Utility Poultry-Keeping - Forgotten Books

UTILITY

POULTRY KEEPING?

ELLEN C . DAV IESmam a or TEE um m POULTRY own

con 'rm u'ron To

“1'a POULTRY W ORLD ,

"poum mr,

"Aem cum um n

m e.

ILLUSTRATED

PRESEMANWGGPY

LONDON

E D W AR D ARNOL D

41 8b 43 M ADDO" STREET, BOND STREET W .

1913

"Au g-mum

FromTheLibrary. of .

Dr. Olney BrownKent

PREFACE

As its ti tle denotes, this book is prim ari ly intended forutili ty poultry-keepers, whether they look upon their fowlsas a means of li velih ood, or as a pleasant hobby only . I

cannot lay claim to any special knowledge of exhibi tionpoultry, and I have therefore made no attempt to dealwi th them other than to indi cate such sane methods of

culture as apply to all classes of stock . Indeed, there areso many standard works dealing ei ther entirely or in partwi th The Fancy,

” that any further matter seems superfluous . But I am hoping that thi s li ttle work, unpretentious though it is, may be of some practi cal use to thosewho, li ke myself , beli eve that the possibili ties of utili typoultry -keeping in G reat Bri tain are alm ostwi thout lim i ts .

I have tried to steer clear of techni cali ties , so that thebeginner may not be discouraged, and also , whereverpossible, to give defini te figures and methods of successful

I should like to make it clear, in regard to the position I have taken up wi th reference to in-breeding in

Chapter I . and elsewhere in the book, that my stri cturesapply to the indiscriminate mating which is only too generally allowed in poultry on farms throughout the country,sternly as it would be repressed in the case of other stock.

I fully realize the value of lin e-breeding for special purposes, and it may be necessary for the fanci er to use even

full brothers and sisters in the breeding-pens in the proV

vi PREFACE

duction of a new variety or colour, but the fancier who

attempts these things is usually an experienced man, knowing the dangers and capable of guardi ng against them ,

W hilst if he slightly lowers the productiveness of hi s hensthe matter is not of the same im portance to him as to theuti li tari an .

M y use of the term in-breedi ng appli es, therefore,to

all those cases where the proportions of blood are unknownor but vaguely guessed at, and not to scientific mating of

related stock . A glance at Appendix A , where the Felch’s

breeding chart is i llustrated , wi ll show my meaning betterthan further explanation .

P resum ably, one could go on breeding for all tim e if thesy stem were properly carried out.

Nevertheless , I still believe that nin ety-nine out of ahundred poultry-keepers are on the safer side if they maintain the prin ciple of selected fresh blood every year,and where a strain of first-class layers is to be evolved ,

“in-breedi ng

” must be absolutely taboo ,

”and

“ lin ebreeding carried on only when the prin ciples whi chunderli e it are thoroughly grasped .

I should li ke to thank the Uti li ty Poultry Club for allowing me to in clude the M onthly Notes the Edi tor of

the Agricultural G azette for allowing me to reprint arti clespublished therein ; and the Edi tor of the Poultry W orld,

154, Fleet Street , E .C . ,for permi ssion to do the same , and

f or hi s kindness in allowing the reproduction of the Breeding Chart the National Poultry Organization Society forsupplyi ng figures relati ve to the cost of equi pment of

poultry depots all the firms who have lent blocks fori llustrati ve purposes ; and , last but not least, my relati ve ,M r. Leonard Crawshaw, for hi s in valuable help in the cor

rection of the proofs and for his adm irable comments and

suggestions .

ELLEN C . DAVIES.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAFTER

I .

F

VIII.

CHOICE AND GENERAL M ANAGEM ENT OF THE STOCK BIRD S

INCUBATION

BEARING

TABLE POULTRY

D ISEASES OF POULTRY

BACKYARD AN D SUBURBAN POULTRY-KEEPING

POULTRY-FARM IN G

THE PLA CE OF POUL TRY ON THE FAR M

COM M ERCIAL M ARKETIN G AND ORGANIZ ATION

INTENSIVE POUL TRY-KEEPING

M ONTHLY NOTES FOR POULTRY-KEEPERS

APPEND I" A . LINE -BREEDIN G W ITH FELCH’S CHART

APPEND I" B . TABLE OF W EIGHTS AND M EASURES

APPENDI" C . COLLECTED RECIPES

APPENDI" D . OF FARM ERS, BIRDS

INDE"

UTILITY POULTRY-KEEPING

CHAPTER I

CHOICE AND GENERAL M ANAGEM ENT OF THE

STOCK BIRDS

Selecting a breed —Purchasing poultry—Housin of stock—The case

for the grass run—Feedi ng correctly—Sui ts. le di etaries—Care of

breeding sto ck—Inbreedi ng —Cross-breedi ng—Breedi ng for egg

production—Lay ing com peti tions

—Trap-nesting—M anagem ent of

stock ducks, geese, and turkey s.

Importance of Correct M anagement.— For the most partthe profits of poultry-keeping are dependent upon thecorrect management of the stock birds . W hether thewinter egg, the pedi gree laying strain, or the tablechi cken par excellence, is the obj ect aimed at , the results ,successful or otherwi se, are mainly referable to the parentbirds . Every year the lesson of the dependence of thepresent on the past season’s work has to be thoroughlygrasped , and upon the breeding stock in parti cular reststhe responsibi li ty for the future .

If errors of management are allowed to creep in , whetherthey are of housing ,

feeding, or mating-up of the breedingpens , the followi ng season will speedily show i ts diminutionin profits and reputation . Everyone i s apt to makemi stakes , especiafly in the early stage of poultry—keeping,and these mi stakes usually ari se from the idea that , W hi leyoung birds and chi ckens must have every personal careand attention ,

anythi ng wi ll do for the adult stockfrom

‘

whom the future chi ckens are to be bred . Fowlsare not extravagant in their demands , but where first-classresults are to be arri ved at , these demands must be fulfilled , and that personal supervi sion given wi thout whi chno business can succeed .

2 UTILITY POULTRY-KEEPING

Selecting a Breech— Thi s i s a highly important question ,

especially where profit i s the goal . Soi l and locali ty haveto be taken into account, as well as the obj ect for whi chthe birds are being maintained egg production on

commerci al lines , table fowls , or a combination of thetwo ) . The number of vari eti es and sub-vari eti es i s verylarge, but for general conveni ence i t i s customary to di vi deall utili ty birds into lay ing , table, or general purposeclasses . In the first class are placed those breeds in whi chthe laying capaci ty predominates naturally or by generations of selection ; in the second , those in whi ch ediblequali ti es are more conspi cuous than laying powers ; andin the third , all the useful breeds whi ch combine the twoqualifications in a well-balanced proportion .

Lay ing Breeds.— Among thi s class the small , acti ve

non-si tters predominate, and the Leghorn in all i ts vari eti es-the Campine, Ancona , Andalusian , Houdan , M inorca ,Redcap , and Hamburgh— are among the

“laying breeds .

”

G enerally speaking , their table quali fications are a minusquanti ty —at all events , as far as market purposes go but ifa good strain be secured , their laying powers are remarkable .

The majori ty of the non—si tting class produce the bulkof their eggs in spring and summer, though many of thempro

fie splendid wi nter layers as well . Their eggs are whi te

she ed .

Table Breeds.— Among the breeds noted for their edible

qualiti es are to be found several whi ch are good layers intothe bargain , notably the Sussex and Brahm a . As far asthe important flesh quali ti es are concerned , any of thefollowing breeds or crosses from the same wi ll leave li ttleto be desired Cochin , Dorking , Indian G ame , Old Engli shGame, La Bresse, La Fleche, M ali res, Sussex , Brahma ,and Faverolles . These are all si tting breeds , and makeexcellent mothers .

