of rates of remuneration, or, wheresuch rates are determined by collective agreements, by the parties thereto.

3. Differential rates between workers which correspond, without regard to sex, todifferences, as determined by such objective appraisal, in the work to be per-formed shall not be considered as being contrary to the principle of equal remu-neration for men and women workers for work of equal value.

Article 4Each Member shall co-operate as appropriate with the employers' and workers'organisations concerned for the purpose of giving effect to the provisions of thisConvention.

CONVENTION NO. 111 CONVENTION CONCERNING DISCRIMINATION (EMPLOYMENT AND OCCUPATION)


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Noting the terms of the Minimum Age (Industry) Convention, 1919, theMinimum Age (Sea) Convention, 1920, the Minimum Age (Agriculture)Convention, 1921, the Minimum Age (Trimmers and Stokers) Convention, 1921,the Minimum Age (Non-Industrial Employment) Convention, 1932 the MinimumAge (Sea) Convention (Revised), 1936, the Minimum Age (Industry) Convention(Revised), 1937, the Minimum Age (Non-Industrial Employment) Convention(Revised), 1937, the Minimum Age (Fishermen) Convention, 1959, and theMinimum Age (Underground Work) Convention, 1965, and

Considering that the time has come to establish a general instrument on the sub-ject, which would gradually replace the existing ones applicable to limited eco-nomic sectors, with a view to achieving the total abolition of child labour, and


adopts the twenty-sixth day of June of the year one thousand nine hundred andseventy-three, the following Convention, which may be cited as the Minimum AgeConvention, 1973:

Article 1Each Member for which this Convention is in force undertakes to pursue a nation-al policy designed to ensure the effective abolition of child labour and to raise pro-gressively the minimum age for admission to employment or work to a level con-sistent with the fullest physical and mental development of young persons.

Article 21. Each Member which ratifies this Convention shall specify, in a declaration

appended to its ratification, a minimum age for admission to employment orwork within its territory and on means of transport registered in its territory;subject to Articles 4 to 8 of this Convention, no one under that age shall beadmitted to employment or work in any occupation.

2. Each Member which has ratified this Convention may subsequently notify theDirector-General of the International Labour Office, by further declarations,that it specifies a minimum age higher than that previously specified.

3. The minimum age specified in pursuance of paragraph 1 of this Article shall notbe less than the age of completion of compulsory schooling and, in any case,shall not be less than 15 years.

4. Notwithstanding the provisions of paragraph 3 of this Article, a Member whoseeconomy and educational facilities are insufficiently developed may, after con-sultation with the organisations of employers and workers concerned, wheresuch exist, initially specify a minimum age of 14 years.

5. Each Member which has specified a minimum age of 14 years in pursuance ofthe provisions of the preceding paragraph shall include in its reports on theapplication of this Convention submitted under article 22 of the constitution ofthe International Labour Organisation a statement(a) that its reason for doing so subsists; or

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a) to seek the co-operation of employers' and workers' organisations and otherappropriate bodies in promoting the acceptance and observance of this policy;

b) to enact such legislation and to promote such educational programmes asmay be calculated to secure the acceptance and observance of the policy;

c) to repeal any statutory provisions and modify any administrative instructionsor practices which are inconsistent with the policy;

d) to pursue the policy in respect of employment under the direct control of anational authority;

e) to ensure observance of the policy in the activities of vocational guidance,vocational training and placement services under the direction of a nationalauthority;

f) to indicate in its annual reports on the application of the Convention theaction taken in pursuance of the policy and the results secured by such action.

Article 4Any measures affecting an individual who is justifiably suspected of, or engagedin, activities prejudicial to the security of the State shall not be deemed to be dis-crimination, provided that the individual concerned shall have the right to appealto a competent body established in accordance with national practice.

Article 51. Special measures of protection or assistance provided for in other Conventions

or Recommendations adopted by the International Labour Conference shall notbe deemed to be discrimination.

2. Any Member may, after consultation with representative employers' and work-ers' organisations, where such exist, determine that other special measuresdesigned to meet the particular requirements of persons who, for reasons suchas sex, age, disablement, family responsibilities or social or cultural status, aregenerally recognised to require special protection or assistance, shall not bedeemed to be discrimination.

Article 6Each Member which ratifies this Convention undertakes to apply it to non-metropolitan territories in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution ofthe International Labour Organisation.

CONVENTION NO. 138CONVENTION CONCERNING MINIMUM AGE

Preamble


Having been convened at Geneva by the Governing Body of the InternationalLabour Office, and having met in its Fifty-eighth Session on 6 June 1973, and

Having decided upon the adoption of certain proposals with regard to minimum age foradmission to employment, which is the fourth item on the agenda of the session, and

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4. Any Member which has limited the scope of application of this Convention inpursuance of this Article(a) shall indicate in its reports under article 22 of the Constitution of the

International Labour Organisation the general position as regards theemployment or work of young persons and children in the branches ofactivity which are excluded from the scope of application of thisConvention and any progress which may have been made towards widerapplication of the provisions of the Convention;

(b) may at any time formally extend the scope of application by a declarationaddressed to the Director-General of the International Labour Office.

Article 6This Convention does not apply to work done by children and young persons inschools for general, vocational or technical education or in other training institu-tions, or to work done by persons at least 14 years of age in undertakings, wheresuch work is carried out in accordance with conditions prescribed by the compe-tent authority after consultation with the organisations of employers and workersconcerned, where such exist, and is an integral part of

(a) a course of education or training for which a school or training institutionis primarily responsible;

(b) a programme of training mainly or entirely in an undertaking which pro-gramme has been approved by the competent authority; or

(c) a programme of guidance or orientation designed to facilitate the choice ofan occupation or of a line of training.

Article 71. National laws or regulations may permit the employment or work of persons

13 to 15 years of age on light work which is(a) not likely to be harmful to their health or development; and (b) not such as to prejudice their attendance at school, their participation in

vocational orientation or training programmes approved by the competentauthority or their capacity to benefit from the instruction received.

2. National laws or regulations may also permit the employment or work of per-sons who are at least 15 years of age but have not yet completed their compul-sory schooling on work which meets the requirements set forth in sub-para-graphs (a) and (b) of paragraph 1 of this Article.

3. The competent authority shall determine the activities in which employment orwork may be permitted under paragraphs 1 and 2 of this Article and shall pre-scribe the number of hours during which and the conditions in which suchemployment or work may be undertaken.

