Water Issues in Gaza:A Review of the Literature and Key Questions Related to Water and Social/Economic

Development

June 13, 2011Saras Windecker

Contents• Situation

– Gaza population and growth

– Water availability and climate change threats to it

– Gaza Coastal Aquifer– Water deficit– Discrepancy in consumption between Gaza and Israel

– Waste water and sewage

• Problems– Overextraction– Salinity– Nitrate contamination

– Disease/public health

• Solutions– Drinking water desalination

– Agricultural reform– Wastewater – Alternative issues

The Gaza Strip

• Population 1.66M (July 2011 est.)15

• Area 365 km2.7

• 2007 population density 3900 capita/km2.13

http://grida3.crs4.it/grida3/doku.php?id=activity:the_gaza_aquifer

Population Statistics

• 4.7 births/ woman15

• 3.2% population growth rate15

• $576.53GDP/capita15

• Gaza Nationals spend 11.6% of income on water.6

6 pg. 57

• Gaza has 320 m3/capita/yr water availability.15

• UNDP water scarcity level is 500 m3/capita/yr.15

• 1/5 population of Gaza has no direct access to drinking water.17

Water Availability

Climate Change will impact water availability• Mediterranean Sea expected to rise 1cm/yr.22

• Some independent studies suggest rainfall decline of 10-30% by next century.15

• In addition, a temperature increase of roughly 2°C is predicted.15

http://www.theclimatechangeclearinghouse.org/PublishingImages/Figure-3-5web.jpg

• Gaza relies on groundwater from Gaza Coastal Aquifer.8

• Used by >1.6M Gazans for freshwater needs.12

• Shared between Israel and the Gaza Strip.22

• Area: 2000 km2.7 • Length: 120 km.22

http://www.think-israel.org/mar05pix/aquifers.jpg

Water Supply

Gaza Coastal Aquifer

•Recharged by rainfall.

•Rainfall of 600mm/yr results in recharge of only 300mm/yr.7

•Deficit: 40-50Mm3/yr.3

http://www.grid.unep.ch/product/map/images/palestine_aquiferb.jpg

6 pg. 48

Discrepancies in Consumption• Israel’s average consumption is > 300 L/c/d.6

• 5 times higher than Gaza’s.6

6 pg. 36

6 pg. 35

1 = population2 = percent abstraction of aquifer resources

6 pg. 34

W ater Network

W ater Tanks

Collection Rain W ater W ell

Others

Status of Gaza Water Network

6 pg. 76

www.pcbs.com

Well Drilling• > 500 licensed wells

in Gaza City and Jabalia camp alone.12

• In 2003, 150Mm3/yr water was pumped from 4,100 wells in Gaza.3

• Government has difficulty keeping track of illegal wells.

http://grida3.crs4.it/grida3/lib/exe/fetch.php?cache=cache&media=activity:or4:wellsgaza.jpg

Overextraction of groundwater• And quality:

– Drop in water table level results in a decrease in hydrostatic pressure in the aquifer, allowing saline water to infiltrate the groundwater.

• Affects quantity: – Overpumping of wells decreases supply because use exceeds aquifer’s natural ability to recharge.

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Yarda_Well.JPG

Elevated Salinity• WHO maximum allowed

contaminant level is 250mg/L Cl-.7

• In some areas, salinity is higher than 1000mg/L and has even been observed at 3000mg/L.4

• < 10% of water samples meet the WHO requirement.7

http://cmwu.ps/en/yreports.php?view=17

Waste and sewage

6 pg. 51

• Wastewater network coverage in Gaza at 78.9 %.6

• Danger of overflow even from functioning facilities.20

6 pg. 86

• 16 sewage outfalls go directly into Mediterranean– Releasing daily 70-80,000m3 untreated waste.20

• Affects marine life and those that rely on it for livelihood.

• Affects yield and quality of crops.20

Elevated Concentrations of NO3

• WHO maximum allowed contaminant level is 45 mg/L NO3.12

• 90% of water samples have [NO3] 2-8x higher than this.1 – Samples had values 31-452

mg/L.1

• Only 10 of 115 municipal wells had [NO3] < WHO maximum.1

http://cmwu.ps/en/yreports.php?view=17

• High [NO3] can cause:

– Methomoglobinemia (baby blue syndrome) in infants,

– as well as diarrhea, acidosis, and stomach cancer in adults.12

Health Problems

7 pg. 8

Health Issues from contaminated water

• In 2004 there were 12,000 cases of intestinal diseases, especially from amebiasis.4

• Prevailing diseases include: amoebas, hepatitis A, blue baby syndrome, diarrhea, rhinitis, skin diseases, asthma, dysentery, jaundice, and cancer.6

