Vardi, J. 2014. The Lithic assemblages (in) Saidel, B. A. and Haiman, M. (editors) Excavations in...

CHAPTER 3: THE LITHIC ASSEMBLAGES

59

Chapter 3: THE LITHIC ASSEMBLAGES JACOB VARDI

INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents an analysis of the lithic material collected by Mordechai Haiman in the course of the Negev Emergency Survey. Given the nature of his fieldwork, the lithic material is divided into individual and multi-site assemblages, respectively. The former comprises the lithic assemblages collected from Sites 1 (Ramat Matred 3), 19 (Kadesh Barnea 86/3), 22 (Kadesh Barnea 95/2) and 26 (Ein Hameara). The latter comprises two lithic multi-site assemblages from the areas of Har Saggi and Kadesh Barnea, respectively. This methodological approach was implemented due to the small quantities of lithic material collected from sites situated in both areas. Descriptions of the Kadesh Barnea sites are not discussed in this monograph as they were published by Haiman (2007: 307-351).

The assemblages analyzed here were retrieved within the context of salvage excavations and surveys. The large quantities of lithic waste found at some excavated sites indicates that the collection process was thorough (e.g., Site 1), and this data provides insights into the chaîn opèratoire of a specific flint industry. In contrast, the lithics from Haiman’s surveys are characterized by a large proportion of tools and a small amount of lithic waste which is indicative of the “pretty piece syndrome” as defined by Rosen (1997a:37). This type of collection method does not provide much insight into the chaîn opèratoire of a stone tool assemblage. The different collection methods employed by Haiman have limited the range of conclusions that can be drawn about the materials described herein. A selection of the tool types recovered by Haiman is illustrated in this chapter (Figs. 3.1-3.8). Given that many of these tool types are well known, only a few examples are illustrated here.

METHODOLOGY

The lithic material was analyzed in the same manner as other stone tool assemblages unearthed at protohistoric and historic sites in the southern Levant. The

methodological and theoretical underpinnings of this study follow the research of Rosen (1997a), and Gilead and associates (Gilead et al. 1995). In particular, their typological definitions are used in order to ensure a consistency in terminology and analysis. While their research focuses on stone tool assemblages from late prehistoric and historic assemblages, it is worth noting that most of the typological definitions that they used, and that are applied here, are based upon previous studies of Paleolithic stone tool assemblages (e.g., Bordes 1988; Hours 1974; Bar-Yosef 1970).

The lithic material in this chapter is divided into two categories, waste and tools. Based on Rosen’s criteria (1997a: 29-32), the lithic waste was sorted into three subcategories, debris, debitage, and cores. Debris is further subdivided into chips or chunks depending upon their size. In most cases, chips measure less than 15 mm in length, however, since the majority of lithic material collected by Haiman was not sieved, chips in this study are defined as stones that measure between 15-20 mm in length. Chips are small fragments of flint that can be attributed to knapping or in some cases to post depositional processes, such as burning, crushing, and rolling. Unidentifiable pieces of stone that measure more than 20 mm in length are classified as chunks. Apart from mentioning the appearance and frequency of the chips and chunks in these assemblages, there will be no further discussion of this material.

Debitage includes knapped flakes, primary elements and primary flakes. In this study, the distinction between primary flakes and primary elements is based on the frequency of cortex. For example, blanks with more than 50% cortical coverage are identified as primary flakes, blades, bladelets, and core trimming elements (for basic definitions see Inizan et al. 1992, Rosen 1997a:30-32). Cores were identified according to the type of blank that they were produced on.

A stone artifact is identified as a tool if it exhibits more than 20 mm of continuous intentional retouch, or if the retouch covers more than 20% of the implement’s

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

60

circumference (Marks 1976:376). Sickle blades are exempt from this definition as they may lack retouch. In this study, the presence of sickle gloss is used as a criterion to identify an artifact as a sickle blade (Anderson 1980, Unger-Hamilton 1985, Rosen 1997a: 57).

SITE 1 (RAMAT MATRED 3)

Raw Materials

The lithic assemblage from Site 1 (Ramat Matred 3) is similar in many aspects to other Early Bronze Age stone tool assemblages found in the Negev Highlands (e.g., Rosen 1990, 1991, 1993). The raw material used to manufacture the flint implements was collected from locally available sources on the Ramat Matred plateau. Judging by the flat cortex found on some of the blanks, it is assumed that the bulk of raw material came from stratified Eocene flint, also known as tabular flint. The majority of the flint is opaque in color, although banded gray and brown flints are present in very small quantities. Semi-translucent gray flint, identified as Chalcedony, which is common in assemblages from earlier periods (Gilead et al. 1995; Rosen 1997a; Roshwalb 1981) is virtually absent at Site 1 (Ramat Matred 3).

A large amount of the finds are patinated and the prevalent colors are brown, gray, or white. Some lithic artifacts are covered with two different color patinas that might represent two cycles of use, or alternatively the reuse of a previous tool as a blank. For instance, the unretouched portion of a tool may be covered in one color while the retouched portion of the artifact is covered by a different color patina. The reasons for patination and double patination are not well understood, however, they are probably associated with factors such as the partial exposure of artifacts, and contact with water (e.g., Rosen and Gopher 2003: 184-185). Some intrusive Paleolithic tools and Levallois flakes are covered in a khaki color patina.

The Waste

Flakes (n = 3925, 66%) (Tables 3.1-3.3): Flakes form the largest knapped type of debitage. Based on the examination of the flakes it can be stated that the flint industry is an ad hoc small flake industry with a very small blade component, none of its products are standardized. Flakes measure no more than 5 cm in length and in most cases (70%) they have flat striking platforms which indicate that core decortications have been made prior to flake removal.

Table 3.1. Site 1, the frequencies of waste per Loci in Areas A and B

Area A, Locus

Chunks Chips Flakes Primary Elements

Blades Bladelets Cores C.T.E. Tools

N.A. 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 13

30 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3

Area B, Locus

31 3 3 6 3 0 0 0 0 3

32 2 12 35 0 0 0 0 0 5

33 2 1 21 3 1 0 1 0 7

34 0 2 31 0 0 0 0 0 6

35 13 122 265 43 6 1 7 3 25

36 0 2 46 3 0 1 1 0 4

39 3 2 25 0 2 0 1 1 8

40 0 21 82 10 1 3 2 0 13

41 0 1 58 0 1 0 2 3 18

42 2 7 90 8 2 1 3 0 8

44 4 26 110 15 3 0 2 0 9

45 1 5 16 8 0 0 4 0 3

46 3 14 44 2 0 2 1 0 7

48 1 17 39 1 1 0 2 0 4

50 3 3 16 3 0 0 1 0 0

51 0 5 8 0 0 0 0 0 3

52 0 5 26 4 0 0 2 0 3

53 2 1 22 6 1 0 0 0 5

54 3 16 98 0 5 0 5 2 14

55 2 10 57 4 4 0 2 3 6


61

Area A, Locus


Blades Bladelets Cores C.T.E. Tools

56 0 2 27 4 4 1 1 1 16

57 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 4

58 0 5 16 0 1 0 1 0 5

59 3 2 8 1 0 0 1 1 3

60 1 2 9 1 0 0 0 1 1

39/1 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0

Area B

Subtotal 48 286 1164 120 34 11 39 11 217

Frequency 2.5 14.8 60.2 6.2 1.8 0.6 2.0 0.6 11.2

Table 3.2. Site 1, the frequencies of waste per Loci in Area C

Area C, Locus

Grid Square


Blades Bladelets Cores C.T.E.

37 Bf/1 1 6 25 0 0 0 0 1

37 Bf/2 1 15 41 4 1 0 0 1

37 Bf/3 4 12 32 7 0 2 0 2

37 Bf/4 1 10 52 0 1 0 0 0

37 Bf/5 7 16 62 0 4 4 0 1

37 Bf/6 0 6 53 11 0 1 0 0

37 Bf/7 1 14 43 0 0 0 2 0

37 Bf/8 1 13 72 8 3 1 3 0

37 Bf/9 2 13 66 16 0 0 0 0

37 Bf/11 3 17 86 11 3 1 2 5

37 Bf/12 5 7 59 0 2 0 1 0

37 Bf/13 15 68 41 5 0 0 0 2

37 Bf/14 5 25 92 14 2 1 2 2

37 Bf/15 1 16 53 7 0 0 0 1

37 Bf/16 0 7 39 4 1 1 3 0

37 Bf/17 3 8 53 9 1 0 1 1

37 Bf/18 4 15 50 4 1 4 5 0

37 C-2 1 9 29 0 0 0 0 2

37 C-2/1 3 15 1 1 0 0 0 1

37 C-2/2 0 9 22 4 0 0 1 0

37 C-2/3 0 3 14 0 0 0 1 1

37 C-2/4 0 5 39 3 0 0 0 0

37 C-2/5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

37 C-2/6 0 1 13 4 0 0 1 0

37 C-2/8 3 7 8 2 1 0 0 1

37 C-2/9 1 11 26 0 0 0 0 1

37 C-2/10 0 11 15 0 0 0 1 1

37 C-2/11 2 7 32 4 0 0 0 0

37 C-2/12 0 12 18 0 2 2 1 0

37 C-2/13 1 9 30 1 0 0 0 0

37 C-2/14 0 4 10 0 0 0 0 0

37 C-2/15 3 0 56 6 0 0 0 1

37 C-2/17 1 6 21 2 2 1 0 1


62

Area C, Locus

Grid Square



37 C-2/18 0 0 15 3 1 0 0 0

37 C-3/1 0 2 7 2 0 0 0 0

37 C-3/2 1 10 52 8 3 0 1 0

37 C-3/3 0 7 20 0 0 0 0 0

37 C-3/4 13 9 0 0 0 0 2 0

37 C-3/5 0 0 7 2 0 0 0 0

37 C-3/6 1 5 10 1 0 0 0 0

37 C-3/7 0 11 18 0 1 0 0 0

37 C-3/8 2 6 7 0 0 0 0 0

37 C-3/9 1 5 0 0 0 0 1 0

37 C-3/10 3 12 22 1 1 0 0 2

37 C-3/11 0 7 8 4 0 0 0 0

37 C-3/12 0 8 7 0 0 0 2 0

37 C-3/13 0 9 34 6 2 1 0 0

37 C-3/14 0 1 17 2 1 0 1 0

37 C-3/15 2 2 15 0 0 0 1 1

37 C-3/16 0 7 20 9 0 1 0 0

37 C-3/18 2 32 78 9 0 0 2 1

37 C-30/10 0 9 25 3 0 0 1 0

37 C-30/6 0 16 36 2 0 0 1 0

37 C-30/8 0 4 6 0 0 0 0 0

37 D-2/1 6 27 49 0 2 0 0 0

37 D-2/2 4 18 71 8 3 0 1 1

37 D-2/3 3 17 52 4 1 0 0 3

37 D-2/4 4 10 70 13 1 0 1 1

37 D-2/5 1 9 77 11 0 0 0 2

37 D-2/7 0 3 31 4 0 0 0 0

37 D-2/8 0 3 17 6 0 0 1 0

37 D-2/9 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

37 D-2/10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

37 D-2/11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

37 D-2/14 3 13 64 14 0 0 1 5

37 D-2/36 0 8 52 9 0 1 1 0

37 D-3/1 1 12 31 6 0 0 2 1

37 D-3/2 1 36 65 0 3 0 3 1

37 D-3/3 2 7 25 3 3 0 3 0

37 D-3/4 0 13 45 2 1 0 0 0

37 D-3/5 9 0 34 6 0 0 0 0

37 D-3/7 1 5 36 4 0 0 1 4

9 NA 2 8 23 3 0 0 2 0

37 NA 0 7 56 4 0 1 2 0

38 NA 5 6 8 3 3 0 0 1

37-2 NA 4 15 55 7 0 0 4 0

37-2 NA 2 27 55 5 0 0 1 1

37-3 NA 11 6 89 7 1 5 3 3

37-3 NA 2 5 12 3 0 3 2 0


63

Area C, Locus

Grid Square



37-4 NA 1 5 25 7 0 1 0 0

37-5 NA 0 2 7 0 0 0 0 1

37-5 NA 1 1 3 1 0 0 0 0

37-5 NA 0 1 3 2 0 0 1 1

37-1 NA 0 2 11 2 0 0 0 0

37-5 NA 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

37 Surface 1 10 35 7 5 3 2 1

Area C Subtotal 158 815 2759 320 56 34 68 55

Frequency 3.3 17.0 57.6 6.7 1.2 0.7 1.4 1.1

Table 3.3. Site 1, the frequencies of lithic waste found in Areas A, B and C



Area A Subtotal 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0

Area B Subtotal 48 286 1164 120 34 11 39 11

Area C Subtotal 158 815 2759 320 56 34 68 55

Total 206 1101 3925 440 90 45 109 66

Blades and Bladelets (n = 135, 3%) (Tables 3.1-3.3): The paucity of parallel prismatic blade scars demonstrates that there is little standardization in their production. The irregular pattern of the dorsal ridges of most blades suggests that prior to their removal there has been another series of flakes or irregular blades on the core (cf. Gilead et al. 1995:235). The few bladelets present are made on the same kind of raw material as the rest of the waste. Bladelets differ from blades as they typically measure less than 12 mm in width (Tixier 1963: 36-39, fig. 7).

Some blades (n = 7) are relatively wide (> 2 cm) and thin (5 mm), and lack the prismatic scars that are representative of Canaanean blade industry. The absence of evidence for Canaanean blade technology is not surprising as these blades are rarely found in lithic assemblages from the Negev Highlands (Rosen 1997a: 58-59, fig. 3.18).

The flakes: blades and bladelets ratio is 29:1, demonstrating that the flint industry was geared towards the manufacture of flake blanks. Within the tool category the ratio between the flake tools: blade tools is 4:1, indicating that the flint knapper/s had a different approach towards making blade and bladelet blanks in contrast to other tool types (e.g. Rosen 2001: 110-111).

Cores (n = 109, 2%) (Table 3.4): The most numerous type of core are flake cores (71.5%), which were used for the production of unstandardized tools on flakes. The small frequency of blade and bladelet cores (5.5%) corresponds to the frequencies of blades and bladelets in the waste and tools categories, suggesting that they were a minor component in this lithic industry.

Table 3.4. Site 1, core attributes

Numberof Striking Platforms

n. %

1 (including 4 Levallois) 54 49.5

2 47 43.1

3 8 7.3

Total 109 100.0

Core Type n. %

Flake 78 71.6

Blade 4 3.7

Bladelet 2 1.8

Mix 21 19.3

Levallois 4 3.7

Total 109 100.0

The relatively small size of the cores, on average 5.9 cm in diameter, may be attributed to the nature of the locally available raw material. Alternatively, the diminutive size of the cores may also represent the exhaustive use of raw materials. While half of the cores have a single platform, the remainder has between two to three striking platforms demonstrating that many cores were reused extensively. This pattern of behavior is curious as there is no lack of exposed flint nodules in the wadi beds below the Matred plateau (personal observation). The presence of four intrusive Levallois cores might indicate intrusion, collection, or reuse of cores from an adjacent Middle Paleolithic site.


64

Core Trimming Elements (n = 66, 1%): With the exception of three pieces, the core trimming elements are on broken core tablets and or on broad thick flakes. The core trim elements are highly unstandardized and do not always resemble the known core rejuvenation elements found on blades and bladelets from the Upper and Epip-Paleolithic assemblages (Inizan et al. 1992; Goring-Morris 1987). The lack of standardization combined with the low number of core trimming elements is evidence for a poor level of core modification.

Tools

Borers (n = 74, 10.0%) (Table 3.5) (Fig. 3.1: 5): Borers are not standardized in their manufacture, and many of them are made on flakes that lack cortex on their dorsal face. Within this category there are two sub types, awls

and drills. The distinction between them is based upon the total length of retouch that modifies the point of the borer. A borer is classified as a drill if the point is 1/3 of the total tool length. Three techniques were used to make drills: first, some were made by an abrupt retouch which created an elongated point or bit; second, drills were made by knapping a single notch near the tool’s edge (awls); third, in most cases the bit was produced by making of two adjacent notches in order to create a point between them (Rosen 1997a: 68).