4. Notwithstanding the provisions of paragraphs 1 and 2 of this Article, a Memberwhich has availed itself of the provisions of paragraph 4 of Article 2 may, for aslong as it continues to do so substitute the ages 12 and 14 for the ages 13 and15 in paragraph 1 and the age 14 for the age 15 in paragraph 2 of this Article.

Article 81. After consultation with the organisations of employers and workers concerned, where

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(b) that it renounces its right to avail itself of the provisions in question as froma stated date.

Article 31. The minimum age for admission to any type of employment or work which by

its nature or the circumstances in which it is carried out is likely to jeopardisethe health, safety or morals of young persons shall not be less than 18 years.

2. The types of employment or work to which paragraph 1 of this Article appliesshall be determined by national laws or regulations or by the competent author-ity, after consultation with the organisations of employers and workers con-cerned, where such exist.

3. Notwithstanding the provisions of paragraph 1 of this Article national laws or regu-lations or the competent authority may, after consultation with the organisations ofemployers and workers concerned, where such exist, authorise employment or workas from the age of 16 years on condition that the health, safety and morals of theyoung persons concerned are fully protected and that the young persons have receivedadequate specific instruction or vocational training in the relevant branch of activity.

Article 41. In so far as necessary, the competent authority, after consultation with the

organisations of employers and workers concerned, where such exist, mayexclude from the application of this Convention limited categories of employ-ment or work in respect of which special and substantial problems of applica-tion arise.

2. Each Member which ratifies this Convention shall list in its first report on theapplication of the Convention submitted under article 22 of the Constitution ofthe International Labour Organisation any categories which may have beenexcluded in pursuance of paragraph 1 of this Article, giving the reasons for suchexclusion, and shall state in subsequent reports the position of its law and prac-tice in respect of the categories excluded and the extent to which effect has beengiven or is proposed to be given to the Convention in respect of such categories.

3. Employment or work covered by Article 3 of this Convention shall not beexcluded from the application of the Convention in pursuance of this Article.

Article 51. A Member whose economy and administrative facilities are insufficiently devel-

oped may, after consultation with the organisations of employers and workers con-cerned, where such exist initially limit the scope of application of this Convention.

2. Each Member which avails itself of the provisions of paragraph 1 of this Article shallspecify, in a declaration appended to its ratification, the branches of economic activ-ity or types of undertakings to which it will apply the provisions of the Convention.

3. The provisions of the Convention shall be applicable as a minimum to the fol-lowing: mining and quarrying; manufacturing; construction; electricity, gas andwater; sanitary services; transport, storage and communication; and plantationsand other agricultural undertakings mainly producing for commercial purpos-es, but excluding family and small-scale holdings producing for local consump-tion and not regularly employing hired workers.

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its Follow-up, adopted by the International Labour Conference at its 86th Sessionin 1998, and

Recalling that some of the worst forms of child labour are covered by other inter-national instruments, in particular the Forced Labour Convention, 1930, and theUnited Nations Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the SlaveTrade, and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery, 1956, and

Having decided upon the adoption of certain proposals with regard to childlabour, which is the fourth item on the agenda of the session, and

Having determined that these proposals shall take the form of an internationalConvention;

adopts this seventeenth day of June of the year one thousand nine hundred andninety-nine the following Convention, which may be cited as the Worst Forms ofChild Labour Convention, 1999.

Article 1 Each Member which ratifies this Convention shall take immediate and effectivemeasures to secure the prohibition and elimination of the worst forms of childlabour as a matter of urgency.

Article 2 For the purposes of this Convention, the term child shall apply to all personsunder the age of 18.

Article 3 For the purposes of this Convention, the term the worst forms of child labour comprises:

(a) all forms of slavery or practices similar to slavery, such as the sale and traffickingof children, debt bondage and serfdom and forced or compulsory labour, includ-ing forced or compulsory recruitment of children for use in armed conflict;

(b) the use, procuring or offering of a child for prostitution, for the productionof pornography or for pornographic performances;

(c) the use, procuring or offering of a child for illicit activities, in particular for theproduction and trafficking of drugs as defined in the relevant international treaties;

(d) work which, by its nature or the circumstances in which it is carried out, islikely to harm the health, safety or morals of children.

Article 4 1. The types of work referred to under Article 3(d) shall be determined by nation-

al laws or regulations or by the competent authority, after consultation with theorganizations of employers and workers concerned, taking into considerationrelevant international standards, in particular Paragraphs 3 and 4 of the WorstForms of Child Labour Recommendation, 1999.

2. The competent authority, after consultation with the organizations of employersand workers concerned, shall identify where the types of work so determined exist.

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such exist, the competent authority may, by permits granted in individual cases, allowexceptions to the prohibition of employment or work provided for in Article 2 of thisConvention, for such purposes as participation in artistic performances.

2. Permits so granted shall limit the number of hours during which and prescribethe conditions in which employment or work is allowed.

Article 91. All necessary measures, including the provision of appropriate penalties, shall

be taken by the competent authority to ensure the effective enforcement of theprovisions of this Convention.

2. National laws or regulations or the competent authority shall define the personsresponsible for compliance with the provisions giving effect to the Convention.

3. National laws or regulations or the competent authority shall prescribe the reg-isters or other documents which shall be kept and made available by theemployer; such registers or documents shall contain the names and ages or datesof birth, duly certified wherever possible, of persons whom he employs or whowork for him and who are less than 18 years of age.

CONVENTION NO. 182CONVENTION CONCERNING WORST FORMS OF CHILD LABOUR

The General Conference of the International Labour Organization,

Having been convened at Geneva by the Governing Body of the InternationalLabour Office, and having met in its 87th Session on 1 June 1999, and Considering the need to adopt new instruments for the prohibition and eliminationof the worst forms of child labour, as the main priority for national and interna-tional action, including international cooperation and assistance, to complementthe Convention and the Recommendation concerning Minimum Age for Admissionto Employment, 1973, which remain fundamental instruments on child labour, and

Considering that the effective elimination of the worst forms of child labourrequires immediate and comprehensive action, taking into account the importanceof free basic education and the need to remove the children concerned from allsuch work and to provide for their rehabilitation and social integration whileaddressing the needs of their families, and

Recalling the resolution concerning the elimination of child labour adopted by theInternational Labour Conference at its 83rd Session in 1996, and

Recognizing that child labour is to a great extent caused by poverty and that thelong-term solution lies in sustained economic growth leading to social progress, inparticular poverty alleviation and universal education, and Recalling the Convention on the Rights of the Child adopted by the UnitedNations General Assembly on 20 November 1989, and

Recalling the ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work and

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3. The list of the types of work determined under paragraph 1 of this Article shallbe periodically examined and revised as necessary, in consultation with theorganizations of employers and workers concerned.