• WHO reports that 26% of disease in Gaza is water-related.20

Microorganisms and Health Risks

6 pg. 54

• Bottled water

• Purchase from Israeli company Mekorot:

– Palestinians already buy ~52% of drinking water from Mekorot.6

• Desalination of brackish (aquifer) and saline (Med Sea) water http://i.treehugger.com/images/2007/10/24/

bottled%20water-jj-001.jpg

http://www.mekorot.co.il/

http://img.dailymail.co.uk/i/pix/2008/05_01/041tap_468x477.jpg

Solutions- Providing Drinking Water

Desalination• Already provides

90% of Gaza’s drinking water needs.4

• 17% of Gaza residents use small reverse osmosis units (ROs) in their homes, that produce up to 20L of water/day.

• BUT desalination water samples still have noncompliance levels of 44% for pH, 13% for nitrate, and 15% for total Coliform.4

http://photos.lasvegassun.com/media/img/photos/2008/03/20/scaled.0319_MET_DESALINATION01_t653.jpg?214bc4f9d9bd7c08c7d0f6599bb3328710e01e7b

Future Directions- Gaza AquiferWater Quantity•Desalination– less well pumping, and improved transport so that water loss rate can be decreased

Water Quality•Waste treatment and disposal facilities

7 pg. 5

Solutions- Agricultural Reform

(decreasing water and nitrogen-based fertilizer use)• ~70% total water pumped

is used for agriculture.3

• A main crop in Gaza is citrus fruit, which has high water demand and low tolerance for salinity.2

• Overuse of agricultural fertilizers contribute to elevated nitrate levels.

Wetland Resources-

Wadi Gaza• Watershed is >3200 km2,

total length is 105 km, only last 9km in Gaza.

• Major place for biodiversity.

• Important for migrating birds.

• Only surface water resource in Gaza.

http://vinc.s.free.fr/presentation.php3?id_article=453

* Information from Mediterranean Wetlands Initiative

They are the “kidneys of the landscape” and our “ecological

supermarkets”.23

http://www.westfordconservationtrust.org/wct/News/wetlands_e.jpg

Why do we care about wetlands?

Other Benefits• Resources for

– Recreational fishing/hunting

– ecotourism– Aesthetic/heritage value.23

• Carbon sink/climate stabilizer.23

• Supports extensive food chain and rich biodiversity.23

• Promotes stability of global levels of N, S, CO2, CH4.23

http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-C7vqs7x5bXo/TbTe_VteuiI/AAAAAAAAb1c/x1uVgXF8F_E/s1600/Stork%252C-Black-Necked---Dadri-Wetlands---2011-04-23-%2528_E2G8282%2529-797122.jpg

Pollution in Wadi Gaza• Pollution from

domestic waste as well as– construction debris,

– encroaching urban development,

– overgrazing, – cutting of riparian vegetation,

– hunting, – dryness from retention of water upstream,

– and bridge construction.

http://blog.mikejgold.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/Wetlands.jpg

Climate Change and Development• USAID sees climate change and development as

inextricably linked. • Climate change is not just an environmental

problem, but a human problem with direct implications for hunger, poverty, conflict, water scarcity, infrastructure integrity, sanitation, disease, and survival.24

http://www.whale.to/a/image/sanitation1.jpg

USAID and climate change• President Obama’s GCCI 3

pillars:1.Clean energy2.Sustainable landscapes3.Adaptation

http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/environment/climate/policies_prog/adaptation.html. Manual available in water folder.

• Adaptation pillar: Help build resilience to climate-related disasters and damage.

• USAID predicts that economic losses from climate-related damage in some developing countries could be as high as 19% of GDP by 2030.24

• Education objectives

Alternative Initiatives• Agricultural reform

• Wetland preservation

• Climate change adaptation programs

• Resource corner –academic materials/training for managing issues like climate change

http://schools.cfisd.net/langham/Clubs/LibraryClub/Assets/Library_new06.jpg

Organizations involved with water in GazaPalestinian National Authority- National Bureau of Statistics (PCBS)

http://www.pcbs.gov.ps/DesktopDefault.aspx?tabID=1&lang=en

Gaza Coastal Municipalities Water Utilites (CMWU)

http://cmwu.ps 

Palestinian Hydrology Group (PHG) http://www.phg.orgPHG Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene Management Program (WaSH MP)

http://phg.org/wash-mp/index.asphttp://phg.org/wash-mp/maps.asp?i=10

Palestinian Water Training Institute (PWTI)

http://pwti.org/en/

Palestinian Water Authority (PWA) http://www.pwa.ps/Israeli Water Authority http://www.water.gov.il/Palestinian Ecological and Agricultural Organizations