There are five drills in this assemblage. Two are made on blades, two are on elongated flakes while the fifth one is represented by a broken bit. There is one fairly large drill, measuring 10.37 x 4.84 x 1.36 cm, that is made on a flake. The bit on this particular implement measures 0.7 x 0.6 cm. A second drill is similar in shape to some of the

Table 3.5. Site 1, the frequencies of tools per Loci in Areas A, B, and C

Area A, Locus

Excavation Grid

Borers Notches and Denticulates

Scrapers Tabular Scrapers

Retouched Blades

Sickles Retouched

Flakes Total

NA 0 1 2 5 0 1 0 4 13

30 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 2

Subtotal 0 1 4 5 0 1 0 4 15

Frequency 0 6.0 27.0 33.0 0 7.0 0 27.0 100.0

Area B, Locus

31 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 3

32 0 0 2 0 0 1 0 2 5

33 0 1 1 0 0 2 0 2 6

34 0 2 3 0 1 0 0 0 6

35 0 2 13 0 2 5 0 3 25

36 0 0 3 0 0 1 0 0 4

39 0 3 1 0 0 1 0 3 8

40 0 0 2 1 0 5 0 5 13

41 0 2 7 0 1 2 0 6 18

42 0 0 3 0 1 1 0 3 8

44 0 1 6 0 0 1 0 1 9

45 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 3

46 0 1 1 0 0 2 0 2 6

48 0 0 3 0 1 0 0 0 4

51 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 3

52 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 3

53 0 0 4 0 0 1 0 0 5

54 0 0 6 0 0 2 0 6 14

55 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 3 6

56 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 12 14

57 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 1 4

58 0 0 3 0 1 0 0 1 5

59 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 1 3

60 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1

Surface collection 0 4 6 9 5 8 0 1 33


65

Area A, Locus

Excavation Grid



Retouched Blades

Sickles Retouched

Flakes Total

Area B

Subtotal 17 76 13 12 35 0 56 209

Frequency 8.1 36.4 6.2 5.7 16.7 0.0 26.8 100.0

Area C, Locus

9 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 2 5

37 0 1 9 9 7 19 0 2 95

37 Bf/1 2 0 0 3 0 6 11

37 Bf/11 3 10 0 0 0 0 15 28

37 Bf/12 3 6 0 0 1 0 0 10

37 Bf/13 8 1 0 3 0 7 19

37 Bf/16 1 3 0 0 2 0 1 7

37 Bf/18 1 5 0 0 1 0 5 12

37 Bf/2 1 4 0 0 0 0 4 9

37 Bf/3 2 2 0 0 3 0 2 9

37 Bf/4 2 2 0 0 1 0 5 10

37 Bf/5 1 0 0 0 0 0 3 4

37 Bf/6 1 4 0 0 0 0 5 10

37 Bf/7 1 7 0 0 0 0 2 10

37 Bf/9 0 3 0 0 1 0 0 4

37 C-2 0 4 0 0 1 0 8 13

37 C-2/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1

37 C-2/10 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 2

37 C-2/11 1 1 0 0 1 0 4 7

37 C-2/12 0 2 0 0 2 0 1 5

37 C-2/13 1 3 0 0 1 0 3 8

37 C-2/14 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1

37 C-2/15 0 3 0 0 0 0 2 5

37 C-2/17 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 4

37 C-2/18 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 3

37 C-2/2 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 3

37 C-2/3 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 3

37 C-2/5 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

37 C-2/6 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 3

37 C-2/8 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2

37 C-2/9 0 0 1 0 1 0 2 4

37 C-3/11 0 0 1 0 1 0 2 4

37 C-3/12 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

37 C-3/13 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 3

37 C-3/14 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1

37 C-3/15 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

37 C-3/16 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 3

37 C-3/18 0 0 0 0 1 0 3 4

37 C-3/4 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 2

37 C-3/5 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

37 C-3/7 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1

37 C-3/8 0 2 0 0 0 0 2 4


66

Area A, Locus

Excavation Grid



Retouched Blades

Sickles Retouched

Flakes Total

37 C-3/9 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1

37 D-2/10 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1

37 D-2/11 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1

37 D-2/14 0 2 0 0 0 0 6 8

37 D-2/3 2 0 0 0 3 0 4 9

37 D-2/36 0 2 0 0 2 0 2 6

37 D-2/4 1 1 0 0 1 0 7 10

37 D-2/5 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 2

37 D-2/7 0 4 0 0 1 0 5 10

37 D-2/9 3 2 0 1 1 0 1 8

37 D-3/3 0 0 0 1 2 0 3 6

38 NA 0 7 8 3 10 0 1 29

37/2 NA 0 3 0 0 0 0 1 4

37/2 NA 2 1 0 0 1 0 3 7

37/3 NA 0 4 0 0 3 0 4 11

37/3 NA 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1

37/4 NA 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 2

37/5 NA 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

37/5 NA 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 3

37/5 NA 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1

37 Bf/14 3 9 0 0 3 0 8 23

37 Bf/15 0 3 0 0 2 0 1 6

37 Bf/17 2 5 0 0 1 0 7 15

37 Bf/8 0 4 0 0 0 0 2 6

37 C-3/3 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

37 C-30/10 1 2 0 0 0 0 1 4

37 C-30/6 2 2 0 0 2 0 3 9

37 C-30/8 2 1 0 0 0 0 3 6

37 D-2/1 0 4 0 0 3 0 3 10

37 D-2/2 1 5 0 0 1 1 2 10

37 D-2/8 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 3

37 D-3/2 0 2 0 0 0 0 1 3

37 D-3/4 0 2 0 0 1 0 1 4

37 D-3/7 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 3

General NA 3 3 0 0 4 0 4 14

Area C

Subtotals NA 56 169 20 12 92 1 173 523

Frequency NA 10.7 32.3 3.8 2.3 17.6 0.2 33.1 100.0

Total for Entire Site

74.0 249.0 38.0 24.0 128.0 1.0 233.0 747

Frequency 10.0 34.0 5.0 3.0 17.0 0.001 31.0 100

awls in this assemblage, however, it is classified as a drill as its bit measures more than 1/3 of the total length of the tool. The bit on this drill measures 2.8 x 0.9 x 0.8 cm, and the overall size of this tool is 5.9 x 3.4 x 0.9 cm. Of the five drills there is one on a blade which has two points on

its proximal and distal edges, respectively. This implement measures 5 x 1.7 x 0.6 cm.

There are 69 awls in the assemblage and most of them were fabricated on medium or large flakes (n = 59). Five


67

Fig. 3.1. Borers (awl and drills). 1. awl, 2-5 borers (1, Site 22, [Area E5]; 2-4 Site 22 [Areas C 3, B 2, E 4]; 5 Site 1 [Area C]). Lithic artifacts drawn by Julia Skidel-Rymar

awls were made on very small flakes and therefore they are classified as micro awls, however, they do not resemble the micro borers or micro drills defined by Rosen and Gilead (Gilead et al. 1995: 245, 248 fig. 5.16:1; Rosen 1997b). The remaining tools in this category were produced on blades (n = 4), primary elements (n = 5), and on a ridge blade (n = 1).

The majority of awls were made by knapping two notches in proximity to one another. As a result, the point of this tool is usually made on the distal part of the blank. The bit on several awls (n = 16) was made by a single notch on one side of the tool and retouch on the other side. There are five awls that have more than one point. One awl is actually a multi-function tool made on a tabular scraper, and it measures 9.1 x 3.85 x 0.9 cm.

Scrapers (n = 38, 5.0%): Scrapers are defined as those implements that have scalar or stepped retouch that

creates a 45˚ angle and covers at least 50% of one side of the tool (Movius et al. 1968). Within this assemblage there is very little standardization in the manufacture of these implements. Scrapers are subdivided into two categories end and side scrapers. In most cases the retouch on end scrapers (n = 24) primarily covers the distal end of the blank, however, retouch can also be present on the left and/or right sides of the implement. In contrast, (n = 11) the active edge on side scrapers is often found on one, or in some instances, both sides of this tool. There are four scraper fragments that could not be identified as either an end or side scrapers.

The following types of blanks are used for the production of scrapers, massive blades (n = 12), flakes (n = 15), and primary elements (n = 11). There is one tongue end scraper, measuring 8.3 x 5.4 x 1.3 cm, which is made on a wide flake that is banded pink/purple in color (e.g., Rosen 1997a: 88, fig. 3.44-1). This type of raw material, with


68

Fig. 3.2. Scrapers. (1, Site 58; 2, Site 22 [G 2]; 3, Site 7; 4, Site 1 [Area B]). Lithic artifacts drawn by Julia Skidel-Rymar

the exception of this implement, is totally absent from this assemblage and it was most likely imported to this site.

There are 22 scarpers that have either single or double patination. Nine scrapers are completely covered in a patina that varies in color from light gray to light blue. These artifacts are believed to be intrusive, and presumably, the inhabitants of this site collected them elsewhere and returned with them to this settlement. There are 13 scrapers with double patination, one color is present on the active edge, and another color is present on the remainder of the tool. These two different shades of patina are interpreted as evidence for the reuse of older artifacts.

Tabular Scrapers (n = 24, 3.0%) (Table 3.5): There is one intact fan shaped tabular scraper (Neville 1934: 58-60, fig. 18) with a wide arched (convex) active edge that is

retouched. The narrower proximal edge of this tool has a facetted butt and a pronounced bulb of percussion. The remainder of the tabular scrapers is broken and only two of them merit our attention. One has a bifacially retouched active edge and the other has a geometric incision in the shape of # on its cortex. Similar shaped geometric incisions are found on tabular scrapers from the following sites: Horvat I’llin (Marder et al. 1995: 79-82, fig. 11-13), Tell Esdar (Cohen 1999: 49, fig. 28), Gezer (Macalister 1912, pl. CXXXIX: 22), Arad (Schick 1978, pl. 87: 6) and Mizpe Shalem (Greenhut 1989: 60-79, pl. 12-27).

Notches and Denticulates (n = 249, 34.0%): Notches have one or two retouched concavities, whereas denticulates have more than three notches in a row. Within this category notches (n = 193, 25%) outnumber denticulates (n = 58, 7.6%). Approximately one third of the denticulates were made on thick blanks, therefore they


69

are identified as denticulated scrapers (Tixier 1963), even though they lack scalar retouch. There is no evidence for standardization in the manufacture of either notches or denticulates. Both tool types are made on flakes (n = 192, 76%), however, cores (n = 2, 0.8%), core trimming elements (n = 14, 5.6%), primary elements (n = 35, 14.1%), and pebble chunks (n = 2, 0.8%) were also used to manufacture notches and denticulates. Six notches are on truncated flakes that have concave (n = 1), oblique (n = 2) and straight (n = 3) truncations. Lastly, two notches made on Levallois flakes. There are 35 implements (13.9%) that have two different shades of patina, which is indicative of two cycles of use. As a rule one shade of patina is present on the retouched edge, while a different colored patina covers the rest of the tool. Denticulates and notches were most likely used for tasks associated with cutting, plant processing, and wood working (McConaughy 1979: 288-289, 317-318, 324, 334).

Retouched flakes and pieces (n= 233, 31%): To be included in this category a tool must have retouch that extends for over 1 cm in length. Retouched flakes and pieces are made on partially retouched blades and elongated flakes (n = 12), however, the majority are made on flakes (n = 181). Other miscellaneous trimmed tools include a ridge blade (n = 1) and a large number of primary elements (n = 34). Some of the artifacts (n = 17) have oblique (n = 7) or straight (n = 10) truncations. This category also contains five backed flakes that have abrupt backing retouch extending over one side while the other has a low angle of retouch. Based on use ware analysis it is believed that some sharp retouched flakes were used as cutting implements while others were used for whittling and scraping (McConaughy 1979: 347, 357).

A small number of retouched flakes and pieces exhibit double patination (n = 13, 5.5% of the retouched flakes). There are four intrusive retouched Levallois flakes that are totally covered with patinas that vary in color from dark brown to khaki.

Retouched Blades and bladelets (n = 128, 17.0%) (Tables 3.6, 3.7): There are several sub groups within this tool category. Simple retouched blades (n = 99, 77.0%): Within this group only one fourth (n = 25) of the simple retouched blades are intact, the remainder are broken (n = 74) and lack either their proximal or distal edges. This tool type is dominated by blades that have regular retouch covering one or both sides of the blade. There is no

standardization in the manufacture of simple retouched blades. Most blades have irregular scars on their back indicating that the blanks used for their manufacture were not produced from blade cores. Approximately 25% of the retouched blades have cortex indicating that this tool type could be produced on plain blades with or without cortex. Cross sections of the simple retouched blades are in most cases triangular or trapezoid in shape. A small number of the blades have a twisted profile (n = 7). Most blades that have a trapezoidal cross section have prismatic blades on their dorsal face, indicating that prior to their removal a primal series of blade blanks were removed. In most instances the retouch is direct. The distal end of some retouched blades that are truncated.

Backed Blades (n = 15, 11% of the blade tools group): Most of the backed blades are broken (n = 12, 85.7%). Seven of them have full retouched backing, while five are partially backed, and three (n = 3, 21.4%) have a natural back. The three natural back tools have been included in this sub group since they are similar in shape to the others and they have 90˚ triangular cross sections. Three of the backed blades have an arched back, however, they do not resemble the macro-lunettes that are found in other Early Bronze Age lithic assemblages (Rosen 1989, 1997b). Five of the backed blades lack a bulb of percussion. Three backed blades have a single oblique truncation. The average width of the backed blades is 22.6 ± 3.9 mm and the average thickness is 7.1 ± 2.2 mm.

Retouched bladelets (n = 14, 9.8%): This type of tool is made on a small blade that typically measures about 1 cm in width (cf. Tixier 1963: 36-9). The bulb of percussion is missing on half of the retouched bladelets, and it is assumed that this part of the blade is broken. On average retouched bladelets measure 10.2 ± 1.7 mm in length, and is 0.9 ± 1.1 mm in thickness. One of the retouched bladelets is backed and the delineation is straight. This particular tool is completely covered with white patina and its back is modified by a bipolar retouch. Two other retouched bladelets have truncations on their distal edge, one is oblique and the other is straight, both of these bladelets are also partially backed. The retouch on the working edge is made by fine direct retouch. There are two bladelets that have inverse retouch on their working edges. Double patination is present on two retouched bladelets indicating that they were rejuvenated and/or that they were rolled.

Table 3.6. Site 1, attributes of simple retouched blades

Retouch Position

Number Truncations Number Bulb (All

Retouched Blades) Number Cortex Totals

Direct 83 Strait 4 Absent 48 Yes 74

Inverse 12 Oblique 6 Retain 55 None 29

Alternate 8 Double oblique 4 Complete 0 Total 103

Total 103 Rectangle 1 Absent 5

Convex 1 Retain 21

Total 16


70

Table 3.7. Site 1, metric analysis of simple retouched blades

Dimensions (mm)

Average S.D

Length (n=26) 54.3 18.8

Width (n=103) 20.2 5.3

Thickness (n=103) 1.7 2.6

Sickle Blade (n = 1, 0.001%) (Table 3.5): The single sickle in the assemblage is defined based on its morphology as simple retouched blade with sickle gloss covering its dorsal face. This sickle blade measures 19.3 mm in width and 3.9 mm in thickness.

Varia

Burins (n = 5): Five burins are made on flakes. One of them is an angled burin, while another one is a dihedral, and three are on a natural break (Bar-Yosef 1970: 214-215, fig. 5: 24-25). Burins are quite rare in Early Bronze Age assemblages especially in the desert regions (Rosen 1997a: 100). Therefore, it is possible that, some, or all of these tools are intrusions.

Anvil (n = 1): There is a rectangular shaped anvil, measuring 27 x 18 x 9 cm, that is made on a large nodule of tabular flint. One side of this anvil is totally covered with scars indicative of pecking, while the other side is flat and covered with cortex.

Hammers (n = 4): There are four hammers are on fist size pebbles with pecking marks covering most of these implements. One hammer is in the shape of a flatten disk. The anvil mentioned above and the hammers are usually omitted from typological lists since they do not form part of chaîn opératoire process (see Inizan et al. 1992: 38, for the definition of chaîn opératoire). The hammers are included in this study because they are made of the same raw material as the rest of the assemblage.

Spatial Analysis

Although the flint assemblage is described as one corpus, it came from three different parts of the site identified as Areas A, B, and C. A study of the density and general distribution of lithic artifacts can indicate which areas of Site 1 (Ramat Matred 3) were or were not used for non-domestic activities. This site, however, was only partially excavated and any conclusions derived from this analysis should be considered accordingly. Area A is a cairn field which was surveyed and partially excavated by Haiman (1994: 23-24). Within the lithic assemblage from this part of the site there are five scrapers whose “whereabouts” within Area A cannot be determined.

