Visual Strategies for Co-branded Fashion Products

Thomas Welander2018

Aalto UniversitySchool of Arts, Design and Architecture

Collaborative and Industrial DesignMaster of Arts Thesis, 30 ECTS

Supervisor: Oscar PersonAdvisor: Jaana Beidler

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Author: Thomas WelanderTitle: Visual Strategies for Co-branded Fashion ProductsDepartment: Department of DesignDegree Programme: Collaborative and Industrial DesignDate: 26.10.2018 Pages: 65 Language: English

Aalto University, PL 1100000076 AALTO

www.aalto.fiMaster’s thesis abstract

The increasing homogeneousness of products in terms of functional properties has led companies to find value in the product’s symbolic qualities. Simultaneously, the increased inclusiveness of the fashion culture has created new opportunities for the integration of co-branded fashion products.

Generally, familiar brands that lie outside of the fashion system become the producers and marketers of these products, as they are looking to benefit from the positive brand associations that the fashion culture reflects. Because these brands are accustomed to a different kind of product delivery, the symbolic value and meaning of the co-branded fashion product become often neglected in the visual advertising. Brands unfamiliar with fashion marketing usually separate the design process from the marketing, which may weaken the product’s meaning transfer.

The thesis discusses the subjects and relations of product, brand, and advertisement in co-branded fashion product advertising in order to discover how products become fashionable in advertisements. By presenting a broader context of the implications when fashion products are taken outside of the traditional fashion system and marketed by non-fashion brands, the thesis highlights several insights into the visual advertising of co-branded fashion products. The literature review supports the study of Nike’s visual advertising strategies for co-branded fashion products. A visual analysis of Nike’s co-branded fashion products is made in order to analyze the ability for meaning transfer and differentiation of these products.

The study reveals some of the caveats in Nike’s approach to visual fashion product advertising. These products are at risk of increased consumer resistance if consumers are unable to read and interpret the symbolism and meaning in them. Attaching the co-branded fashion product more clearly to the context of the fashion culture allows consumers to better recognize the differences between Nike’s fashion and normal products. A shift in marketing concept will enable consumers to perceive the added values that the fashion products represent. Recommendations for improvements in Nike’s recognized strategies are drawn from the study. These suggestions are further generalized for the visual communication of fashion products between non-fashion and fashion brand alliances.

Keywords: Nike, fashion, product, image, co-branding, visual, advertising

Supervisor: Oscar PersonAdvisor: Jaana Beidler

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Författare: Thomas WelanderTitel: Visuella Strategier för Co-brandade Modeprodukter Utbildningsprogram: Department of DesignHuvudämne: Collaborative and Industrial DesignDatum: 26.10.2018 Sidor: 65 Språk: Engelska

Aalto-universitetet, PL 1100000076 AALTO

www.aalto.fiSammandrag av Magisteravhandling

Produkternas ökande liknelse angående deras funktionella egenskaper har lett företag att hitta på nya metoder att skapa värde för sina produkter. Detta värde bildas av produktens samt varumärkets symboliska egenskaper. Ett sätt att skapa nya produkter med symboliskt värde är varumärkesallianser mellan mode- och icke-modeföretag.

Co-designade modeprodukter tillhör en särskild produktkategori. Denna produktkategori presenterar en ny typ av modeprodukt, en som ligger utanför det traditionella modesystemet. Eftersom varumärkesallians byggs oftast av initiativet av icke-modeföretag, blir de i allmänhet också producenter och marknadsförare för dessa produkter. På grund av att dessa varumärken är vana vid en annan typ av marknadsföring, blir symboliken och innebörden av produkterna ofta försummade i den visuella annonseringen. Hur förstås co-designade modeprodukter av konsumenterna, och hur kan icke-modeföretagen best kommunicera de skiljande symboliska värden som dessa produkter representerar?

Denna avhandling kommer att diskutera relationerna mellan produkt, varumärke, och reklambild i symbolisk marknadsföring. Den tvärvetenskapliga litteraturen stödjer forskningen av Nikes visuella strategier för marknadsföringen av co-designade modeprodukter. En retorisk visuell analys av Nikes modeprodukter utförs för att analysera på vilka sätt dessa produkter reflekterar modekulturen, och på vilka sätt konsumenterna, som inte nödvändigtvis är förbrukare av mode, engagerar dem.

Forskningen I denna avhandling avslöjar förbehåll i Nikes metod av visuell annonsering för modeprodukter. Dessa produkter riskerar ökad resistens av konsumenter, om de inte kan läsa och tolka korrekt symboliken och innebörden i dem. Genom att känna igen skillnaderna mellan Nikes mode- och normala produkter, kan konsumenterna bättre erkänna och skilja de tillagda värden som modeprodukter, i hänsyn till normala produkter, står för. Rekommendationer för en förbättrad strategi på marknadsföring av co-designade modeprodukter ges på basen av Nikes nuvarande modeproduktstrategi. Dessa förslag är vidare diskuterade för att skapa en generaliserad strategi för den visuella marknadsföringen av modeprodukter mellan icke-mode- och modeföretag.

Nyckelord: Nike, mode, produkt, visuell, co-branding, marknadsföring

Övervakare: Oscar PersonHandledare: Jaana Beidler

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I would like to thank Oscar Person for patiently guiding me throughout the writing process, and Jaana Beidler for inspiring new perspectives into the

field of design.

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Table of Contents

1. Introduction 21.1 Framing 31.2 Previous Studies and Contribution 4

2. Literature Review 72.1 Co-branding 72.2 The Fashion System 92.3 Fashion Products 112.4 Fashion Advertisement Images 142.5 Style as a Form of Communication 162.6 Characteristics of Fashion Advertisements 182.7 Modes of Engagement 202.8 Visual Rhetoric 232.9 A Framework for Analyzing Fashion Advertisements 23

3. Research 263.1 Background 263.2 Data Collection 273.3 Data Analysis 283.4 Visual Analysis 313.5 Rhetorical Visual Analysis 353.6 Differentiation 36

4. Results 374.1 Invention 384.2 Arrangement 404.3 Delivery 424.4 Visual Strategies for Nike’s Fashion Products 43

5. Discussion 445.1 Nike Strategy #1: A Unified Aesthetic for Normal and Fashion Product Advertisements 445.2 Nike Strategy #2: Visual Content is Supported by Introductory Text 465.3 Nike Strategy #3: Functional Congruity Over Self-congruity 475.4 Limitations and Further Research 49

References 51Figures 54Tables 55Images 55Appendices 56

Appendix 1 59Appendix 2 66Appendix 3 70

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1. Introduction

A key characteristic of the twenty-first century economy is the image. Brands are developed based on images, products are advertised via images, corporate image is critical for managerial success. - Schroeder (2005, p. 4)

In product design and marketing, fashion has become a powerful entity to lift everyday products into something exciting and desirable. Fashion brings an added value to products, which is not necessarily linked to the product usage or aesthetics. As non-fashion brands are building brand alliances with fashion brands, the fashion product is taken outside of the traditional fashion system where it generally is consumed. The differentiating approaches to marketing, product design, and branding comes to a clash when functional brands choose to collaborate with symbolic brands. Thus, consumers who are not natural fashion consumers are placed with the dilemma of understanding the fashion product in a new context.

Product images can be argued to be one of the most important sources for being exposed to new products. This stresses the importance of the communicative elements of the images. By opting to co-create fashion products, familiar brands must properly understand the meaning transfer and advertising of fashion goods.

How is the product understood through advertisements and what makes it fashionable? What must be considered in the visual communication of co-branded fashion products? These topics will be discussed in this Master’s thesis through a study that explores the strategies of Nike’s fashion product advertising. Nike’s approach to participating in the fashion market is by introducing joint collaborations with established designers and brands that operate within the fashion system. Nike has stated that the reason for the collaborations is to present relevant perspectives on design, that Nike alone cannot generate (Millar 2016).

Despite collaborating with top names in the fashion industry, the late success of adidas has left Nike struggling to find similar relevance in the young consumers. The multiple fashion collaborations of adidas with the most coveted brands, such as Gosha Rubchinskiy, Alexander Wang, and Kanye West’s Yeezy, are redefining fashion and youth culture. Constantly offering new products that have relevance is subsiding the functional properties of the products in the current sportswear market. Through their marketing, adidas has managed to capitalize on this shift in consumer demand more efficiently than Nike. This struggle may be a part of not finding the right collaborators, or it may be the result of an inefficient product and marketing strategy. By researching Nike’s co-branded fashion product advertising strategy, some of the possible factors for this phenomena will be concluded.

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PRODUCT

BRAND AD/IMAGE

Figure 1: Scope of thesis.

1.1 Framing

This thesis discusses the subjects and relations of product, brand, and advertisement image. The cross-section of these topics creates the focus point (Fig. 1) for this thesis. The literature review aims to lay a foundation for understanding the value of fashion products, and how this value can be communicated through product advertisement images. How do we communicate the meaning and values of co-branded fashion products, e.g., in sportswear, and what implications can we draw from that into other market segments? How do consumers, who are not regular fashion product consumers, recognize the added values of the differentiating fashion product? Does this value belong to the product design, marketing or both? These questions will be discussed through a literature review and a visual analysis of Nike’s fashion product advertisement images.

Though sportswear consists mainly of clothing, it is still regarded as garments for functional purposes. As such, the market for sportswear acts as a segway into other markets more distant from the fashion market (Fig. 2). This transition will possibly reveal implications into the benefits and techniques of collaborating and marketing fashion products to new consumer groups and markets.

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Figure 2: Moving from symbolic fashion brands to functional brands.

The research of this thesis is aimed towards brands outside of the fashion system that looks to collaborate with fashion brands. The thesis outlines insights, as well as some of the caveats that non-fashion brands may encounter while trying to advertise their co-branded fashion products visually. Suggestions for improved visual communication of co-branded fashion product images are made based on the literature review and research of Nike’s advertisement strategies.

1.2 Previous Studies and Contribution

As the subject of the thesis is a mixture of brand, product, and image, a multidisciplinary approach to the literature review has been adopted. The distinct topic of co-branded fashion products and how they are perceived has not been studied previously to my knowledge. The subject and nature of fashion products is also less studied. In many cases, fashion products are only accredited to clothing based activity that ranges from sportswear and fast fashion brands to high fashion brands.

Fashion as an institutionalized system describes the perspective of fashion that is adopted throughout the thesis. Kawamura (2005) describes fashion as

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a system that produces desirable products to be consumed within a specific context, which is the high fashion and luxury market. Fashion products and brands are mostly seen as symbolic things. Symbolism is not however synonymous with fashion, but rather the umbrella that covers it.

Designing symbolic or meaningful products has mostly been credited to the functionality or product aesthetics in the design literature. The symbolic qualities of products are often discussed in the context of consumer response to product appearance (e.g., Crilly et al. 2004; Brunner et al. 2016). This approach, however, looks at the designed product in a vacuum, where the inspiration, marketing, and branding efforts are ignored in consumer evaluation and interpretation of the product.

At the other end of the spectrum, fashion products are often linked to conspicuous consumption. As discussed by Barnard (2002), this view regards fashion communication as what the act of wearing and consuming fashion products communicates to other individuals. The adopted view on fashion communication, as discussed throughout the thesis, is to review how the added value of the product is communicated through the advertisement image. Fashionability then, becomes the property of the product and the image, instead of the bearer.

Fashion can be said to exist in diverse ways depending on the culture. The thesis discusses fashion in the context of Western culture. The importance of the designer’s cultural knowledge and consumer understanding when designing symbolic products is acknowledged (McCracken 1985, Crilly et al. 2004), and general guidelines have been derived for symbolic product marketing in societal and group context (Leigh & Gabel 1992). The remark of fashion products and their distinct characteristics is, however, lacking in Leigh & Gabel’s (1992) approach to consumer behavior in symbolic product consumption.

Consumer and marketing research literature aid in understanding the effects and methods of meaning transfer. By considering the product design process as a continuum from the initial inspiration all the way to advertising, McCracken (1985) gives his insights on how the values are transferred from the designer via the product and advertising to the consumers. He exemplifies how the fashion system is an integral part of this process. These ideas will be further discussed.

General co-branding strategies and implications have been previously discussed by, e.g., Grossman (1997), who derives strategies for co-branding by using a framework of classical conditioning theory. His ideas assist the theorizing of brand positioning when symbolic and functional brands connect.

Fashion collaborations as a topic have been studied more recently by, e.g., Mattila et al. (2014). They discuss fashion collaborations within the fashion industry, namely high fashion brands and SPA (fast fashion) brands. As the study displays a positive impact for both brands, it can only serve as an

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encouragement to extend the research into one concerning non-fashion and fashion brands. Chun & Niehm (2010) studied the attitudes of customers regarding fashion collaborations, again focusing on brands within the fashion industry. Their findings report that the product and the design was the most important factor (55%) in the outcome of the collaboration, whereas promotion (21%) was the next significant factor. The results indicate that collaboration plays a significant role in creating new and creative products for the fashion industry. It also highlights the significance of the promotion for the overall success of the product.