Article 5 Each Member shall, after consultation with employers' and workers' organiza-tions, establish or designate appropriate mechanisms to monitor the implementa-tion of the provisions giving effect to this Convention.

Article 6 1. Each Member shall design and implement programmes of action to eliminate as

a priority the worst forms of child labour. 2. Such programmes of action shall be designed and implemented in consultation

with relevant government institutions and employers' and workers' organizations,taking into consideration the views of other concerned groups as appropriate.

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APPENDIX IV

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE ILOTRIPARTITE DECLARATION OF PRINCIPLESCONCERNING MULTINATIONALENTERPRISES AND SOCIAL POLICY AND ANINTRODUCTION TO THE OECD GUIDELINESFOR MULTINATIONAL ENTERPRISES

THE ILO TRIPARTITE DECLARATION OF PRINCIPLES CONCERNINGMULTINATIONAL ENTERPRISES AND SOCIAL POLICY

The Tripartite Declaration of Principles concerning Multinational Enterprises and Social Policy(hereafter: the ILO Declaration) is a 58 clause statement adopted in November 1977 by thegoverning Body of the International Labour Organisation. It is a set of recommendations con-cerning basic labour practices, based on ILO principles, covering social issues which includeemployment, training, conditions of work and life and industrial relations.

As a tripartite instrument (agreed upon by governments, employers' and workers' groups) forguidance on the "social aspects of the activities of multinational enterprises, including employ-ment creation in developing countries", State Members of the ILO, employers' and workers'organisations concerned and the multinational enterprises are expected to adhere to its pro-visions. The Declaration is universally applicable and comprehensive. However, theDeclaration is not legally binding which means that its application can not be enforced.

In the almost complete absence of international legally binding rules, the ILO Declaration is(together with the OECD Guidelines) one of the very few international instruments for tradeunions to help create an environment in which unions can freely perform their functions. It isa way to encourage companies to take up their responsibilities and is of great value to putpressure on MNE’s so as not to abuse their growing power and ability to shift capital acrossnational boundaries to undermine the public interest, government policies and workers' rights.

The follow-up procedure consists of a periodic survey on the effect given to the Tripartite dec-laration and a procedure for interpretation for its meaning in specific situations, overseen bythe Sub-committee on Multinational Enterprises of the Employment Committee of the ILOGoverning Body. This Committee receives reports from Member Countries on the applica-tion of the Declaration, which come in the form of requests for interpretation. If necessary,the interpretation can be done by the Governing Body of the ILO itself.

Trade unions had hoped that this would in effect create an international complaint procedureagainst specific companies but, in fact, specific companies are not mentioned. Moreover, it hasbeen very difficult for requests for interpretation to be considered. Part of this is due to thefact that issues concerning freedom of association and collective bargaining are referred to theCommittee on Freedom of Association. The other part is due to the resistance of the employ-ers' organisations to consider any questions involving the behaviour of specific companies.

In spite of the facts that the follow-up procedures could be improved and that the Declarationis a voluntary code, the instrument still remains a very important tool and an excellent refer-ence for trade unionists in dealing with multinational enterprises.

The Declaration is now, nearly 25 years after it was first adopted, probably more relevant andneeded than ever. In a world of changing values, increasing foreign direct investment and grow-ing public awareness of corporate behaviour, an internationally accepted standard such as thishas become indispensable in the struggle for higher standards of corporate behaviour andsound industrial relations.


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APPENDIX V

THE ICFTU/ITS BASIC CODE OF LABOURPRACTICE

The 111th meeting of the ICFTU Executive Board (Brussels, December 1997) adopted atext for a "Basic Code of Conduct covering Labour Practices". The text of this code wasdeveloped by the ICFTU/ITS Working Party on Multinational Companies in a process thatinvolved extensive consultations with various trade union organisations and other inter-ested individuals and organisations. It aims to establish a minimum list of standards thatought to be included in all codes of conduct covering labour practices. It is not meant, andshould not be interpreted to mean, that codes of conduct that are the result of a collectivebargained agreement with an appropriate trade union organisation should be limited to theprovisions of this code.

Company codes of labour practice can be one trade union response to some of thechallenges presented by globalisation. These codes, which are meant to apply to theinternational operations of a multinational company, are aimed at limiting the worstforms of abuse and exploitation caused by the international competition to attractinvestment. Governments increasingly are failing to observe either in law or practicebasic internationally-recognised standards with respect to working conditions and therights of workers. Codes are also meant to address the responsibility of a companyfor the labour practices of its contractors, sub-contractors and principal suppliers.

The purpose of this basic code is to promote the primacy of international labourstandards and the inclusion of trade union rights in codes of conduct coveringlabour practices. A central idea of this code is that labour exploitation and abusecannot be separated from the repression of workers and that therefore codes of con-duct must incorporate freedom of association and the right to collective bargaining.

The ICFTU/ITS Basic Code is also meant to encourage the use of consistent lan-guage in codes of conduct as part of a strategy to promote an international frame-work for workers’ rights. This basic code is meant to assist any trade union organ-isation in negotiations with companies and in working with NGO’s in campaignsinvolving codes of conduct. It can also be used as a benchmark for evaluating anyunilaterally-adopted codes of labour practice.

The provisions of this code can be adopted by any company doing business interna-tionally. The code is not only for companies marketing manufactured products butalso for companies marketing services. The scope of application of any code, that isthe extent to which the code will apply to the labour practices of a company’s con-tractors, subcontractors and principal suppliers, will have to be determined in eachcase. This could affect the definitions provided in this text. The scope of applicationis meant to be as wide as both practical and reasonable.

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THE OECD DECLARATION ON INTERNATIONAL INVESTMENT ANDMULTINATIONAL ENTERPRISES

The OECD Declaration on International Investment and Multinational Enterprises wascreated in 1976, a year before the ILO Declaration. It is in fact a recommendation fromthe OECD Governments to multinational enterprises to abide by the Guidelines forMultinational Enterprises (the OECD Guidelines) which are included as an annex to theDeclaration. They seek to "encourage the positive contributions which multinationalenterprises can make to economic and social progress by helping to ensure that theiroperations are in harmony with the policies of the countries in which they operate".

The OECD Guidelines includes the "national treatment principle", i.e. to treat MNE’s"no less favourable than that accorded in like situations to domestic enterprises".

The OECD Guidelines themselves are said to be "good practice for all" and are, like theILO Declaration, not legally enforceable. They are government recommendations cov-ering MNE activities with chapters on general policies, disclosure of information,employment and industrial relations, environmental protection, combating bribery, con-sumer interests, science and technology, competition and taxation.