In Area B, there are two structures which are located approximately 30 meters from one another (Haiman 1994: 24; Chapter 2). Excavations in Structure 1 yielded a total of 1,738 lithic artifacts including 92 tools (Table 3.8), whereas fieldwork in Structure 2 unearthed 1,080 artifacts of which 88 are tools (Table 3.9). The frequency of tools in Structures 1 and 2 is similar for all major tool types, however, the frequency of retouched flakes in Structure 1 is slightly lower than that of Structure 2 (Fig. 3.9). The variation in the frequency of retouched flakes in Structures 1 and 2 may represent two different levels of activity. In both structures most of the tools were found in small rooms surrounding a central courtyard. The ratio of lithic material per square meter between the small rooms and the courtyards is ~3:1. The significance of this ratio has to be tempered by the knowledge that the central courtyard (or animal pen) was only partially excavated.

In Area C, lithic artifacts were found in several structures and installations (Table 3.10). The majority of lithic material was unearthed in Locus 37, which is described as a large circle made of field stones (see Chapter 2). The lithic artifacts from this locus came primarily from surface collection as Haiman only excavated a small portion of this locus. The material from Locus 37 was collected using a grid that covered an area measuring 100 sq. m. The individual excavation units varied in size from

Table 3.8. Site 1, the frequencies of waste and tools per square meter in Structure 1, Area B

Area B, Structure 1, Locus

Area in sq. m. Waste and Tool Density/sq. m. Tools Density/sq. m.

40 7.5 131 17.5 13 1.7

41 15 83 5.5 18 1.2

42 13.5 121 9.0 8 0.6

52 7.5 40 5.3 3 0.4

53 2.2 37 16.4 5 2.2

54 13.7 143 10.4 14 1.0

55 3.5 88 25.1 6 1.7

56 20 56 2.8 56 2.8

57 12 10 0.8 4 0.3

58 2 29 14.5 5 2.5


71

Table 3.9. Site 1, the frequencies of waste and tools per square meter in Structure 2, Area B

Area B, Structure 2, Locus

Area in sq. m. Waste and Tools Density/sq. m. Tools Density/sq. m

31 4 18 4.5 3 0.8

32 No Data 54 0 5 0

33 No Data 36 0 7 0

34 1 39 39.0 6 6.0

35 8 485 60.6 25 3.1

36 2 57 28.5 1 0.5

39 40 42 1.1 8 0.2

44 3 169 56.3 9 3.0

45 No Data 37 0 3 0

46 6 73 12.2 6 1.0

48 28 65 2.3 4 0.1

51 10.5 16 1.5 3 0.3

59 5 19 3.8 3 0.6

60 7.1 15 2.1 1 0.1

39/1 No Data 2 0 0 0

Table 3.10. Site 1, the frequencies of waste and tools per square meter in Area C

Area C, Locus Area in sq.m. Waste and Tools Density/sq.m. Tools Density/sq.m.

37 100 4,255 42.6 461 4.6

37/1 1 15 15.0 0 0

37/2 1.5 187 124.7 11 7.3

37/3 5 164 32.8 12 2.4

37/4 1.5 41 27.3 2 1.3

37/5 No data. 40 0 4 0

38 6 55 9.2 29 4.8

9 No data. 43 0 5 0

1 to 2 sq. meters. In this locus, the density of the lithic artifacts per sq. is 42.5, and the density of tools per 1 sq. is 4.6 (Table 3.10). In comparison to the structures in Area B, the density of lithic material is much higher in Locus 37 (see Tables 3.8-3.9). Based upon this information, it is possible non-domestic activities were carried outin Locus 37. Lithic material was also collected from small installations that surrounded Locus 37. Since most of this material was collected as surface finds these lithics cannot be subjected to a spatial analysis.

Large numbers of scrapers were found in portions of Area C. For example, in Structure 38, one third of all the tools were scrapers. Of the 10 scrapers unearthed in Locus 38, three are tabular scrapers and seven are simple scrapers. Scrapers are typically associated with wooding and leather working (McConaughy 1979). No cores were found in Structure 38. Therefore it is possible that blanks were brought to Structure 38 in order to manufacture tools. No cores were unearthed in Loci 37/2, 37/3, 37/4. Excavation inside these small installations, less than 2 sq.

m in size, yielded a high proportion of waste and tools. Given the high density of lithic artifacts per sq. in these loci, it is possible that these locations functioned as activity areas.

Summary and Conclusions

Lithic analysis has to take into consideration the excavation methods employed by the director of the project. It is apparent from the ratio of waste to tools that the finds at Site 1 were systematically collected. In other words, the collection method known as the “pretty tool syndrome” was not practiced at this site (Rosen 1997a: 37). Another issue that should be taken into consideration is the contemporaneity and occupational phasing of the architecture in Areas A, B, and C. Although the architectural units described by Saidel and Haiman (Chapter 2) are physically close to one another, they are not necessarily chronologically contemporary. Furthermore, the lithic evidence alone cannot be used to establish chronological contemporaneity in Areas A, B


72

and C. While tabular scrapers appear in almost every Early Bronze Age flint assemblage, they are also present in assemblages from earlier periods (Neuville 1934; Gilead et al. 1995). Incised geometric patterns such as the one from this site, are a chronological marker for an Early Bronze Age I-II occupation (e.g., Schick 1978, Greenhut 1989; Marder et al. 1995).

Rosen, who initially examined the finds from Locus 37, suggested that tabular scrapers were brought to the site (Haiman 1994: 30, 31, footnote 5). In part, this observation is based on the absence of tabular flint cores. This subsequent re-examination of the waste from the entire site identified several tabular primary elements. The presence of primary elements combined with the exposure of tabular flint in the wadis below Ramat-Matred 3 raise the possibility that tabular scrapers were manufactured within proximity to this site. This suggestion is proposed as an alternative to the trade model posited by Rosen (1989, 1997a) and others (e.g., Quintero 2002). Additional research in the vicinity of Ramat Matred 3 is necessary in order to determine if the tabular scrapers were made from locally available stones.

Based on the wide range of ad hoc tools, most of the activities conducted at Site 1 (Ramat Matred 3) were domestic in nature (McConaughy 1979, 1980). For example, the scrapers were most likely used for processing leather and/or wool. The function of tabular scrapers is open to various interpretations (McConaughy 1979, 1980; Henry 1995: 372-373; Baird 2001: 649); suffice it to say that this type of implement is found in large quantities at arid zone settlements. Typically, tabular scrapers are present at settlements believed to have been inhabited by pastoral populations (e.g., Rosen 1997a: 90). The presence of one retouched blade with sickle gloss indicates that some of this site’s inhabitants might have harvested cereals. The assemblage from Site 1 (Ramat Matred 3) exhibits no Mediterranean characteristics such as Canaanean blade technology or large numbers of sickle blades (e.g., Rosen 1997a: 57-58,

fig. 3.17). Instead, this lithic assemblage is similar to other stone tool assemblages found at other Early Bronze Age sites situated in the Negev Highlands. Based on the incised tabular scraper as well as the ceramic evidence, the lithic industry in general and the tool kit in particular are broadly attributed to the Early Bronze Age.

SITE 19 (KADESH BARNEA 86/3)

The flint collection from Site 19 comprises tools and cores.

Raw Material

Most of the lithic material is made of medium grained flint that is either gray or light brown in color. An exception is an ax made of an unusual fine grained translucent flint that is either imported and/or intrusive.

Waste

The flakes are small (~5 cm) in size and irregular in shape (Table 3.11). The absence of blades and bladelets is peculiar, and it may be attributed to sampling biases, and/or the fact that blades were not present on site. The total amount of lithic waste is too small to provide any substantive information on the reduction sequences carried out at this site (Table 3.11).

Cores (n = 82, 18.9%)

Most of the 82 cores are irregular in shape (Table 3.12), suggesting, perhaps, extensive use of this raw material. Among the cores are some reused Levallois cores that are covered in a khaki patina. The exterior marks on these khaki colored cores are indicative of rolling. The majority of cores were used for the production of flakes, however, 14 (15.2%) were also used to make blades and bladelets. The production of blades and bladelets is similar in scale

Table 3.11. Site 19, the frequencies of waste and tools

Square Chips Chunks Flakes Primary Elements

Blades and Bladelets

C.T.E Cores Hammers Tools Totals

A1 0 0 4 0 0 3 4 0 14 25

A2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1

A3 0 4 8 0 0 0 7 0 25 44

B1 1 0 0 1 0 0 9 2 16 29

B2 1 5 18 0 0 1 21 0 43 89

B3 0 5 10 1 0 5 7 4 98 130

C1 0 2 3 1 0 0 5 0 9 20

C2 1 0 6 1 0 1 11 0 20 40

C3 1 3 9 3 0 0 18 1 20 55

Totals

n. 4 19 58 7 0 10 82 7 246 433

% 0.9 4.4 13.4 1.6 0.0 2.3 18.9 1.6 56.8 100.0


73

Table 3.12. Site 19, major core attributes

Core Type n. %

Flake 70 76.1

Mixed-flake / blade 9 9.8

Mixed-flake/ bladelet 5 5.4

Levallois 8 8.7

Total 92 100.0

No. of Striking Platforms n. %

1 43 46.7

2 31 33.7

2 Opposed 7 7.6

More than 3 11 12.0

Total 92 100.0

Shape n. %

Amorphous 74 80.4

Cylindrical 1 1.1

Discoid 1 1.1

Flat 6 6.5

Pyramidal 9 9.8

Rounded 1 1.1

Total 92 100.0

to other lithic assemblages found at Early Bronze Age and EBIV/MBI sites located in the Negev Highlands (e.g., Rosen 1991, 1993; Hermon et al. 2011; Vardi 2005).

Tools (n = 246, 56.8%)

Borers (n = 48, 19.5%) (Table 3.13): This category comprises both awls and drills. Drills (n = 6) have a long and narrow bit whose length is more than one third the

total length of the tool. Three drills are made onelongated flakes which may indicate that these pieces were originally intended to be used as blades. One drill was made on a bladelet. The bit on five drills was produced by modifying the distal part of this tool. The point of one drill was produced by modifying the proximal edge of this implement.

There is one massive drill, measuring 104 x 65 x 25 mm, which is classified as a heavy duty tool. The bit on this implement is trapezoidal in cross section and it measures 19 x 12 mm. The knapper made the bit by double backing and there is scaled retouch on both sides of it. The bit is separated from the lower portion of the tool by large concavities, thus creating the appearance of a “winged shaped drill.” Given the large size of this implement it is assumed that this drill was not hafted, but rather it was used manually.

Awls (n = 42): Awls represent the majority of implements within the borer category. Awls have shorter bits than drills, and the bits on the awls are flanked by two notches. Most awls (n = 33) are made on flakes, however some are made on following types of platforms: blades (n = 2), core tablets (n = 2), primary elements (n = 5) and a pebble chunk (n = 1). The presence of basal modification on one awl may be evidence that this particular implement was hafted (e.g., Stocks 1989, 2003).

One awl was made on an end scraper while another one has a burin blow on its right side suggesting that this particular tool had a second stage of reuse. Nevertheless, both tools were primarily used as borers. Four awls exhibit lateral denticulation, however, these four implements are not identified as dual use tools as they were primarily used as borers. There are two heavy duty awls made on a large flake and on a primary element, respectively. The former measures 92 x 74 x 32, and the dimensions of its bit are 11 x 5 x 7.5 mm. The latter

Table 3.13. Site 19, the frequencies of major tool types

Square Borers Notches and Denticulates


Retouched Blades

Bifacials Retouched

Flakes Varia Totals

A1 2 4 3 1 0 0 2 2 14

A2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

A3 5 6 4 4 0 0 5 1 25

B1 3 5 1 3 0 0 4 0 16

B2 6 13 3 4 0 2 14 1 43

B3 24 37 10 6 2 0 18 1 98

C1 0 4 2 0 0 0 3 0 9

C2 4 4 4 0 1 2 6 1 20

C3 2 8 5 0 1 2 2 0 20

NA 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Totals

n. 48 81 33 18 4 6 54 5 246

% 19.5 32.9 13.4 7.3 1.6 2.4 22.0 2.0 100.0


74

Fig. 3.3. Scrapers. 1, steep scraper [Site 19, Area A 3]; 2, tabular scraper fragment with cortical incisions [Site 1]. Lithic artifacts drawn by Julia Skidel-Rymar

measures 74 x 40 x 35 mm, and the bit measures 8.5 x 8 mm.

Notches and Denticulates (n = 81, 32.9%): These tools are unstandardized in terms of manufacture and the majority of them are made flakes (n = 62), with the smaller number made on primary elements (n = 11). All implements have one or more concavities which were made by intentional retouch. Tools with one to two concavities in a row are classified as notches (n = 44), while those that have three to eight notches are identified as denticulates (n = 37). Three notches and eleven denti-culates have the following types of truncations: convex (n = 2), concave (n = 5), straight (n = 3) and oblique (n = 4). The formation of the truncations is highly irregular. For example, one steep denticulate has signs of bulbar thinning which may have been made in order to hold, or perhaps to facilitate the hafting of this implement.

Double patination is present on 17 notches and denticulates. Typically, the working edges are covered

with one shade of patina, while the remainder of the tool is covered with a different color of patina. In four cases the double patination is the result of two cycles of modification which were carried out in two different chronological periods.

Scrapers (n = 32, 13.4%) (Fig. 3.3: 1): The common delineation of the working edge on these scrapers is convex (n = 19). The retouch position for all scrapers is direct. The majority of scrapers are made on flakes (n = 25), however, some are made on core trimming elements, and three are knapped from primary elements. Within this assemblage there are two pieces exhibiting scalar retouch, however, their fragmentary condition prohibited further typological identification of these artifacts.

Scrapers are subdivided into one of two categories, end and side scrapers, respectively. End scrapers have retouch that covers the distal extremity. In this assemblage there are four end scrapers exhibiting rectilinear working edges (for further description see Inizan et al. 1992: 85, fig. 35).


75

There is one end scraper that has a, “nosed”, elongated active edge. In contrast, the side scrapers have retouch on their lateral or bilateral edges. Aside from these two major types there is one butt scraper and three thumb scrapers. The latter are small, thick, and typically measure 33 x 36 x 11 mm. Double patination is present on one end scraper and three side scrapers. The working edge on two of these tools indicates the rejuvenation of an older implement. One end scraper is on a rolled Levallois flake measuring 59 x 43 x 12 mm.

Tabular Scrapers (n = 18, 7.3%): In this assemblage only four of the 18 tabular scrapers are complete. There is one side struck and 12 end struck tabular scrapers. The remaining tabular scrapers are fragmentary and therefore indeterminate. All tabular scrapers exhibit direct scaled retouch that creates a working edge of 45º. There are two intact fan shaped scrapers which were end struck, and the bulb on both of them is thinned (Neuville 1934; Rosen 1989, 1993, 1997a: 76, fig. 3.31). These fan shaped scrapers are small in size, with the largest one measuring 44 x 67 x 10 mm. Also present in this group is an oval shape, end struck, tabular scraper, measuring 72 x 47 x 8mm, with bilateral scaled retouch.

Fig. 3.4. Tabular Scraper (Site 1, Area C). Artifact drawn by Julia Skidel-Rymar

Retouched Blades (n = 4, 1.6%): These implements are simple irregular, non-prismatic, retouched blades with one lateral working edge. One of the four retouched blades is broken. There are two retouched blades that are triangular in cross section, and two that are trapezoidal in cross section. The average dimensions of these retouched blades are 53 x 19.6 x 7.4 mm. One blade has an oblique truncation

Bifacials (n = 6, 2.4%): There are four crudely made bifacial implements. The first one is a large chopper made on a nodule and it measures 127 x 83 x 52 mm, (e.g. Rosen 1997a: 98-99 fig. 3.52). The second bifacial is a crude long and narrow pick that measures 122 x 48 x 34 mm. The third one is a broken celt made of a fine grained gray flint which may be intrusive as this type of raw material is unique (e.g., Rosen 1997a, Barkai 2000). The fourth bifacial is represented by the back end of a broken celt that measures 23 mm in width and 19 mm in thickness. In profile this broken implement is bi-convex. Lastly, there are two crudely made and indeterminate bifacial tools that are retouched.