Fashion images and communication are discussed by Barnard (2002), Shinkle (2008), and Phillips & McQuarrie (2010, 2011). These authors successfully account for the communication of values of fashion both in a cultural, as well as in a sociological context. Phillips & McQuarrie (2010) points out that little has been researched about overcoming consumer resistance in fashion advertisements. An especially neglected area is the effects of the aesthetic properties of an advertisement to consumer resistance. This topic will be discussed by regarding images as visual rhetorics (Schroeder 2008), which sees the image’s meaning partly as an interpretation by the viewer.

The literature review presents a broad array of topics. Together with presenting a perspective on designing and marketing co-branded fashion products, the thesis tackles a less present topic in academic literature. It specifically addresses the strategic positioning and visual advertising of co-branded fashion products. By presenting a perspective on co-branded fashion products, the thesis exemplifies and show-cases how existing theories can further be applied in the marketing of these products. The central thesis for design practice is to highlight the combined effects of the designer and the marketer in the overall evaluation of the fashion product. By considering the outcomes of this thesis, non-fashion brands who collaborate with fashion brands are able to better evaluate the effects of their joint product design and marketing strategy.

The research question for the thesis is defined followingly:

What are the visual strategies that Nike employs for its co-branded fashion products?

- How do products become fashionable in advertisements? - What is the role of the product design in this process?

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2. Literature Review The topics introduced in the literature review will explore a diverse perspective on how co-branded products become fashionable in advertisements. Each of the discussed topics contributes to the question uniquely. The literature review starts by giving a short introduction to co-branding. General ideas of brand positioning are examined to better understand the context for symbolic and functional products, brands, and advertising in brand alliances. The broader context of the branding literature assists in theorizing the possible consequences for marketing in collaborations between fashion and non-fashion brands. The branding literature also sets the ground for the discussion of differing marketing approaches that fashion and non-fashion brands utilize, and for the effects on fashion product advertising in a non-fashion environment.

How products become fashionable rests mainly on the symbolic values of the product and brand, as well as their connotations to fashion culture. The principal theme of the literature review is how fashion creates added value for the product, and what techniques are used to communicate this value to the consumers. Therefore, fashion is discussed in a commercial context throughout the thesis. It is perceived as a system that operates on a cycle of production and consumption, as defined by Kawamura (2005). Equally, how products communicate meaning and symbolic value within this cultural setting through product design and marketing is discussed through the ideas of McCracken (1985).

Lastly, an attempt is made to discover how fashion advertising communicates the added value of fashion products. It is done by presenting the characteristics of fashion advertisements as well as how the advertisement supports the product in becoming fashionable. How do consumers engage visual fashion advertisements and what conclusions can be drawn for co-branding purposes?

The topics will support the research question and the following discussion on how products become fashionable, and how the strategies of Nike’s co-branded fashion products can be generalized to create more successful marketing and product strategies for brand alliances between fashion and non-fashion brands. 2.1 Co-branding Co-branding, also known as brand alliance, is defined as two brands that pair up for commercial purposes, e.g., for product marketing. (Grossman 1997; Lanseng & Olsen 2009). Especially in fashion brand alliances, this often includes a familiar brand (mass-market) and a target brand (niche brand). Commonly, the well known mass-market brand is used as the familiar brand due to its consumer reach and superior production and distribution capabilities, whereas the niche brand is utilized more for its innovative approach to product

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design or brand image. Nike specifically demonstrates this approach. Brands have generally been conceived as either functional or expressive.

Functionality in this context is often used synonymously with words such as performance, utilitarian, objective, and instrumental. Expressive in turn refers to subjective, symbolic, image, experimental and hedonic. (Lanseng & Olsen 2009)

Meenaghan (1995) distinguishes two separate qualities of product advertising that lead to persuasion: self-congruity and functional congruity. These qualities of persuasion can be achieved by informational (functional) or transformational (symbolic) advertising. According to him, informational advertisements persuade by displaying product features and information to better help consumption choice conflicts. The transformational advertisements instead suggest an intellectual and social transformation by using the product. (Meenaghan 1995) Brand advertising can then be, according to Meenaghan (1995), practical (functional) or symbolic (Fig. 3).

Park et al. (1986) suggest that symbolic brands should stick to symbolic advertising and functional brands to functional advertising. This approach can

Figure 3: Practical and symbolic attitudes to buying brands (Meenaghan 1995).

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be troublesome when a functional brand is paired with a symbolic one. For example, familiar mass-market brands that enter the fashion product market may encounter difficulties, as they are not used to the symbolic marketing techniques of the fashion industry.

The view of pairing similar brand concept with corresponding advertising has been dominant due to regarding symbolism and functionality as ends of the same spectrum. However, according to Bhat & Reddy (1998), a symbolic brand does not exclude the concept of functionality. Trumping the view of brands as either functional or symbolic, Bhat & Reddy (1998) suggests that consumers accept both symbolic and functional persuasion. Therefore, a brand can position itself as both symbolic and functional in order to take advantage of both advertising concepts. Hence, when the consumer is considering a purchase, she is connecting to the brand on both levels (Bhat & reddy 1998).

The study by Bhat & Reddy (1998) holds great significance for this thesis, as the study researched Nike’s brand positioning and consumer attitudes. The study by Bhat & Reddy quoted Nike as functional, prestigious and expressive, thus positioning it into the middle ground and as a segway from symbolic to functional brands. (Fig. 1). However, what advertising concept should be chosen in a situation where a mostly symbolic brand is paired with a functional one? Grossman (1997) argues that a familiar brand has often already preconceived associations, which makes it hard for consumers to acquire new associations to it in a co-branding scenario. Therefore, he suggests that the advertising of the familiar brand is put in a new context (Grossman 1997). A non-fashion brand can then benefit from a differentiating marketing image for their co-branded fashion products.

Despite the slightly outdated perspective on brand advertising, Meenaghan (1995) notes the growing importance of symbolic advertising in general. He stresses the importance of symbolic elements in persuasion by advertisements, as product offerings are becoming all too homogenous in terms of technical and functional properties. Especially in fashion, the function of the product in advertisements is often known, and therefore require no actual promotion of the functionality. Hence, Phillips & McQuarrie (2010) argue that the signaling of practicality often lacks in fashion advertising.

2.2 The Fashion System The fashion market is perhaps the best example in portraying the relevan-ce and power of symbolic attitudes that lie within the brand, product, and marketing. To understand the source of this symbolism, one must compre-hend fashion in general. Crane & Bovone (2006) argues for the connection between fashion and desirability:

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It (fashion) is most frequently used to connote highly visible styles of clothing and, less often, other types of material or immaterial culture that are highly valued at a particular moment in time. The term is also applied to systems that produce new styles of clothing and attempt to make them desirable to the public. - Crane & Bovone (2006, p. 320)

Kawamura (2005) treats fashion as a cultural practice. According to her, it is through the culture that people create meaningful worlds to live in. She adds that in fashion, being timely and relevant is one of the strongest attributes a brand can acquire, as it is on this foundation the fashion market is built upon. Most importantly, fashion is driven by newness and change. (Kawamura 2005)

Kawamura (2005) notes that fashion is often combined with dress or clothing, but should be considered as a separate entity. It is an immaterial and an intangible object. She states that an object has to go through a labeling process that transforms it into fashion. This transformation happens within the institutions of the fashion system. Kawamura (2005) explains the institutionalized view of fashion:

Individuals related to fashion, including designers among many other fashion professionals, engage in activities collectively, share the same belief in fashion and participate together in producing and perpetuating not only the ideology of fashion but also fashion culture which is sustained by the continuous production of fashion. - Kawamura (2005, p. 39)

The fashion system operates by sustaining itself through an endless cycle of production and consumption, that is maintained by the key players in the fashion industry. Kswamura (2005) continues, that every item of clothing can be capable of being labeled as fashion, though not every attempt succeeds. For something to be labeled as fashion requires that it be legitimized by the institutions of fashion. (Kawamura 2005)

One of the traditional legitimators of fashion culture is the official fashion weeks that produce and bring new styles and fashion via shows in New York, London, Milan, and Paris (Kawamura 2005). According to Kawamura (2005), the least requirement for a fashion system to exist is a group of people that consists of those who suggest changes in attire, and those who accept and embrace at least some of these changes. Consequently, the growing interest in fashion has allowed the development of smaller systems inside or in parallel with the traditional one. In addition to fashion magazines, bloggers, and influencers can also be seen as legitimators to some extent. Kawamura (2005) reminds that the existence of a fashion system requires an open class system which allows social mobility from one class to another. She aligns herself with Polhemus (1995) in stating that there must be competition between at least two classes, as well as a positive outlook on novelty and change. If stability

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is valued over change, new fashion styles seem less desirable, which in turn prohibits the development of fashion (Polhemus 1995; Kawamura 2005).

Kawamura (2005) describes fashion as an added value in clothing, as it elevates a simple product to a fashionable piece, an object of desire. She states that a fashion product is embedded with social, economic, cultural and symbolic capital. These values transform the product into luxury and only carry value and meaning in relation to non-luxury products. (Kawamura 2005) Angeletti & Oliva (2006) share the view on fashion items as something valuable in relation to other objects. According to them, fashion clothing can be seen as everyday art objects. Therefore, the aesthetic properties and value of a piece of fashion clothing must be evaluated differently from everyday objects that hold a functional purpose (Angeletti & Oliva 2006).

2.3 Fashion Products

According to Kawamura (2005), a fashion product is a cultural object. How do we go about in creating these objects then, and how are products set up for a proposition to be fashionable? Furthermore, can products communicate fashionability by themselves?

McCracken (1985) offers his insight on the matter, stating that creating meaningful products requires designers to understand cultural meanings. The meaning has to be drawn from the cultural world and transferred into the product, which is then marketed to the consumers. McCracken (1985) acknowledges the fashion system as a powerful tool for meaning transfer as it creates and shares new cultural meanings constantly. (McCracken 1985)

McCracken (1985) describes the culturally constituted world as the world of everyday things. It is seen and interpreted by us through a lens, which is the culture we live in. He argues that meaning can be drawn and channeled to the product in two ways: through advertising or through the fashion system. In advertising, the advertising director assigns a context in which the product is displayed and thus creates meaning that can be beyond the utilitarian values of the product. The process of meaning transfer by the fashion system is more complex and can be done in three ways. (McCracken 1985)

According to McCracken (1985), the first way to draw meaning from the world is similar to advertising, i.e., the meaning is drawn from the existing cultural norms found in our society. Another way for the fashion system to attach meaning to products is by inventing them. Inventing new cultural meanings is done by the opinion leaders. These are the individuals in high esteem inside the institutions of the fashion system. The third way is to participate in the radical reform of cultural meanings. Our Western society is apt for change. It encourages radical reforms of cultural norms which are often the result of deliberate human efforts from groups existing at the margins of our society,

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such as hippies or punks. These reforms are often appropriated by the fashion system into the cultural mainstream. (McCracken 1985)

Advertising and the fashion system plays thus an instrumental role in communicating the product meaning to consumers. For McCracken (1985), the product is seen as a message which is sent by the brand and received by the consumers (Fig. 4). The consumers are interpreting the message by using the same source as the brand used for advertising. Consumers are then reflecting their interpretation to that of the brand’s. Conforming with the ideas of McCracken (1985), Shinkle (2008) notes that the message can be considered as poorly constructed or failed if these interpretations do not align.

Figure 4: Product (image) as the vehicle of cultural ideas.

Barnard (2002) argues that meaning is therefore constructed by using signifiers from an already existing structure, which the designer has no control over. Similar views are shared by Schroeder (2008) and Crilly et al. (2004), who points out the importance in the cultural context of product design and marketing. The context of consumption is increasingly important, as the designers and consumers are often separated by place, time or social group (Crilly et al. 2004).

McCracken’s (1985) idea of meaningful products sees the product design process as a continuum that consists of both the designing and marketing of products. As the designer or brand is the original creator of the meanings behind the products, it may be important to include them also in the designing of the marketing campaign.

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In a series of tweets, the NikeLab and Acronym designer Errolson Hugh (2017) stated his displease of the advertisement image(s) (Img. 1) of his creations: “I mean you can spend months and do the best design in the world but then someone takes a photo of it like this. LOL.” Working partly as an in-house designer for NikeLab, he claims that even being a fashion collaborator does not allow him to participate in the photography and styling of the promotional material.

Errolson Hugh’s Acronym label is known for outerwear with overstated technicality and performance. The ACG (All Conditions Gear) line for NikeLab reflects this approach. The campaign images here, however, fail to communicate anything about the use or looks of the garments. The abstract way of picturing the garments can only be a poor interpretation of contemporary fashion styling. Apart from not expressing the concept nor values of the designer, it also lacks Nike’s brand message of functionality and performance. The campaign images were removed shortly after their publishing.