The Declaration applies to all governments of the OECD countries, together withArgentina, Brazil and Chile, and all multinational enterprises which are operating withinthese boundaries or are headquartered in any of theses countries.

The impact of the OECD guidelines is comparable to the impact of the ILO Declaration:it is a set of positive guidelines creating an international framework to regulate MNE’sand their social behaviour.

The follow-up procedure consists of a regular overview of the guidelines and a systemof National Contact Points (NCP’s). Every country adhering to the Guidelines is obligedto set up a NCP. They are responsible for promoting and implementing the Guidelines.They are also responsible for dealing with cases, raised by a trade union or another con-cerned party, regarding breaches of the Guidelines. In addition, TUAC (the Trade UnionAdvisory Committee to the OECD) or BIAC (the Business and Industry AdvisoryCommittee to the OECD) can raise issues directly with the OECD Committee forInternational Investment and Multinational Enterprises (CIME), which is responsible forthe Guidelines. This can be the case, for example, if it is believed that a NCP has notfulfilled its responsibilities or if it has misinterpreted the Guidelines. CIME can then issuea clarification, but it will not name companies since it does not reach conclusions on theconduct of individual enterprises.

It is hoped that the OECD guidelines will gain in importance as a result of their revisionin 2000. For more information on this, see the box ‘The revised OECD Guidelines forMultinational Enterprises in chapter 5’.

The overall feeling is that, despite the problems encountered in practical dealings withthe Guidelines, they remain, together with the ILO Declaration, the two most impor-tant sets of internationally recognised standards to date and they are, two decades afteradoption, still very relevant and necessary for people dealing with multinational enter-prises and their social policies.


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There is no discrimination in employment

Equality of opportunity and treatment regardless of race, colour, sex, religion,political opinion, nationality, social origin or other distinguishing characteristicsshall be provided (ILO Conventions 100 and 111).

Child labour is not used

There shall be no use of child labour. Only workers above the age of 15 years orabove the compulsory school-leaving age, whichever is higher, shall be engaged(ILO Convention 138). Adequate transitional economic assistance and appropri-ate educational opportunities shall be provided to any replaced child workers.

Freedom of association and the right to collective bargaining are respected

The right of all workers to form and join trade unions and to bargain collectivelyshall be recognised (ILO Conventions 87 and 98). Workers representatives shallnot be the subject of discrimination and shall have access to all workplaces neces-sary to enable them to carry out their representation functions. (ILO Convention135 and Recommendation 143) Employers shall adopt a positive approach towards the activities of trade unionsand an open attitude towards their organisational activities.

Living wages are paid

Wages and benefits paid for a standard working week shall meet at least legal orindustry minimum standards and always be sufficient to meet basic needs of work-ers and their families and to provide some discretionary income. Deductions from wages for disciplinary measures shall not be permitted nor shall any deduc-tions from wages not provided for by national law be permitted without the expressed per-mission of the worker concerned. All workers shall be provided written and understandableinformation about the conditions in respect of wages before they enter employment and ofthe particulars of their wages for the pay period concerned each time that they are paid.

Hours of work are not excessive

Hours of work shall comply with applicable laws and industry standards. In anyevent, workers shall not on a regular basis be required to work in excess of 48hours per week and shall be provided with at least one day off for every 7 day peri-od. Overtime shall be voluntary, shall not exceed 12 hours per week, shall not bedemanded on a regular basis and shall always be compensated at a premium rate.

Working conditions are decent

A safe and hygienic working environment shall be provided, and best occupation-al health and safety practice shall be promoted, bearing in mind the prevailingknowledge of the industry and of any specific hazards. Physical abuse, threats ofphysical abuse, unusual punishments or discipline, sexual and other harassment,and intimidation by the employer is strictly prohibited.

The employment relationship is established

Obligations to employees under labour or social security laws and regulations aris-

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THE BASIC CODE IS AS FOLLOWS:

Preamble

1. (name of company) recognises its responsibilities to workers for the conditionsunder which its products are made or its services are provided and that theseresponsibilities extend to all workers producing or providing products or servicesfor (name of company) whether or not they are employees of (name of company).

2. Any workers producing or providing products or services manufactured, sold ordistributed by (name of company) must be provided with living wages anddecent working conditions, and the international labour standards establishedby Conventions 29, 87, 98, 100, 105, 111, 135 and 138 of the InternationalLabour Organisation must be observed.

3. (name of company) will require its contractors, their sub-contractors, principal sup-pliers and licensees (franchise-holders) to provide these conditions and observe thesestandards when producing or distributing products or components of products for(name of company) or when providing services sold by (name of company). (nameof company) will, prior to placing orders with principal suppliers, engaging con-tractors and subcontractors or granting licenses (franchises), assess whether the pro-visions of this Code can be met.

4. For the purposes of this code the term contractor shall mean any natural or legalperson who contracts with (name of company) to perform work or provide ser-vices. The term "sub-contractor" means any natural or legal person who con-tracts with a contractor, as defined above, for the purpose of performing work orproviding services related to or as part of an agreement with (name of company).The term "principal supplier" means any natural or legal person who provides(name of company) with materials or components used in the final products, orthe final products, sold by (name of company). A principle supplier may be a per-son who provides services where these services are considered part of the finalproduct provided by the (name of company). The terms "licensee" and "fran-chise-holder" mean any natural or legal person who, as part of a contractualarrangement with (name of company), uses for any purpose the name of (nameof company) or its recognised brand names or images.

Provisions

5. (Name of company) and its contractors, their subcontractors, principal suppli-ers and licensees (franchise holders) involved in the production and/or distribu-tion of products or services for (name of company) shall ensure that:

Employment is freely chosen

There shall be no use of forced, including bonded or involuntary prison, labour(ILO Conventions 29 and 105). Nor shall workers be required to lodge "deposits"or their identity papers with their employer.

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APPENDIX VI

THE NEW CODES OF CONDUCT

SOME QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS FOR TRADE UNIONISTS

By Neil Kearney and Dwight W. Justice (December 2000)

What are the “new” codes of conduct?

Beginning in the early 1990’s, companies involved in the marketing or manufac-ture of brand-name goods produced internationally through outsourcing, began toformulate and adopt codes of conduct covering labour practices that were meantto apply to their subcontractors and suppliers. These unilaterally adopted compa-ny codes of international labour practice are the new codes of conduct.