The General PurposeFOW L— These breeds include manyof the most popular vari eti es , and are excellent for all

round results . One or two of them have so come to thefront of late years as winners in lay ing competi tions(notably the W yandotte and Orpington breeds ) , that i tseems almost absurd not to class them under laying breedsbut the fact that they are si tters , have excellent fleshquali ti es , and lay tinted or brown eggs , would make i t arather odd classification . In the majori ty of cases their

CHOICE AND GENERAL M ANAGEM ENT 3

eggs are produced in autumn and winter, so that, even i fthe total number laid during the year i s not so great asthat of the “ laying breeds pure and simple, the factthat they are produced just at the time when they are mostprofitable more than compensates . W hen a yearly supplyof eggs i s desired , i t is well to keep both a light and a heavybreed , so that their lay ing periods follow each other .

The Croad Langshan, Plymouth Rock, Rhode IslandRed , W yandotte, and Buff Orpington breeds are all generalpurpose fowls and in addi tion that very useful breed , theScotch G rey, may be added , though i ts si tting propensi tiesare errati c , and i ts eggs whi te or cream-coloured in shell .

Influences of Soil and Locali ty .— In certain di stri cts

some breeds appear to thri ve much better than others ,and when making a selection i t i swi seto bear thi s in mind .

Rocks , W yandottes , Rhode Island Reds , and Orpingtons,appear to be among the hardi est, do ing well on ei therlight or heavy soi ls . The D orking appears to do betterin the South than the North of England , and is usuallyfound hard to rear on cold , clayey soi ls . TheBarred Rock,

on the other hand , ismost profitable in theNorth of England ,

where, indeed , i t i s more largely bred , as , unless sparinglyfed in the warm South, it becomes fat and lazy . W e havealways found the Redcap an extremely hardy fowl, do ingwell in wi dely diff ering si tuations , both on bleak hi llsi desand in warm valleys but we recollect reading a statementsome li ttle tim e ago , in one of the poultry papers , to theeffect that several poultry-keepers had found them deli cateand difii cult to rear . The Houdan rarely does well on

heavy clay land , and prefers a limestone soi l. The homeof the Campine and the La Fléche is a dry , sandy soi l, andit wi ll generally be found that both breeds do best on thatkind of land . Crévecaaurs, Anconas , and An dalusians,also do best on light soi l . For a really hardy breed theScotch G rey cannot be beaten ; i t appears to thri ve in acold climate, and even wet does not aff ect i t to any degree .

Free Range or Confinem ent. Some breeds wi ll standconfinement much better than others . W here space isvery limi ted ,

the non -si tting breeds wi ll be found for themost part the best to keep , as they are more active andless li able to put on internal fat . Leghorns and BlackM inorcas , Andalusians and Campines , wi ll be found to

stand even clos e confin ement very well .


Among the heavi er fowls , Rhode Island R eds , Langshans ,and Brahmas , do very well , and the Rock, W yandotte, andOrpington fami li es , if due care is taken that they do not

get too fat. Anconas , though extremely wi ld , wi ll dovery well in a small space, but to get the full benefit outof thi s breed i t should have free range, where for nearlyhalf the year i t will practi cally find i ts own li ving, beinga ceaseless forager . Like pheasants and turkeys , it thri vesbest when an abundance of clean , untainted land is at i tsdi sposal .

TableofBreeds.—Thi s shows sui table vari eti es for varyingcondi tions of range and so i l as indi cated by the cross x

In many instances the breeds would do well under ei therof the alternative condi tions, but thi s rough table wi ll

gi ve the amateur W hose resources are restri cted some i deaof the

"

breeds whi ch are most likely to succeed in hi s

ci rcumstances .

Range. Clim ate.

Breed .

Free. Li m i ted . Ligh t. Heavy . W arm .

Ancona

Leghorn

M i norca

Plym outh Rock

Cam pine

Or in on

W §an§ltotte

Croad Langshan

Brahm a

Scotch G reyHoudanLa FléchcLa Bresse

M alines

Faverolles

Rhodc Island Red

Purchasing Poultry . W here fowls have to be bought in ,

it i s far the best poli cy to pay a good pri ce in the beginning ,

and get them from a really reputable yard .One re

grets

to say i t, but there are many di sappointments in store forthe beginner who trusts to h is own knowledge of poultry,


and goes cheap bargain-hunting in the wrong quarters .

There are only too many people who are deli hted to takeadvantage of inexperi ence, and palm unhea thy, inbred ,immature stock off on to someone who cannot judgecorrectly. Only pure bred fowls or good first crossesshould be purchased . It is courting loss to feed and housedegenerate mongrels , whi ch are frequently di sastrouslyinbred , whereas wi th well-bred , healthy stock all that isnecessary is to give them proper attention , and they willgive proper results .

The Deposi t Sy stem . It i s always wi se to purchasepoultry— unless the vendor is of known reputation—ou

the deposi t system, as by thi s method fraud i s renderedmuch more di fficult . In this system the goods are senton approval to the prospecti ve purchaser, and the purchasemoneydeposi tedwi th the edi tor of oneof the poultry papers .

If the goods are sati sfactory, the edi tor i s notified and themoney is sent on to the vendor . A usual commi ssion of

sixpence in the pound i s charged , and the very small extraexpense is more than justified by the safety of the purchaser . Ii thi s plan i s not adopted , goods should alwaysbe obtained on approvalwi th the clear,wri tten understanding that money shall be refunded if sati sfaction i s not given.

W hen birds are sent on approval and are to be returned ,

it i s the clear duty of the recipi ent to look after theircomfort, and when Sending them back to pack themproperly, so that they are not damaged or their healthcaused to suff er in any way .

PricesforUti li ty Stock. These vary verymuch, naturally,wi th the class of stock. For an ordinary good uti li ty fowlof six or seven months old , roughly speaki ng in October orNovember, 38 . 6d . to 48 . 6d . may be paid . If , however,the fowls are of guaranteed laying strain , 63 . or 78 . 6d . willhave to be paid ; whi le if from a winni ng competi tionlaying strain, anything from 10s . to 15s . a bird , and evenhigher, may be asked .

For male birds pri ces , of course. are proportionatelyhigher, and a stock co ck may run from 78 . (id . to £1 ls .

or £15s. It i s only reasonable to expect that men whohave given years of their li fe to build in up a strain wi llwant some reward for their labours , and or the most partthe person who off ers wonderful bargains at phenomenallylowpri ces should beavoided—at all events by the amateur.


Housing of Stock— Having selected a sui table breed , thequestion of hous ing must next be considered . The generalprinciples of good housing include a combination of

simpli ci ty and reasonable cheapness , effi ci ent venti lation ,

warmth and dryness , and perfect hygi eni c condi tions thewhole year round .

Canacity .—As a rule capaci ty determin es cost, but in

thi s case economy i s not justified by results. Overcrowdingis one of the worst temptations of the poultry-keeper,especially where cash is limi ted ; but i t i s of the utmostimportance to remember that fowls that are overcrowdedwi ll not pay . Each fowl ought to have at least 10 cubi cf eet of air space and 12 cubi c f eet i s even better. In orderto arrive at the cubi c capaci ty of any house,multi ply lengthby breadth by height , and i f that i s di vided by 10 i t willgive the maximum number of fowls whi ch ought to be putinto the house, bearing in mind that more of the M ed i terranean breeds can be put in wi th safety than those of theheavy vari eti es , and that in winter a few extra birds wi llhelp to keep each other warm . M akers of houses veryoften adverti se them as capable of holding many morebirds than they should ri ghtly hold , so it i s always wi seto apply the 10 cubi c feet test for oneself . The heightof the house should be 5% or 6 feet, as a lower house i sinconveni ent to clean .

D espi te the extra cost, we prefer to house poultry insmall flocks , not more than thi rty in a roosting house, asthe ri sk of inf ectious di sease spreading is so much less ,and the indivi dual birds are more under control .There should be no suspi cion of stuffiness or foul air

in the house, and a good test for thi s i s to go into the houselate at night, and stay in for five to ten minutes wi th thedoor closed . If the air is bad , ei ther the venti lation i sinsuffici ent or there are too many birds housed together .

It i s very di fficult to keep the air pure when overcrowdingi s allowed , and the gradual lowering of the birds’ vitatwhi ch inevi tably results from breathing foul air ends veryoften in a di sastrous outbreak of roup .

Ventilation.—The old type of house i s being largely

superseded by the modern Open-fronted style, whi ch i s

admirable as long as draughts are avoided . Even in coldweather the birds keep in perfect health

, and the housesare absolutely ‘

fresh and sweet on entering in them orni ng.