http://www.vispo.com/PRIME/palecoagra.htm

UNESCO Project in Palestine http://www.unesco-ihe.org/Project-activities/Project-Portfolio/Water-Sector-Capacity-Building-in-Palestine

http://www.christusrex.org/www1/ofm/sbf/escurs/Ger/161VisitPanoramaBig.jpg

References (all references in “P:\WROPUB\Water Issues in Gaza Resources”)1 [Anon]. "Nitrate Excessively Pollutes Drinking Water in the Gaza Strip." Trac-Trends in Analytical Chemistry 27.9 (2008): III-IV. Print. 2 Abumaila, Y. S. "Water-Resource Issues in the Gaza-Strip." Area 23.3 (1991): 209-16. Print. 3 Ai-Yaqubi, Ahmad, Amjad Aliewi, and Ziad Mimi. "Bridging the Domestic Water Demand Gap in Gaza Strip-Palestine." Water International 32.2 (2007): 219-29. Print. 4 Al-Khatib, Issam A., and Hassan A. Arafat. "Chemical and Microbiological Quality of Desalinated Water, Groundwater and Rain-Fed Cisterns in the Gaza Strip, Palestine." Desalination 249.3 (2009): 1165-70. Print. 5 Assaf, S. A. "Existing and the Future Planned Desalination Facilities in the Gaza Strip of Palestine and their Socio-Economic and Environmental Impact." Desalination 138.1-3 (2001): 17-28. Print. 6 Atallah, Nidal. Water for Life: Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Monitoring Program 2007/2008. UNICEF: 2008.7 Baalousha, Husam Musa. "Mapping Groundwater Contamination Risk using GIS and Groundwater Modelling. A Case Study from the Gaza Strip, Palestine." Arabian Journal of Geosciences 4.3-4 (2011): 483-94. Print. 8 Bartlett, Eva. “Attack on Water Brings Sanitation Crisis.” IPS Inter Press Service. 2009. June 1, 2011 http://ipsnews.net/print.asp?idnews=47273.

9 El Sheikh, R., M. Ahmed, and S. Hamdan. "Strategy of Water Desalination in the Gaza Strip." Desalination 156.1-3 (2003): 39-42. Print. 10 El-Nakhal, H. A. "Alternatives to Tap Water: A Case Study of the Gaza Strip, Palestine." Environmental Geology 46.6-7 (2004): 851-6. Print. 11 Farber, Efrat, et al. "Management Scenarios for the Jordan River Salinity Crisis." Applied Geochemistry 20.11 (2005): 2138-53. Print. 12 Hajhamad, Lubna, and Mohammad N. Almasri. "Assessment of Nitrate Contamination of Groundwater using Lumped-Parameter Models." Environmental Modelling & Software 24.9 (2009): 1073-87. Print. 13 Hamdan, Lubna K., et al. "Sustainable Water and Energy in Gaza Strip." Renewable Energy 33.6 (2008): 1137-46. Print. 14 Larabi, Abedelkader, and Khalid Qahman. "Identification and Modeling of Seawater Intrusion of the Gaza Strip Aquifer, Palestine." Tecnologia de la Intrusion de Agua de Mar en Acuiferos Costeros: Paises Mediterraneos. Madrid: IGME, 2003. 15 Sowers, Jeannie, Avner Vengosh, and Erika Weinthal. "Climate Change, Water Resources, and the Politics of Adaptation in the Middle East and North Africa." Climatic Change 104.3-4 (2011): 599-627. Print. 16 The World Factbook. April 25, 2011. Central Intelligence Agency. May 31, 2011 https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/gz.html.

References Continued17 United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. “Field Update on Gaza from the Humanitarian Coordinator: 22-23 January 2009, 1700 hours.” www.ochaopt.org.18 United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. “Field Update on Gaza from the Humanitarian Coordinator: 30 January – 2 February 2009, 1700 hours.” www.ochaopt.org.19 Weinthal, E., et al. "The Water Crisis in the Gaza Strip: Prospects for Resolution." Ground Water 43.5 (2005): 653-60. Print. 20 World Bank. “Assessment of restrictions on Palestinian water sector development.” Middle East and North Africa Region Sustainable Development, April 2009. 21 World Bank. “Palestinian Economic Prospects: Gaza Recovery and West Bank Revival.” June 8, 2009. www.worldbank.org/ps. 22 Yechieli, Y., et al. "Response of the Mediterranean and Dead Sea Coastal Aquifers to Sea Level Variations." Water Resources Research 46 (2010): W12550. Print.Textbook23 Gosselink, James and William Mitsch. Wetlands. New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 2007. 24 USAID. “Integrating Climate Change into Development.” Nov 26, 2010. Accessed on June 13, 2011. http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/environment/climate/.

Thank you!

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