The product image or advertisement is therefore essential in consumer interpretation and evaluation of the product and its meaning. Consequently, Schroeder (2008) considers the advertising image as rhetoric or cultural text. Aristotle defined rhetoric as “the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion” (Roberts 1954). According to Schroeder (2008), images in marketing communication play both cultural and persuasive roles. He regards a rhetoric image as an advertisement that looks to persuade through cultural representations. Like the regular text, a cultural text requires a certain amount of visual literacy. This is why Schroeder (2008) insists that most representational conventions depicted in visual advertisements do not necessarily evoke the same response in consumers. When reading standard text, we are limited by our knowledge of the written language. Our vocabulary, grammar, and syntax, all dictate our interpretation of the written text. Schroeder (2008) points out that it does not necessarily mean that the text does not hold meaning beyond our understanding. He adds that same goes for visual imagery, though we may interpret it subjectively, visual imagery may still hold certain specific representational conventions. (Schroeder 2008)

As such, we can view the product as a cultural object, or text, that inform us of its meaning. The advertisement image acts as a way of strengthening this text, and to bring forth its symbolic meaning (and added value) more efficiently. Though McCracken (1985) credits much of the communication process of the symbolic values to the marketers, the design process that involves the inspiration drawn from cultural ideas play a significant role in the product outcome. Therefore, the process of communicating a product with symbolic value to consumers requires input from both the designer and the marketer. A product cannot be designed fashionable by itself in a vacuum, or if it can, the fashionability only exists as an idea unable to reach an audience.

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2.4 Fashion Advertisement Images

The previous chapter introduced the impact of advertising on product design and to the communication of symbolic and meaningful products. As fashion is intertwined with our Western culture, the meanings drawn from our culturally constituted world cannot be separated from it. A product has to be placed in a context that allows it to be evaluated as fashionable.

Does fashion have some identifiable characteristics that appear in image form? Recognizing these may assist or strengthen the signaling of fashionability of products especially for mass-market consumers, as this group may not be as educated in the subtle expressions of fashion products and culture.

Fashion advertisements can be said to have some distinct features, though there are not any commonly accepted rules. According to Saville in Burgoyne (2002, p. 36), “Photographic images play a key role in defining global fashion culture… they are seen as the driving force behind the fashion system… as fashions ‘ultimate signifier’.” The product image can, therefore, be said to be a powerful signifier for communicating fashionability.Barthes (1985, p. 5) writes that: “The Fashion photograph is not just any

Image 1: Errolson Hugh for NikeLab.

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photograph, it bears little relation to the news photograph or to the snapshot.” Barthes (1985) regards fashion photography as a genre that can be described by a unique set of codes. This view is however met with criticism by Shinkle (2008), she notes that Barthes’ ‘The Fashion System’ was written at a time when the genre of fashion photography was a relatively homogeneous field, thus making it more susceptible for a clear definition.

Today, classifying fashion photography to a single genre is a lot harder. Shinkle (2008, p. 4, 5) argues, that “the 1990s were a pivotal period in the recent history of fashion photography” due to “a wave of creative and professional freedom in both the alternative and mainstream fashion press.” Likewise, Schroeder’s (2008) acknowledgment of the snapshot as a modern representation of the fashion photography and culture contradicts the view of Barthes (1985).

Fashion photography as a field is diverse, there is no single genre, though one common denominator, according to Shinkle (2008), is its existence in both the artistic and commercial realms. This is also why there is no one correct methodology to analyze fashion photography. Shinkle (2008, p. 4) criticises comparing fashion imagery to advertising, as it “overlooks the specificity of its form of address, not to mention the growing sophistication of its intended audience.”

According to fashion photographer Melissa Rodwell (2009), promotional fashion photography can be roughly divided into three categories: editorial, campaign, and lookbook images. She notes that editorial images usually implement a more free and diverse expression of a theme, but have to be linked by the same concept. Editorial photography can also be done by a third party and feature other products and brands. In editorial images, the focus is more on the photography as an art form instead of the products. Therefore, it is common to use famous photographers in editorial images, as they often implement their own artistic style to the advertisement images. (Rodwell 2009)

Rodwell (2009) points out that campaign images (Img. 2) are similar to editorial images, and distinguishing these two is often a matter of opinion. However, campaign images often reference the theme and inspiration behind the collection more strongly. As stated by Rodwell (2009), this allows the consumer to recognizes a particular product to be a part of a specific collection by the style and manner that it is depicted. The fashion house and promoter Debonair Afrik (2017) further argues, that the purpose of campaign images is to promote and sell the brand identity as much as the products.

Both Afrik (2017) and Rodwell (2009) agree that the attention in lookbook images is drawn more on the products. Lookbook images are straightforward by nature, and the purpose is to present the collection and the garments more detailed. They note that the stylistic features are kept to minimum and models are often standing in neutral positions to allow an objective representation of the texture, fit and cut of the garments (Afrik 2017; Rodwell 2009).

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2.5 Style as a Form of Communication

Style is defined as “a distinctive appearance, typically determined by the principles according to which something is designed.” (Oxford University Press 2018) Style makes certain things recognizable and helps us assign them to a specific genre. That is why Schroeder (2010) accredits style as a foundational element of strategic communication.

Shinkle (2008) argues that advertisements today deal in superlatives instead of communicating the value of use. Accordingly, Rhodes & Zuloago (2013) state that fashion brands advertise their products on the basis of superficial image-based identities, while simultaneously promoting these identities, which often revolve around idealized beauty, wealth and youth.

The identity of fashion brands in advertising is created by a set of images with a distinct style. As pointed out by Rhodes & Zuloago (2013), the

Image 2: The campaign image for Céline F/W 2011 was shot by Juergen Teller. He implements his unique and recognizable style of rawness and overexposure in the campaign image.

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advertisements hold a common emotive quality that together helps to construct the identity of the brand. This identity is partly created through the art-like qualities of the imagery. They add that the level of the artfulness in the images determines the strength of the emotional response in the viewer. (Rhodes & Zuloago 2013)

Thus we can say, that the identity of the brand plays a significant role in expressing fashionability. This can be said especially of known fashion brands, which have established themselves as legitimators in the fashion system. Equally, the artfulness contributes to the strength of the response in the viewer. Rhodes & Zuloago (2013) does not precisely elaborate on what they mean by artfulness, but it can be assumed to include elements from both representational and conceptual art forms. This approach also emphasizes the role of the marketer in fashion product advertising. Regarding visual materials and methods in marketing, Moisander & Valtonen (2011) writes that:

Decisions of the image maker have profound effects on the kinds of visual and cultural statements that result from their images. They purposively encode specific messages and cultural meanings to the image, using particular techniques and visual cues. - Moisander & Valtonen (2011, p. 89)

These techniques and visual cues, or styles, can be connected to the brand identity. They may also work as individual elements to strengthen the message, as well as attach the advertised product to a specific context or genre. Snapshot aesthetics is one such technique, which illustrates the strength of implementing a distinct style in portraying fashion culture.

The snapshot aesthetics is thus a property of the image, a technique in portraying something in a distinct way. Schroeder (2008) argues that it derives from our everyday use of portable and mobile cameras. He describes that images and advertisements representing the snapshot aesthetic often picture models out of focus, eyes closed, or poorly framed. According to him, this image strategy mimics the everyday use of small portable cameras, and can thus make the photography seem more real and authentic.

Snapshot Aesthetics also promotes a more casual image of the brand, a strategy that many high fashion brands have adopted through their conjunction with streetwear. As the snapshot by nature represents a moment in time, nowness, authenticity, and freshness, it can also be argued to portray the timeliness of fashion.

The snapshot aesthetic is especially evident in the context of social media. The image sharing application Instagram has popularized and legitimized this form of advertising among fashion brands, influencers, and bloggers. Alexander Wang’s and adidas’ collaboration advertising (Img. 3) displays the snapshot aesthetic in use. The image appears to have virtually no image

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manipulation or enhancements, rendering a picture of an authentic real-life scenario. The image cropping and perspective suggest a non-considered and casual approach to photography.

The snapshot aesthetics underlines the element of fashion in products, newness, relevancy, coolness, and may assist in accelerating fashion cycles and trends (Schroeder 2008). Though there can be many more styles to be found that expresses fashion culture, the snapshot aesthetic exemplifies how we place the product in the context of fashion culture to strengthen its meaning. The style of the images renders the brand and product as authentic and relevant, as we can relate to it through our own cultural experiences.

2.6 Characteristics of Fashion Advertisements

The way that the fashion image is built can be seen as the determining factor of the effects on the viewer. Constructing the fashion image is a sum of its aesthetic properties, narrative, and topic, as well as the style in which these are depicted. The complex nature of the fashion image is what makes it much more than a mere product advertisement. This is especially evident in the criticism that fashion advertising has been subjected to.

The prevailing view on fashion imagery and advertising has been that it

Image 3: Alexander Wang x adidas campaign image.

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imposes negative effects, especially on women. Phillips & McQuarrie (2011, p. 101) argue that “the truth of the proposition that fashion ads present idealized images, impossible to attain, is so anecdotally obvious that it requires no empirical support.” Fashion advertising has been labeled by a number of studies (Bower 2001; Dittmar and Howard 2004; Martin and Gentry 1997; Richins 1991; Shaw 1995) to mainly consist of aspirational messages, often unreachable ideas of beauty and thinness, that are to be emulated. They note that this point of view suggests the concept of representational conventions of fashion advertisement to be merely aspirations of beauty, ignoring the more nuanced ways we read, engage, and experience these images. (Phillips & McQuarrie 2011)

To combat this view, Phillipps & McQuarrie (2011) conducted a study that examined the effects and attitudes of fashion advertising. Their findings indicated that almost a third of fashion advertising is discrepant and does not support idealized and conventional beauty standards. (Phillips & McQuarrie 2011)

Based on their findings, they propose that fashion advertising is divided according to their nature. This view sees fashion advertising imagery as idealized (Img. 4), or discrepant (Img. 5). The idealized images are commonly associated with imagery that promotes beauty, wealth and youth, as noted by Rhodes & Zuloago (2013). However, as a significant part of the advertisements promoted a discrepant theme, it can be said that not all fashion images and brands reflect these concepts. For this reason, Phillipps & McQuarrie (2011) insists that the symbolism in fashion advertisements does not have to be regarded as positive in order to be persuasive.

Image 4: The Versace advertisement is idealizing by nature.

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2.7 Modes of Engagement

To better comprehend our interpretation process for fashion images, Phillips & McQuarrie (2010) conducted a study on how consumers engage these images. In their research, they present a framework for identifying and classifying fashion advertisements. This classification is done by analyzing the mode of engagement that the advertisement image causes in the viewer. The engagement mode of the viewer is a response to the content and the aesthetic qualities of the advertisement. The five engagement modes associated with fashion advertising, according to Phillips & McQuarrie (2010), are:

1. Engage to act: the aesthetic properties of the image are disregarded, the viewer of the advertisement focuses only on the displayed products. The product aesthetic, therefore, becomes the primary focus. (Phillips & McQuarrie 2010) Thus, images that are constructed to evoke this mode of engagement may find difficulties in communicating symbolism or triggering a strong brand experience, since there are no elements to strengthen the product’s meaning transfer.

2. Engage for identity: the viewer constructs identities for the model in the advertisement, while simultaneously reflecting these identities to oneself.

Image 5: The Alexander Wang advertisement is grotesque by nature.

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Fashion can be said to somewhat revolve around promoting idealized identities. Despite the idealizing nature of fashion advertisements, Phillips & McQuarrie (2010) points out that identity negotiation does not always produce a favorable outcome for the brand. To align oneself with a proposed identity also means to choose the brand it represents. If the identity is rejected, the brand may be rejected as well. (Phillips & McQuarrie 2010) As such, the product in this mode of engagement plays a lesser role.

3. Engage to feel: the fashion advertisement evokes a particular mood or feel. The viewer’s focus is laid on the ad that best corresponds to the desired emotional response. Anecdotally, one can view advertisements as musical compositions. Both classical music and heavy metal could be engaging depending on the mood of the viewer. Constructing images that support this engagement mode faces the problem which results from consumers’ varying emotional responses. Whether they regard the mood or feel to be positive, is judged by current individual preferences. (Phillips & McQuarrie 2010)

4. Engage to transport: the image invites the viewer to engage by offering a narrative. Engagement happens most likely when an image contains elements of the grotesque. Advertisements, such as the one from Dolce & Gabbana (Img. 6), can be classified as grotesque. These images consist of grotesque representations which are not generally considered as idealized and are replete with negative connotations. Grotesque advertisements do not follow the conventional beauty standards often associated with fashion advertising. They are still regarded as favorable, therefore trumping the copy theory which states that advertisements must consist of positively viewed visual elements, such as the Michael Kors ad (Img. 7), to be favorably evaluated. Dolce & Gabbana’s advertisement instead looks to evoke an intense experience of the brand. (Phillips & McQuarrie 2010)

5. Engage to Immerse: to be immersed means to view the advertisement similarly as an art piece hanging in a gallery. The image is judged by its artfulness, i.e., the sum of its sensory properties. Immersion can be evoked by images containing some elements of the grotesque, but also by providing elements of defamiliarization, i.e., to “make the familiar strange” (Phillips & McQuarrie 2010, p. 387). As such, immersion is close to the mode of narrative transportation. Despite their similarities, immersion happens more through aesthetic appreciation than by constructing a narrative.