W i th the whole front wire-netted and open in summer, andwi th sli ding shutters of canvas andwood forwinter weather,the birds are much freer from colds and roup than whenthey are kept in stufly bui ldings into whi ch air can scarcelypenetrate . W here the open-fronted system of housing isnot adopted ,

venti lators must be fixed in the house wi thlouvre boards , h it-and—mi ss grates , or perforated zinc ,all placed 2 feet above the perches to avoid draught . An

l .—A USEFUL AN D INE"PEN SIVE TYPE or HOUSE .

(M ade by J. W ilcock, Pontefract. )

excellent method of venti lating a house consi sts in rai singthe roof ri dge a couple of inches on blocks , thus leaving anair space along the apex between i t and the roof boards .

W i th open—fronted houses great care must be taken to

see that the walls and roof have no cracks and crevi ces ,or draughts wi ll be the inevi table result . In wet weatherand in dri ving wind the shutters must be utilized , and i t

must be remembered that , wh ile foul air must be stri ctlyavoided , the birds m ust be kept reasonably warm , as


are all other branches of stock during the winter . Bad

ventilation i s undoubtedly responsible for many of theills to whi ch poultry flesh i s heir , but at the same timeextrem e exposure to cold i s not likely to encourage a heavyegg yi eld , and a wi se moderation is the best poli cy to adopt .

Light.— Dark poultry houses must be stri ctly avoided ,

sun and air being two of the best germi cides we have,and fowls wi ll thrive twi ce as well if their house i s-li ght .

In a light house insect pests are kept more easily,at bay ,

and no place that i s very dark can be thoroughly cleanand dry . If possible , the house should face south , and ,

unless of the open-fronted type, a window (also facingsouth) should be put in .

In summer canvas curtains can be dropped over thewindow,

or it may be whi tewashed to keep out the strongestrays of the sun .

M aterial and Construction — W here stone outbui ldingsalready exi st on the premi ses , they should certam beused , as wi th proper care for cleanliness , and the addi tionof a window if necessary , they form admirable fowl houses ,nei ther getting very ho t in summer nor very cold in wi nter .

W ood i s, however, the most common form of house, and i ti s important that nothing but well-seasoned timber shouldbe used in construction . Thi s should be not less than5 inch in thi ckness , both and it inch being really toothi n , unless for houses whi ch have to be moved about agreat deal, in whi ch case lightness has to be consi dered .

For permanent houses 1 inch thi ck i s the best , and i fcolony houses are to stand in fields where horses and cattleare grazing at the same time , they ought to be thi cker still ,thi nner wood being insufli ciently strong to stand againstthe inqui si tive habi ts of such animals .

New timber, especially if used for roofing , i s apt towarp, wi th di sastrous results , and very thin wood becomesbaking hot in summer, whi le i t lets in draughts in coldweather . Tongued and grooved boards obviate the ri skof draughts sti ll further , only are more expens ive .

The interior of the house ought to be as free as possiblefrom bars , beams , and crevi ces , in order to facili tate whi tewashing and cleani ng . Simpli ci ty of design i s a verydesirable feature , and houses wi th a number of elaboratefixtures are seldom sati sfactory . Houses bui lt on thesloping principle should slope to the back, so that the


water drains off properly, and the roof should alwaysproj ect suffici ently over the rest of the bui lding to avoidrain

,dripping on to the walls .

TheRoot—As far as equalization of temperature goes ,thatch i s one of the best means of roofing, and is nearlyalways used for the roof of fattening sheds . Its greatdrawback is that it harbours vermin, and wood roofs orcorrugated iron lined wi th matchboarding are more com

mouly used . W here wood alone is used, it should bewell coveredwi th tarred felting ; and where corrugated ironi s to compose the roof , it should have a layer of felt anda 2-inch air space between it and the matchboarding. If

the roof is not thoroughly weather-proof , itwi ll be im possible to keep the house dry , and once a year at least a freshcoat of tar should be appli ed .

Preservation of Houses.— All appliances should beproperly treated wi th paint or some other preservativebefore using, or they wi ll warp and cause draughts . Houseswi ll last twice as long if care is taken of them and i f paintis found too expensi ve two coats of Stockholm tar put onhot with a tar-brush , or two coats of Solignum , will answerequally well . Very thin matchboarding houses should betarred, covered wi th sheets of thi ck brown paper, and thencoated wi th hot tar . The interior of houses should belim ewashed twi ce a year .

Damn—Thi s may be caused by a faulty roof or by an

accum ulation of mo isture under the house . The latteris very dangerous , for if an earth floor becomes thoroughlydamp i twi ll certainly injure the health of the birds perchingabove it, and if damp gets under a wooden floor the timberwi ll rot. W hen putting up a house, eight bri cks shouldbe obtained and laid at the corner of the structure ; fourstron battens (say 3 by 4 inches) , well tarred ,

'

should benai letIunder the bottom edges of the house, whi ch canthen be erected on the bri cks , and whi ch wi ll be severalinches off the surrounding ground . If anything getsdamp and ro ts, it wi ll be the boards , and these can becheaply renewed .

The M oon—Cement and bri ck floors are to be avoidedat any cost . They are very hard and cold , liable to causebumble-foot, and soon smell badly (bri cks in parti cular .s ince they are absorbent) . W ood floors are draughty ,

and, unless very well li ttered, soon become insani tary.

10 UTILITY POULTRY-KEEPIN G

Earth i s the best flooring, and should be thoroughly wellbeaten down before the house i s erected . If the cundseems damp, a load of dry earth and ashes should e putin , and then well beaten down again . Rats can be keptaway by finewi re netting lai d down in the ground beforethe house i s put in po si ti on. If a good layer of pea t mossi s kept down, 6 or 9 inches deep , raked over every day,forked once a week, and renewed every six months, theearth floor will be perfectly sani tary for years ; but if i tshould become tain ted , i t can be dug away to the depth ofa foot or more, and then filled in wi th fresh-dug earth.

Lima—Peat moss is the best of all li tter for the roostinghouse, as i t is such an excellent absorbent and deodorizer,and enhances rather than detracts from the value of the

Fm . 2 .—Tas Pnrnasm u House. wa s RUN .

(W . Tam lin, Twi ckenham .)

manure . It i s soft for the b irds to j ump down on fromthei r perches, and i s warm and dry , so that they go toroo stwi th warm f eet.

Scratch ing Sheds and Covered Runs—W inter layers forthe most part benefit by moderate confin emen t during theworst months ; and if a covered run or a scratching shedcan be attached to the roosting house in addi tion to a grassrun, the condi tions are practi cally ideal , as the birds canbe let out on wet days . Fowls very much di slike beingin their roosting house all day , and wi ll often stand aboutin forlorn groups in the rain or cold rather than seek i tsshelter, and thi s i s not conduci ve to a full egg basket .Elaborate constructions are not necessary

,a low shelter

or run answering the purpose qui te well ; and as the si deof the roosting house wi ll make one end of the shed

, onlytwo board walls and a roof are necessary

,the front bein

filled in wi th netting , except for a couple of feet at thebottom , and a canvas or wooden shutter drawn across if

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The peat moss li tter on the floor must be raked over regularly ; and if drapping-boards are used under the perches ,they should be scraped dai ly, dusted wi th carbohc powder,and covered wi th stiff sand . If the roostm g hous e

0

i s

also used as a scratching shed— a plan we do not advi seunless space i s very lim i ted— parti cular pains must betaken, or the health of the inmates will suff er. All housesshould be lime washed twi ce a year , and must be thorough lydry before the birds are put back agai n. N esting materi alneeds frequent renewal, and fittings should be peri odi callydressed wi th crude petroleum .

Poultry houses whi ch are moved about pasturelandsfor the sake of the manure should not be moved to dampground after a long spell of wet weather ; but, on the otherhand , should not be left long enough in one place for thedroppings to accumulate underneath .