Codes of conduct for business are not new - businesses have been using them foryears to address various public concerns such as consumer rights, product safety, orenvironmental protection. Often businesses apply ethical behaviour codes to theiremployees. Codes of conduct for international business activity are not new either.In the 1970’s, concern over the growing power of multinational companies led twointernational organisations to adopt codes for international business: the ILOTripartite Declaration of Principles Concerning Multinational Enterprises andSocial Policy and the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises. These inter-national instruments sought to protect the sovereignty of countries by defining theresponsibilities, including the social responsibilities, of international business.

What is “new” about these codes?

They are new in four important ways:

• Although the ILO and OECD codes were voluntary, they are part of an interna-tional framework of principles agreed to by governments, employers and tradeunions and recommended to companies. The new codes are being formulated andadopted by individual companies. Indeed, when formulating the earliest new codes,most companies ignored established standards in favour of creating their own.

• The purpose of the new codes does not include protection of the sovereignty ofgovernments but is to address situations created by the failure of national gov-ernments and of the international community to adopt or enforce acceptablelabour standards.

• Unlike most company policy with respect to labour practices, which is usuallybased on national law and practice, the new codes are meant to be applied inter-nationally, regardless of where the work is being performed.

• The new codes are supposedly meant to protect workers whether or not they areemployees of the company adopting the code and, in particular, they are meantto apply to the labour practices of the company’s suppliers and subcontractors.

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ing from the regular employment relationship shall not be avoided through the useof labour-only contracting arrangements, or through apprenticeship schemeswhere there is no real intent to impart skills or provide regular employment.Younger workers shall be provided the opportunity to participate in education andtraining programmes.

Closing section

6. Contractors, subcontractors, principal suppliers and licensees (franchise-hold-ers) shall undertake to support and co-operate in the implementation and mon-itoring of this code by:• providing (name of company) with relevant information concerning their opera-

tions; • permitting inspection at any time of their workplaces and operations by

approved inspectors; • maintaining records of the name, age, hours worked and wages paid for each

worker and making these available to approved inspectors on request; • informing, verbally and in writing, the workers concerned of the provisions of

this Code; and, • refraining from disciplinary action, dismissal or otherwise discriminating

against any worker for providing information concerning observance of thiscode.

7. Contractors, subcontractors, principal suppliers and licensees (franchise-hold-ers) found to be in breach of one or more terms of the code shall lose the rightto produce or organise production of goods for (name of company) or to pro-vide services for (name of company).

8. Questions as to the interpretation of the meaning of the provisions of the code shallbe resolved according to the procedure outlined in the (name of implementationand monitoring agreement between the company and trade union and any otherorganisations)

9. The provisions of this code constitute only minimum standards. (name of company)does not intend, will not use, and will not allow any contractor, subcontractor, prin-cipal supplier or licensee to use these minimum standards and conditions as maxi-mum standards or as the only conditions permitted by (name of company) or toserve as the basis for any claim as to what standards or conditions of employmentshould be provided.

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seeks to privatise what ought to be the legitimate functions of government. Theycan be used by companies to avoid dealing with trade unions. On the other hand,the new codes can be equally consistent with the promotion of internationallabour standards and of a binding international framework for responsible cor-porate behaviour. The new codes can also be used to promote collective bargain-ing and to help workers form trade unions. Codes can be a means to supportorganising activities and to commit companies publicly to respect the right toorganise and collective bargaining.

Where they are truly applied, codes may end some of the worst forms of exploita-tion and abuse. They also may provide opportunities for international trade unionorganisations to engage multinational companies. Trade union involvement with thenew codes, and especially international trade union co-operation, may determinewhether the new codes are used as a means to privatise the proper functions of gov-ernments and absolve governments and intergovernmental organisations of theirresponsibilities or whether they contribute to building a system of internationalsocial justice and industrial relations.

Should national trade union organisations negotiate codes?

The low level of trade union organisation in many of the industries and countriesmost concerned suggest that insisting that codes must always be negotiated withtrade unions is not realistic. The international scope of the new codes makes itquestionable whether it is either practicable or appropriate for national tradeunions to seek to negotiate these new codes.

Because the new codes are international in scope and almost all collective bar-gaining takes place within national legal frameworks, the national trade unionnegotiating a code may be accepting responsibilities that it cannot discharge.Under these circumstances, the negotiated code may have no greater effect than aunilaterally adopted code - the only difference may be to involve national tradeunions in a “complaints procedure” which only protects the company. Instead ofbecoming a party to a signed agreement, national trade unions can avoid compli-cations by seeking to advise companies on appropriate code content and imple-mentation.

Serious complications can arise when a trade union in one country seeks to nego-tiate working conditions for workers in another country. Where the trade unionnegotiating a code is from the home country of a multinational company, it maybe open to charges of protecting purely national interests or protecting long-stand-ing relationships with prominent national companies. It is unacceptable for tradeunions to negotiate agreements covering workers in another country where theworkers concerned are represented by their own trade union unless, of course, theforeign trade union has requested assistance and is consulted at every step. Evenin this situation, it would be better to involve the appropriate ITS.

Almost all of the companies adopting the new codes are operating in sectors wheremost workers do not belong to trade unions and in countries where trade union

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The new codes are sometimes termed private voluntary initiatives because theyrequire a positive commitment by a company before they apply. This is in contrast toinstruments such the OECD Guidelines which apply to all multinational enterprisesbased in OECD countries whether the enterprises has accepted them or not. Theguidelines reflect the consensus of the member governments of the OECD as to whatconstitutes responsible behaviour of international business. The concern over the neg-ative effects of globalisation has led to a renewed interest in the OECD Guidelines,which were revised in 2000. Among the changes has been a strengthening in the fol-low-up mechanism and the extension of their application to OECD-based companiesoperating in non-OECD countries.

Are these ‘new” codes just another form of public relations?

The companies adopting the new codes were responding to negative publicity gen-erated by reports of dangerous working conditions, inhumane working hours,starvation wages, brutality and the widespread use of child labour involved in theproduction of clothing, footwear, toys and other labour-intensive manufacturing,as well as in the production of many agricultural products. Companies operatingin other sectors are now adopting similar codes.

The early new codes rarely went beyond pledging not to use child labour and torespect national law and the companies adopting them appeared to have had lit-tle intention of doing anything to make good on what essentially were promises tothe public. In some cases, the companies established a “complaints procedure”and invited NGOs and trade unions to take evidence of exploitation and abuse tothe company before “going public”. Many of the later codes reflect the demandthat international standards be used, and increasingly, companies are being forcedto consider systems of independent verification of their codes. However, many ofthe new codes are still public relations exercises and the vast majority of what arecalled codes is not built around fundamental international labour standards. Thelimited research conducted to date suggests that codes have not produced majorchanges in labour practices.