The fact that different modes of engagement have been identified implies that various degrees of engagement can be evoked by altering the content and aesthetics of the image. Phillips & McQuarrie (2010) state that the motivation for the newly identified engagement modes in advertising, namely

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Image 6: Dolce & Gabbana advertisement. Image 7: Michael Kors advertisement.

transportation and immersion, is a response to the neglected aspect of brand experience in conventional theories of persuasion. They argue that these theories have mostly regarded the advertisements persuasiveness by its ability to produce favorable brand evaluations. However, a strong and intense brand experience can serve as an alternative route to persuasion, since it is considered a positive outcome for the brand. (Phillips & McQuarrie 2010)

According to Phillips & McQuarrie (2010), recognizing the different modes of engagement and connecting them to brand experience allows us best to theorize consumer response to advertising. It can be said that the fashion image is something more than just a product advertisement. As much as it looks to sell the product, it also reflects and markets the brand identity through brand experience.

The act of idealizing models beyond their natural capability has been widely criticized by various groups promoting natural beauty and a healthy body image. As Phillips & McQuarrie (2010, 2011) implies, the consumer resistance is most evident and evocative in advertisements categorized as idealizing. The stronger emotional intensity and experience caused by immersion and transportation makes images capable of bringing forth these engagement modes more effective in terms of persuasion.

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2.8 Visual Rhetoric

Visual rhetoric is especially used as a critical-analytical tool to analyze visual data which highlights the communicative aspect of images. Both aesthetic and utilitarian images can be seen as visual rhetorics. (Smith et al. 2004) Therefore, fashion advertisement images can be viewed as visual rhetorics, as they play both commercial and artistic roles according to Shinkle (2008).

Rhetoric can be dated back to classical Greece, where it was considered as the study of symbols to communicate. It is regarded as the ancient word for communication. Visual images were formally introduced to the study of rhetoric in the 70’s. Until then, it had been exclusively a verbal discourse. The popularity of visual rhetorics today can be explained mainly by the pervasiveness of visual images, as well as their impact on contemporary culture. (Smith 2004) This effect can be explicitly observed by the integration of fashion culture into social media. For example, before, new fashion styles were introduced several months after the fashion shows exclusively in print magazines. Now, these styles are spreading through social media in real time.

The rhetorical approach to visual study is mostly interested in how visuals communicate to lay audiences. The framework of visual rhetoric, therefore, expects that the viewers have no expertise in art history aesthetics, art education, or design. The response to images is constructed from the viewers own experiences. (Smith et al. 2004) These experiences are however tied to our culture. Aligning herself with previous authors, (McCracken 1985; Schroeder 2008; Shinkle 2008) Scott (1994, p. 255) argues that cultural knowledge is needed for a correct interpretation of the image, as it offers a “shared vocabulary of stylistic mannerism that could be used in an evaluative way.”

2.9 A Framework for Analyzing Fashion Advertisements

Due to being a relatively new perspective in the discipline of rhetoric, visual rhetoric does not have any coherent theory on the approach to image analysis. Foss writes that “virtually any theory or construct from rhetorical theory can serve as a guiding analytical tool in the deductive analysis of images.” (Smith et al. 2004, p. 148)

Scott’s (1994) theoretical framework for analyzing visual advertisements was a response to the neglect of considering advertisements as complex figurative arguments. Shinkle’s (2008) remark of fashion advertisements as something more than regular advertisements implies of similar views into the study of images, as she criticizes the analysis of fashion advertisements through conventional methods.

The theory of visual rhetoric by Scott (1994) can be seen as a system that operates on three levels. First, this requires that the visual elements of

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the advertisement can be used to represent concepts, abstractions, actions, metaphors, and modifiers. These concepts have to be presented in a way that allows them to assist in an invention of a complex argument. Secondly, the argument has to be supported by the arrangement of the visual elements. Thirdly, the visual elements are required to offer a delivery of style that suggests the intended evaluation by the viewer. (Scott 1994)

• Invention: The concept communicates the promised benefit to the consumer by an organizing argument or metaphor. It also presents support for this promise and the relationship to competitive alternatives. (Scott 1994) For example, the argument can be thought of as the inspiration that the designer channels to the product and which the marketer strengthens. If we think of what makes a product fashionable, it is also the connection to the fashion brand. Especially for established brands within the fashion system, the brand name and identity may directly connote to fashionability.

• Arrangement: Similar as well as different elements may produce alternate meanings depending on how they are arranged and presented in relation to each other. (Scott 1994) This is why the components in a fashion advertisement cannot be separated, as they together produce an artistic image that is to be evaluated as a whole.

• Delivery: Delivery describes viewing and evaluating in two ways:a) by the point of viewb) by the manner of rendering; how is the product portrayed? In what style? (Scott 1994)

The point of view becomes apparent when classifying fashion images to lookbook, campaign, or editorial. Each has a unique approach to how the product is displayed together with the other elements in the image.

Schroeder’s (2008) snapshot aesthetic also exemplifies a type of delivery. It illustrates a specific point of view which affects how the product is rendered and viewed.

As the discussed literature reveals, brands can promote and reflect both functional and expressive qualities. The brand positioning has often been regarded as the base for similar advertising concept. Grossman (1997) argues, however, that familiar brands can create new brand associations more effectively when the marketing concept is altered. Consequently, differentiating the style of advertisements of the co-branded fashion product seems highly beneficial. The

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culture of fashion is maintained by a cycle of production and consumption, where newness, desirability, and change is valued. A brand alliance between a fashion and a non-fashion brand can be argued to want to take advantage of these attributes for the familiar brand in terms of new brand associations.

The fashion product promotes the added values that are reflective of the culture of fashion. As Angeletti & Oliva (2006) states, these items have to be evaluated differently from everyday products. This added value is channeled by the designer from the pool of knowledge, that is the culture we live in. At the same time, consumers are using this pool of knowledge to evaluate the product. The fashion product is thus a vehicle for meaning that is set forth by the designer. The marketing effort that presents the product as meaningful and desirable for consumers must strive to support the initial message of the designer. As Kawamura (2005) notes, the consumers are the ultimate authority in accepting the proposed fashionability. As such, the advertising of fashion products differs from regular products, that are usually advertised on the basis of their functionality and utilitarian value. Therefore, it might be beneficial for familiar, mainly functional brands, to better comprehend how the message of fashionability is communicated and strengthened through advertisement images.

As McCracken (1985) argues, the fashion system is a powerful tool for meaning transfer. In this system, various entities make propositions of fashionability, and when accepted by the consumers, the product becomes fashionable. As the traditional gatekeepers are making way for new ones, in the form of independent influencers and bloggers, brands have more power in proposing fashion products through these outlets.

Discovering the characteristics of fashion images and classifying the fashion image as visual rhetoric creates insights into how consumers might accept the proposition of fashionable products. Considering this, brands can find new ways to promote their products by constructing powerful advertisements instead of relying on traditional fashion institutions to include their propositions of fashionability.

The next chapter presents the research on Nike’s fashion product advertising strategy. The study examines how Nike attempts to present their co-branded fashion products as fashionable. The study also makes an attempt at understanding visual fashion advertisements and how the aesthetic properties and content of it is understood by lay consumers.

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3. Research

Nike’s advertisements for co-created fashion products will be analyzed to discover how Nike signals the added values of these products. The focus in the research lies in the visual advertising. The main research question and subquestions for this study are defined as:

What are the visual strategies that Nike employs for its co-branded fashion products?

- How do products become fashionable in advertisements? - What is the role of the product design in this process?

3.1 Background

All of Nike’s co-branded fashion products and collections were released through the NikeLab brand concept. Nike introduces the NikeLab concept followingly:

Limited editions of Nike’s latest performance and sport style innovations that express the intersection of sport, design, and culture will be available. Nike’s heritage styles have also been reinterpreted through creative collaborations, and unique capsule collections from various creative partners. - Nike (2014)

NikeLab’s offering of exclusive products with outside collaborators displays a clear differentiation to their regular products. As fashion and luxury products only carry value and meaning in relation to non-luxury products (Kawamura 2005; Angeletti & Oliva 2006), it can be assumed that this added value is communicated to the consumers in some way.

As a sportswear company, Nike produces products that aim for enhanced performance and functionality. Offering mainly wearables, Nike also lies in the middle ground of fashion and functional products, since the brand is seen as both functional and expressive, as argued by Bhat & Reddy (1998). Therefore, it is assumed that Nike’s advertising also conveys some symbolic values. The analysis’ goal is to research how well this symbolism can be tied to those reflective of the fashion culture and fashion product advertising. Nike’s approach to co-branded fashion products may also offer some cues into how fashion as a collaborative strategy could further be introduced into everyday products and brands.

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3.2 Data Collection

The data consists of Nike’s fashion collaboration advertisements starting from June 11th, 2014 until the end of May 2017. June 11th was chosen as it was the start date of the NikeLab concept. May 2017 was selected as the end date for data analysis as it was convenient concerning the thesis’ schedule. The data was collected from Nike’s online news page: news.nike.com/news. This news feed introduces the main product news from Nike. It also offers downloadable high-resolution product images, as well as written information about the products and their launch dates.

The news page is a suitable source for the research as it presents a wide variety of Nike’s products and sub-brands. Therefore, the audience of these advertisements can be expected to reflect mass-market consumers, rather than a targeted segment such as fashion consumers. Understanding the mass-market perception of fashionability in product advertisements can help in generalizing strategies for this market segment.

The data was manually gathered by reviewing 120 pages of news. Each page contained around 18 separate news articles. Each news article offered an image bank where the advertisement images could be viewed and downloaded. All of the images from each collaboration was chosen as data for the research. The introductory text and its content were also noted, though it was not the primary focus of the research. In some instances, Nike also presented a video or moving images to accompany the still pictures. These were not chosen to be a part of the research, because analyzing video and moving images would require a separate study with corresponding methods. Moving images were neither used in the majority of the fashion collaborations, which suggests that their use is not a general strategy for fashion products.

From the 120 news pages, all NikeLab collaborations were picked for further review. A total of 16 collaborations were identified, of which 10 were chosen for the research. To be included in the research, the collaborating designer or brand had to have partaken in the fashion system and its institutions in the traditional sense that Kawamura (2005) describes. For example, to meet the requirement, the collaborating brands or designers had to have been presenting, or in other way partaking during any of the official fashion weeks. Therefore, they were regarded to be legitimators or participators in the institutions of fashion. The evaluation of these criteria was done by conducting a search on vogue.com. Vogue.com covers all participants of the official fashion shows. The brand or designer was deemed eligible for the study if they were present in the archives of Vogue.com. Also, designers who worked for a specific brand that was present on vogue.com were included in the study.

The product advertisment images from Nike’s general product lines were picked from the 120 news pages. The same source allowed the comparison of Nike’s fashion product collaborations with their regular products during the

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same time frame. These images were chosen on the basis of similarities in style and composition to the fashion product images.

The news page was used for data source because the images published there are accessible for both consumer awareness and for third-party promotion. Therefore, it implies that Nike encourages promotion explicitly by other entities, e.g., e-magazines, bloggers, and influencers. The opportunity for broad distribution by the accessibility of the images suggests that these advertisement images are both for mass-market consumers as well as for targeted audiences, such as fashion-conscious consumers.

A web search for each collection was made to look for articles, interviews, and other relevant material. This information was used as a complementary source for the visual analysis, as well as to form a better understanding of Nike’s fashion product advertising strategy. Sources for this information, as well as the main data, can be viewed in Table 1.

3.3 Data Analysis

The main methods applied to the collected data was the framework of modes of engagement by Phillips and McQuarrie (2010) and the theory of analyzing visual advertisements by Scott (1994). The framework of Scott (1994) assisted in analyzing the strength of the message in the visual advertisement, i.e., how well does Nike signal values of the fashion culture, and can these signals be read by lay audiences. The framework of Phillips and McQuarrie (2010) assisted in theorizing how Nike’s advertisement images may be received by the consumers.

Often the analysis of images is done by implementing classical art historical techniques. This formal analysis method analyzes images by comparing, contrasting and interpreting them. This method is used by, e.g., Schroeder (2005) in his critical visual analysis of the fashion brand Calvin Klein’s advertisements. Often the analysis of images is done by implementing classical art historical techniques. This formal analysis method analyzes images by comparing, contrasting and interpreting them. This method is used by, e.g., Schroeder (2005) in his critical visual analysis of the fashion brand Calvin Klein’s advertisements. The formal analysis method often requires significant background knowledge of the subject to give competent and insightful analysis (Belk 2006). As the research in this thesis focuses on how lay audiences engage and interpret fashion product advertisements, the formal analysis method did not seem suitable in evaluating and comparing how this audience may interpret the advertisements. Also, the formal analysis method is labor intensive when working with a large number of images.