Retouched Flakes (n = 54, 22.0%): These implements are unstandardized and the only criterion for their inclusion in this category is that they exhibit at least 2 cm of retouch. A large number of retouched flakes (n = 23) exhibit a broad array of truncations, such as concave (n = 1), convex (n = 9), oblique (n = 4), and straight (n = 9). Since there is no standardization in the shape of the truncation, these truncated pieces are included within the category of retouched flakes. There are five double patinated retouched flakes. Two of these artifacts are on Levallois flakes, and they are considered to be intrusive.

Varia

Burins (n = 2): One burin, measuring 35 x 47 x 13 mm, is made on tabular flint. The second one is a dihedral burin measuring 42 x 37 x 16 mm (Bar-Yosef 1970: 207-208; Mortensen 1970: 27, 29, fig. 25).

Pièce Esquillée (n = 4): There are ventral scars on the distal extremity of four lithic artifacts, which could be a result of knapping with the use of an anvil (Bar-Yosef 1970: 19, fig. 8, 222).

Discussion

The small amount of debitage combined with the nature of the cores indicates that this is primarily a flake-based tool kit. It is possible, however, that small blades were made at this site. Most tools in this assemblage are ad hoc implements that were used for a variety of tasks, such as cutting hard or soft raw materials, crushing, scraping or engraving wood and bone (McConaughy 1979, 1980; Barkai 2000: 56-61). The absence of sickle blades may be interpreted as evidence that the inhabitants of this settlement did not grow and/or harvest their own cereals (Rosen 1997a).


76

This assemblage varies in date from the 6th to the 4th millennia BC (uncalabrated). That is to say that this material could be assigned to either the Neolithic and/or to the Chalcolithic periods (Table 3.13). The evidence for this rather broad date is based upon the presence of two bifacials, or celts (as defined by Rosen), which are typically present in stone tool assemblages from the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods (Gilead et al. 1995; Rosen 1997a: 41, fig. 3.1, 93; Barkai 2000: 390-391). This tool type is not found in Early Bronze Age stone tool assemblages (e.g., Rosen 1997a: 98). A more specific date for this assemblage is not possible as there is a lack of indicative tool types, such as projectile points. Unfortunately, the presence of tabular scrapers is not useful for dating this assemblage as these tools are found in lithic assemblages dated from the Pottery Neolithic through the Early Bronze periods (Moore 1973; Neuville 1934; Rosen 1989, 1997a).

SITE 22 (KADESH BARNEA 95/2)

The flint assemblage contains 7628 lithics, of which 634 (8.1%) are tools, and the remainder are waste (Tables 3.14-3.15). Although the lithic material was retrieved by hand, the relatively high number of stone tools and waste that measure less than 3 cm indicates that Haiman and colleagues carried out a systematic collection of the lithic

artifacts. As a result of this thorough collection strategy it is possible to conduct a detailed analysis of this assemblage.

Table 3.14. Site 22, total waste frequencies

Type n. %

Debris

Chips 1,444 89.0

Chunks 179 11.0

Total Debris 1,623 100.0

Debitage

Flakes 4,613 88.6

Primary Elements 425 8.2

Blades 48 0.9

Bladelets 38 0.7

Ridge blades 56 1.1

Core tablets 4 0.1

C.T.E other 25 0.5

Total Debitage 5,209 100.0

Debitage 5,209 68.3

Debris 1,623 21.3

Cores 162 2.1

Tools 634 8.3

Total 7,628 100.0

Table 3.15. Site 22, the frequencies of waste per excavation unit


Blades Bladelets C.T.E Cores Hammers Tools Totals

A1 0 4 242 21 3 2 3 7 0 26 308

A2 49 7 155 19 1 2 5 0 16 254

A3 140 9 382 30 2 5 5 4 1 49 627

A4 96 14 326 19 2 3 3 9 0 31 503

B1 14 5 135 16 0 0 3 11 0 17 201

B2 104 8 210 22 2 3 4 4 0 20 377

B3 7 4 116 20 1 0 5 7 2 14 176

B4 47 10 134 17 1 0 4 2 1 19 235

B5 57 7 78 3 1 1 2 3 0 12 164

C1 3 1 69 7 0 0 1 1 1 83

C2 33 7 118 10 0 1 2 0 0 10 181

C3 70 6 188 16 3 0 2 12 0 24 321

C5 36 3 91 6 1 0 0 2 0 6 145

D2 5 0 130 13 1 1 4 6 0 22 182

D3 38 10 193 10 6 1 4 6 2 34 304

D4 24 3 246 24 1 1 5 8 3 35 350

D5 48 4 188 16 3 0 4 11 0 15 289

E1 66 9 214 15 0 5 2 5 0 25 341

E4 51 3 193 17 1 1 4 6 0 21 297

E5 69 10 127 7 1 1 1 1 0 15 232

F3 32 1 59 7 1 0 1 4 0 4 109


77


Blades Bladelets C.T.E Cores Hammers Tools Totals

F4 53 5 57 7 0 0 1 3 0 7 133

F5 19 6 59 9 1 0 1 4 0 11 110

G2 18 4 116 9 2 0 3 2 0 23 177

G3 49 4 63 8 2 0 2 1 1 11 141

G4 63 3 82 7 0 1 2 5 0 14 177

G5 13 3 74 8 0 0 1 3 1 19 122

H1 21 7 166 23 1 1 3 8 0 24 254

H2 68 6 170 13 9 8 5 11 0 40 330

H3 74 5 104 11 2 2 2 3 0 26 229

H4 46 3 54 7 0 0 3 6 0 13 132

H5 31 8 74 8 1 0 0 2 1 18 143

Total 1,444 179 4,613 425 48 38 84 162 13 621 7,627

Frequency 18.9 2.3 60.5 5.6 0.6 0.5 1.1 2.1 2.1 8.1 100.0

Raw Material

The majority of lithic artifacts are covered in gray, light brown, or dark brown patina, thus obscuring the original color of the flint. The retouched and non-retouched sections of many tools are often covered with two different colors of patina. The presence of double patination is an indication that some tools were made from chronologically earlier blanks and/or tools, a phenomenon present at many sites described above as well as at numerous excavated and survey sites in the Negev and Sinai (e.g., Rosen and Gopher 2003: 184).

Among the un-patinated artifacts, it is possible to identify three types of flint, which were used for the manufacture of stone tools. The most common raw material is a smooth to medium grained gray flint. Also present in significant quantities are gray striped and gray mottled flints. The former is derived from wadi cobbles, while the white mottling on the latter is attributed to the presence of micro fossils. To a lesser extent, a number of stone tools were made of a mixed gray and white color flint which originates from the Mesash formation. Lastly, a translucent flint varying in color from brown to gray was used to make stone tools.

Waste

The high proportion of waste (91.5%) indicates that flint implements were made on site. The ratio of flakes versus blades tends greatly towards flake production (96:1) and even if we combine blades and bladelets into one category the ratio still leans greatly towards flakes (53:1).

Flakes (n = 4613, 60.5%): The flakes are irregular in shape and have numerous hinge fractures on their ends reflecting a low level of expertise in flint knapping (Inizan et al. 1992: 89). Most flakes (62%) have flat butts which are indicative of decortications of the core striking platforms prior to the removal of the flake.

Blades and bladelets (n = 86, 1.1%): The blades (n = 48, 0.6%) and bladelets (n = 38, 0.5%) are simple and in most cases they have either a triangular or trapezoid cross section. Blades and bladelets with cross sections in the shape of a pentagon are rare in this assemble, so too are blades and bladelets with twisted and irregular cross sections.

Cores (n = 162, 2.1%) (Table 3.16): Most cores were used for the production of flakes, however, 20% of them exhibit flake and blade or bladelet scars. There are three cores that have both blade (n = 1) and bladelet (n = 2)


Core Type n. %

Flake 115 71.0

Bladelet 2 1.2

Blade 1 0.6

Mix-flake & blade 13 8.0

Mix-flake & bladelet 20 12.3

Levallois 11 6.8

Total 162 100.0

Number of Striking Platforms n. %

1 81 53.6

2 43 28.5

2 opposite 11 7.3

3 16 10.6

Total (excluding Levallois cores) 151 100.0

Shape n. %

Amorphous 132 87.4

Pyramidal 17 11.3

Disk 2 1.3

Total 151 100.0


78

scars demonstrating that these cores were used for the production of blades and bladelets. The small ratio of blade and bladelet blanks to blade and bladelet tools is puzzling especially when blade and bladelet cores are relatively abundant in this assemblage. Perhaps, the relative lack of blade/bladelet tools is a result of the recovery methods, alternatively, these tools might have been used for off-site activities.

Four cores have pecking marks indicating that they were used as hammers. The small size of the cores, on average measuring 53.5 mm ± 14.6 mm, is evidence that the knappers made extensive use of the available raw material. There are 12 cores covered in two shades of patina, which is evidence of two cycles of use. Within this category there are 11 Levallois cores that exhibit either one or two large central reductions that are flanked by several preparation strikes. The Levallois cores are not further analyzed since they are intrusive.

Core trimming elements (n = 84, 1.1%): This category comprises ridge blades (n = 56) and core tablets (n = 4) (Inizan et al. 1992: 39, fig. 7). The remaining core trimming elements are not standardized and cannot be attributed to the other C.T.E. groups within this category.

Tools (n = 634, 8.3%)

Borers (n = 79, 12.7%) (Tables 3.17-3.18) (Figs. 3.1: 1-4): Some awls were made on thick flakes, while others were made on debitage, including cores (Fig. 3.1: 1). Present is a massive awl that is made on a nodule. Some awls (n = 21) were made on older blanks and/or tools, indicating that these older artifacts were reused as raw material in order to make awls. Basal modification is rarely present on the awls.

Drills (n = 6): Six tools have an elongated point whose length is at least one third the length of the tool. Drills are

Table 3.17. Site 22, the frequencies of major tool types

Square Borers Scrapers Tabular Scrapers

RetouchedBlades

Notches andDenticulates

RetouchedFlakes

Bifacials Varia Total

A1 2 1 4 3 8 6 0 2 26

A2 3 1 1 0 5 6 0 0 16

A3 4 5 2 5 15 15 1 2 49

A4 4 2 2 1 11 8 1 2 31

B1 2 0 2 0 10 2 0 1 17

B2 3 3 0 0 5 8 0 1 20

B3 1 1 0 0 8 4 0 0 14

B4 3 2 1 1 7 5 0 0 19

B5 0 1 0 0 4 7 0 0 12

C1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

C2 3 1 1 1 2 2 0 0 10

C3 5 4 3 1 5 5 1 0 24

C5 1 0 0 0 3 2 0 0 6

D2 3 0 2 0 6 10 1 0 22

D3 7 3 1 2 11 9 0 1 34

D4 2 3 2 5 16 6 0 1 35

D5 1 3 1 0 1 8 0 1 15

E1 5 2 4 0 8 5 0 1 25

E4 7 2 0 0 7 4 1 0 21

E5 3 3 1 0 3 5 0 0 15

F3 0 0 0 0 3 1 0 0 4

F4 2 0 0 1 1 2 0 1 7

F5 1 1 0 1 4 3 1 0 11

G2 1 0 2 0 13 3 2 2 23

G3 1 0 0 0 0 9 0 1 11

G4 1 0 0 2 6 5 0 0 14

G5 3 0 0 0 4 10 2 0 19

H1 2 1 1 2 8 9 0 1 24

H2 5 3 0 3 15 14 0 0 40


79

Square Borers Scrapers Tabular Scrapers

RetouchedBlades

Notches andDenticulates

RetouchedFlakes

Bifacials Varia Total

H3 4 2 1 3 10 6 0 0 26

H4 0 2 0 0 5 5 0 1 13

H5 0 0 0 1 4 11 2 0 18

Totals

N. 79 46 31 32 208 195 12 18 621

% 12.7 7.4 5.0 5.2 33.5 31.4 1.9 2.9 100.0

Table 3.18. Site 22, awl attributes

Blank types Number Frequency Butt type Number Frequency Point position n. %

Flakes 52 71.2 Basal modification 6 8.2 Direct 53 72.6

Primary Elements 7 9.6 Point modified 6 8.2 Inverse 11 15.1

Blades 4 5.5 Broken 13 17.8 Alternate 8 11.0

Bladelet 1 1.4 Cortical 8 11.0 Bifacial 1 1.4

Ridge Blade 1 1.4 Faceted 12 16.4

Total 73 100.0

Core Tablet 1 1.4 Winged 2 2.7

Cores 4 5.5 Flat 21 28.8

Pebble chunk 1 1.4 Nodule/Core 5 6.8

Levallois flakes 2 2.7

Total 73 100.0 Total 73 100.0

Point modification Number Frequency Point location Number Frequency Truncations n. %

2 Notches 53 72.6 Distal 42 57.5 Convex 4 15.4

1 Notch & Natural Edge 5 6.8 Proximal 6 8.2 Concave 9 34.6

Abrupt Retouch 6 8.2 Proximal & Distal 1 1.4 Oblique 8 30.8

Oblique Truncation 5 6.8 One Side 21 28.8 Straight 5 19.2

1 Notch & Retouched Edge 4 5.5 Both Sides 3 4.1

Total 73 100.0 Total 73 100.0 Total 26 100.0

made on thick flakes (n = 2) and on blades (n = 3). Among those drills made on blades there is evidence of basal modification on two of these artifacts. One of the intact drills that was made on a blade measures 51 x 11 x 4.5 mm. There are two drills that have their butts removed by several flake reductions. The first drill measures 52 x 31 x 17 mm, and its bit measures 16 mm in width. The second drill measures 78 x 57.5 x 33 mm and the bit is 16 mm in width.

Included in this category is a micro-drill that is made on a bladelet and has a winged butt. The average dimensions of this micro-drill are 28.5 x 10 x 3 mm, and the bit measures 5 x 3 x 2 mm. Micro-drills were used for the production of beads as demonstrated at the Camel Site, which is dated to Early Bronze Age II period (Rosen 1997b; Hermon, Vardi and Rosen 2011). The micro-drill found at Site 22 is typical of other micro-drills found at sites in the Negev Highlands that vary in date from the Chalcolithic through EBIV/MBI periods (Macdonald 1932: 8; Roshwalb 1981: 166-170; Burian and Friedman 1987; Rosen 1997b; Saidel 2002: 47, 50, fig. 11:6- 12).

Scrapers (n = 50, 7.4%) (Table 3.19) (Fig. 3.2: 2): These implements have scraper retouch covering at least one side of the blank (Rosen 1997a: 87). The scrapers are unstandardized and they made on the following: a blade (n = 1), a bladelet core (n = 1), a flake core (n = 1), primary elements (n = 5), core tablet (n = 1), a recycled Levallois flake (n = 1), and flakes (n = 36). The delineation of the working edge on scrapers is variable, however, in most cases it has a pronounced convex shape.

End Scrapers (n = 20): Three tools have retouch on their distal end. Six have retouch on one side, either left or right, and an additional six end scrapers have circular/round retouch on the sides and end of this tool type. Included in this group are two small thumb scrapers, one broken and one intact, respectively. The complete thumb scraper has the following dimensions 40 x 39.5 x 7 mm. Lastly, there are three tongue end scrapers in this assemblage. Four end scrapers are covered with two different colored patinas. One of these end scrapers was made on a Middle Paleolithic Levallois flake. It is likely that the remaining three double patinated end scrapers are also made on flint products from previous periods.


80

Fig. 3.5. Steep Notched Piece (Site 26, Locus 906). Artifact drawn by Julia Skidel-Rymar

Table 3.19. Site 22, scraper delineation

Delineation Type

End Scrapers

Side Scrapers

Circular 3 0

Convex 11 10

Concave 1 4

Nosed 1 0

Shoulder 3 0

Rectilinear 1 4

Concave/Convex 0 1

Total 20 19

Side scrapers (n = 19): These tools have retouch on either their left or the right side. Four side scrapers have bi-lateral working edges. The remaining eleven scrapers lack their distal end due to breakage and could not be further identified.

Tabular Scrapers (n = 31, 5.0%): Tabular scrapers are made on large primary elements knapped from tabular flint nodules, and the majority of them have retained their cortex. There are four intact tabular scrapers with the following characteristics: first, there is fan shape scraper with a wide arch like edge with semi abrupt retouch and a narrow proximal end; second, there is crescent shape tabular scraper; the third and fourth exemplars are end struck and side struck, respectively.