Runs.—G rass runs are popularly considered ideal , but

unless these are of a good size i t may be doubted whetherthey are as healthy as earth or gravel. If the grass run i sonly of a moderate size, i t is good to di vide it into twoparts ; put the house in the middle, and use each plot i nturn . Or i f a small enclosed field can be obtained , and the

poultry house i s planted in the mi ddle and movable hurdlesare used , the posi tion of the house can be altered from timeto time , and a fresh pi ece of grass i s thus always avai lable .

If an earth run is used , the general method is to d i videi t i nto two portions , and crop it and stock i t alternately .

If a cheap , qui ck-growing crop like rape or mustard i s

put in , or i f cabbages are plan ted as well, the land soonbecomes sweet again whereas in the case of foul grasslandthe best way of cleansing it is to rest i t and take a crop ofhay off i t before stocking i t again . Sandy soi l wi ll remainsweet longer than heavy land , and during the monthswhen the grass i s growing more birds can be put on wi thsafety than in the autumn or winter . Fn i it bushes wi llhelp to keep the land sweet if they can be planted . Longruns are better than square ones , the fowls moving awayfrom the house as they use up the good grass , whereas wi tha square one they are over all the land at the same time .

A safeestim ate of the number of fowls to keep on a grassrun i s one b ird to every 100 square feet on earth orgravel ,one to 15 square feet . As long as the grass keeps growingthere is no fear of fouling, but when patches of bare earthb egin to appear it is tim e therunwas rested .

CHOICE AND GENERAL M ANAGEM ENT

Netting and Fencing.—Pens are, of course , a necessi ty in

the breed ing season, and i t i s a wi se precaution to board upthe bottom for 2 feet, so that the cocks cannot see eachother . If the netting i s 6 feet high, the posts to hold i t upshould be 7 feet 6 inches long, the lower 18 inches welltarred and pointed , so that they can be easi ly dri ven intothe ground . Fencing stakes bought ready-po inted shouldnot cost more than ed . per foot , and in many parts of

the country rough poles can be purchased cheaply . The

other i s , however, really the better purchase, unless fortemporary structures .

The usual mesh of netting in use i s 25, wi th a 16,17 , or 18 inch gauge, and all netting should have been well

galvani zed before being used . If a strand of wire i s runalong the top of the posts , the wire can be drawn tightlywi th no fear of sagging .

Feeding.—Having consi dered the housing of the stock

birds , the matter of their correct feeding must next beconsidered . The poultry-keeper of to -day has no excuse forhaphazard use of foodstuffs since the art of feeding poultryhas been developed into an exact sci ence .

Analysi s of the body of a fowl shows that a number ofdiff erent elements are necessary for its maintenance and

renewal, and the foods suppli ed must be of such a natureas to fulfil these requirements .

Similarly, the composi tion of an egg being determined,it i s obvi ous that the di et whi ch most nearly approximatesto these consti tuents wi ll be the onemost likely to producethe largest quanti ty of eggs .

Necessary Elements for M aintenance of Body .— For the

upkeep of the body of the fowl, the following elements arenecessary The albuminoi ds or ni trogenous materials ,whi chsupply the elements necessary for the growth of flesh and

ti ssue the carbonaceous materials , including fat and o i ls ,whi ch help to maintain the supply of heat in the bodynecessary for all vi tal processes ; the salts and mineralswhi ch are required for the building of bone, blood ,

muscle,feathers , and shell the husk or fibre, whi ch , of li ttle valueas a foodstuff , i s nevertheless of value in ai ding digestiveprocesses and last , but not least , water .

It i s important to remember that these necessi ti es forthe body of the fowl have to be suppli ed first, before theproduction of eggs , whi ch i s an extra process, can be carri ed


on , that food alone whi ch i s not needed for sustenance andrepai r of ti ssue going towards the formation of eggs .Consequently, i f fowls are underfed or fed on unsui tablefoods, the egg yi eld i s bound to go down ; but i f , on theother hand , a common-sense, well-balanced di et is provi ded , there wi ll be plenty of materi al to spare for theproduction of eggs after the necessary body-bui ldingrations have been abstracted .

Constituents of an Egg— An egg contains 10 per cent .carbohydrates , 75 per cent. water, 12 per cent. albuminoi ds ,and 3 per cent . salts . The foods suppli ed must thereforeinclude-these elements .

Nutri tive Ratio. In order to choose sui table foods fortheir fowls , poultrymen di vi de all foods roughly into twoclasses—the ni trogenous and the carbonaceous—a nd thecorrect proportion between the two i s called the nutri ti veratio .

” As a rule thi s i s consi dered to be 1to 5 1partni trogenous to 5 of carbonaceous ), but growing stockrequi re a higher ratio , and 1to 3 i s more sui table for them .

Fowls not in actual lay may have 1to 6 or 1to 7, but even1to 5 i s not suffici ent for a heavy layer,who i s engaged not

only in repairing the great waste whi ch goes on under thosecircumstances , but who i s also manuf acturing a largenumber of eggs, and 1to 4 wi ll be found more li kely to gi veood results . Sui table food tables can be easi ly bui lt upy means of thi s , as it i s only necessary to know the chemi calcomposi tion of any food to recognize i ts value and thebest methods of combin in g i t wi th others .

It is, of course, enerally understood that ,when arranginga balanced di et, t e indi gestible portion of the food, husk,etc . , i s ignored , only the di gesti ble portion being includedin the reckoning .

Some Comm on Foods and their Values.—Am ong grains

most commonly used for poultry are wheat, barley, oats ,maize, dari , buckwheat, peas , beans , etc .

Grain Foods.—W heat i s a valuable grain , es ecially forsummeruse, but is slightly defici ent in fat and al um inoids.

Barley i s a good grain and slightly heating. It i s usefulfor pullets that are coming on to lay , but if used too freelyin damp weather and on heavy so i l has been thought tocause liver trouble .

Oats are the best of all grain for laying fowls, the ratiovery nearly perfect (about 1 to Heavy sound oats

CHOICE AND G ENERAL M ANAGEM ENT 15

should be used , and clipped oats those whi ch have thehusky tai ls removed ) are excellent .M aize i s both fatteni ng and heating, on whi ch account

i t i s valuable as a winter food i f used wi th di scretion , buti f too freely fed will cause li ver derangement and internalfatness .

Buckwheat i s not nearly as much used in England as inFrance, but i s useful in the moult and very ri ch in carbohydrates .

Dari i s useful as an alternati ve grain , and may be included in a

\“ moulting di etwi th benefit .

Beans and peas are best fed spli t, and for summer useare of great value, being very ri ch in albuminoi ds .

Soft Foods.— There is a long li st of soft foods , all of

whi ch can be used in the composi tion of the morning mash ,and thi s does not include any of the excellent cooked foodson the m arket , many of whi ch are of great value and of

reasonable pri ce . M i ddlings ,” sharps ,

”or

“ thi rds ,”

are often the same thi ng known in di fferent locali ti es bythe various names , and all consi st of the coarser part ofground wheat as di stingui shed from flour and bran . Therei s no clearly-defined standard for the food , and conse

quently it vari es in value, but taken as a whole i t i s mostuseful as a general meal for young stock or adults .

Bran must be consi dered an excellent and very nutri tiousarti cle of poultry di et, its drawback being that i t i s ratherindigestible ; but i f thoroughly scalded and dri ed off withsharps i t makes a good mash .

G round cats is, of course, the fatting food par excellence,but hardly sui table for the laying and breeding stock on

that account .

Peam eal and beanm eal are useful as a substi tute foranimal food , and where a hi gh ni trogenous ration is

required for laying or moulting fowls , they cannot bebeaten i f used in conjunction wi th other foods .

Biscui t-meal, especi ally those samples whi ch containmeat, though an expens i ve i s a splendi d egg

-producingm eal.Potatoes and bread , though they may both be used in

reason, are too starchy, and in consequence too fattening,to be advi sed as a daily arti cle of di et .

Food Tables.— The following simple combinations of

foodstuff s are among the most commonly used ; and since

1“

e UTILITY POULTRY-KEEPING

vari ety forms part of the art of feedi ng poultry, the changesshould be rung on these and on other foods as frequentlyas possible .

Soft Food for W i nter Layers.

I.

4 parts scalded bran .