Therefore, Scott’s (1994) method for analysis was adopted, as it is similar but uses predetermined questions to guide the analysis process. As this method

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Table 1: Data and sources.

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is also a general theory for how advertisements communicate ideas in mass-market advertising, it may be also suitable for evaluating fashion products from a mass-market perspective.

Due to the number of images, the analysis started by grouping the images of Nike’s co-branded fashion product campaign images. The goal of the analysis was to find out how the product relates to the rest of the components in the image. This information allows the discussion on the relationship between the product and the rest of the image in rendering the product as fashionable. A more detailed explanation of the grouping procedure will be presented in the next chapter.

After grouping the images, a framework for evaluating fashion advertising engagement by Phillips & McQuarrie (2010) was adapted to each of the identified group. This approach allowed to theorize the effects of the product-image relationship to the consumer response. The engagement mode describes the mental response to the aesthetics and structure of the advertisement image. The framework also allowed to compare Nike’s advertisements to conventional fashion advertisements through their mode of engagement. Lastly, the framework assisted in classifying specific images as purely informational, and thus it was used to narrow the number of images that were included in the following rhetorical visual analysis.

The images determined to be able to convey symbolic values were then subjected to rhetorical visual analysis, according to the framework by Scott (1994). This visual analysis consisted of analyzing the images by their invention of an argument, the support for this argument by the arrangement of the visual components, and the manner of delivery. The goal of the rhetorical visual analysis was to analyze the type of symbolism that Nike communicates through their fashion product advertisement. How does the designer’s assigned meaning to the product appear in the advertisement, and what techniques have the marketing adapted to strengthen these meanings. The primary focus was on the meanings and methods that were associated with fashion advertising and culture.

The marketing of the fashion collaborations via a different brand concept (NikeLab) suggest a clear differentiation to product strategy. How the co-branded fashion product images differ from Nike’s normal product images were therefore analyzed. For this, images from the same source and time frame as the fashion collaboration images were picked. The goal was to determine the similarities and differences in the composition and style of the two product categories (normal and fashion products).

Supplementary web searches for the collaborations were done to form a consumer-like understanding and awareness of the collaborating designer or brand. The search was done by reviewing each brand’s website and by searching third party online publications of their NikeLab collaboration.

On the collaborating brand’s website, the campaign or lookbook images were reviewed from the period of the collaboration with Nike. In case these

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images were unavailable, the most recent images were noted. Engaging in this information gave a mental image of each brand’s or designer’s identity, similar to that of the average mass-market consumer. This mental image assisted in better being able to judge the collaborating brand’s visual aesthetic and style in Nike’s co-created products and advertisement images.

3.4 Visual Analysis

The next part will describe the visual analysis in more detail. An overview of the process is presented in Figure 5. It illustrates the analysis process divided into two steps. The first step describes the analysis of the co-branded fashion products, and the second step describes the visual comparison between Nike’s general products and co-branded fashion products.

The visual analysis started with the grouping of the images. The images were analyzed for grouping on the basis of the following questions:

- how was the product displayed in relation to the other components in the image?- was the product displayed entirely or partly?- was the product displayed with one or several models?- was there any stylistic features or image manipulation to enhance or alter the product appearance?

Figure 5: An overview of the analysis process for the research.

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The images were then grouped according to the product-image relationships that were identified:

• Images that highlight the product: Single products that are displayed entirely by themselves. If a model wears the product, she must be cropped in a manner that shows the majority of the product and only highlights one product.

• Images that display the product in close-up detail: The image focuses on a detail of a product by, e.g., emphasizing its functionality, material, or construction. The detail is generally centered in the image. If a model wears the product, the model must be cropped so that she is only partly visible. The product detail must appear as the focal point in the image.

• Images that display the product and model(s): The majority of the

model’s body is displayed with the product(s).

• Images that display no product: E.g., portrait or landscape images, or other promotional material in image form. No clear product identification can be made due to the product being:

a) not picturedb) only a minor part of the image, not emphasized in any way.

In addition to these categories, an additional stylistic feature which was named abstractification was identified. The abstractification was found in every image group, except in the ‘no product’ category, and its purpose was to enhance the image’s artfulness. The abstractification is a result of various degrees of image manipulation. The abstractification was most often a subtle nuance of the image, made to emphasize the product in some way.

Some collaborations had several collections (a set of campaign images) during the research time frame. Only one collection from each brand was included in the visual analysis to limit the amount of data. In order to get a sufficient sample size and up-to-date information, the collection was chosen by the following criteria in order of importance:

a) the collection displays a wide array of advertisement images in most of the image group categories (product highlight, product detail, product and model, no product) b) the most recent collection.

Each brand’s campaign images from the chosen collections were then grouped according to the previously identified groups (product highlight, product detail, product and model, no product), as exemplified in Figure 6. The groupings

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Figure 6: Example of image grouping (Olivier Rousteing).

for each collection can be further viewed in Appendix 1. The included collaborations are:

1. Kim Jones x NikeLab2. John Elliott x NikeLab3. Olivier Rousteing x NikeLab4. Riccardo Tisci x NikeLab5. Sacai x NikeLab6. COMME des GARÇONS x NikeLab7. Gyakusou x NikeLab8. Pedro Lourenço x NikeLab9. Pigalle x NikeLab10. Undercover x NikeLab

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After the image grouping, the mode of engagement for each product category was analyzed. The modes of engagement describe how the viewer responds mentally to fashion advertising images. These modes of engagement, according to Phillips & McQuarrie (2010), include:

1. Engage to act: the aesthetic properties are disregarded, the viewer of the advertisement focuses only on the products displayed

2. Engage for identity: the viewer constructs identities for the model in the advertisement, while simultaneously reflecting these identities to oneself.

3. Engage to feel: the fashion advertisement evokes a certain mood, feel or a desired emotional response. Depending on the mood and preferences of the viewer, an image may affect viewers differently.

4. Engage to transport: the image invites the viewer to engage by offering a narrative. Engagement happens most likely when an image contains elements of the grotesque.

5. Engage to Immerse: to be immersed means to view the advertisement similarly as an art piece hanging in a gallery. The image is judged by its artfulness.

Figure 7: Modes of engagement connected to the product categories.

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Each product image category was matched with its corresponding mode of engagement (Fig. 7). The analysis description can be read in Appendix 2.

This analysis process allowed to assess what types of engagement modes arise from different product-image relationships. This information helped in reviewing the persuasive power of Nike’s fashion advertising. It also allowed the disregarding of the collections that consisted of images that on ’engage to act’ from the rhetorical visual analysis, for these images only displayed the product. Therefore, they were deemed as unable to communicate symbolic values associated with fashion advertising. The collections that were further accepted for the rhetorical visual analysis include:

1. Kim Jones x NikeLab2. Olivier Rousteing x NikeLab3. Riccardo Tisci x NikeLab4. Sacai x NikeLab5. Gyakusou x NikeLab6. Pedro Lourenço x NikeLab7. Pigalle x NikeLab

3.5 Rhetorical Visual Analysis

The goal of the rhetorical visual analysis was to review the strength and the type of symbolism that Nike communicates with their fashion product advertisements. The analysis helped to assess how this symbolism was attached to the culture of fashion. The rhetorical visual analysis was done by implementing a framework by Scott (1994) for analyzing visual images and advertisements.

Scott (1994) regards advertising as a form of visual rhetoric. Rhetoric is an interpretive theory where a party constructs a message to be sent in order to influence an audience. The message is constructed by considering the receiving audience’s probable response. This approach requires from the advertisement:

- that it is able to foster an invention of a complex argument- that the arrangement of the visual elements must construct the argument- that the visual elements must offer a delivery of style that suggests the intended evaluation.

This method of analyzing the images was used to find out the symbolism they strive to represent. A key characteristic of fashion imagery is that they are conceived in series (Shinkle 2008). The images’ relationship to each other within the collection was noted by viewing the images as a continuing narrative in the way they were presented in the image bank.

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The rhetorical visual analysis process started first by searching for an invention of an argument by interpreting any general concept that the collection would communicate. This was done by viewing the images side by side and comparing and contrasting them with each other to find out whether the different appearance of each image contributed to a narrative. After this, the arrangement of the images was analyzed in a similar manner. The focus in the analysis of the arrangement was on looking for how the different elements in the images supported the initial argument or general concept. Lastly, the way the product was displayed and what styles or point of views were used to enhance the images’ general statement was analyzed. The analysis process of the images can be viewed in Appendix 3.

3.6 Differentiation

This was the last phase of the image analysis. After already having done the image grouping and the rhetorical visual analysis, a clear sense of the different techniques, composition, and styles of Nike’s fashion product advertising images had been formed. Having engaged in this information allowed to better recognize the similarities between the two product image categories. This process was done by selecting an advertising image from Nike’s general product line and then looking for similarities in it by reviewing it side by side with the fashion product images.

The comparison process was also assisted by the framework of modes of engagement (Phillips & McQuarrie 2010) to see whether normal product images from Nike could also be compared to the fashion product images by their mode of engagement. The comparing of the images assisted in determining the level of differentiation that Nike imposes on the two advertisement categories. The analysis process is included in Appendix 2. A Summarizing figure of the visual comparison can be viewed in the upcoming results section (Fig. 8).

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4. Results

NikeLab hosts many different collaborations from streetwear brands to high fashion brands. This research only looked at the advertising and communication process of the collaborating high fashion brands. Nike does many collaborations that are produced on a smaller scale, e.g., with local shops or retailers, artists, celebrities, and athletes. These collaborations are not always featured on the news page due to them being released for a more targeted audience. It can only be estimated that the fashion collaborations represent a small percent of the overall collaborations of Nike. However, since they are all advertised on Nike’s news page, they may be seen as significant for a global brand and product strategy.

The product categories and collections of the collaborating brands followed no clear pattern. For example, Sacai saw five different releases of footwear and apparel during the year 2015, but the collaboration has been since discontinued. One of the more successful collaborations has been that of Tisci’s, which has continued from 2014 to this date. Nike and Tisci have released a total of five collections consisting of footwear only and one with footwear combined with apparel.

The initial impression after the visual analysis is that Nike succeeds partly in communicating fashionability of their co-branded fashion products. A large part of the communication is however done in writing at the introduction of the collection. This writing often informed about the designer and the inspirations behind the products and was used in conjunction with the product images.

The rhetorical visual analysis revealed that Nike does communicate symbolic values and ideas through product images. However, the symbolism in Nike’s advertising is often quite subtle. The inspiration for the product is often referenced via background elements. Many times these references are tied only to the materials or colors of the product by a mild abstractification. As such, they provide no real gripping surface for a meaning behind the product or to the identity of the collaborating brand.

As Nike can be seen as both a symbolic and functional brand (Bhat & Reddy 1998), it was expected that their advertising would convey some symbolism. Despite doing so, the symbolism was difficult to connect to the culture of fashion, as it was often reduced to a mere identity or feel by its mode of engagement. In addition, the images possessed few qualities that made them able to evoke the most favored modes of engagement associated with fashion advertisements, namely immersion and narrative transportation. This was because of the lack of any grotesque themes and due to having only subtle defamiliarization in some images. For this reason, the advertisement images promoted mainly an idealized image.

This idealization was often tied to an elevation in performance through superior technicality and functionality of the garments. In this way, Nike

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position the NikeLab concept similarly in terms of the brand message as their main product lines. Thus, the advertisements reflect the Nike brand DNA strongly. Due to this reason, the collaborating brand’s DNA and aesthetics became only visible through the product design.

The similar advertisement style of both fashion and normal products suggests that Nike does not implement any strategic differentiation into the visual advertising of fashion products. Though differentiating images to various degrees were found, the broad implementation of similar image constructions and styles in both fashion and normal product images negates any real consideration for differentiation.

Figure 8 illustrates an example of the similar image styles that were found in each of the product categories (product highlight, product detail, product and model, no product, and abstractification). For example, the ‘product highlight’ and ‘product detail’ categories revealed almost identical images by composition, lighting, and background in some cases.

The most notable difference was in the ‘no product’ category. Nike Sportswear only offered an image of a pattern used in the products in one instance. This type of image was absent in the fashion product images. Conversely, the fashion product category had images such as landscapes, and other scenery that complemented the collection without displaying any product. Images that belonged to the ‘no product’ category could only be found in one collection in normal product collections, whereas the fashion collections displayed them on several occasions.

The abstractification of the images also followed a similar pattern in both fashion and normal images. As seen in Figure 8, the similar approach to using colored light and shadow is hard to go unnoticed. In many cases, also subtle image enhancements were made in the background of the images, such as in the Riccardo Tisci collection (Appendix 1). This strategy was also widely used in the normal product category.