The bulb of percussion is present on 12 tabular scrapers and two of them have signs of bulbar thinning. The remaining tabular scrapers do not have a bulb because they are broken on their proximal end. There is considerable variation in the size of the blanks. For example, the width of tabular scrapers, be they broken or intact, varies from 25 to 77 mm. These measurements were taken as close as possible to the bulb of percussion. These tabular scrapers also vary greatly in thickness, with measurements varying from 6 to 16 mm. A few tabular scraper fragments were omitted from this study because their length and/or width could not be determined.

Bifacials (n = 12, 1.9%) (Figs. 3.7: 1-2): There are six axes and five of them are complete. Three are end struck, and one is side a side struck. Four axes have a double convex cross section and a straight edge (Barkai 1999, 2000; Rosen 1997a: 95, fig. 3.49).

In addition to these axes there are four additional bifacials whose cross section is similar in shape to the axes, however, the crude level of workmanship prohibits identifying them as finished axes. For instance, one bifacial was knapped only on one face suggesting that this artifact was unfinished. Two of the four bifacials have an irregular retouch that created a 45º sharp end. Two bifaces classified as choppers (e.g. Leaky 1971: 37, fig. 95; Rosen 1997a: 98) even though they look like small cores. Both sides of these implements have evidence of hammer pecking, crushing, and scars from flake removal.


81

Blade and Bladelet tools (n = 32, 5.2%) (Tables 3.20-3.21): This category contains tools made on blade and bladelet blanks. Simple retouched blades (n = 20): This group includes blade implements that exhibit miscellaneous retouch. Four of the 20 simple retouched blades are complete. Eleven blades have retouch on one side, while one example has retouch along one side and a straight truncation on the distal extremity. Six of the simple retouched blades have a single notch in addition to retouch, and four of them four are truncated. Among the simple retouched blades there are three types of truncations, convex (n = 2), oblique (n = 1) and straight (n = 1). Simple retouched blades exhibit three different types of cross section, pentagon (n = 2), trapeze (n = 7), and triangle (n = 11). There are four pieces that have bilateral working edges.

Table 3.20. Site 22, dimensions of the blades

Measurements (mm) Mean S.D

Length (n=42) 41 8.1

Width 18.0 3.8

Thickness 5.3 1.6

Table 3.21. Site 22, the dimensions of simple retouched blades

Dimensions Length (n=4)

Width (n=20)

Thickness (n=20)

Measurements mm 40.7 19.4 5.6

S.D mm 5.35 1.49

Fig. 3.6. Blade tools. 1, Arched backed blade [Site 22, Area G 4]; 2, Arched backed blade (Site 7); 3, Backed blade [Site 26]; 4, Traverse arrowhead [Site 22, Area E 1]; 5, Herzliya arrowhead

[Site 22, Area A 3]; 6 Retouched backed blade [Site 1, Area B]; Retouched blade [Site 1, Area B, Locus 40]). Lithic artifacts drawn by Julia Skidel-Rymar


82

Backed Blades (n = 8) (Table 3.22) (Fig. 3.6: 1): Four of the eight backed blades are broken. All blade tools have abrupt backing retouch, however, two are partially backed. The backing is either arched (n = 2) or straight (n = 6) and it is made by direct semi abrupt and abrupt retouch. The cross section of these implements varies in shape from trapeze (n = 3) to triangular (n = 2), to triangular 90º (n = 3). Three of the backed blades have truncations. In particular, one backed blade has a convex truncation and two backed blades have oblique trun-cations. One item in this category, measuring 40 x 16 x 7 mm, is similar to the macro-lunates found at some Early Bronze Age sites in the Negev Highlands (Rosen 1991, 1993: 66, fig. 2:9). The dimensions of the backed blades are similar to those found on the simple retouched blades.

Table 3.22. Site 22, the dimensions of backed blades

Dimensions (mm) Average S.D

Length (n=4) 40.2

Width (n=8) 15.7 1.4

Thickness (n=8) 6 1.5

Retouched Bladelets (n = 4): All retouched bladelets are broken. The average dimensions for the width and thickness of these tools are 9 mm and 3.13 mm, respectively. These implements have a triangular cross section, and one retouched bladelet has a straight truncation.

Notches and Denticulates (n = 208, 33.5%) (Table 3.17): Notches outnumber (n = 113) denticulates (n = 95), however, there is the possibility that 39 of the 73 notches are actually broken denticulates. The artifacts were made on various types of waste, for example, 73 notches and denticulates are broken and/or made on broken blanks. The reuse of earlier blanks and/or tools as raw material is further demonstrated by the presence of double patination on 64 artifacts. Denticulates and notches were not made on cores.

The following types of truncations are present on 66 notches and denticulates: convex (n = 22), concave (n = 15), oblique (n = 13) and straight (n = 11). There are five examples of double truncations, that is to say truncations combined with some basal modification that removed the

Fig. 3.7: 1-2. Axes/Celts. 1, Site 22, Area E 4; 2, Site 22, Area A 4. Lithic artifacts drawn by Julia Skidel-Rymar


83

Fig. 3.8. Pick (Site 22, Area D 3). Artifact drawn by Julia Skidel-Rymar

butt on these tools. The following types of double truncation are present on these pieces: double convex (n = 2), double straight (n = 1), oblique and concave (n = 1) and oblique and convex (n = 1). McConaughy suggested the notches and denticulates were used for a wide range of tasks (1979: 288-289, 317-318, 324, 334).

Retouched Flakes and Pieces (n = 195, 31.4%): Those stone tools that not fall into any of the tool types mentioned above are assigned to this category. In order to be included in this category a stone tool has to have retouch that extends for more than 2 cm in length. In most instances the retouch is irregular and direct, and a large number of the retouched flakes are truncated. The delineation of the truncations is concave (n = 2), convex (n = 28), oblique (n = 20) or straight (n = 28). Many of the retouched flakes and pieces are broken (n = 122). Often the truncation is accompanied by lateral or bilateral retouch on their distal end (n = 59). The presence of double patination on some of the tools is indicative of two stages of use. Retouched flakes were most likely used for a variety of tasks, such as cutting of soft organic materials (McConaughy 1979, 1980).

Arrowheads (n = 5, 0.8%) (Figs. 3.6: 4-5): There are five arrowheads. The oldest one, measuring 58 x 15.5 x 4.2 mm, is a Byblos arrowhead dated to the Pre Pottery Neolithic B (e.g., Gopher 1994: 36-39, 265, fig. 4.7:10). A close examination of the dorsal scars on this tool shows that it is made on a blade produced from a bi-polar core. The tang and the butt were bifacial modified using a pressure retouch technique.

There are three projectile points, one Harparsa and two Herzliya points, from the Pottery Neolithic period (Gopher 1994: 41, 265). The broken Harparsa arrowhead is made on gray semi translucent flint and its butt is not

preserved. The winged shape of this arrowhead is formed by the presence of a notch on each side of the blade. Pressure flaking marks cover one face of this projectile point. The maximum width and thickness of this projectile point are 12 mm and 2.6 mm respectively. One broken Herzliya arrowhead is made on a brown opaque flint, and it measures 12 mm in width and 3.2 mm in thickness. The distal end of this projectile point is broken. There is pressure flaking retouch along both edges/faces of this arrowhead. The second Herzliya projectile point, measuring 20.3 x 12.8 x 3.8 mm, is made on a light brown flint. There is some basal modification on this arrowhead and the tip of this projectile is made by a bilateral, fine, semi abrupt retouch.

A trapezoidal transverse arrowhead, measuring 16.8 x 12.6 x 3.2 mm, is dated to either the Chalcolithic and/or Early Bronze Age I periods (Rosen 1997a: 44). The shape of this arrowhead was produced by two oblique truncations made on a segment of a blade.1 Similar shaped arrowheads are also found in the nawamis in southern Sinai (Bar-Yosef et al. 1977: 76-77, fig. 4:5-9, 1986: 134-135, fig. 7:1-5), and at sites located in the central and southern Negev Highlands (Rosen 1984: 114, fig. 6; 1997a: 39, 42, fig. 3.2).

Varia (Fig. 3.8:1)

Multiple function tools (n = 7, 1.1%): The seven artifacts in this category are awls – denticulates. The concavities or notching on these implements created a massive lateral denticulated edge. These tools have a pronounced point which was made by two notches. One awl-denticulate has ochre stains on its dorsal face, and similar staining was 1 For a detailed description of the chronology of transverse arrowheads the reader is referred to Rosen’s handbook (1997a: 42, fig. 3.2, 43-44).


84

found on an awlunearthed at Gebel Gunna-50 (Bar-Yosef et al. 1986: 141).

Burins (n = 3, 0.5%): There are three artifacts that exhibit scars from burin blows. Two are dihedral burin struck flakes, and the third is a burin on a natural break.

Pièce Esquilée (n = 1, 0.2%): One flake has some reductions on its ventral face opposite to the striking direction suggesting that an anvil was used in the knapping process.

Paleolithic intrusions (n = 2, 0.3%): Two completely patinated and retouched Levallois flakes are evidence of Paleolithic intrusions.

Hammers (n = 13): This type of implement is not included in above mentioned the tool type list as it is not a product of the knapping process. The hammers, measuring on average 75.2 ± 10.1 mm, are made on local gray flint nodules, which were used initially for the production of other flint implements. The surface of the hammers is either partially or completely covered with pecking marks which are suggestive of tasks associated with crushing and/or pounding.


Most flakes and tools are made on flake blanks indicating that blank production was geared towards flakes. The production of blades and bladelets represented only a minor component of the lithic industry. While several bifacial tools have been found at this site, there is no evidence of their production at this location.

Double patinated tools comprise 20% of the assemblage. Theoretically, the high frequency of double patinated tools could be attributed to the partial exposure of flint artifacts for a long period of time, resulting in weathering, rolling, battering, and in some cases breakage. However, the large number of double patinated artifacts in this assemblage renders this explanation untenable. Double patinated implements often have two different colors of patina on the dorsal/ventral faces and on the retouched portion of the tool, respectively. This patterning is interpreted as evidence of tools being made on implements from earlier periods. The frequency of double patinated artifacts in this assemblage is proof that these artifacts were collected from the vicinity of this site. Alternatively, the patinated artifacts could have been abandoned here at an earlier time.

Chronological Considerations

The diagnostic artifacts vary in date from the PPNB through the Chalcolithic/Early Bronze Age periods. It could be argued that the Byblos point combined with the axes provide evidence of an occupation from the Pre Pottery Neolithic B (Burian and Friedman 1987; Gopher et al. 1995: 23-24, 29, fig. 12); however, bifacials are also found at Late Neolithic and Chalcolithic sites in the Negev Highlands (Rosen 1984; Gilead et al. 1995: 258-

259). Therefore, it is difficult to be more precise in dating bifacial implements. Furthermore, there is always the possibility that the Byblos point is intrusive.

The bifacial tools and the Ha-Parsa and the Herzliya projectile points (Goring-Morris 1993: 79-81, fig. 11) provide evidence of occupations during the 6th-5th millennia B.C.E. (Rosen 1984, Bar-Yosef et al. 1986:164). The transverse arrowhead is dated to the final stages of the Chalcolithic period and to the EB I and II periods (Bar-Yosef et al. 1977:77, fig. 4:8; 1986:140, fig. 9:2). No transverse arrowheads have been found in EB IV/MB I flint assemblages (e.g., Vardi 2005). Unfortunately, tabular scrapers are not useful for drawing chronological distinctions as this tool type was in use from the fifth to the third millennia B.C.

From a maximalist perspective the lithic assemblage provides evidence that Site 22 was occupied, at different points in time, from the PPNB through the EB II periods. A minimalist perspective would posit that this settlement was occupied from the Late Neolithic through the EB II periods.

The nature of the lithic waste demonstrates that tools were made on site. The dominance of large ad hoc tools is evidence that the inhabitants conducted tasks that are most likely associated with drilling and/or piercing various materials, such as bone and wood, as well as fashioning axes and scrapers (McConaughy 1979). The five arrowheads demonstrate that some of the inhabitants or other individuals were engaged in hunting activities in various periods (Rosen 1984, 1997a). The absence of sickle glossed artifacts is tentatively interpreted as evidence of the absence of agricultural activities (Rosen 1997a: 57-58).

The function of tabular scrapers is debated as Henry (Henry 1995: 372-373) and others have argued that they were used for shearing sheep. Rosen has questioned this premise and proposed that tabular scrapers “probably served a general range of domestic tasks, indeed perhaps including domestic ritual” (1997a: 74-75).

SITE 26 (EIN HAMEARA)

The lithic material was collected manually from the surface of the site and from excavated loci. This assemblage comprises 376 pieces of which 218 (58.0%) are tools. The high frequency of stone tools in the assemblage is a direct result of the excavation method (e.g., Rosen 1997a: 37). Specifically, a more systematic collection of the lithic artifacts would have result in a higher frequency of lithic waste.

Raw Material

The most abundant raw material is a smooth to medium grained gray color flint which is from Senonian wadi pebbles. Also present, albeit in much smaller quantities, is a grey-white mottled flint that contains micro fossils.


85

Table 3.23. Site 26, the frequencies of waste per locus

Area Locus Chips Chunks Flakes Primary Elements


Ridge Blades

C.T.E. other

Cores Tools

A 901 9 7 43 4 3 2 0 3 4

A 901 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 40

A 902 0 0 8 0 2 2 1 4 3

A 902 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2

A 903 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

A 904 0 1 3 0 0 0 0 0 13

A 906 1 1 3 1 3 1 0 1 20

A 907 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 13

A 909 1 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 13

A 910 0 1 3 0 0 0 0 0 24

A Surface 0 3 18 0 1 1 1 1 75

Tool Type

Total 11 13 83 6 9 6 2 10 208

Frequency 3.0 4.0 24.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 0 3.0 60.0

Some of the artifacts are either partially or totally covered with one or two shades of patina.

Waste

The waste assemblage is composed of debris, chips, and chunks (Table 3.23). Chips are smaller than 2 cm, while chunks are larger than 2 cm. The fieldwork at this site recovered only 11 chips and 13 chunks.

Debitage

Flakes (n = 83, 23.9%): The debitage is dominated by flakes (n = 94, 23.9%), however, there are also nine primary elements in this category. The relatively small amount of debitage does not provide enough data to facilitate a thorough attribute analysis of the lithic technology. None of the flakes are regular and all of them have irregular scar patterns. On average the flakes measure 5 cm.

Blades and Bladelets (n = 9, 2.6%): There are eleven blades and two bladelets. The presence of two to three earlier scars on the dorsal face of the blanks represents a lack of standardization in their manufacture. Six of the blanks in this group have a flat butt and three have a winged butt. Profiles vary in shape from triangular, to trapezoid, to an irregular twisted profile. All blades and bladelets were made from locally available raw materials.

Cores (n = 10, 2.9%) (Table 3.24): Eight cores were used to produce flakes, and two were used to produce mixed flakes/bladelets. Most of the cores are amorphous in shape and they have either one or two striking platforms. One pyramidal shape core has two striking platforms that are opposite to one another. In this category two of the 10 cores are broken. Complete cores typically measure 5.3 cm.


Number of Striking Platforms n.

1 6

2 2

2 Opposite 2

Total 10

Core Type n.

Flake 7

Mixed (flake and Bladelet) 3

Total 10

Core Trimming Elements (n = 8, 2.3%): There are eight ridge blades and, two blanks that are classified as core trimming elements. Both are on thick flakes with crests scars on their dorsal face (Inizan et al. 1992: 39).

Tools (n = 208, 59.8%)

Retouched Blades and Bladelets (n = 20, 10.0%) (Table 3.25):

Simple Retouched Blades (n = 14) (Table 3.26): These artifacts are non-standardized blades made on the same type of raw material as other tools in this assemblage. Approximately half of the simple retouched blades are truncated and one item has two oblique truncations which form a trapezoid. Another retouched blade has two straight truncations that form the shape of a rectangle. The bulb of percussion is not present on five retouched blades as two of them are truncated and three of them are broken. Seven retouched blades that have either one or two notches. Also there is one retouched blade that is classified as a denticulated blade as it has six alternating


86

Table 3.25. Site 26, the frequency of major tool types per locus

Area Locus Borers Notches and Denticulates

Scrapers Retouched Blades

and Bladelets Retouched

Flakes Multi-Function

Tools Varia Totals

A 901 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 4

A 901 3 18 8 2 8 1 0 40

A 902 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 3

A 902 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 2

A 903 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

A 904 1 2 3 0 6 1 0 13

A 906 1 9 4 5 1 0 0 20

A 907 1 5 1 1 5 0 0 13

A 909 2 5 0 0 6 0 0 13

A 910 0 9 3 3 6 1 2 24

A Surface 6 29 16 9 14 0 1 75

Tool Type

Total 16 80 36 20 49 4 3 208

Frequency 8.0 38.0 17.0 10.0 24 2.0 1.0

Table 3.26. Site 26, a metric analysis of the simple retouched blades

Measurements (mm) Average S.D

Length (n=10) 50.4 17.3

Width 25.2 6.9

Thickness 10.8 12.4

notches. Double patination is present on four retouched and notched pieces.