2 cooked barleym eal.2 peam eal.

part cooked lean m eat.

1 scalded clover hay .

For M odd ing Stock.

II.

2 parts scalded bran .

2 sharps.

part potatoes.2 parts lean m eat.

1part boiled cabbage.

For Lay ing Stock.

1part granulated m eat.3 parts b i scui t-m eal.

2 peam eal. 3 parts m iddli ngs.

1part bran. 3 vegetables (cooked ).

5 stewed linseed.

For Growing S tock. A Summ er Ration .

2 rts m i ddli n 2 parts out green bone.

2Pa

barleymitl. 3 scalded bran .

1part scalded bran . 2 sharps.I cooked lean m eat. 3 cooked cabbage.

l vegetables.

Sui table grains should be fed wi th these at night , gi vingone kind at a time, and avoid ing the compound known asmixed corn consisting very often of inf erior grain

and sweepings—as the plague. W heat and cats wi th peasand beans are the most sui table summer grains , whilebarley and maize may come into the winter di etary, andrapeseed , sunflower-seed , dari , and buckwheat, be addedas deli caci es during the moult .

M eat— W inter layers ought to have 2 ounces of meatdaily allowed to each bird , and cooked paunches or bullocks’

li ghts are the most sui table and inexpensive forms of meat.M uch fat meat i s not advi sable . W here fresh meat i s notobtainable, granulated meat may be used ; but i t shouldbe well soaked in boiling water before being used , and theliquor containing the preservati ves thrown away . Thewater in whi ch lights , etc . , have been boi led can,

however,

be used wi th advantage to m ix the soft food . Crushedgreen bone fresh bone) i s one of the best egg producerswhi ch can be found . Blood from a slaughter-house .

cansometimes be obtain ed , and , although d i sagreeable tohandle, i s very valuable indeed .


Green Food—Thi s is an absolute necessi ty if fowls areto be kept in good condi tion , and if a high egg yi eld i s tobe maintained . Birds on free range can always obtainplenty for themselves , but birds in confinement need aregular supply of fresh greenstuff, and will lay far moreeggs i f thi s is suppli ed . G rass , lettuce, dandeli on, nettles ,swedes , turni ps , oni ons, beetroot, red clover, and cabbage,can always be gi ven wi th advantage, and the refuse of avegetable garden wi ll be greedi ly eaten . Very coarse ,stringy leaves should not be gi ven , or they may causeobstructions in the crop , and di seased or decayed vegetablesshould never be suppli ed . In winter, when i t is not alwayspossible to obtain as many vegetables as are necessary,

steamed clover hay prepared overnight, and mixed wi ththe morning soft food , is an admirable substi tute, clovercontaini ng an enormous amount of lime and being agrand egg producer . W here the supply of green food isregular the egg. yi eld will be good , but where i t i s errati callysuppli ed , wi th abundance one week and scarci ty the next,di gestion and bowel

PZtroubles will often be caused . Inwinter-time swedes and turnips or cabbage-heads, cut inhalf and hung by a string in the run, wi ll afford pleasureand exerci se .

W ater.— Bearing in mind that an egg consi sts of 75 percent. of water, i t i s obvious that fresh, cleanwater is a vi talnecessi ty to fowls engaged in egg production, as well asfor the need of their own bodi es . In winter i t i s well totake the chi ll off the water (but never to give i t warm ) ,and fowls should not be perm i tted to drink water intowhi ch snow has fallen, or over whi ch ice has formed , as

they waste away and become qui te emaci ated if allowedmuch snowwater. In summer the water vessels shouldstand out of the ray s of the sun , and in all seasons theyshould be kept scrupulously clean . The simpler the formof water vessel the better, in order to faci li tate scrubbingand scalding . Enamelled tin vessels are better than anyother kind,

‘7

and if galvani zed iron ones are used i t i simportant to remember no chemi cals should be put in them .

DuringwinterDouglas mi xture (a combination of l poundof sulphateof iron and 1ounce of sulphuri c aci d di ssolvedin 2 allons of water) , in the proportion of two tablespoonfuls to each pint of water in the water vessel, maybe added as a toni c and preventi ve of roup . If a shallow

2


di sh is used, it should be rai sed a li ttle above the ground ,

so that the fowls cannot scratch di rt into i t .

Grit—Flin t gri t is an essential to health, and if a constantsupply is kept before the fowls they wi ll use i t as reqmred .

As the gri t is swallowed , i t passes into the gi zzard of thebird , and is retained to grind the food ti ll the sharpne

ss

has worn off . Sharp gri t ready-crushed should be used , butbroken glass and cro ckery are not sui table, as they m

ightlacerate the intestines .

Oyster-ShelL— M any people consider that, where gri t issuppli ed to help in the digestion of the fowl

’

s food , oy stershell is not requi red ; but unless a good supply of li m e i spresent

,ei ther in the run or gi ven artifici ally, the eggs W i ll

tend to become soft—shelled . W hen clover or can bonei s provi ded ,

less will be necessary . Oyster-she may becrushed wi th a gri t-crusher, or i f put in a pail wi th slakedlime, covered up, and lef t for a day or two, they wi ll berendered bri ttle and easy to break up .

Quanti ty of Food to G ive.—No fixed scale is possible in

the f eeding of poultry, as quanti ti es vary so tremendouslyaccordin to a num ber of di ff erent factors . In summerfowls wi do wi th much less food than in wi nter , sincethey find their own natural food . Heavy Asi ati cs wi lleat as much again as some of the li ght breeds , whi le afowl whose egg organs are idle requi res half the quanti tyof onewho i s engaged in production . The golden rule infeeding is, never to put so much down before the fowls thatany i s left on the ground . If fowls stand inactive aftertheir morning meal, then breakfast should be reduced to ahalf-rati on , and a grain f eed be buri ed later in the morningto induce exerci se. A rough gui d e is to allow one averagehandful of grain to each bird per di em , and two to threeounces of soft food when mi xed .

It is always well to give a substantial evening meal, sothat the birds go to roost wi th full crops . Overf eedi ng isto be stri ctly guarded against, for not only wi ll lay ing(at first, perhaps , stim ulated ) be checked , but the internalorgans become coated wi th fat, an d the egg organs andducts become congested and possibly di seasedBirds should be handled on their perches at night to

di scover if they are getting too fat .

’

If the crops are abouhalf full at midni ght , then the quanti ti es given are about

20 UT ILITY POULTRY-KEEPING

moved about all the year round on clean pasture, ploughedland , and stubble, the food bi ll can be very much reduced .

Birds in confin ement in the summer months should haveone soft and one grain meal a day , and a li ttle greenstuffat midday.

Inwinter, birds on free range should have a soft feed i nthe morning,and a li beral feed of corn just before dusk ;but those in runs should have a half -ration of warm food

first thing in themorni ng,grain buri ed inthe scratching li tterto provi de exercise, meat and greens tuff at midday, and

a good feed of grain for the last meal of the day . In verycold weather it i s an excellent plan to bo i l the grain on

alternate nights , and feed i t warm . It should be put ina covered saucepan wi th enough water to cover i t, and

then allowed to boil until it swells up and the water i sabsorbed , but i t must not be allowed to burst . The

use of sprouted oats as a feed for poul try i s becomingincreasingly popular, and appears to give excellent results .

W i th thoughtful selection of the foodstuff s whi ch make upthe di et, avo idance of over or under-feedi ng , a propersupply of water, greenstuff , and gri t , and regular attention ,

the feed ing and management should present no di ffi cul ty,

and , given healthy stock, excellent results should beobtained .

Breeding.— Every care and attention must be pai d to

stock birds used in the breedi ng pens , sin ce upon thei rvigour will depend the stamin a of the chi ckens to behatched from their eggs . If chi ckens are to be bred whi chwill be easy to rear , capable of makin g good growth , anddeveloping fi nally into first-class layers or breeders in theirturn , i t i s of the utmost importance that the parent stockbe of the best .