Table 2 illustrates a summary and the main commonalities of the collections that were chosen for the rhetorical analysis. The next part offers a more thorough breakdown of the results of the rhetorical visual analysis.

4.1 Invention

Commonalities: The most common argument for the images was the argument for enhanced performance and product functionality. This was done by highlighting details of the product where the innovation or the performance aspect of the material or construction was visible. These images include, e.g., seams, ventilation or transformation of the product through movement. Additionally, the dynamic poses of the models and scenes depicting various exercise movements were used throughout. As such, the advertising concept

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used is mainly an argument derived from consequence. The images promoted exclusively an idealized image that promoted a commonly aspired body image in Western culture. The idealization could not be described to match completely the one described by Rhodes & Zuloago (2013), namely beauty wealth and youth. Though models could be said to promote the ideal beauty standards of Western culture, they also promoted a more athletic build and a healthy body image. The concept of wealth was mostly lacking.

The themes sometimes hinted at in-trend topics, such as mindfulness and meditation (Gyakusou) or gender equality (Tisci).

Nike force their own brand DNA and advertising style, which suppresses the collaborating brand’s visual identity. No traces could be drawn to the collaborating brand’s visual style apart from the product design.

Peculiarities: Some brands, e.g., Pigalle had no clear argument that could be deciphered from the dvertisement images. The introductory text, however, presented a theme of basketball culture:

Figure 8: Visual differentiation.

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For Pigalle founder Stéphane Ashpool, the 1990s represented a golden era of basketball. Rivalries ran rampant, legends ascended to new heights and dynasties were born. The decade is an important influence on the designer, not just in terms of sport, but also in regards to American fashion. Fittingly, the French style leader’s new NikeLab x Pigalle collection combines his memories of the era and his unbridled passion for basketball. - Nike 2015

This could not be read from the advertisement images. In addition, as the themes revolved mainly around idealization, no discrepant

themes could be found.

4.2 Arrangement

Commonalities: The arrangement often supported the product’s function, appearance, and performance. This was done, e.g., by arranging the images into representing an effect of causality. As we are accustomed to reading from left to right, we have learned to see cause and effect by this arrangement. This causality is evident especially in Kim Jones’ collection, that illustrates two images grouped into one (Img. 9). The drawcord in the sweatpants worn by the model in the left picture is the focal point in both of the images. The viewer thus understands that the pants being worn in the left picture are the same as those folded in the right picture.

Image 8: Riccardo Tisci’s collection with Nike promoted gender equality.

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The visual elements, often incorporated in the background via subtle image manipulation, hinted towards the construction, materials or colors of the products. The enhanced visual arrangement through abstractification brought an element of artfulness to the images. Though it can be said that artfulness is one of the attributes of fashion advertising, in Nike’s advertisements the artfulness was almost purely representational, which means that it did not support any message or statement. The artfulness was purely an aesthetic element of the image and did mostly not support the product concept or signal other fashion culture concepts. Therefore, its effect mainly to awaken a distinct feel for the advertisement.

Peculiarities: The advertisement images showed a lack of strong visual cues to the collaborating designer. The visual arrangement of the images only allows the viewer to recognize the collaborating brand or designer through the product appearance. This requires an extensive amount of knowledge of the

Table 2: Summary and most common topics of the rhetorical analysis.

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brand’s or designer’s product design aesthetic. In some cases, however, the designer was featured for example in portrait mode. This method of signaling fashionability through the designer was not consistent throughout the different collaborations.

4.3 Delivery

Commonalities: The images implemented a point of view most commonly associated with common product display imagery. A mannequin like approach to modeling with neutral background assisted in focusing the viewer on the product appearance. As such, the advertisement images could be compared to lookbook or campaign images.

Different camera angles were mainly used in product highlight images where the product was pictured from multiple sides. This gives the viewer a strong sense of the product aesthetic and design. In this sense, it could be said that the delivery supported Nike’s most common arguments and approach to communicating mostly functionality and product aesthetic.

Peculiarities: No image styles associated with fashion photography, such as the snapshot aesthetic, was identified. Neither was any editorial style images present in the data.

Image 9: NikeLab x Kim Jones.

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4.4 Visual Strategies for Nike’s Fashion Products

In conclusion, the research shows that Nike does not differentiate their fashion product advertising images from their regular product advertising images on their news page. As such, it can be said that Nike’s communication strategy for fashion products, as the research results indicate, does not differ substantially from regular products.

By compiling the seemingly most impactful, as well as the most commonly occurring topics from the research results, three main characteristics of Nike’s fashion product advertising were derived. The following strategies describe Nike’s approach to marketing co-branded fashion products:

1. A unified aesthetic for normal and fashion product advertisements:

The nonexisting differentiation between normal and fashion product advertisement images suggests that Nike favors a unified aesthetic in both of their advertising categories. The collaborating designer’s or brand’s identity is suppressed in the visual advertisement to favor the Nike brand aesthetic.

2. Visual content is supported by introductory text:

How Nike presents its products as fashionable relies on a large part on the introductory text, which is combined with the visual advertisements. The designer, concept, and idea behind the fashion products are often emphasized in text form. The advertisement images are often built to support the text. The lack of differentiation to normal products in Nike’s fashion product advertisement images lays significant value to the introductory text, for the viewer, in recognizing the deviant nature of fashion products (e.g. Pigalle).

3. Functional congruity over self-congruity:

Out of the 146 collection images, 92 images (63%) were classed as purely informational (engage to act). The broad implementation of these types of images reveals the importance that Nike places on product appearance even on the co-branded fashion products. Furthermore, the absence of narrative transportation and low possibility for immersion hinders persuasion through intense brand experience. As such, the persuasion is built by a large part from general brand evaluations by the consumer. The positive evaluations by the consumer is mainly a result of product design aesthetics.

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5. Discussion

Nike’s brand positioning as both functional and expressive can give some implications for how the mainly symbolic advertising techniques of fashion brands work when they are combined with a functional brand and their comprised audience.

What is interesting is that in choosing collaborators, Nike chooses to do the collaboration with, e.g., Riccardo Tisci instead of the label Givenchy, in which he was the leading designer at that time. Similarly, to collaborate with Louis Vuitton instead of Kim Jones would most likely create more buzz. By doing this, Nike positions itself as the familiar brand and keeps the collaborating partner as the target brand. Being the familiar brand allows Nike to have more control over the design, marketing, and distribution process. This approach becomes clear especially by the adopted strategy to fashion product design. Nike’s fashion products are most often not a new design. Instead, old existing designs of Nike are styled by the collaborators by, e.g., adding new colors, materials, or branding.

The research results reveal several issues that might affect the effective communication of Nike’s fashion products. The next part will review each of Nike’s strategy that was outlined in the results section. The following discussion will address some of the problems that might occur in Nike’s existing strategies, as well as offer suggestions for an improved strategy. Additionally, the discussion serves as an attempt to discover how the proposed strategies for Nike may lend themselves useful for a generalized fashion product communication strategy.

A corresponding counter-strategy is presented after each discussion chapter. This strategy is geared towards Nike, but also implementable for a general fashion product communication strategy for brand alliances.

5.1 Nike Strategy #1: A Unified Aesthetic for Normal and Fashion Product Advertisements

As Nike is content on being the familiar brand, they force their marketing images into a cohesive style. The fact that Nike often chooses to collaborate with the fashion designer instead of the brand she is designing for means that Nike can position their brand more strongly in the advertisement images. This may help the consumer to recognize Nike’s products in different contexts. The goal may also be to attach new expressive brand associations to the Nike brand.

In the additional sources, there were implications of Nike producing editorial-type images for fashion publications that were not featured on their product news pages. As such, it can be argued that Nike distinguishes mass-market consumers from its fashion consumers to some degree. The most notable

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example was the Olivier Rousteing collaboration, where editorial images were produced for fashion-oriented online publications. These editorial imageswere not however published on the Nike news page. Though the fashion collaboration was advertised on Nike’s page, it was done so with different images. This example seems to indicate that Nike places importance on the context where the images are consumed.

However, as the inclusiveness of fashion increases, we should contemplate on the importance of differentiating the two consumer segments, as the impact of established gatekeepers, in the form of traditional print magazines such as Vogue, is diminishing. This is due to the legitimation of fashion that happens through new outlets, e.g., bloggers and influencers. Therefore, the trickle-down effect of desirability and exclusiveness of products promoted by the fashion elite may hold less significance. In recent times, fashion has experienced a trickle-up phenomenon, where emerging and independent brands dictate the trends, which then end up being appropriated by the established brands and the dominating institutions.

As the research reveals, the similarities in the advertising style in both of the product categories, and the lack of differentiation, can make it harder for consumers to distinguish fashion products from normal products. Recognizing Nike’s fashion products often relies on knowledge about product design aesthetics. For example, recognizing the Olivier Rousteing’s designed pieces as co-branded fashion products requires a great deal of background knowledge about the fashion designer and his product design aesthetic as Balmain’s creative director.

Therefore, the fashion products may not as efficiently attach new meanings of fashionability to the overall brand of Nike. It must be noted that fashion products only deliver additional value in contrast to everyday products (Kawamura 2005; Angeletti & Oliva 2006). Fashion products hold a combination of social, economic and symbolic capital. This value and differentiation can be strengthened with traits that define the contemporary techniques and characteristics of fashion photography and the modern culture.

Co-branded fashion products may, therefore, especially benefit from a shift in the advertising context. This will allow consumers to attach new brand associations (Grossman 1997), such as being fashionable, to the familiar brand more efficiently. Furthermore, it is widely accepted that the success of an advertisement is not solely measured by its rational messaging, but also by its ability to appropriate desirable mass media images and styles (Bulmer et al. 2006). Consequently, it might be beneficial to implement various image styles, such as snapshot aesthetics, more freely in co-branded fashion product advertising. Style, after all, forms a foundational element of strategic communication (Schroeder 2010).

Though it may seem contradictory at first, the minimalist product images that follow a lookbook style may, therefore, work better in the context of the fashion system, as the system itself validates that which is within it. On the

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contrary, a more styled editorial-like image might work better in a mass-market context, as these consumers need a point of reference to the added value.

Counter-strategy: Differentiate the fashion product advertisements from the familiar brand’s normal product advertisements;

Present a new context by applying visual cues of fashion advertising, such as snapshot aesthetics, editorial, or campaign images. These styles help the consumers that are outside the fashion system to better recognize and assign a context for the product. The differentiating marketing concept may also help in attaching new brand associations more efficiently.

5.2 Nike Strategy #2: Visual Content is Supported by Introductory Text

The influence of social media demonstrates the power of producing expressive images. The 2017 relaunch of Nike’s favorite model from 1967, the ‘Cortez’, was allegedly failed due to poor social media coverage (Stock 2017). This can be a factor of not finding enough engaging influencers to spread the message, but also by not having enough engaging content.

Fashion advertisement images that were usually distributed through traditional print fashion magazines are now getting coverage by numerous e-magazines and other social media platforms. Instagram and other social media applications that allow users to share images present a new source for advertising. This source is too significant to ignore. Constructing images that provoke user engagement in these mediums becomes a must. By contributing to the culture and values of the consumers, brands become more authentic and able to better disguise their profit motive in order to reduce consumer resistance (Holt 2002).

The contemporary way of spreading product news to consumers poses a problem for images that rely heavily on complementary text. How can brands be sure that these texts are included correctly in third party marketing and user sharing? Furthermore, many devices and applications we use to access these images do not support a significant amount of text, but focuses instead on the fast-paced scrolling of aesthetically pleasing images and videos. Relying too much on text-based communication may, therefore, weaken the image’s ability to communicate and persuade consumers by itself.

The research results indicate that Nike’s images play mainly a supportive role for the introductory text, as exemplified by the quote from the Pigalle collection (p. 40). However, relying only on the introductory text leaves references of the inspirations behind the product to be unseen in the image. As

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such, the meaning transfer which originates from the designer’s intention may weaken.

The process of meaning transfer that McCracken (1985) describes should start with the designer and end with the marketer. As Moisander & Valtonen (2011) argues, the decision of how specific messages and cultural meanings are communicated relies on the advertiser. She uses specific techniques and visual cues to strengthen the meaning that is created by the designer, as well as assign a context for the product. The fact that Nike is often separating the designer’s work from the advertisers’ may result in a disconnect in communication, as exemplified by the Errolson Hugh case (p.13).

The themes that were visible in Nike’s advertisements sometimes hinted at in-trend topics, such as mindfulness and meditation (Gyakusou) or gender equality (Tisci). The on-trend topics can only loosely be tied to fashion culture. As fashion by nature is considered to participate in reforming the cultural norms, there is often an appropriation of subcultures which was absent in Nike’s fashion product advertisements. Nike referenced mostly megatrends which cater to the mass-market.