Backed blades (n = 6) (Table 3.27) (Fig. 3.6: 3): Backed blades have a rectilinear lateral backing made by direct retouch, which created an abrupt back and a cross section that is either 90º triangular or trapezoid in shape. The dimensions of the backed blades are similar to the sizes of simple retouched blades. Three of the six backed blades are broken. One partially backed blade is made on a baked and/or burnt piece of purple flint. One backed blade is convex in shape and it has two truncations, one strait and one oblique. This item does not fit in the macro lunate family. Single strait and oblique truncations are present on two additional backed blades, however, one of them is broken. Three backed blades lack a bulb of percussion. One of the three backed blades lacks its bulb of percussion as a result of a truncation of the proximal edge.

Table 3.27. Site 26, metric analysis of backed blades

Measurements (mm) Average S.D

Length (n=3) 60.2 0

Width 24.9 .1

Thickness .87 .5

Arched back bladelet (n = 1): There is one retouched bladelet made on a dark grey flint, which might have been burnt. This piece has bilateral direct retouch on both sides, as well as a strait and an oblique truncation. The dimensions of this implement are 27 x 11 x 3 mm.

Borers (n = 16, 8.0%): All borers are identified as awls. The awls were made on flakes and in most cases (n = 15) have one point that was modified by one or two notches located on the distal part of the blank. There are, however, two awls where the point of each implement was made by abrupt retouch. In this category there are two awls that contain two and three bits, respectively.

The methods used to prepare an awl are not standardized. For example, the blanks used for their production are irregular in size and shape and the butts are usually flat (n = 7). One awl has a faceted butt. There are four blanks with basal modification indicating, perhaps, that these pieces were hafted. There is no standardization in direction of the bit modification retouch which was made using various methods, such as direct (n = 9) inverse (n = 3) and alternative (n = 4) retouch.

Scrapers (n = 36, 17.0%) (Table 3.28): All pieces exhibiting scalar retouch are identified as scrapers (Gilead et al. 1995: 237-239, fig. 5.10; Rosen 1997a: 86-87). This category also includes a thumb side scraper that measures 42 x 29 x 9 mm. Four scrapers have notches. For example, the right side of one scraper has retouch, while the left side contains five notches. Several of these scrapers were made on broken blanks. The bulb of percussion is missing on eight scrapers, however, the proximal edge on these tools is retouched. It is difficult to determine if this pattern represents some sort of basal modification. The presence of scalar retouch, on the distal side, that extended over a clear break in the flint is evidence that scrapers were repaired for reused. In this


87

Table 3.28. Site 26, scraper attributes

Scraper type n. %

End scraper 15 40.5

Side scraper 13 35.1

Tabular 1 2.7

Fragment 8 21.6

Total 37 100.0

Butt type n. % Complete %

Flat 13 35.1 11 39.3

Faceted 5 13.5 5 17.9

Dihedral 1 2.7 1 3.6

Pointed 1 2.7 1 3.6

Cortical 2 5.4 2 7.1

Missing 8 21.6 8 28.6

Broken 7 18.9

Total 37 100.0 28 100

Delineation n. % Complete %

Rectilinear 3 8.1 2 7.1

Concave 3 8.1 3 10.7

Convex 14 37.8 12 42.8

Nosed 3 8.1 3 10.7

Shoulder 3 8.1 3 10.7

Pointed 1 2.7 1 3.6

Rounded 3 8.1 3 10.7

Tongue 2 5.4 1 3.6

Unidentified 5 13.5

Total 37 100.0 28 100.0

Blank type n. %

Flake 33 89.2

Primary Elements 3 8.1

C.T.E. 1 2.70

Total 37 100.0

Retouch formation n. %

Parallel 6 16.2

Sub parallel 19 51.3

Stepped 2 5.4

Scaled 10 27.0

Total 37 100.0

Retouch position n. %

Direct 29 78.4

Inverse 3 8.1

Alternate 6 16.2

Total 37 100.0

assemblage there are there broken scrapers which were repaired. Scrapers were used for the modification of limestone and bone artifacts as well as for wood working (McConaughy 1979: 334-344). Double patination is

present on five scrapers, and one of them is on a Levallois flake. The amount of intrusive scrapers is difficult to ascertain given the condition of the site and its surrounding environment.


88

Notches and Denticulates (n = 80, 38.0%): There are 34 notches, 46 denticulates, and the latter are characterized by a massive denticulated edge. Notches (Fig. 3.5: 1) and denticulates were made on blanks of different sizes. The majority of these tools were made on flakes (n = 69), however, other types of blanks, including cores (n = 2), primary elements (n = 3), and core trimming elements (n = 8) were used to manufacture these tools. Several notches (n = 13) are made on fragments of broken blanks that might originally have been denticulate/s or other tool types. Notches and denticulates used for several domestic tasks such as spoke shaving, plant and perhaps as bone and wood processing utensils (McConaughy 1979: 288-289, 317-318; Rosen 1997a: 89-90).

Retouched Flakes and Pieces (n = 49, 24.0%): This group contains retouched tools that do not fall into any of the above categories. The extension and position of the retouch on these tools exhibits considerable variation. For example, the bifacial retouch present on four artifacts is dissimilar to the retouch found on typical Neolithic and Chalcolithic bifacial tools, and as a result, these four implements are classified as bifacially retouched pieces. A number of retouched flakes and pieces have double patination which is evidence of two cycles of usage. One of these artifacts is made on a Levallois flake.

Double function tools (n = 5, 2.3%): There are five multi-function tools. Four of these artifacts are awls made on scrapers. One of these four tools is an awl made on a butt scraper. This particular implement has scalar scraper retouch covering its wide proximal edge and the point was produced by two notches made on its distal edge. This awl/butt scraper measures 65 x 35 x 15 mm. The three other awls are made on end scrapers. The last implement is an awl made on side scraper with a single burin blow on its left side. There is the possibility that this burin blow may be modification to the tool and not evidence of a second reuse.

Varia (n = 3, 1.0%)

Burins (n = 2, 0.9%): The two tools in this category show oblique burin blows on their distal end. One burin, measuring 59 x 33 x 11 mm, is on a modified flake, which is retouched on both sides. The second tool is a dihedral burin (Bar-Yosef 1970), measuring 49 x 22 x 14 mm, on a simple blade.

Miscellaneous piece (n = 1, 0.5%): There is one artifact with two ventral reductions on its distal end, which might have been a byproduct of a knapping technique that involved the use of an anvil.

Conclusions

None of the tools are particularly useful for dating this site. Although this assemblage contains a tabular scraper, this type of implement remained in use from the Pottery Neolithic through the Early Bronze Age periods (Goring-Morris 1993; Rosen 1984; 1997a: 71, Rosen and Gopher 2003).

The lithic assemblage is dominated by unstandardized ad hoc tools that were most likely used for domestic activities (Rosen 1997a: 34). Ad hoc tools are frequently found at small Early Bronze Age II encampments in the Negev Highlands (c.f. Rosen 1991, 1993; Hermon, Vardi, and Rosen 2011: 99-100, 102), and in light of this fact, a working hypothesis is that the flint tool assemblage from Site 26 (Ein Hameara) is attributed to the Early Bronze Age, perhaps the Early Bronze Age II period.

The absence of glossed sickle blades at Site 26 is interpreted as potential evidence that the inhabitants of this settlement did not engage in agricultural activities. Instead, they probably relied upon other resources for their subsistence strategy, such as herding, and exchange. A similar interpretation has been proposed by Rosen for other small scale sites in the Negev Highlands (e.g., Rosen 1991, 1993, and 2001).

SITE 27, 29, 33 (HAR SAGGI SITES I, III AND V)

Haiman’s survey of Sites 27, 29, and 33 collected a total of 935 flint artifacts of which 137 (6.8%) are tools. These three small collections come from sites that are located within the environs of Har Saggi. Given the location of these sites and the small quantities of lithic artifacts recovered, it was decided to analyze this material as one assemblage.

Raw Material

The most abundant raw material is a gray/brown flint that varies in texture from medium to fine grain. Other types of flint used to make stone tools, in descending order of importance, are a gray banded, a gray-white mottled, and a fine grained gray- brown translucent flint. These raw materials are found in the wadis adjacent to Sites 27, 29, and 33 and at other locations throughout the Negev Highlands. Eocenic and tabular flint are rare in this assemble; in fact, only four tools are made on tabular flint.

Some of the tools and waste are covered with patinas that are brown, gray, and white in color. Several artifacts exhibit two different shades of patina which may be the result of partial coverage of the artifact and/or rejuvenation at a later time.

Waste

Flakes (n = 503, 53.8%) (Table 3.29): The flakes are irregular in shape and they do not display any signs of standardization. The majority of flakes have flat butts and typically measure 5 cm.

Blades and Bladelets (n = 20, 2.1%): Blades and bladelet blanks are very rare in this assemblage. Most of them are simple none prismatic blades that are either triangular or trapeze in cross section. There are three blanks that measure less than 12 mm in width and they are identified as bladelets (width < 12 mm).


89

Table 3.29. Lithic frequencies found at Sites 27, 29, and 33

Site 2S Site 27

Chips Chunks Flakes Primary Elements

Blades andBladelets

Ridge Blades

Core Tablets

Cores Burin Spalls

Tools Total

LithicsFrequency

100 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 4 1.9

102 4 4 12 3 2 1 1 3 0 6 36 17.1

104 2 2 15 0 1 0 0 0 0 4 24 11.4

105 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 3 1.4

106 0 3 31 1 3 0 0 1 0 12 51 24.2

107 1 0 5 1 0 1 0 0 0 8 16 7.6

108 2 5 16 0 2 0 0 1 1 14 41 19.4

109 0 2 9 0 2 0 0 1 0 1 15 7.1

110 7 1 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 20 9.5

Surface 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0.5

Sub Total 16 18 97 5 10 2 1 6 1 55 211 100.0

% 7.6 8.5 46.0 2.4 4.7 0.9 0.5 2.8 0.5 26.1 100.0

Site 29

301 54 4 22 3 3 0 0 0 0 4 90 52.0

302 6 5 44 1 1 0 0 0 0 6 63 36.4

304 0 0 11 0 0 0 0 1 0 6 18 10.4

308 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 1.2

Sub Total 60 9 77 4 4 0 0 1 0 18 173 100.0

% 34.7 5.2 44.5 2.3 2.3 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.0 10.4 100.0

Site 33

502 3 3 45 1 1 0 0 1 0 17 71 12.9

503 7 2 37 2 3 0 0 2 0 3 56 10.2

504 1 1 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 6 1.1

506 9 5 23 3 0 0 0 1 0 8 49 8.9

507 3 5 23 0 0 1 0 0 0 3 35 6.4

508 4 4 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 25 4.5

509 0 1 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 1.1

510 6 4 37 1 0 0 1 0 0 2 51 9.3

512 10 6 36 7 1 0 0 2 0 4 66 12.0

513 1 6 30 2 0 0 1 2 0 2 44 8.0

514 2 1 19 3 0 0 0 1 0 6 32 5.8

518 2 11 28 5 1 2 1 0 0 6 56 10.2

Surface 1 6 34 3 0 0 1 3 1 5 54 9.8

Sub Total 49 55 329 28 6 3 4 12 1 64 551 100.0

% 8.9 10.0 59.7 5.1 1.1 0.5 0.7 2.2 0.2 11.6 100.0

Total Lithics

Total 125 82 503 37 20 5 5 19 2 137 935

Frequency 13.4 8.8 53.8 4.0 2.1 0.5 0.5 2.0 0.2 14.6 100

Cores (n = 19, 2.0%) (Table 3.30): The cores are amorphous in shape and in most instances they have two to three striking platforms. Several cores have two opposed striking platforms that are positioned 90º to one another. The majority of cores are for producing flakes, however, four cores have signs of blade and bladelet

removal. One of the four cores is a mixed flake/bladelet core. This core, as well as a bladelet core, are pyramidal shape as a result of reductions to the blank. Most cores are made on either brown or gray flint that is medium grained and opaque. Two cores are covered with white and grayish patina.


90

Table 3.30. Cores attributes from Sites 27, 29, and 33

Core Type n. %

Flake 15 78.9

Blade 2 10.3

Bladelet 1 5.3

Flake/Bladelet 1 5.3

Total 19 100.0

N. of striking platforms n. %

1 4 21.0

2 8 42.1

2 Opposed 4 21.0

3 3 15.8

Total 19 100.0

Tools

Retouched Blades and Bladelets (n = 15, 10.9%) (Table 3.31): This category includes all blade tools with a lateral or bilateral working edge, including blades that have a truncated end.

Simple retouched blades (n = 8): There are eight simple retouched blades. The first retouched blade, measuring 47.5 x 20 x 6.5 mm, is bi-truncated, straight/oblique, and it has a curved section. The second blade is heavily retouched on one side. The third blade is heavily retouched on both sides and it has an oblique truncation. The fourth retouched blade has a convex truncation with retouch covering one side. The opposite side of this blade is notched. The remaining simple retouched blades are slightly nibbled on both sides, and one is broken, while

Table 3.31. The frequencies of tool type present at Sites 27, 29, and 33

Site 27 Borers Notches and Denticulates


and Bladelets Bifacials

Retouched Flakes

Varia Totals %

100 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 3 5.5

102 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 6 10.9

104 2 0 0 1 0 1 0 4 7.3

105 0 0 2 0 0 1 0 3 5.5

106 0 3 2 1 0 4 2 12 21.8

107 0 1 1 1 0 5 0 8 14.5

108 0 5 0 2 0 7 0 14 25.5

109 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1.8

110 0 0 1 0 0 2 0 3 5.5

Surface 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1.8

Total 3 12 7 6 2 22 3 55 100.0

% 5.5 21.8 12.7 10.9 3.6 40.0 5.5 100.0

Site 29

301 0 1 0 2 1 0 0 4 22.2

302 0 2 1 0 0 1 2 6 33.3

304 0 1 1 0 0 4 0 6 33.3

308 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 11.1

Total 0 4 2 2 1 5 4 18 100.0

% 0.0 22.2 11.1 11.1 5.6 27.8 22.2 100.0

Site 33

502 4 4 4 4 0 1 0 17 26.6

503 0 0 0 2 0 1 0 3 4.7

504 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1.6

506 3 4 0 0 0 0 1 8 12.5

507 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 3 4.7

508 3 3 0 1 0 0 0 7 10.9

510 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 3.1

512 1 1 0 0 0 2 0 4 6.3

513 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 3.1

514 0 1 1 0 0 4 0 6 9.4


91

Site 27 Borers Notches and Denticulates


and Bladelets Bifacials

Retouched Flakes

Varia Totals %

518 2 3 1 0 0 0 0 6 9.4

surface 0 3 1 0 0 1 0 5 7.8

Total 13 26 7 7 1 9 1 64 100.0

% 20.3 40.6 10.9 10.9 1.6 14.1 1.6 100.0

Total Tool Frequencies

n. 16 42 16 15 4 36 8 137

% 11.7 30.7 11.7 10.9 2.9 26.3 5.8 100

another one has a straight truncation. There are three type of truncations present on this artifacts, convex (n = 3), oblique (n = 1), and straight (n = 2). One tool, which is on a semi translucent flint, is partially covered with a white patina.

Retouched Bladelets (n = 2): One simple retouched bladelet is made on a gray semi translucent flint that is partially covered with whitish patina. The dimensions of the simple retouched bladelet are 24 x 8 x 2 mm. A second blade, measuring 9 mm in width and 2.5 mm in thickness, is a broken truncated bladelet with an oblique truncation.

Borers (n = 16, 11.7%): This category includes fourteen awls and two drills. The distinction between awls and drills is determined by the morphology of the point (Rosen 1997a: 69-70). Awls have a short point made usually by one or two notches, while drills have a long point modified by an abrupt retouch on two sides, which covers at least one third of the total tool length. In this category there are two drills and fourteen awls. Most of the borers (n = 13) in this group were collected from Site 33 (Har Saggi V).