Choice of Fowls.— It i s absolutely essenti al that all stock

used for breeding should be strong and healthy, and themselves come of healthy parentage . Crooked-breasted fowlsor those showing any other bodily defect should be excluded that the faults may not be perpetuated . Bothparents should never possess the same defects , and , con

versely , i f good quali ti es are possessed by both male andfemale there i s the greater chance of the quali ti es beingfixed in their progeny . Breedi ng from immature sto ck isto be deplored, and results in many unf ertile eggs , and in

CHOICE AND"

G ENERAL M ANAGEM ENT 21

small weak chi ckens , whi ch wi ll never in their turn makegood stock-getters .

If possible, both birds should be over twelve months ,but at any rate not under the age of ten months , beforebeing bred from, and cockerels and pullets should neverbe mated . W e never advi se the mating even of pulletsand a cock, though thi s is very frequently done, but fromour own personal experi ence we do not recommend thepracti ce, preferring to use two-year-old hens and a twelveor fifteen -months cockerel . A hen is not really in herbreeding prime ti ll well on in to her second year , but a welldeveloped , early-hatched cockerel should gi ve good results .

The birds should be acti ve, of good consti tution , and in

hard condi tion, when put together in the pens , and all

detai ls relative to the obj ects aimed at should be wellthought out previous to mating, as mi stakes are not easilyrectified .

Choice of M ale Birds.—As a rule the male bird is con

sidered to aff ect the outward , and the hen the inward , qualiti es ; and though thi s i s true generally speaking, yet thecock has more influence on economi c characteri stics thanmight be at first supposed . Themale bird i s half the breeding pen, and if carelessly chosen may lower the standardof the yard very considerably . The stock bird should beof good size, large-framed but not fat, and firm in body,

wi th good legs wi de enough apart to make him stand well.If the obj ect of mating is to produce a strain of layers , heshould be well developed in the posterior region, and fairlytall on the leg , wi th an active habi t of body . If , on theother hand , table birds are the object aimed at, the malebird should be well developed in the region of the breast ,having a heavy body wi th good depths and fairly shortlegs . M ales whi ch have matured very slowly seem to

transmi t thi s quali ty to their progeny, and thi s is an oftenunsuspected cause of the late development of young stock .

At the same time, the rapidly-maturing birds rarely makethe most reliable breeders .

Choice of Hens. —Ii for the laying strain, those shouldbe selected whi ch are of medium size, having an activebody, a good capaci ty forwork as evi nced by their zealousscratching, and whi ch are well developed in the region of

the egg organs . If table birds of large size are desired ,

22 UTILITY POULTRY—KEEPING

the hens must be b ig also and square in_

body, h avrng along, deep , and broad breast, and no susp i ci on of crookedness in the breast—bone .

The best chicken s resulting from each year’s mating and

breeding should always be retain ed for the home-breed i ng

pens only in thi s way can a really good stra in of fowls bebui lt up .

Num ber of Hens to Cock — This vari eswidely according tothe month of the year, the kind of fowl, and the cond i ti onsunder whi ch they are kept . In warm weather many morebirds can be run together than in the cold months . For

the very early months of the year from four to S i x hens ofthe heavy breeds may be run wi th a cock, and from S i x to

eight of the M ed iterranean breeds wh ile in the spri ng and

early summer eight to twelve of the heavy , and twelve tos ixteen of the light, breeds may run safely wi th thei r re

spective males . If the fowls are on free range, more henscan always be put to each cockerel than when only a smallrun is avai lable . If eggs are proving unf ertile, i t may beth at there are too few or too many in the pen , and one or

two hens wi ll have to be added or removed . Sometimes acock will single out one or two of the hens parti cularly, and

i f thi s i s the case (usually denoted by the bareness of thehen’s back)

‘

these hens should be removed from h im for thegreater part of the day .

Other Causes of Unferti le Eggs — Too stimulating a d iet ,a snap of cold weather or of dri ving rain , want of exerci se ,lack of greenstufi , damp runs , unhealthy bi rds , and im

maturi ty of the males or females , m ay all be the cause ofunfertili ty in eggs .

Control of Sex.— M any theories have been advanced in

thi s matter, but in practi ce they all break down . It hasbeen established that in early broods there is a predom inance of cockerels , and that the prepotent parent producesoff spring of the same sex , but the latest observationsappear to show that the feeding of the hens hasmore to dowi th the control of sex than any other factor .

M ating-up.—For the production of table fowls pens must,

of course, be mated , and eggs set all the year round . Forspring chi ckens pens may be mated up in late Novemberor the beginning of D ecember, and di spersed in M ay or

June ; but for the laying sto ck there i s no need to hatch

CHOICE AND GENERAL M ANAGEM ENT

the heavy breeds before February, and the light breedsbefore April, so that later mating can be adopted .

Spring-mated pens usually produce more fertile eggs as themonths advance. In any case, the pens should not beallowed to run on too long before breaking up, or the birdswi ll get bred out.

M anagement of the M ale in theBreeding Pam—In orderthat the male bird should be of absolutely unimpairedvigour, he should only be permi tted intercourse with thehens during the breeding season, or else the chi ckens produced from h im wi ll fai l to be strong. People make agreat mistake in purchasing stock cockerels, in that they donot alway s make sure that the b irds have been separatedfrom the pullets at a suffici ently early age. A cockerelwhich has been allowed to run on wi th them becomes bredout and incapable of producing vigorous offs ring. Beforeputting the male bird in the pen, he should 6 well fed fora fewdays , having plenty of cooked lean meat and a toni cin the drinking water . If he i s in good condi tion, strong,ferti le eggs may be expected eight or ten days after he isintroduced to the hens . If for any reason it is desired tomake a chan

ge of sire, a fortnight should ela se before

setting eggs a rash . An over-gallant malewi ll 0 ten standaside whi le h is hens feed , and wi ll in consequence becomehalf starved and out of condi tion . It is a wi se precautionto give him a meal by himself (includin lean meat) once aday, and if he is very acti ve he should e shut away fromthe hens for part of the day .

Inbreeding—As far as possible in utili ty poultry workthi s must be avoided , since vigour and stami na are bothlikely to be reduced if closely related birds are matedtogether . W here several pens of the same vari ety are kept,the chi ckens should always have di stincti ve marks, so thatthere is no danger, when they are to be used for breed ing,that those of sim ilar parentage are put together.This plan has nevertheless to be materially altered very

often ; for though fresh blood ought to be introduced intouti lity yards every year, it must never be in a haphazardmanner, or the labours of years might be broken down .

Suppose that a first—class laying strain had by carefulselection been evolved , if a male bird were introduced froma yard where only a poor egg averagewas maintained, and


where no care had been taken to breed only from the bestlayers , such a bird might spo il the reputation of the yardhe had j ust entered for two or more generati ons. In con

sequence,the uti li ty breeder is constantly wagi ng a kind

of battle between this danger, on the one hand ,and the

knowledge, on the other hand ,that it is fatal to use too

closely related birds when great producti veness and hard i

ness in the off spring i s desired .

Cross-Breeding.—For many purposes the first cross fowl

is -highly useful, since, if sui tably bred , the resul ting b i rdswill be hardy, of large size, and possess ing good econom i cquali ti es . Crossing takes place for many purposes to

improve the size or quali ty of a breed for table purposes,to in crease the egg yi eld ,

the size of eggs produced , or to

produce tinted shells .

It must be understood that mongrels whose parentage i sdoubtful , and who have probably been inbred , are not

advi sed ; but a good first cross , combin ing the blood of twod i stin ct vari eti es,wi ll have the good quali ti es of those twobreeds comb in ed in the one bird , together wi th increas edhardiness of consti tution . Admi ttedly the value of suchbirds i s less than pure-bred ones for W hils t they cost thesame to f eed and house, their li ve offspring wi ll f etch muchlower pri ces ; but for economi c purposes , the productionsimply of eggs and table fowls , they are distin ctly useful .Breeds of opposi te characteri sti cs should be mated in

order to get the best all-round results , though i t is betterto use, both on the male and female si de, bi rds from recognized table breeds when breed ing for table only . Ifa non—si tting and a si tting breed are to be used for tablechicken purposes , the male should come from the si ttingbreed , and should have a large square bodywi th short legsand a neat comb . If the laying cross is required , i t is bestto allow the male to come from the non-si tting strain as ageneral rule (though this does n ot always apply) andwhere tinted eggs are needed , the females should comefrom a breed laying brown—shelled or tinted eggs .