Why should trade unions be concerned with these codes?

Whether they are policies or promises, the new codes are about labour practicesand therefore cannot be ignored by trade unions. Most companies adopt codeswithout involving trade unions in any way and will continue to adopt codes evenif trade unions dismiss or ignore codes. Indeed, the new codes have become animportant part of larger debates on corporate responsibility and globalisation. Thenew codes are sought after by many NGOs and are attracting the interest of busi-ness and industry groups, governments, international organisations and aca-demics. They have spawned an entire new industry of consultants and enterprisesoffering “social accountability” services to companies.

Because trade unions have long demanded that multinational companies assumeresponsibility for their international activities, it is difficult to see how they canobject in principle to what is an acknowledgement of social responsibility. Oneobjection to the new codes is that they can be consistent with a philosophy that

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cally dismiss codes because they are not negotiated. Trade unions can engagemultinational companies over their codes without becoming party to them.Another difference is content. A framework agreement can cover a variety of sub-jects. For reasons explained below, a unilaterally adopted company code of labourpractice should be limited to setting forth minimum standards.

What should trade unions want codes of conduct to do?

The challenge for trade unions is to make sure that the real effect of the new codesis to promote freedom of association and the right to collective bargaining andthat they are not used to substitute for these two basic workers’ rights. The roleof trade unions is to insure that the link between exploitation and abuse of work-ers on the one hand, and the oppression of workers on the other, is understoodand reflected in codes of labour practice. Companies should not use codes as ameans of avoiding trade unions. Similarly, national or local trade unions shouldnot accept codes where they could otherwise negotiate collective agreements forthe workers they represent. Codes of conduct promote good industrial relations.

How can codes promote collective bargaining?

The content of the code is crucial in two ways. First, a code of labour practice shouldalways contain explicit provisions respecting the right of workers to both form or jointrade unions and to bargain collectively. Some suppliers have used their obligation toabide by a company code as a reason not to continue a collective agreement negoti-ated with a local trade union and others have used codes as reasons not to recognisetrade unions. Trade unions should regard explicit recognition of freedom of associa-tion and the right to collective bargaining as central provisions of any code of labourpractice and, where these provisions are missing, demand that they be included. Theserights enable workers to protect other rights, as well as their interests on a wide rangeof issues. The adoption in June 1998 by the ILO Conference of the ILO Declarationon Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work demonstrates the world consensuswith respect to freedom of association and the right to collective bargaining, as wellas all of the core ILO labour standards.

Second, codes should not contain provisions that are more appropriate for collec-tive bargaining agreements. Unilaterally adopted company codes should only con-tain minimum standards that are explicitly recognised as such. The ICFTU strong-ly recommends that codes of labour practice be based on internationally recog-nised labour standards and include explicit reference to all of the fundamentallabour standards of the ILO. Trade unions are invited to use the ICFTU/ITS BasicCode of Labour Practice as a benchmark in evaluating voluntary company codesof conduct.

Can international labour standards apply to companies as well as togovernments?

Codes of conduct are no substitute for legislation and its effective implementation.However, company codes of conduct that promote knowledge and understandingof international labour standards indirectly promote government responsibility

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rights are not respected. The exploitation and abuse of workers, which led to theneed for a code in the first place, occurs because the rights of workers to join orform independent trade unions and to bargain collectively are not respected.Where workers can form independent trade unions and bargain, there may be lit-tle need for a code of conduct.

There is a big difference between speaking out on behalf of workers who are notrepresented and seeking to negotiate on their behalf. To say that it is possible tonegotiate for unorganised workers is to say that workers can be represented with-out their own trade unions. The moral obligation of all trade unions toward unor-ganised workers is to assist them in joining or forming their own trade unions andto prevent or discourage others - whether they be governments, political parties,employers or NGOs - from claiming to speak for them.

Whether a trade union should negotiate an international code boils down to this:is it possible for the trade union to consult the authentic representatives of theworkers who would be affected by a code? The best example of a positive answerto this question occurred during the 1980’s, where trade unions in the home coun-tries of multinational companies operating in South Africa during apartheid wereable to negotiate codes on behalf of black workers in South Africa. This was pos-sible only because the workers concerned had already established genuine, albeitillegal, trade unions and the trade unions negotiating the codes closely co-operat-ed with these trade unions. These circumstances were exceptional.

What is the difference between a code of conduct and a frameworkagreement?

Some of the obstacles to negotiated codes can be overcome and some advantagesgained by distinguishing between framework agreements and unilaterally-adoptedcompany codes of labour practice. A framework agreement is an agreement nego-tiated between a multinational company and an international trade union organi-sation such as an International Trade Secretariat (ITS), concerning the internation-al activities of that company. A number of framework agreements have been nego-tiated, with varying subject matters and details. Although an international code ofconduct can be part of a framework agreement, and sometimes is, the main pur-pose of a framework agreement is to establish an ongoing relationship between themultinational company and the international trade union organisation.

Trade unions that want to engage multinational companies over their labour prac-tices in other countries should do so in close co-operation with the appropriate ITS.Because the ITS have affiliates throughout all regions of the world and often in bothhome and host countries, they are the legitimate international voice of workers intheir respective industries or economic sectors. An additional advantage of work-ing through an ITS is that trade unions will be addressing specific situations while,at the same time, strengthening the international trade union movement.

There are additional reasons to distinguish between unilaterally adopted companycodes and framework agreements. One is that trade unions should not automati-

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Should codes reflect the special conditions in certain countries?

Some trade unions and NGOs talk about negotiating codes of labour practicereflecting the “special situation” or “unique circumstances” in their respectivecountry or region. Settling for less than minimum international standards woulddefeat the whole purpose of an international code. Governments justify the repres-sion of workers’ rights and trade unions by claiming “special situations” and“unique circumstances” and many companies have found it convenient (and prof-itable) to accept this argument and not interfere by “imposing” their own “cul-tural values”. One clear example of an unacceptable “cultural” exception to inter-national standards is discrimination against women.

Although it is reasonable to expect that the content of codes will vary from com-pany to company and between industries, the basis for these differences shouldcentre on the relevancy of the various international standards and established bestpractice. For instance, in some codes it may be especially appropriate to reflect cer-tain health and safety standards.

Should trade unions be responsible for implementing codes of conduct?