Drills (n = 2): There are two drills made on blade blanks. One drill, measuring 19 mm in width and 9 mm in thickness, has abrupt retouch on both sides which converge to form a point. The proximal and distal ends of this drill are broken. The second drill has retouch covering its proximal edge and bulbar thinning which may indicate that this implement was hafted and used as a bow drill.2 The point of this drill is formed by abrupt retouch on one side and bi-polar retouch on the other. This drill is complete and it measures 69 x 14 x 8.5 mm.

Awls (n = 14): Awls are made on thick flakes (n = 10), primary elements (n = 4), cores (n = 2) and on a blade (n = 1). The points of the awls were modified by two notches. There is one piece, however, which was made by one notch and an oblique snap using the micro burin technique. There are two heavy duty awls. One is made on a large flake measuring 72 x 49 x 19 mm, and the 2 For examples of micro-drills from the Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age periods in the Negev the reader is referred to the following sources: Burian and Friedman (1987), Macdonald (1932:8), Roshwalb (1981:166-170), Hermon, Vardi and Rosen (2011) and Rosen (1997b). For parallels to New Kingdom bow drills in Egypt see Stocks (1989).

second one is made on a core measuring 62 x 38 x 25 mm. The width of the point on both awls measures 15 mm. Apart from making holes the awls might have been used for engraving hard materials such as stone and wood (McConaughy 1979: 257-258).

Notches and Denticulates (n = 42, 30.7%) (Table 3.31): This category comprises the largest tool type in this assemblage. There are 16 notches, with one to two concavities, and 26 denticulates, with three to six notches. Most of these implements are made on flakes. Besides flakes, notches and denticulates were also made on primary elements (n = 1), ridge blades (n = 2), and a natural backed knife (n = 1). Two notches were made on oblique and convex truncated flakes. Included in this group is a massive, but broken, denticulate made on tabular flint. This broken implement measures 97 x 64 x 27 mm. Notches and denticulates were used for a wide range of domestic tasks such as cutting and processing of organic materials (Rosen 1997a: 89-90; McConaughy 1979: 288-289, 317, 318).

Scrapers (n = 16, 11.7%): There are 13 tools with scraper retouch, usually scalar or sub parallel formation, which covered at least one side of the implement. Scrapers are broadly subdivided into two sub types, end scrapers and side scrapers. The end scrapers (n = 9) have retouch covering their distal edge and side scrapers (n = 4) have retouch covering one side. There are three additional end scrapers that are defined as steep thumb scrapers as they are made on small and thick flakes. The largest of the three thumb scrapers measures 45 x 33 x 14.5 mm. The majority of the scrapers are made on thick flakes, however, three were made on cores. One end scraper and a side scraper were made on bladelet cores. One bladelet core, measuring 54 x 33 x 35 mm, has two opposite striking platforms. One scraper is made on a pebble chunk.

Tabular Scrapers (n = 3, 2.2%): One tabular scraper, measuring 103 x 56 x 10 mm, has a facetted butt and a pronounced bulb of percussion. A second tabular scraper, measuring 99 x 50 x 9 mm, has a plain butt and its ventral face has scars from bulb thinning. On the cortex of this scraper there is an engraving in the shape of the letter X. Parallels for similar symbols incised on tabular scrapers are present at the following sites in the southern Levant: Horvat Illin (Marder et al. 1995), Mizpe Shalem


92

(Greenhut 1989), Ramat Matred 3 (this volume), Tel Esdar (Cohen 1999, fig. 28).

Bifacials (n = 4, 2.9%): This category includes three relatively small axes and a pick. The axes, which are bi-convex in cross section, were most likely made on medium sized cobbles. Two rectangular axes are intact and measure 77 x 37 x 23 mm and 76 x 33 x 28 mm, respectively. The third axe is distally broken and thus lacks its original active edge. The presence of several flake scars, that form sharp active edge, most likely represent an attempt to reuse or modify this broken implement. This reused tool measures 79 x 33 x 29 mm.

There is a massive triangular pick, with a bi-convex cross section, that is made on a large pebble. The base of this pick was crudely modified by several blows. This implement measures 117 x 67 x 35 mm, and the cutting edge measures 18 x 10 mm (c.f. Goring-Morris 1993: 74, fig. 6:4).

Burins (n = 6, 4.4%): There are six tools that have scars from burin blows. Five of these artifacts are simple burins on a natural break that have a burin blow on one side. One artifact has two opposite burin blows on its distal edge which created a point. There is one burin on a rolled artifact that is covered in a yellow patina.

Pièce Esquillée (n = 2): Two flakes have ventral reductions close to their distal edge, indicating that the knapper and/or knapper used an anvil during the process of flint knapping (Bar-Yosef 1970: 225).

Retouched Flakes and Pieces (n = 36, 26.3%) (Table 3.31): This group contains miscellaneous trimmed pieces that do not fall to any of categories mentioned above. The pieces in this category have retouch that covers at least 50% of one side of the blank. Most of the retouched flakes and pieces are made on flakes (n = 34), however, two are made on core trimming elements. This category contains truncated artifacts which exhibit three types of truncations, convex (n = 6), oblique (n = 2) and straight (n = 2).


Before drawing any conclusions concerning this assemblage, we must acknowledge the limitations of the data. Unfortunately, the stone tools and waste were manually collected, thus introducing the possibility of bias towards the collection of stone tools while waste went unrecognized and/or ignored (Rosen 1997a: 37).

The stone tools and waste collected from these three sites originated from flint sources that were locally available. A gray, smooth textured, semi translucent flint was present among the lithic material retrieved from Sites 27 (Har Saggi I) and 33 (Har Saggi V). This unusual type of flint was used to make bifacial and bladelet cores, as well as a range of tool types such as denticulates, notches, retouched flakes, and retouched pieces. Although impressionistic this flint is found in higher frequencies at

Site 27 (Har Saggi I) than at Site 33 (Har Saggi V), however, the quantities of gray flint collected from these sites may be a result of the collection techniques employed by Haiman and associates.

There are four artifacts, a massive denticulate and three tabular scrapers, made of tabular flint. The absence of primary elements with plain cortex demonstrates that these artifacts were most likely manufactured off site. Alternatively, the small number of artifacts made of tabular flint may be attributed to methodological or temporal constraints.

The major tool types analyzed in this assemblage are ad hoc tools which were used for a variety of domestic tasks, such as carving, cutting, perforating, and scraping (McConaughy 1979, 1980). No sickle blades, or any other tools with sickle gloss, were found in this assemblage (Anderson 1980, Unger-Hamilton 1984). The dearth of these tools may indicate that the inhabitants of these sites did not engage in agricultural activities as part of their subsistence strategy (Rosen 1997a: 57- 58).

The axes recorded from Sites 27 and 33 are evidence of occupations from the Late Neolithic and/or Chalcolithic (Rosen 1984; Gilead et al. 1995; Goring-Morris 1993) periods as this type of tool is not found in the Negev and Sinai after the latter period (e.g., Barkai 2000, Rosen 1997a: 98). Although one tabular scraper was found at Site 29, and two were collected at Site 33 this implement is a poor chronological indicator as it was in use from the fifth to third millennia BCE.

At Site 33 a symbol in the shape of the letter X was incised into the cortex of one tabular scraper. Parallels of this symbol are commonly found at many Early Bronze Age sites, such as at Horvat ‘Illin, Mizpe Shalem, and Ramat Matred 3 (Greenhut 1989; Marder et al. 1995; this chapter). Based upon the diagnostic lithics from Site 33 (Har Saggi V), this settlement has occupations from the Neolithic and/or Chalcolithic periods, as well as from the Early Bronze Age period.

MISCELLANEOUS ASSEMBLAGES FROM KADESH BARNEA

Haiman collected a small amount of lithic material, to be specific 188 pieces from 14 sites situated in the area of Kadesh Barnea (Tables 3.32-3.33). Given the large number of sites and the small amount of lithic artifacts taken from each location, it was decided to treat these artifacts as one assemblage. This collection contains a high proportion of stone tools and a low frequency of waste, indicating that Haiman’s survey placed an emphasis on the retrieval of diagnostic tools (e.g., Rosen 1997a: 37-38). This collection method, combined with the small quantities of lithic material, make it difficult to reach concise chronological, typological, and technological conclusions based solely on diagnostic tools.


93

Table 3.32. The frequencies of waste and tools from various sites located in the environs of Qadesh Barnea

Site Location Chipsand Chunks

Flakes Primary Elements


C.T.E Cores Hammer-

stone Tools Total

QB/64/1 Wadi Um Hashem 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 1 5

QB/74/2 Wadi Um Hashem 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 3

QB/77/7 Wadi el Qudeirat 1 1 4 0 0 5 0 12 23

QB/84/1 Wadi Um Hashem 8 46 4 0 0 5 0 13 76

Site 3 Jebel Tiwal 1 and 3 0 11 2 5 0 0 0 10 28

Site 30 (QB/77/2)

Wadi Qudeirat 1 0 0 3 0 0 0 3 7

Site 58 (QB/86/2)

Amrat el Farani 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 6

Site 80 (QB/76/1)

Wadi Um Hashem 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 3

Site 84 (QB/85/4)

Amrat el Farani 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 10 11

Site 85 (QB/85/6)

Amrat el Farani 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 3

Site 87 (QB/85/2)

Amrat el Farani 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 3

Site 89 (QB/95/1)

Amrat el Farani 0 7 0 1 0 0 3 29 40

Site 99 (QB/84/3)

Wadi Um Hashem 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 2

Site 103 (QB/73/1)

Wadi Um Hashem 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 6

Number 10 61 8 6 0 10 5 88 188

Frequency 5.3 32.4 4.3 3.2 0 5.3 2.7 46.8 100.0

Waste

Five cores were collected at QB 77/7 and an additional five cores were collected at QB84/1 (Table 3.32). One core has a blade scar, while the remainders are flake cores with irregular negative removals. The amount of waste collected from the 14 sites is so small in number that it cannot be used for any type of analysis.

Tools

Most tools are ad hoc implements such as: denticulates/notches, retouched flakes, simple retouched blades, and bladelets (Table 3.33) (Fig. 3.6: 2). Notches and denticulates (n = 21, 24.4%) (Table 3.32): There are nine notches and 12 denticulates. One denticulate, found at Site 84 (QB 85/4), is made on tabular flint.

Retouched blades (n = 14, 16.3%) (Table 3.33): The tools in this category are simple retouched blades, and six of them are single or bi-truncated. None of these 12 retouched blades exhibit any form of Canaanean blade technology.

Bifacials (n = 5, 5.8%) (Table 3.33): A complete adze, measuring 118 x 43 x 34 mm was recovered from QB77/7. There are two are rough outs which were discarded prior to their completion. A fourth bifacial is classified as a chopper as it is irregular in shape (Rosen 1997a: 98).

Borers (n = 4, 4.6%) (Table 3.33): There are two simple drills made on blades. One has basal modification perhaps for hafting of this implement. This drill measures 46 x 13 x 7 mm. The two additional awls are simple none standardized tools made on flakes.

Scrapers (n = 3, 3.5%) (Table 3.33) (Figs. 3.2: 1, 3): This category contains one side scraper and two end scrapers. The former is made on a primary element while the latter are made on a flake and primary element, respectively. The tools in this group are unstandardized, hence they cannot be used as chronological markers.

Tabular Scrapers (n = 17, 19.8%) (Table 3.33): Tabular scrapers were collected at six of the 14 sites. There are five intact oval shaped tabular scrapers, and (Rosen


94

Table 3.33. The frequencies of tool types from various sites situated in the Qadesh Barnea area

Site Location Borers Notches and Denticulates


RetouchedBlades

Bifacials Retouched

Flakes Varia Totals

QB/64/1 Wadi Um Hashem

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1


0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 3

QB/77/7 Wadi el Qudeirat

0 3 1 0 5 1 0 2 12


0 7 0 0 2 1 3 0 13

Site 3 Jebel Tiwal

1 and 3 0 2 0 0 1 0 3 1 7

Site 30 (QB/77/2)

Wadi Qudeirat

0 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 3

Site 58 (QB/86/2)

Amrat el Farani

0 1 1 2 2 0 0 0 6

Site 80 (QB/76/1

Wadi Um Hashem

0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 3

Site 84 (QB/85/4)

Amrat el Farani

0 1 0 7 0 0 1 0 9

Site 84 (QB/85/4)

Amrat el Farani

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Site 87 (QB/85/2)

Amrat el Farani

0 0 0 2 0 0 1 0 3

Site 89 (QB/95/1)

Amrat el Farani

3 4 1 4 4 2 8 0 26

Site 99 (QB95/1

Amrat el Farani

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Site 103 (QB/73/1)

Wadi Um Hashem

1 1 0 0 0 1 2 1 6

Total 4 21 3 17 14 5 19 3 86

Frequency 4.6 24.4 3.5 19.8 16.3 5.8 22.1 3.5 100.0

1997a: 77-78, fig. 3.32-3.33), three of them are end struck, while two are side struck. One of the side struck tabular scrapers is a double tabular scarper. One of the intact tabular scrapers has bulbar thinning, a trait that is commonly found on tabular scrapers unearthed in the southern Levant. None of the tabular scrapers have incisions on their cortical sides (e.g. Marder et al. 1995).

Overview

The lithic material in this assemblage is comprised of flint sources that are located in the environs of Kadesh Barnea and in the larger region of the Negev Highlands. Most of the lithic artifacts collected from the 14 sites are non-diagnostic. Therefore, we cannot make further assumptions regarding the chronology of the 14 sites situated in the Kadesh Barnea area.

CONCLUSIONS ABOUT THE ASSEMBLAGES

Most lithic artifacts are made from locally available raw materials. The ad hoc tools, for instance, are produced on

medium to fine quality Eocene or Senonian flint pebbles, which are found in abundance in many parts of the Negev Highlands (Idelman et al. 2000). In contrast, tabular scrapers are frequently made from imported tabular flint.

There are enough blanks in these assemblages to conduct a basic trait analysis. The lithic assemblages are based on small irregularly shaped flakes. At the sites described above, the flakes outnumbers the blades. There is no evidence for the standardization of blade production at any of these settlements.

The recovery techniques implemented by Haiman may account for the dearth of particular diagnostic Early Bronze Age implements such as lunates and microlithic drills (Hermon et al. 2011: 90, 96; Rosen 1994-5; 1997b; Saidel 2002: 47-48, 50, fig. 11:3-4, 6-12; Saidel et al. 2006: 211, 212, fig. 7). Their absence may be attributed in part to their small size, as well as to the lack of a systematic sieving program. This observation would also explain the relatively small quantities of projectile points in these assemblages. Projectile points from the Pottery Neolithic through the Early Bronze Age periods typically


95

Fig. 3.9. The frequencies of tool types at Site 1, in Structures 1 and 2, in Area B

measure less than 10 mm in length, and are relatively rare at the sites excavated by Haiman (Gopher 1994: 41-42, 43, figs. 4.9, A7, A8, A9, and A10, Rosen 1997b: 39, 43).

In contrast, Rosen’s excavations at the Camel Site and Nahal Tzafit employed a systematic sieving program which recovered 17 and 10 arrowheads, respectively (Rosen 1994-1995; Hermon et al. 2011). The quantities of projectile points unearthed at both sites are significant given that these settlements measure less than 200 sq. m. Aside from recovery techniques, the absence of lunates, micro-drills and projectile points at the majority of sites excavated by Haiman may also be attributed to the function of these settlements.

The types of stone tools recovered by Haiman are typical of most proto-historic flint assemblages situated in the Negev Highlands (Gilead et al. 1995; Rosen 1997a). The ad hoc tools are typologically unstandardized and do not provide any indications of specialization. This observation is demonstrated by the nature of the blanks and the working edges of these implements. The high frequency of ad hoc implements at Neolithic through Early Bronze Age settlements is interpreted as evidence of the continuity of domestic tasks throughout these periods.3 The consistency in the nature of ad hoc tools throughout these periods underscores the usefulness of the “Timnian” culture as recently articulated by Rosen (2010).