Useful Crosses.— For laying purposes the following first

crosses wi ll be found most useful : Leghorn-W yando tte,Ancona-W hi te Orpington , Houdan-Orpington , M inorcaHoudan , La Bresse W yandotte, Leghorn Langshan ,

M inorca-Rock .

CHOICE AND G ENERAL M ANAG EM ENT 25

For table purposes the following are excellent : IndianG ameorOld English G ame-Dorking,Faverolles-Buff Orpington , Houdan-Orpington , Langshan-W hi te Orpington , Sus

sex-Orpington , Sussex-SilverDorking , etc . while as a combination of si tting and non-si tting breeds for all-round purposes one might select Langshan-Rocks , Houdan-M inorca ,Ancona-Orpington, or Buff Leghorn-Buff Orpington . An

i llustration of the value of crossing might be taken fromthe Ancona-Orpington selection . Thi s forms a splendidlaying cross , standing confin ement well , laying brownshelled eggs , produced for the most part in the wintermonths . The table quali ti es are fair, and the chicks arefast growers , taking the size from their mothers , while thebroody inclin ations of the Orpington family are kept downby the An cona blood .

Of course, every poultry-keeper has h is favouri te firstcross, and the li st might be extended almost indefini tely .

First crosses should not be crossed again but ei ther renewed entirely each year or kept on the one-pen . crosssystem mating a cock of the origin al breeds inalternate years

Size in Poultry .—"To the table fowl breeder who desires

big, vigorous stock birds to produce h i s quick-maturingchi ckens, size is of great importance, and to attain thi s endboth parents must be of good proportion . The size of themale bird , as has been poin ted out before, is of great importance, but i t i s equally essential that no hens whi chare undersized or lacking in excellence of growth and con

sti tution be used , in order to attain a flock of more thanaverage size.

The egg producer does not have to take thi s matter intoaccount nearly so much, since the moderate—sized birds arenearly always better layers than the very b ig ones in theflock. This may be partly due to the fact that exceptionally heavy layers generally start their work at an early age,and rarely escape from having their growth somewhat retarded . The size of a bird , again , i s no guarantee of thesize of the eggs whi ch will be produced , as the small birdsoften lay the biggest eggs . From h is poin t of vi ew there i s,therefore, no special advantage in breeding for size, or inretaining in the laying flock birds of great bulk and

heavy bui ld ,since they will materially increase h is food

bi ll .


Breeding for Pedigree Layers.—The laying capaci ti es m

herent in the common hen have in the past been sadlyunder-estimated , and even to-day there are thousands .

of

yards where averages much below the possible are bei ngmade . The vast majori ty of poultry-keepers are contentto keep hens not averaging more than 90 or

.

100 eggs perannum

,whi le the pedi gree layer of to

-day W i ll scorn anything under 200.

In founding a laying strain , no consi deratlon but proli ficacy has to be taken into account, and , bearing in m in d thatthe capaci ty for egg production i s heredi tary, only the bestlayers must be bred from . By the use of trap-nests , andthe careful keeping of the regi ster of produce of each henthat i s to say, the age at whi ch the hen began laying , themonths in whi ch she laid , the number of eggs producedeach year

,their size, etc .

— a good useful strain of layers canbe built up by any painstaking poultry-keeper .

Strain — There i s even yet great room for improvementamong the average flock of hens kept for purely utili ty purposes , and in beginning to improve the laying quali ti es ofa yard the importance of strai n has to be considered .

It i s not breed , but strain , that counts , and there are

good and bad strains of every breed and sub-vari ety whi chthe poultry world knows . The Utili ty Poultry Club , in

arranging i ts laying competi tions , has always laid stress onthe point that the competi tions were not held to deci de theexcellence of any one parti cular breed , but to make knownthose fowls whi ch during the four months of the year undersystemati c treatment proved themselves to be good layers .

The fact that some breeds , such as W hi te W yandottes orW hi te Leghorns , have figured so frequently among theprize-winners simply means that both these breeds havebeen specialized in from an egg poi nt of vi ewfor a considerable time, and the same appli es to the Buff Orpingtons andone or two others whi ch have appeared frequently near thetop of the sheet .A glance at the breeds of winners from the year 1897 ,

when the first competi tion was held , to the year 1912 ,will

show M inorcas , Buff Leghorns , W hi te Leghorns , SilverW yandottes , Barred Rocks , W hi te W yandottes , G oldenW yandottes , Buff Rocks , Buff Orpingtons , and Black Leghorns , figuring at the topof the li st in diff erent years , whileexcellent scores have been put up by many other breeds .

28 UTILITY“

POULTRY-KEEPING

or they wi ll come on to lay in the summer, commencemoulting like older fowls , and lose a good part of thewinter . Nei ther should they be hatched too late, or theywi ll not lay sufficient eggs during the win ter to pay for theextra cost of their keep .

To Prevent Pallets Lay ing.— It i s not wi se to perm i t

pullets to lay under six months of age, or their growthwi ll b e stunted and the eggs too small . In order to preventtheir do ing so ,

they should be kept on a spare grain d i et ,and moved as often as possible to fresh ground , as that .helps to check laying .

Dates of Hatch ing.— Late February and M arch are the

best months for hatching the heavy, slow-maturing breeds ,and Apri l and M ay for the light breeds , as in both cases thepullets will come on to lay in autumn, when eggs are scarce .

Size of Eggs.—Fowls which prove to lay a very smallegg are not profitable for commercial purposes , as the2-ounce egg is the most acceptable in the general market .

Certain strain s of Hamburghs were no ted some years agofor the number of eggs they produced , but the eggs were sosmall as to be of li ttle market value .

Averages— W hile the ordinary barn-door fowl wouldrarely reach 100 eggs per annum , a good flock of layerswould average 140 to 160 eggs in the same time, and theobject of the breeder should be to double thi s dur in g thehen’s first year of laying . Commerci ally, of course, wehave to reckon wi th the high average rather thanwi th theextraordin ary individual record .

One of the most remarkable hens in the Uni ted States ofAmeri ca i s Lady Cornell,

” belonging to the CornellPoultry Station, who in her first year laid 257 eggs , and inher second has laid just over 200, all of good size ; whi leM adameCornell , in the same flock, laid 245 eggs in her

first year. These two hens and thirteen others of thehighest producers averaged 236 eggs each, and the managersattribute these high records to careful feeding,

housing ,

and management , in addi tion to the careful breeding forlaying purposes from hens possessing good vigorous con

stitutions .

Productive Period of Hens—The best authori ti es statethat each hen starts lif e wi th a capi tal of 500 or 600 eggs


in the o vary ; but whi lst it is un likely that thi s number i sexceeded , the possibi li ty of all the eggs being developeddepends to some extent upon strain and feeding .

The natural habi t of the fowl in the wi ld state i s to layforty or fifty eggs a year for about ten years , but as the henbecame domesti cated , and was looked upon as a com

m ercial asset, thi s spreading of the eggs over a numberof years was bound to give place to a higher averagenumber yearly, even at the cost of a restricted prolificperiod . By careful breeding and feeding the average hasgone up , and to-day we have fowls wi th averages of 150to 250 eggs per annum . In the majori ty of cases a henceases to be producti ve af ter her third season as a layer .

Unless a bird is a phenomenal layer or an exceptionally

good stock-getter, i t i s rarely worth while to keep herafter she is two and a half year; old , as the system , beingexhausted by the great drain on itwhi ch has taken place,cannot possibly maintain an equal rate of productivenessduring the th ird and fourth year .

Pullets asLayers— The pullet i smore productive than thehen from the point of vi ew of number of eggs , though not

always from that of size, as many pullets lay small eggs ,and many breeders annually renew their laying flocks , asthey claim that any loss caused by the purchasing and

selling is covered by the extra numbers of egg produced bythe. young birds .