No. Companies should be responsible for implementing their own codes of con-duct. Codes should be viewed as company policy and as a management tool tosolve problems. Where a company has promulgated a code of conduct, it is moral-ly bound to give it effect. A company that takes its code of conduct seriously willnot leave it to its public relations department or agency, but will place the overallresponsibility for the implementation of the code at the highest levels and incor-porate code compliance into all relevant management systems. This means assign-ing responsibilities throughout the company. One responsibility should beassigned to the legal department - observance of the company code should bemade an enforceable, and an enforced, part of the agreements the company entersinto when outsourcing. Other responsibilities belong with the personnel depart-ment - the code should apply to the company that adopts it, as well as to its sup-pliers and subcontractors. Company personnel should receive training in imple-menting the code. Buyers must be permitted to take the cost of code complianceinto account when negotiating contracts with suppliers. Labour practices must bemonitored with the same commitment that is given to monitoring for quality.The workers covered by a code should be provided in every case with a full andunderstandable explanation of the code, both verbally and in written form.Workers covered by a code should also be provided a confidential and accessiblemeans to report code violations.

In the end, the real test of implementation is whether a company does anything tocorrect unacceptable labour practices where they are discovered.

Implementation, together with monitoring, independent or third party monitoringand verification are terms surrounded by confusion. Implementation is anythingdone by a company to give effect to its code. Monitoring is just one activity thatcan be considered a part of the implementation.

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and may even be used to promote an international framework for business, whichincludes respect for workers’ rights. These beneficial effects will only be possiblefrom codes of conduct that are based on already established international stan-dards, including ILO standards. It is not difficult to transpose the fundamentalILO conventions into obligations for international business.

Businesses seeking to define their social responsibilities almost always stressrespecting the values of the community. For international business, this shouldmean respecting the standards of the international community. The ILO is theorganisation established by the international community for the purpose of settinginternational labour standards.

How can codes of conduct promote collective bargaining in countrieswhere independent trade unions are banned?

The rights of workers to join or form trade unions and to bargain collectively arehuman rights that are only fully respected in democracies. Nevertheless, tradeunion experience is that, even under dictatorships, workers have been able to cre-ate or enlarge space for trade union organising and collective bargaining with someemployers. This was the experience in Chile, Korea, Poland, South Africa andTurkey when these countries were dictatorships. Companies respecting humanrights should therefore be alert to the possibilities of creating and enlarging thespace for workers’ self-organisation. In any event, companies should always avoidbeing party to state repression.

Some advocates of the codes of conduct that include freedom of association andthe right to collective bargaining do not support boycotting countries that denythese rights. Instead, they want companies doing business in these countries torequire their suppliers to facilitate parallel means of workers’ organisation. Thesupplier would not be required to establish any organisation, but would be expect-ed to provide the workforce with the opportunity to do so in the form of electedconsultative committees on health and safety, productivity and many other rele-vant issues. Great care must be taken in implementing any such provision becausethe intervention of an employer in workers’ organisations constitutes a violationof freedom of association. Some employers would use any provision to set uporganisations that they control as a means of avoiding trade unions or of usingsuch a provision as evidence that workers do not need trade unions. For this rea-son, a provision concerning alternative means should only apply in a very limitedset of countries. These would include those few countries such as Saudi Arabiawhere all trade unions are explicitly banned and those countries such as Chinawhere the state has created and controls a labour organisation monopoly.

Companies doing business in countries with repressive regimes have a greater obli-gation to be transparent in their operations and should work with internationaltrade union organisations so as to increase the positive and decrease the negativeeffects of their involvement in these countries.

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Should trade unions be responsible for monitoring codes?

No. Companies should be responsible for monitoring compliance with their owncodes of conduct. Monitoring means checking to make sure that the provisions arebeing observed. It is basic to implementing a code. Monitoring should be regard-ed as a regular and ongoing process that is one of the obligations assumed by anycompany that has adopted a code.

Trade unions monitor workplaces where they have members in the interest of theirmembers and trade unions monitor workplaces where they do not have membersin order to bring the benefits of trade unionism to unorganised workers. It is not,however, the role of trade unions to monitor workplaces in the interest of ensur-ing that a company complies with its own policy.

Trade unions should be regularly consulted as part of the monitoring process and,of course, as part of the industrial relations process. There may be cases wheretrade unions enter into agreements with a company to assist the monitoring pro-cess - for example by providing interpreters or interviewers. Indeed, this may pro-vide the trade union with access to unorganised workers. But trade unions shouldnot enter into agreements with companies whereby they assume the responsibilityfor monitoring workplaces if they are not also legally recognised as the represen-tatives of the workers concerned.

What about “independent monitoring”?

At present, there are no good examples of independent monitoring and the subjectis surrounded by controversy. Indeed there is considerable confusion surroundingthe term “independent monitoring” and the term “verification” is preferred by agrowing number of persons most familiar with the problems involved.

The idea behind “independent monitoring” is that a code will be more credible ifcompliance were monitored by persons or organisations independent of the com-pany that has adopted the code. Some companies have engaged commercial enter-prises such as accounting firms and management consultancies to perform their“independent monitoring” or “third party verification”. Other companies have, inarrangements with their suppliers and subcontractors, designated local NGOs tobe their “independent monitors”. In all of these cases, the companies, throughtheir agreements with enterprises or NGOs, control the monitoring process.

The emerging consensus is that the term “independent monitoring” (and similarterms such as “third-party monitoring’) are more confusing than appropriate.These terms obscure the obligation of any company adopting a code of labourpractice to monitor compliance with its code on a regular or ongoing basis.Moreover, the object of “independent monitoring,” which is to provide credibili-ty, is also obscured.

In order for so-called “independent monitoring” to be credible, it would have tobe performed by qualified persons working to agreed processes. Both the qualifi-

cations of the persons and processes involved would have to be established inde-pendent of the company whose code was being monitored. In the absence of pro-fessional standards, there is no reason to accept the independence of any enter-prises or NGOs engaged by a company to perform this work. Engaging a com-mercial enterprise or designating an NGO to monitor code compliance is little dif-ferent from having the work done by company personnel.

One of the more dangerous aspects of the “independent monitoring” way ofthinking is that, because monitoring needs to be an ongoing process, “independentmonitoring” arrangements will introduce outside organisations into the work-place on a permanent basis with the effect of discouraging or preventing workersfrom joining or forming their own organisations. This is especially serious wherethe ‘independent monitor” is an NGO presenting itself as an alternative to tradeunions.

“Verification”, in contrast to “independent monitoring”, is recognised as a morecomprehensive process, involving checking on both code compliance and imple-mentation systems, including the ongoing monitoring performed by the companyconcerned. The thinking on verification is developing constantly. Many have con-cluded that verification should be carried out by professionals working to definedstandards and trained in skills including factory inspection, accountability, healthand safety and detection techniques. Whether verification is performed by com-mercial enterprises or non-profit agencies, the work would have to be performedfollowing carefully defined standards and rules that would apply to the organisa-tions and individuals undertaking what is sometimes called “social auditing.”