The diagnostic artifacts provide evidence of occupations from the Late Neolithic through the Chalcolithic periods. In particular, the bifacials are particularly useful for identifying Late Neolithic and/or-Chalcolithic occupations at sites in the areas of Har Saggi (Table 3.22) and Kadesh Barnea (Tables 3.12, 3.26, 3.33). The five 3 For a detailed description of these tasks the reader is referred to McConaughy 1979.

arrowheads recovered from Site 22 (QB 95/2) demonstrate that this settlement has an occupational sequence that begins in the PPNB and continues into the EBA. This of course assumes a maximalist interpretation of the dates for the Byblos and transverse arrowheads. The projectile points from this Site 22 also provide evidence of hunting and perhaps in some instances of conflict (Rosen 2003: 754). Another site with multiple occupations is Site 33 which is dated to the Pottery Neolithic and Early Bronze Age periods.

Tabular scrapers are found at Pottery Neolithic, Chalcolithic, and Early Bronze Age sites in the Negev Highlands (Neuville 1934; Gilead et al. 1995; Rosen 1984, 1989, 1991, 1993, 1997a: 75; 2001; Quintero et al. 2002). Although this type of scraper is present in most of the stone tool assemblages described in this chapter, it is not particularly useful for drawing chronological boundaries. However, Rosen and Gopher have suggested that changes in the size of this tool may be chronologically meaningful (Rosen and Gopher 2003: 193, 194, Table 5.17), and its appearance at sites over the course of three millennia is striking. The continuity in the use of this particular tool further underscores the usefulness of the term Timnian as a cultural concept for describing arid zone populations (Rosen 2010).

In the Negev Highlands, tabular scrapers are often not made from locally available sources of tabular flint as this type of raw material is relatively scarce in these areas. As a result, the appearance of tabular scrapers at a specific site may often be attributed to some sort of exchange relationship with inhabitants from other regions (e.g. Quintero et al. 2002). There are, for instance, several indications that during the Early Bronze Age there existed several distribution centers for tabular scrapers, such as Ein-Yarka, Sinai (Rosen and Rothenberg n.d.) and Mizpe Shalem (Greenhut 1989). Aside from the Negev Highlands tabular scrapers are found in Judea


96

(Marder et al. 1995; Rosen 1998), the Judean Desert (Greenhut 1989), the northern Negev (Gilead et al. 1995), Sinai (Kozloff 1972/3; Milshtain 1981, 1982; Milstein 1986; Bar-Yosef et al. 1977, 1986), and Jordan (Quintero et al. 2002).

Canaanean blades were not identified in any of the assemblages. This is not surprising as they are not found at other Early Bronze Age settlements in the Negev Highlands. The Canaanean blade (Rosen 1983; Hartenberger 2003) is primarily found at Early Bronze Ages settlements that are situated in a Mediterranean type vegetation zone (Schick 1978; Marder et al. 1995; Rosen 1997a: 58-59, fig. 3.18, 1998, 2010). Typically this vegetation belt receives an average annual rainfall of 350 mm (Orni and Efrat 1980). Canaanean blades have been documented at several settlements in the Biq’at Uvda Valley, in the southern Negev, however, not every site in this area contains Canaanean blades (Rosen 1990, 2001).4

Although a few sickle blades are present in Haiman’s assemblages, their economic significance is minimal. Rosen, for example, has demonstrated that sickle blades appear in differing frequencies depending upon whether the site is located in an arid environment or in a Mediterranean zone. At arid zone settlement sites, sickle blades comprise less than one percent of stone tool assemblage, which is interpreted as evidence that their inhabitants did not engage in agricultural activities. Instead, the low frequency of sickle blades at arid zone settlements is interpreted as evidence of an economy based upon mobile pastoralism (Rosen 1997a: 58-59, figs. 3.17-3.18).

In conclusion, there is continuity in the overall composition of the lithic assemblages from the Late Neolithic through the Early Bronze Age periods. The continuity in stone tool technology coincides with a transition in subsistence patterns from hunting and gathering to mobile pastoralism (Goring-Morris 1993; Rosen 2002).

References

ANDERSON, P. C. 1980 – A Testimony of Prehistoric Tasks: Diagnostic Residues on Stone Tool Working Edges. World Archaeology 12 (2): 181-194.

BAIRD, D. 2001 – The Analysis of Chipped Stone. Pp. 639-651 in The Archaeology of Jordan, eds. B. MacDonald, R. Adams and P. Bienkowski. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press.

BARKAI, R. 1999 – Resharpening and Recycling of Flint Bifacial Tools from the Southern Levant Neolithic and Chalcolithic. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 65: 303-318.

4 Although three broken sickle blade segments with sickle gloss were recovered from Rekhes Nafha 396, in the Negev Highlands, these artifacts were made from plain or simple blades and not on Canaanean blades (Saidel 2002: 48). The site of Rekhes Nafha 396 contains pottery from both the Early Bronze Age and the Early Bronze Age IV/Middle Bronze Age I (Saidel 2002: 46).

BARKAI, R. 2000 – Flint and Stone Axes as Cultural Markers: Socio-economic Changes as Reflected in the Holocene Flint Tool Industries of the Southern Levant. Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Tel Aviv University.

BAR-YOSEF, O. 1970 – The Epipaleolithic Cultures of Palestine. Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Hebrew University.

BAR-YOSEF, O., A. BELFER, A. GOREN and P. SMITH

1977 – The Nawamis near 'Ein Huderah (Eastern Sinai). Israel Exploration Journal 27: 65-88.

BAR-YOSEF, O., A. BELFER-COHEN, A. GOREN, I. HERSHKOVITZ, O. ILAN, H. K. MIENIS and B. SASS

1986 – Nawamis and Habitation Sites near Gebel Gunna, Southern Sinai. Israel Exploration Journal 36 (3-4): 121-167.

BORDES, F. 1988 – Typologie du Paléolithique Ancien et Moyen. 5th Edition. Paris: C.N.R.S.

BURIAN, F. and E. FRIEDMAN 1987 – A Chalcolithic Borer Industry at Site 103-Nahal Nitzana. Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society 20: 160*-172*.

COHEN, R. 1999 – Ancient Settlement of the Central Negev: The Chalcolithic period, the Early Bronze Age and the Middle Bronze Age I. IAA Reports 6. Israel Antiquities Authority (Hebrew), Jerusalem.

GILEAD, I., D. HERSHMAN and O. MARDER 1995 – The Flint Assemblages from Grar. Pp. 223-280 in Grar: A Chalcolithic Site in the Northern Negev, ed. I. Gilead. Beer-Sheva VII. Beer-Sheva: Ben-Gurion University of the Negev Press.

GOPHER, A. 1994 – Arrowheads of the Neolithic Levant. American Schools of Oriental Research Dissertation Series 10. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns.

GOPHER, A., A. N. GORING-MORRIS and S. A. ROSEN

1995 – 'Ein Qadis I: A Pre-Pottery Neolithic B Occupation in Eastern Sinai. 'Atiqot 27: 15-33.

GORING-MORRIS, A. N. 1987 – At the Edge. Terminal Pleistocene Hunter-Gatherers in the Negev and Sinai. BAR International Series 361 (i-ii). Oxford: British Archaeological Reports.

GORING-MORRIS, N. 1993 – From Foraging to Herding in the Negev and Sinai: The Early to Late Neolithic Transition. Paléorient 19: 65-89.

GREENHUT, Z. 1989 – Flint Tools. 'Atiqot 9: 60-77.

HAIMAN, M. 1994 – The Early Bronze Age Site of Ramat Matred 3 in the Negev Highlands. 'Atiqot 25: 23-32.

HAIMAN, M. 2007 – Archaeological Survey of the Kadesh Barnea Vicinity: 'Ein el-Qudeirat and 'Ein Qadis. Pp. 307-351 in Excavations at Kadesh Barnea (Tellel-Qudeirat) 1976-1982, eds. R. Cohen and H. Bernick-Greenberg. Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority.

HARTENBERGER, B. E. 2003 – A Study of Craft Specialization and the Organization of Chipped Stone Production at Early Bronze Age Titris Höyük, Southeastern Turkey. Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Boston University.


97

HENRY, D. O. 1995 – Prehistoric Cultural Ecology and Evolution: Insights from Southern Jordan. New York: Plenum Press.

HERMON, S., J. VARDI and S. A. ROSEN 2011 – The Lithic Assemblage from the Camel Site. Pp. 81-109 in An Investigation into Early Desert Pastoralism: Excavations at the Camel Site, Negev, ed. S. A. Rosen. Monograph 69. Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press.

HOURS, F. 1974 – Rémarques sur l’utilisation des liste-types pour l’étude du Paléolithique Superieur et de l’Epipaléolithique du Levant. Paléorient 2: 3- 18.

INIZAN, M.-L., H. ROCHE and J. TIXIER 1992 – Technology of Knapped Stone. Meudon: Cercle de Recherches et d’Études Préhistoriques.

KOZLOFF, B. 1972-1973 – A Brief Note on the Lithic Industries of Sinai. Museum Haaretz Yearbook. 15/16:35-49.

MACALISTER, R. A. S. 1912 – The Excavation of Gezer 1902-1905 and 1907-1909. London: Palestine Exploration Fund.

MACDONALD, E. 1932 – Prehistoric Fara. Pp. 1-21 in Beth-Pelet II. British School of Archaeology in Egypt. London: Bernard Quant.

MARDER, O., E. BRAUN and I. I. MILEVSKI 1995 – The Flint Assemblage of Lower Horvat 'Illin: Some Technical and Economic Considerations. 'Atiqot 27: 63-93.

MARKS, A. E. 1976 – Glossary. Pp. 371-383 in Prehistory and Paleoenvironments in the Central Negev, Israel. Volume 1 the Avdat/Aqev Area, Part 1, ed. A. E. Marks. Dallas: Southern Methodist University.

MCCONAUGHY, M. A. 1979 – Formal and Functional Analyses of the Chipped Stone Tools from Bab Edh-Dhra, Jordan. Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, University of Pittsburgh.

MCCONAUGHY, M. A. 1980 – Chipped Stone Tools (from Bab edh Dhra). Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 240: 53-58.

MILSTEIN, S. 1986 – The Flint Implements (in Two Cultures in Southern Sinai in the Third Millennium B.C.) Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 263: 27-54.

MILSHTAIN, S. 1981 – The Flint Implements (An Early Bronze Age II Site near Sheikh 'Awad in Southern Sinai). Tel Aviv 8: 95-127.

MILSHTAIN, S. 1982 – Flint Implements (from an Early Bronze Age II Site near the Feiran Oasis in Southern Sinai). Tel Aviv 9: 146-156.

MOORE, A. M. T. 1973 – The Late Neolithic in Palestine. Levant 5: 36-68.

MORTENSEN, P. 1970 – A Preliminary Study of the Chipped Stone Industry from Baidha: An Early Neolithic Village in Southern Jordan. Acta Archaeologica (Copenhagen) 41.

MOVIUS, H., N. DAVID, H. BRICKER, R. B. CLAY and H. HENCKEN (editors) 1968 – The Analysis of Certain Major Classes of Upper Paleolithic Tools. Peabody Museum, Cambridge.

NEUVILLE, R. 1934 – L’Outillage en Silex. Pp. 27-54 in Teleilat Ghassul I, ed. A. Mallon, R. Koeppel and R. Neuville. Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute.

ORNI, E. and E. EFRAT 1980 – Geography of Israel. Jerusalem: Israel University Press.

QUINTERO, L. A., P. J. WILKE and G. O. ROLLEFSON 2002 – From Flint Mine to Fan Scraper: The Late Prehistoric Jafr Industrial Complex. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 327: 17-48.

ROSEN, S. A. 1983 – The Canaanean Blade and the Early Bronze Age. Israel Exploration Journal 33 (1/2): 15-29.

ROSEN, S. A. 1984 – Kvish Harif: Preliminary Investigation at a Late Neolithic Site in the Central Negev. Paléorient 10: 111-121.

ROSEN, S. A. 1989 – The Analysis of Early Bronze Age Chipped Stone Industries: A Summary Statement. Pp. 199-222 in L'Urbanisation de la Palestine à l'âge du Bronze ancien: Bilan et Perspectives des Recherches Actuelles, Actes du Colloque d'Emmaüs (20-24 Octo-bre 1986), ed. P. de Miroschedji. BAR International 527 (i). Oxford: British Archaeological Reports.

ROSEN, S. A. 1990 – Appendix A: The Lithic Assemblages of Sites 911 and 915 at Biq'at 'Uvda. 'Atiqot 10: 4*-8*.

ROSEN, S. A. 1991 – The Lithic Assemblage from the EB Site at Har Horesha. 'Atiqot 20: 169-176.

ROSEN, S. A.1993 – Lithic Assemblages from Nahal Mitnan. 'Atiqot 22: 62-69.

ROSEN, S. A. 1997a – Lithics after the Stone Age: A Handbook of Stone Tools from the Levant. AltaMira Press, Walnut Creek, CA.

ROSEN, S. A. 1997b – Beyond Milk and Meat: Lithic Evidence for Economic Specialization in the Early Bronze Age Pastoral Periphery in the Levant. Lithic Technology 22 (1): 99-109.

ROSEN, S. A. 1998 – The Chipped Stone Assemblage. Pp. 78-88 in Villages, Terraces and Stone Mounds: Excavations at Manahat, Jerusalem 1987-1989, eds. G. Edelstein, I. I. Milevski and S. Aurant. IAA Reports 3. Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority.

ROSEN, S. A. 2001 – The Lithic Assemblage from 'Uvda Valley Site 917 and Its Spatial Implications. 'Atiqot 42: 109-119.

ROSEN, S. A. 2002 – The Evolution of Pastoral Nomadic Systems in the Southern Levantine Periphery. Pp. 23-44 in In Quest of Ancient Settlements and Landscapes: Archaeological Studies in Honour of Ram Gophna, eds. E.C.M. van den Brink and E. Yannai. Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University.

ROSEN, S. A. 2003 – Early Multi-Resource Nomadism: Excavations at the Camel Site in the Central Negev. Antiquity 77: 750-761.


98

ROSEN, S. A. 2010 – The Desert and the Sown: A Lithic Perspective. Pp. 203-221 in Lithic Technology in Metal using Societies, ed. B. Eriksen. Jutland Archaeological Society Publications 67. Hojberg: Jutland Archaeological Society.

ROSEN, S. A. and A. GOPHER 2003 – Flint Tools from the Survey. Pp. 184-195 in Archaeology of Sinai: The Ophir Expedition, ed. I. Beit-Arieh. Tel Aviv: Emery and Claire Yass Publications in Archaeology.

ROSEN, S. A., B. ROTHENBERG and B. KOZLOFF n.d. – The Tabular Scraper Cache at Ein Yarka Tumulus 595/6 of the Southern Sinai Survey.

ROSHWALB, A. F. 1981 – Protohistory in the Wadi Ghazzeh: A Typological and Technological Study Based on the MacDonald Excavations. Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, University of London.

SAIDEL, B. A. 2002 – The Excavations at Rekhes Nafha 396 in the Negev Highlands, Israel. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 325: 37-63.

SAIDEL, B. A., T. ERICKSON-GINI, J. VARDI, S. A. ROSEN, E. MAHER and H. J. GREENFIELD 2006 – Test Excavations at Rogem Be'erotayim in Western Negev. Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society 36: 201-229.

SCHICK, T. 1978 – Flint Implements. Pp. 58-63 in Early Arad: The Chalcolithic Settlement and Early Bronze Age City, ed. R. Amiran. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society.

STOCKS, D. A. 1989 – Ancient Factory Mass-Production Techniques: Indications of Large-Scale Stone Bead Manufacture during the Egyptian New Kingdom Period. Antiquity 63: 526-31.

STOCKS, D. A. 2003 – Stoneworking Technology in Ancient Egypt. London: Routledge.

TIXIER, J. 1963 – Typologie de l'Épipaléolithique Maghreb. Centre de Recherche Anthropologiques Préhistoriques et Ethnographiques d’Alger. Memoir 2. Paris: Arts et Metiers.

UNGER-HAMILTON, R. 1984 – The Formation of Use-Wear Polish on Flint: Beyond the “Deposit Versus Abrasion” Controversy. Journal of Archaeological Science 11 (1): 91-98.

VARDI, J. 2005 – The Analysis of the Lithic Assemblage from Ein Ziq, an Early Bronze Age IV (2300-2000) Site in the Negev Highlands. Unpublished M.A. Thesis, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.

Vardi, J. 2014. The Lithic assemblages (in) Saidel, B. A. and Haiman, M. (editors) Excavations in...

Documents

Transcript of Vardi, J. 2014. The Lithic assemblages (in) Saidel, B. A. and Haiman, M. (editors) Excavations in...