Counter-strategy: Construct the fashion advertisement image in a way that supports the designer’s vision and message;

The images should be able to communicate fashion concepts by themselves without added text. The successful connection to fashion culture relies much on the fashion designer’s intent behind the product. It is therefore essential to see the product design process as a continuum that starts with product design and ends with the marketing.

5.3 Nike Strategy #3: Functional Congruity Over Self-congruity

As the case research shows, Nike focuses on highlighting the product in their advertisement images. The extensive use of the blank background, neutral surround or studio backdrop only serve to strengthen the design itself, as this stylistic feature can, according to Pracejus et al. (2006) evoke trust, prestige and the perception of higher quality of the product. Thus, the desire and persuasion are often built by the aesthetic properties as well as by referencing the functional values and quality of the product. Nike’s fashion product advertisements strive to persuade mainly through functional congruity rather than self-congruity. The consequence of this approach to advertising is that Nike is predominantly promoting an idealized image in their advertisements. This further demonstrates that Nike is unwilling to deviate from their marketing concept in the fashion product category.

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The focus on product appearance might not be as beneficial for fashion products. Crilly et al. (2004) note, that the effect of product appearance is reduced in the positive evaluation of a product when it is designed to convey symbolic values. Therefore, it can be questioned whether the co-created fashion products benefit from an advertising strategy that emphasizes the product appearance, rather than expressive values and self-congruity.

The modes of engagement identified with fashion advertisements are partly present in Nike’s advertising imagery. The most notable matter is the absence of the newly identified modes of engagement, transportation, and immersion. Nike’s fashion imagery seem to completely lack narratives and defamiliarization, which can partly be explained by the lack of grotesque motifs in advertisements. As Phillips & McQuarrie (2011) argue, transportation and immersion are especially advantageous in enhancing brand experience. Creating a stronger experience of the brand creates customer loyalty (Brakus et al. 2009). As such, brand experience can serve as an alternate route to persuasion. Nike has recently opened several flagship stores that focus especially on creating better consumer and brand experience (Green 2016). As Nike apparently sees value in brand experience, implementing it also into visual advertising might conform to the overall approach of Nike.

Fashion advertisements and images are usually regarded to promote an idealized beauty. However, Since discrepant themes account for 33% of fashion advertisements overall (Phillips & McQuarrie 2010), it can be viewed as a defining characteristic of fashion advertising, that was lacking in Nike’s advertisement images.

The progressive culture that calls for gender fluidity, diversity, and acceptance, are pushing brands to shift their beauty standards to more relatable images. Grotesque images may thrive in this setting, as consumers are rejecting the images promoting impossible beauty standards and an unattainable lifestyle. Authenticity, instead of superficial image-based identities is being favored. The remark that fashion mainly promotes ideas of wealth, youth, and beauty (Rhodes & Zuloago 2013) may still be dominant. It seems, however, that the social pressure is pushing the beauty standard to something that more consumers can relate to. Counter-strategy:

Benefit from a strong brand experience through images;

Fashion advertising benefits especially of discrepant themes and elements that defamiliarize. They serve as a strong route to persuasion by evoking an intense experience of the brand. Limit the idealized image in favor for something more relatable.

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5.4 Limitations and Further Research

A topic that has had less attention is the fashion product, and especially the co-branded fashion product. As such, one of the main contributions of the thesis has been to contextualize the role of the co-branded fashion product by approaching it from a branding perspective. As such, the thesis looks to present a new perspective on the communication of these products, and in doing so, present several insights on branding techniques by offering a multidisciplinary outlook on the subject.

The main method has been the literature review and the research, which examines Nike’s communication and advertising of co-created fashion products. The focus has been on how the product communicates its added values, which derives from its linkage to the culture of fashion. The emphasis has been on the visual communication of these values. The visual communication was studied through a rhetorical visual analysis of Nike’s advertisement images. The main method, namely the rhetorical visual analysis, suits well for analyzing advertisements of co-branded fashion products, as the central tenet of this approach is that the image communicates something to lay audiences. Branding, advertising, and fashion literature were combined to be able to best theorize the effects of this communication process in a brand alliance. This allowed to build a holistic view of a less discussed topic and problem, that is the strategies for visual advertising of co-branded fashion products.

Some limitations mostly derive from the applied methodology. The number of images included in the research required a grouping process. This grouping process was assisted by the framework by Phillips & McQuarrie (2010). Their framework is a rare occasion in trying to rationalize our engagement with fashion advertising. While it lends itself to discuss the relation of product and the advertisement, it does so with some uncertainty. The primary focus group for Phillips & McQuarrie’s (2010) framework for modes of engagement was middle-aged women who were also fashion consumers. In their research, Phillips & McQuarrie (2010) note that the aesthetics of advertisements may cause different engagement modes in different markets and consumers. Consequently, the product grouping and the subsequent theorization of its engagement mode would require further studies with the right target consumers to establish its validity.

Similarly as the grouping process, also the rhetorical analysis represents the subjective opinion of the researcher. As such, the analysis process, when applied identically, might produce alternative results depending on the individual. Another posing factor is the limitation of data. The data for the visual analysis were constrained according to the limited workload of the thesis. More insightful results could be derived by including more collections in the visual analysis.

Consequently, the absence of moving images in the study of Nike’s fashion

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product advertising may have also some impact on the results on meaning transfer by visual means. Though the study focused on still images and their ability to convey fashionability, moving images were used to communicate the product meaning in, e.g., the Pigalle collaboration. In this instance, a video was included that clearly expressed the theme of basketball culture. This theme could not be deciphered from the still images. Given that this video was neither available to download, the discussion revolving around the distribution and accessibility of the downloadable materials remains valid to some extent. However, further studies should be done to research the effects and usage of moving images to form a sound conclusion on Nike’s general communication strategy of fashion products, as well as to establish the importance of visual communication for these products in general.

Additionally, the research outcome may have been affected by the data source. By limiting the data source to Nike’s news page, not all images that Nike produces are present. As mentioned, there were indications of editorial-type images that were absent on Nike’s news page but were published on other internet pages in order to advertise co-created fashion products. Though they are not present in the visual data, the impact of these additional outlets and images has been speculated in the latter part of the thesis.

The discussion on brand positioning and advertising concepts serve merely as a reference and a starting point to the theorization of suitable advertising strategies between fashion and non-fashion brands. Hence, the strategies that address and utilize the concepts presented by, e.g. Grossman (1997), might benefit from a more thorough review. It must be noted, that the generalization of the strategies, presented as counter-strategies in the discussion section, are geared towards the communication of fashionability. There might be scenarios where the communication of fashionability is subsided by other brand or business related objectives. As such, they do not necessarily account for the best overall strategy for familiar non-fashion brands that wish to embark in fashion collaborations. Brand positioning and its effect on brand associations and attachments, as well as brand managerial implications in these types of scenarios, would be a suitable topic for future research.

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Figures:

[1] Figure: Scope of thesis. Welander T., 2018

[2] Figure: Moving from symbolic fashion brands to functional brands. Welander T., 2018

[3] Figure: Practical and symbolic attitudes to buying brands. Meenaghan T., 1995. The Role of Advertising in Brand Image Development. Article in Journal of Product & Brand Management 4(4), 23–34.

[4] Figure: Product (image) as the vehicle of cultural ideas. Author’s visualization of

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McCracken’s (1985) idea of meaning transfer. Welander T., 2018

[5] Figure: An overview of the analysis process for the research. Welander T., 2018

[6] Figure: Example of image grouping (Olivier Rousteing). Welander T., 2018, Images: https://news.nike.com/news/nikelab-olivier-rousteing, available on 25.2.2018

[7] Figure: Modes of engagement connected to the product categories. Welander T., 2018

[8] Figure: Visual differentiation. Welander T., 2018. Images: refer to Appendix 2 sources

Tables:

[1] Table: Data and sources. Welander T., 2018

[2] Table: Summary and most common topics of the rhetorical analysis. Welander T., 2018

Images:

[1] Image: https://hypebeast.com/2017/12/nike-errolson-hugh-acg-styling, Available on 19.8.2018

[2] Image: https://models.com/work/celine-celine-fw-11-1/59049, Available on 19.8.2018

[3] Image: https://www.fashiongonerogue.com/adidas-originals-alexander-wang-buy/, Available on 11.01.2018

[4] Image: Phillips B. J., McQuarrie E. F., 2010. Narrative and Persuasion in Fashion Advertising. Journal of Consumer Research, Volume 37, Issue 3, 368–392

[5] Image: Phillips B. J., McQuarrie E. F., 2010. Narrative and Persuasion in Fashion Advertising. Journal of Consumer Research, Volume 37, Issue 3, 368–392

[6] Image: Phillips B. J., McQuarrie E. F., 2010. Narrative and Persuasion in Fashion Advertising. Journal of Consumer Research, Volume 37, Issue 3, 368–392

[7] Image: Phillips B. J., McQuarrie E. F., 2010. Narrative and Persuasion in Fashion Advertising. Journal of Consumer Research, Volume 37, Issue 3, 368–392

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[8] Image: https://news.nike.com/news/riccardo-tisci-training-collection, available on 25.2.2018

[9] Image: https://news.nike.com/news/nikelab-kim-jones-tech-fleece, available on 25.2.2018

References for Appendices

Figures for Appendix 1:

[9] Figure: Kim Jones x NikeLab collection, Welander T. Images: https://news.nike.com/news/on-the-move-nikelab-x-kim-jones, available on 25.2.2018 [10] Figure: John Elliott x NikeLab collection, Welander T. Images: https://news.nike.com/news/john-elliott-nikelab-vandal, available on 25.2.2018

[11] Figure: Olivier Rousteing x NikeLab collection, Welander T. Images: https://news.nike.com/news/nikelab-olivier-rousteing, available on 25.2.2018 [12] Figure: COMME des GARÇONS x NikeLab collection, Welander T. Images: https://news.nike.com/news/air-pegasus-83-cdg, available on 25.2.2018 [13] Figure: Gyakusou x NikeLab collection, Welander T. Images: https://news.nike.com/news/nike-x-undercover-presents%E2%80%9Crunning-monks%E2%80%9D, available on 25.2.2018 [14] Figure: Pigalle x NikeLab collection, Welander T. Images: https://news.nike.com/news/nikelab-x-pigalle-reinterprets-the-look-of-street-basketball, available on 25.2.2018

[15] Figure: Riccardo Tisci x NikeLab collection, Welander T. Images: https://news.nike.com/news/nikelab-olivier-rousteing, available on 25.2.2018 [16] Figure: Pedro Lourenço x NikeLab collection, Welander T. Images: https://news.nike.com/news/innovating-a-new-aesthetic-nike-x-pedro-lourenco, available on 25.2.2018

[17] Figure: Sacai x NikeLab collection, Welander T. Images: https://news.nike.com/news/nikelab-x-sacai-summer-collection-blooms-with-color-and-movement, available on: 25.2.2018 [18] Figure: Undercover x NikeLab collection, Welander T. Images: https://news.

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nike.com/news/nikelab-undercover-sfb-jungle-dunk, available on 25.2.2018

Images for Appendix 2:

[10] Image: Nike Sportswear: https://news.nike.com/news/nike-air-more-uptempo-black, available on 25.2.2018

[11] Image: COMME des GARÇONS x NikeLab: https://news.nike.com/news/air-pegasus-83-cdg, available on 25.2.2018

[12] Image: Nike Sportswear: https://news.nike.com/footwear/air-max-90-ultra-flyknit-red, available on: 25.2.2018

[13] Image: Undercover x Nikelab: https://news.nike.com/news/nikelab-undercover-sfb-jungle-dunk, available on 25.2.2018

[14] Image: Nike Sportswear: https://news.nike.com/news/powerful-transformations-the-fall-2015-nike-women-s-collection, available on 25.2.2018

[15] Image: Sacai x NikeLab: Image: https://news.nike.com/news/nikelab-x-sacai, available on 25.2.2018

[16] Image: Nike Sportswear: https://news.nike.com/news/lyle-thompson-inspires-nike-n7-spirit-of-protection-collection, available on 25.2.2018

[17] Image: Gyakusou x NikeLab: https://news.nike.com/news/nike-x-undercover-presents%E2%80%9Crunning-monks%E2%80%9D, available on 25.2.2018

[18] Image: Nike Sportswear: https://news.nike.com/news/autumn-2016-tech-fleece

[19] Image: Kim Jones x NikeLab: https://news.nike.com/news/nikelab-kim-jones-tech-fleece, available on 25.2.2018

Images for Appendix 3:

[20, 21, 22] Images: Kim Jones x NikeLab: https://news.nike.com/news/nikelab-kim-jones-tech-fleece, available on 25.2.2018

[23, 24] Images: Olivier Rousteing x NikeLab: https://news.nike.com/news/nikelab-olivier-rousteing, available on 25.2.2018

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[25, 26] Images: Riccardo Tisci x NikeLab: https://news.nike.com/news/nikelab-olivier-rousteing, available on 25.2.2018

[27, 28, 29] Images: Sacai x NikeLab: https://news.nike.com/news/nikelab-x-sacai-summer-collection-blooms-with-color-and-movement, available on 25.2.2018

[30, 31, 32] Images: Gyakusou x NikeLab: https://news.nike.com/news/nike-x-undercover-presents%E2%80%9Crunning-monks%E2%80%9D, available on 25.2.2018

[33, 34, 35] Images: Pedro Lourenço x NikeLab: https://news.nike.com/news/innovating-a-new-aesthetic-nike-x-pedro-lourenco, available on 25.2.2018

[36, 37, 38] Images: Pigalle x NikeLab: https://news.nike.com/news/nikelab-x-pigalle-reinterprets-the-look-of-street-basketball, available on 25.2.2018

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Appendix 1

Figure 9: Kim Jones x NikeLab collection.