Who will decide what are credible systems of verification?

Trade unions must have a role in establishing and accrediting systems of indepen-dent verification. This does not mean that only trade unions could or should ver-ify compliance with codes. It does mean that trade unions must have a role indetermining the rules or procedures, training and qualifications as well as otherstandards for verification and for those who would perform verification. Systemsof verification must also insure that trade unions are consulted during the verifi-cation process.

Two of the most promising instances where trade unions are working with com-panies and NGOs to explore or establish verification systems are the SocialAccountability International or SAI (formerly CEP AA) and the Ethical TradingInitiative (ETI).

SAI was established by The Council on Economic Priorities (CEP), a US-basedNGO and, following a similar process as that used in ISO standard setting, it hasdeveloped an international standard for labour and human rights, known as SA8000. The Advisory Board consists mostly of representatives from corporationsand NGOs, but also includes trade union representatives.

A more experimental approach has been taken by the Ethical Trading Initiative, a

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NGOs should be encouraged to base campaigns for codes of labour practice onminimum international labour standards and always to include the right of work-ers to organise and to bargain collectively. Demands that are more appropriate tocollective bargaining should be avoided and NGOs should not participate inarrangements with companies that have the effect of substituting for independenttrade unions. In any event, NGOs should not attempt to negotiate labour practiceswith companies or to establish regular consultative relationships with companiesconcerning their labour practices.

Where do the new codes fit into the trade union strategy for globalisation?

The new codes are a phenomenon of the 1990’s that presents both challenges andopportunities for trade unions. The new codes must not be allowed to become analternative to national law or industrial relations or to absolve governments fromtheir responsibilities. Nor should the new codes become an impediment to estab-lishing enforceable international rules for multinational companies. More imme-diately, the new codes must not be used by companies to avoid trade unions andcollective bargaining.

Trade unions should respond to the new codes of conduct in ways that makesthem complementary to the overall objectives of the trade union movement,including the campaign for a workers’ rights clause in international trade andinvestment agreements. The new codes should be used to promote acceptance ofinternational labour standards and an understanding that exploitation and abuseoccur because trade union rights are not respected.

The international nature of the new codes requires international trade union co-operation. The new codes may provide an opportunity to strengthen the interna-tional trade union movement by engaging multinational companies on the inter-national level and may even lead to international social partnerships. Efforts mustbe made to strengthen the capacity of trade unions, particularly in developingcountries, to take full advantage of the new codes.

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partnership of NGOs, companies and trade unions, which is supported, in part,by the British government. ETI is meant to serve as a forum whereby informationrelating to code implementation and verification is exchanged and a means of con-ducting pilot studies to test various ways of monitoring and verifying codes.Similar arrangements are being explored in other countries.

The ILO, because of it tripartite structure and the fact that it is a repository ofexpertise in all matters of labour practices, including labour inspection, may be themost appropriate organisation to establish benchmarks for the training of moni-tors, for standards of verification and for the credible development of any profes-sion of “social auditing”. For this reason, and because the ILO can provide tech-nical assistance to both social partners, the ICFTU is seeking greater involvementby the ILO with the new codes.

What about “social labelling?”

Trade unions should not support the certification of labour practices through theuse of “social labelling” on products, at least not before accredited systems ofindependent verification are established and proven effective and reliable. Suchproduct labels imply a guarantee that the item was produced free of exploitationand abuse. But, unlike product content or safety labels, the claim cannot be veri-fied by testing the product itself. A label covering labour practices could only becredible if there was constant policing of the workplace - a condition that existsonly where secure and independent trade unions are permitted to perform theirproper functions and even then, only where they are supported by enforceable andenforced labour regulation in an open and democratic society.

This caution need not apply to labels developed to address some specific abusessuch as child labour. In particular where producers are participating in an inter-nationally recognised programme to eliminate child labour, then a label that indi-cates that the company concerned is participating in a specific programme isacceptable. Even here, care must be taken that only the participation in the pro-gramme is being certified and not the labour practices used in the product bearingthe social label. This caution also does not apply to “fair-trade” labels involvingtrading relationships between small producers of mainly commodity products indeveloping countries and consumers in developed countries. Nor does it apply toenvironmental labels (“eco-labelling”). Several trade unions support these initia-tives and while these initiatives may involve labour practices, these practices arenot what is being certified.

What is the role for NGOs in codes of conduct?

NGOs have often been the leading organisations in campaigns for codes and theyhave brought the issues of exploitative and abusive labour practices to the attentionof the public in many countries. Trade unions should welcome these efforts andwork with NGOs in this area. NGOs should work with the appropriate trade unionorganisations when campaigning over labour practices. NGOs have a vital role inexposing the abuse of workers throughout the world. It is important that they con-tinue to put pressure on both governments and business to behave responsibly.


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APPENDIX VII

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CI - Communications International

EI - Education International

EPZ - Export Processing Zones

ETUC - European Trade Union Confederation

EU - European Union

EWC - European Works Council

FDI - Foreign Direct Investment

FIET - International Federation of Commercial, Clerical, Professional and

Technical Employees

GSP - Generalised System of Preferences

ICEM - International Federation of Chemical, Energy, Mine and General

Workers' Union

ICFTU - International Confederation of Free Trade unions

IFBWW - International Federation of Building and Wood Workers

IFJ - International Federation of Journalists

IGF - International Graphical Federation

IMF - International Metalworkers' Federation (the ITS)

IMF - International Monetary Fund (the financial institution)

ILO - International Labour Organisation

ITGLWF - International Textile, Garment and Leather Workers' Federation

ITF - International Transport Workers' Federation

ITS - International Trade Secretariat

IUF - International Union of Food, Agricultural, Hotel, Restaurant, Catering,

Tobacco and Allied Workers' Association

MEI - Media and Entertainment International

MNE - Multinational Enterprise

MUA - Maritime Union of Australia

NGO - Non-Governmental Organisation

OECD - Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

PSI - Public Services International

TNC - Trans-national Company

TUAC - Trade Union Advisory Committee

UADW - Universal Alliance of Diamond Workers

UN - United Nations

UNCTAD - United Nations Conference on Trade and Development

WTO - World Trade Organisation

AP

PE

ND

ICE

S


When the Sun Sets over Suburbia: Class and Subculture in Bruce Beresford's Puberty Blues

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Transcript of When the Sun Sets over Suburbia: Class and Subculture in Bruce Beresford's Puberty Blues