Figure 10: John Elliott x NikeLab collection.

Image groupings of Nike’s fashion collaborations.

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Figure 11: Olivier Rousteing x NikeLab collection.

Figure 12: COMME des GARÇONS x NikeLab collection.

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Figure 13: Gyakusou x NikeLab collection.

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Figure 15: Riccardo Tsici x NikeLab collection.

Figure 14: Pigalle x NikeLab collection.

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Figure 16: Pedro Lourenço x NikeLab collection.

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Figure 17: Sacai x NikeLab collection.

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Figure 18: Undercover x NikeLab collection.

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This part presents the analysis of the modes of engagement and a breakdown of the identified product categories. The images in this section serve only an exemplary purpose to support the analysis process. Not all images from each category are included.

Product Highlight:The product highlight category consists of only products. This image style is most commonly used on footwear and appears in all footwear releases in both normal and fashion imagery. Aesthetically, both normal (Img. 10) and fashion images (Img. 11) are stylistically near each other and hard to distinguish. Images in the product highlight category are classed as informational, as they show mainly functional properties, such as design, color, and material.

- Modes of Engagement:Though these images can often be enhanced with stark background color and textures, they can not be seen as artful since they only reference the design aesthetic. As such, these images do not possess immersive qualities. This image category only awakens the engagement to act and holds true for both normal and fashion images.

Product detail:The product detail category consists of images showing a detail of the product. The images often emphasize the construction and materials of the product. Like the previous category, the product detail category images are similar in appearance between normal and fashion products and portray mainly functional properties. This image type is seldom abstractified, and serve mostly as an informative

Image 10: Nike Sportswear. Image 11: NikeLab x COMME des GARÇONS.

Image 12: Nike Sportswear. Image 13: NikeLab x Undercover.

Appendix 2

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image. It is also a commonly used image style, and is used generously throughout in displaying both normal (Img. 12) and fashion (Img. 13) products.

- Modes of Engagement:The product detail image category is similar to the previous category. The imagery of both fashion and normal products only offer the engagement to act, as the aesthetic properties are mainly disregarded. The image has no room for other elements.

Product and Model:Normal products (Img. 14) in this image category are depicted with a model, often posing in dynamic poses and thus communicating functional attributes of garment use and performance. Simultaneously the images communicate an idealized image, as in ‘I would like to look or perform like that.’ Consequently, the images have a symbolic nature, as they look to appeal to our emotions rather than rational thinking. The communication of fashion products (Img. 15) follows a similar pattern, and implement similar aesthetics and appearances in an equal manner. Both product categories show the model and product against a clear background, as well as scenery that references the design inspiration or concept.

- Modes of Engagement:As the product is depicted with a model in this category, the advertisements have the ability to engage for identity. The viewer does not focus on the product as much as the model, and sees the image as a whole, instead of just a product display. As the difference in the fashion and normal product imagery is minor, they both equally engage for identity.

The idealized themes throughout these images may trigger a resistance effect, which reduces the mode of engagement to only act. Especially in the Olivier Rousteing campaign images (Fig. 14), the models are cropped in a way that leaves their eyes out of the picture, which may prohibit the identity negotiation to some extent.

No Product:The no product category consists of images where the product is not visible (Img. 16, 17). These types of images are mainly absent in Nike’s general product line images, Only on one occasion had Nike’s sportswear line an image showing the pattern that was used in the garments (Img. 16). In the fashion product image category, images with no product consisted of, e.g., landscape or architecture images (Img. 17), that was used to highlight the mood and inspiration for the collection. These images are considered mainly as symbolic, as they inform nothing of the functions of the product.

Image 14: Nike Sportswear. Image 15: NikeLab x Sacai.

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As these images contain no information or clues about either of the familiar or target brand, they only provide communicative elements when viewed in conjunction with other images from the same collaboration.

- Modes of Engagement:As these images do not show any product, they are unable to engage to act. The strongest engagement mode these images evoke is the engagement to feel. In some cases, it may engage to immerse. For example, the landscape scenery of the Gyakusou collection (Appendix 1, Fig. 16) offer defamiliarization through the differing nature and culture to the Western viewer.

The engagement mode of feel can be compared to the property of a song. We can evoke similar feelings by looking at images of this nature as if we would be listening to music. Consequently, our taste in music varies by the mood we are in, the same holds true for engagement to feel. As such, it may be difficult to predict and construct images that persuade viewers to tune in to.

Abstractification:The abstractification of the images acts as a filter, i.e., it can be implemented in each of the image categories. The main idea in implementing abstractification of the image is to enhance its artistic quality, and by doing so, increasing its symbolic nature. This filter is used throughout in both normal (Img. 18) and fashion product images (Img. 19) and appear regularly. Abstractification is most lacking in product highlight, and product detail images, and most often used in images containing both product and a model.

- Modes of Engagement:The abstractification of an image enhances its artistic quality. The abstractification often alters the product appearance to some degree. As such, the focus is not on the details of the product but more in the feel of the overall image. Depending on the mood of the viewer and the strength of the abstractification, this stylistic feature may assist in creating a stronger feel and emotional response for the image.

A strong abstractification of the image may also offer defamiliarization, and can thus have

Image 16: Nike Sportswear. Image 17: NikeLab x Gyakusou.

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immersive qualities. On average, the abstractification was however kept as a supporting element of the image.

The Abstractified images always depict a product in some way, abstractification of the images in the ’no product’ category was absent in the processed data.

Image 18: Nike Sportswear. Image 19: NikeLab x Kim Jones.

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This part offers a breakdown of the rhetorical visual analysis process. The images shown are only to exemplify better the points made in the analysis. All images for each collaboration can be viewed in Appendix 1.

NikeLab x Kim Jones

Invention:The invention of the argument seems to be the performance and functionality of the product (garments). The support for this promise lies both in the seriousness of the model’s gaze (Img. 20), that suggests a professional approach to athletics, as well as the model’s dynamic pose (Img. 21). The support for functionality is portrayed in the image (Img. 22) where the product is folded, thus implying an added function for the product.

Arrangement:The arrangement to support the argument is most evident in the image (Img. 22) that is split in two. On the right side of the image, we see the product highlighted. What draws our attention is the emphasizing and positioning of the drawcord in the back of the sweatpants. The right side of the image then shows the sweatpants folded and sealed using the drawcord. How we are taught to read, from left to right, aids in understanding the causality in the image and the significance of the drawcord in the product’s function.

Delivery:The images are shot from a side view, which is typical for fashion and clothing imagery. The rendering of the images uses stark contrasts and colorization. The subtle abstractification emphasizes the appearance of the product. As such, it lifts the mundane cotton fleece to something more artful and exciting.

Images 20, 21, 22: NikeLab x Kim Jones.[20] [21] [22]

Appendix 3

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NikeLab x Olivier Rousteing

Invention:The images from the Olivier Rousteing collection are minimalist. The poses do not depict movement, but rather imitations of mere mannequins. The technical aspects of the garments are emphasized, with half-drawn zippers (Img. 24) and the wholly opened jacket (Img. 23) that reveals the cropped shirt underneath. The black garments with gold details connote to a stylish outlook, a poshness, whereas the crest on the chest (Img. 24) reminds us of a football uniform. The collection that is named “Football Nouveau,” promises style under the umbrella of football culture. Without knowing the name of the collection, it migh be difficult to decipher the representing concept.

Arrangement:The minimalist approach to arrangement, the mannequin-like poses, support the argument that these garments are not for exercise as much as they are for leisure.

Delivery:The white background contrasts the black colored products. Together with the typical aesthetics of any other fashion lookbook, the products become highlighted and the focal point of the image. The non-existent style of delivery gives little clue of the meanings behind the garments. The style supports, therfore, mostly the product aesthetics.

NikeLab x Riccardo Tisci

Invention:The campaign images consist of both black & white (Img. 25) and colored images (Img. 26). For the informed, the black & white images remind of the aesthetic of the Givenchy designer, Riccardo Tisci. The pattern filled, colored clothing differ significantly from general sportswear aesthetics. The ornament-like pattern suggests a contemporary approach to sportswear design. The identical dynamic poses of the male and female models promise unity through performance.

Images 23, 24: NikeLab x Olivier Rousteing.[23] [24]

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Arrangement:The dynamic, almost synchronized poses from the models suggests unity and equality for the sexes. The temple setting in the background connects to the ornament patterned clothing but does not reveal much else.

Delivery:In the image 26, the product and models are viewed by looking up which emphasizes the background and ceiling. The graphic aesthetic of the black & white images together with the ornament filled colored ones combine the concepts of history and tradition with modernity and innovation. By doing so, they link the new aesthetic to Nike’s already existing attitudes of performance and function. The almost praying-like stature of the models, along with the angle of viewing, creates a reference for worshipping. The products draw our attention as much as the poses of the models. This unity between the body and athletic garment further legitimizes its ability to enhance performance.

NikeLab x Sacai

Invention:Again, the dynamic poses and the depiction of movement in the images suggest an improved athletic performance (Img. 27, 28, 29). The unusual deconstructed aesthetic of the garments offer an added value of differentiation, though its function does not become clear. The flowing garments remind us of evening gowns and dresses. The expression of femininity is evident.

Arrangement:Femininity seems to become the concept and invention of argument. The poses of the model, however, seem restricted (Img. 27, 29). The serious performance attitude is not expressed as evidently in the models’ faces as, e.g., in the Kim Jones’ images. This renders the images more ‘girly’ and vain. One cannot help but wonder what these garments are for? There is no visual abstractification or other elements that would support the deconstructed theme.

Images 25, 26: NikeLab x Riccardo Tisci.[25] [26]

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Delivery:Similarly to the Olivier Rousteing campaign, a defining style is lacking. The visual aesthetic follows that of a generic lookbook. The product becomes the highlight of the images. The movement of the body is mainly there to emphasize the product properties, such as the flowing of the lace-like material.

NikeLab x Gyakusou

Invention:The collection hints at running as a form of meditation. The calm forest images (img. 30) with traditional Japanese architecture (Img. 31, 32) connotes to peacefulness, tradition, and mental awareness. These images together reflect the Japanese culture overall, especially from a Western perspective.

Arrangement:The arrangement of the images shows both the functionality of the products, as well as inspirational images without any products. This creates a strong emotional response and triggers a more thoughtful approach to viewing the images.

Images 27, 28, 29: NikeLab x Sacai.[27] [28] [29]

Images 30, 31, 32: NikeLab x Gyakusou.[30] [31] [32]

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Delivery:The minimalist approach to styling compliments the argument of mental calmness, minimalism, and lack of distraction through technical performance and function. The landscape scenery helps to support the lack of hastiness and stress that is a part of our daily lives. The different perspectives in the images often highlight the environment around the product.

NikeLab x Pedro Lourenço

Invention:The images show dynamic poses, exercising with rubber bands in an almost combat-like manner (Img. 33, 34). The images promise performance for the serious athlete, able to withstand even the fiercest training sessions, while simultaneously looking stylish. The stark contrast between shadow and light and the emphasis on the model reminds of conventional fashion advertising (Img. 35). Arrangement:The composition of straight lines by the body positioning and the rubber bands (Img. 34) break the image into sections of a soft pink hue. This graphical element complements the ideas of femininity and toughness. The arrangement of the images suggests a narrative of the product as being suitable for hard training as well as for stylish leisure.

Delivery:The style implements high contrast areas, which emphasizes the body movements and physique of the model. The images depict the model with the product both looking straight down (Img. 33), as well as from a side view (Img. 34). This shift in the perspective complements the dual quality of the products. The studio-like photography with heavy image manipulation of the model reminds of fashion advertisements.

Images 33, 34, 35: NikeLab x Pedro Lourenço[33] [34] [35]

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Pigalle

InventionNo clear argument. The model shows no movement, and the background colors only reference the products.

ArrangementThe black sneakers with the black background (Img. 37, 38) are hard to connect to the main image (36), as they differ entirely by their composition and color.

DeliveryThe delivery and point of view only serve to highlight the product from different angles and as such play mainly an informational role. The same can be argued of the image with the model, as it is hard to place it in a context of any kind.

Images 36, 37, 38: NikeLab x Pedro Lourenço.[36] [37] [38]

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