One extremely important po int to be borne in mind i sthat the first season’s productiveness counts for a greatdeal in the total profit of a layer’s acti ve career . Birdshatched too soon whi ch go into moult, and do not recom

mence until late in the winter, or birds which (by reasonof late hatching or inheri ted slown ess of maturi ty) commence their laying after the demand for

“ winter eggsat h igh prices is past , will never yi eld the profit whi ch maybe obtained from those birds whi ch begin operations atthe right time . The obj ect of all breeders should be tohave a ni ce flock of pullets whi ch start laying b etween theirsixth and seventh month .

A good arrangement of the laying stock would be as

f ollows M arch-hatched pullets of the current year, yearold hens hatched the y ear before , and two-year-old hensof the M arch previous to that . These last could be usedin the breeding pens , and ei ther di sposed of in the spring


Or summer, the stock being renewed from the chi ckens ofeach year . Old hens are very liable to internal troubles ,owing to their tendency to put on fat, and once a yearevery yard should be thoroughly overhauled , and an ycumberers of the ground ruthlessly sorted out .

Disposal of Old Hens. —Very anci ent biddi es can beused for the home table—i i bo iled gently for a good periodthey will not make a bad di sh— but old birds should not

be sent to the market . There i s a large demand amongthe Jewi sh population of the country for live fowls , andfat old hens wi ll fetch from 1s . 9d . to 2s . 3d . accordingto their condi tion , June and July being the best months .

No sign of moulting must appear , or the henswill be toughand poor . It is wi se to feed liberally for a fortnight or threeweeks before sending them , so that they will sell as well asposs ible, and so that a few extra eggs may be obtain ed .

In win ter and very early spring gamekeepers and largepoultry farmers who require broodies for their earlychi cks wi ll pay 33 . to 4s . 6d . for a large motherly old hen ,

and it will pay to induce brood iness , i f no si gns of thi scondition are apparent, by shutting the hen up in a darkened coop and feeding liberally , including buckwheat inthe b ill of fare .

The Trap-Nest.— W here pedigree layers are desired , theuse of the trap-nest in oneor other of its vari eti es i s essential,and probably no appli ance has had more important eff ectsupon the poultry industry than thi s one. The use of suchnests enables the user to ascertain the actual laying powersof each individual hen wi thout any poss ibili ty of mi stake ,and to weed out for table all those fowls whi ch come belowa profitable average .

By the aid of the trap-nest breed ing operations can bebrought much more under control, since i f each hen in thepen i s ringed and numbered there i s no possib ili ty

"

ofsetting eggs from a hen of inf erior capaci ty, and all unferti les can be traced back to their source .

The best form of nest is that whi ch i s simple of con

struction and easy to work, and whi ch wi ll not frightenthe hen as she enters . Some birds have a great obj ectionto using the nests at first , but a little care and pati encewill obvi ate thi s . It i s a mistaken idea to imagine that oneneed be constantly running in and out to the nest it do es


a hen no harm to be left in a li ttle while, and one or tworounds in addi tion to the ordinary feeding times wi llusually prove ample.

Autumn offers a good opportuni ty for making a start inthe use of trap-nests the pullets wi ll be commencing theirwork, and the old hens wi ll be fini shing their moult andready to begin as well .

Treatment of Fowls in M oult.— Every year a completemoult takes place, and , being a natural process , should notcause any serious trouble yet i t i s a drain on the system ,

and many fowls , especially as they get older, or i f they arein low condi tion to begin wi th, suffer a good deal underthe process of casting and growing their plumage . In

FIG . 4 .—TAM L1N ’

s TRAP-NEST , SHOW IN G NEST SET.

order to hasten the moult , so that it takes place during thewarm weather (the natural period being in the autumn) ,it i s advi sable to pen the birds up in a sunny spot, andput them on to low di et to stop the production of eggs ,gradually increasing the food rations once the casting of

feathers has really commenced , until they are havingliberal di et . In the menu should be included bean or

pea meal (which helps to produce feather material) , sunflower-seeds , and stewed linseed , wi th a little hemp or

rapeseed as an extra .

” Sulphate of iron or Douglasmixture in the drinking water will act as a toni c , and , i f

the weather. i s warm , a pinch of sulphur in the soft foodtwi ce or thrice a week . Parri sh’s food is an excellenttoni c to administer if any fowls seem out of condition .


Condim ents for Poultry .—It i s the height of ,

folly to becons tantly dosing sto ck birds wi th stim ulants and o varytoni cs , sin ce the natural result i s to overwork the organsand render the fowls unfit for breeding . Sto ck birdswhi ch are to be bred from are best wi th as little spicedfood as possible unti l the weather is bleak and try i ng .

W e except saccharated carbonate. of i ron , whi ch i s avaluable toni c , and a sm all quanti ty of mustard , whi ch ,

according to the results of the very careful Allen experi

ments , has been found to have no deleterious eff ect uponbreeding stock .

Layers pure and simple, on the other hand , must beslightly forced if they are to be profitable ; and provi dedpoultry spi ces are used wi th di screti on they are not harmful .It i s only their abuse whi ch ruins the consti tuti on of abird .

The W inter Eggs.— Briefly summarizing, it may be re

peated that tp obtain the profitable winter egg we mustfollow in the wake of our Ameri can cousins , who were undoubtedly the pioneers in the matter . W e must breedonly from the best layers , hatch at sui table dates , feed on

sci entific lin es , house com f ortably and hygi eni cally, provid escratching shed exerci se, and avo i d damp , overcrowding,overfeeding , and inbreeding , together wi th any o therfeature whi ch mi li tates against successful egg production .

M AN AGEM EN T or 8130 011 DUCKS .

Suitable Situation — W here duck-breeding on a largescale i s to be carried out , exposed land of a wet and heavynature is less sui table than a sheltered valley where thesoil is light and gravelly . Runn ing water, ei ther a lakeor stream, is essential for the fertilization of the eggs ofmost breeds of ducks , the Indian Rurm er being perhapsthe only reli able exception . W here strongly fertilized eggsare desired , however, the physi cal com fort of the birdshas to be considered , and an effort made to approach tonatural condi tions as nearly as possible .

Shade.— Shelter other than that of their houses must

be provided , ducks suffering severely from strong heat andsunshin e . M any annual losses are caused by the factthat people put ducks on a closely fenced pond lacking ei thertrees or shrubs or the shelter of long grass .


Housing. —Thi s may be of a very simple character,but

it is essential that the roof , floor, and si des , should besound , and that the water should not be able to reachthe house, though at the same time the house should benear the water. The ventilation should be good, and thefloor cleared dai ly and kept li ttered wi th plenty of freshdry bedding . It is better to have several small duckhouses than one very large one.

Breeding Stock—Th ese should be for preference largeboned birds, but not too large or heavy, of good averageshape and quali ty, and full of vigour . The usual arrangement is a pen of one drake and two ducks , or else twodrakes and five ducks . Inbreeding must be sternly con

demmed ; and while many breeders use young birds on both

Fm . 5 .—LEm -To DUCK-HOUSE .

(New. Poultry Syndicate.)

sides , the best hatchings are usually from second yeardrakeswi th eight or nine-month-old ducks at the time ofmating, wh i ch is usually in October .

Feeding.—Any fatteni ng or forcing foods must be

avoided . Ducks are large eaters , and when producingeggs need extra quanti ties of ni trogenous food . W herefree range is given, two meals a day are plenty, in coldweather gi ving a warm morning mash. The mash mayconsi st of oatmeal, sharps , and wheatmeal, substi tutingbarley m eal for oatmeal in winter . G reen food must besupplied , and sharp fli nt gri t always at hand . For thenight feed , grain may be put in the water troughs , wheatand oats being given alternately wi th a little m a

éize in


winter . Stock ducks should be s hut up in their housestill about ten in the morning, when they will have lai dtheir eggs ; otherwi se they may lay them in the water , andthey wi ll be lost .

Lay ing, Table, and G eneral PurposeBreeds— The IndianRunner i s the laying duck for general market purposes .The Aylesbury or Aylesbury-Pekin i s the best marketduckling, but the eggs produced are also of very good s i ze .

The Rouen duck is a very large breed of fine quali ty and

good flavour , and carri es a great amount of flesh . Thi sbreed fulfils the demand for large birds at the end of theear.yThe Buff Orpington duck becomes more popular each

year, as not on] . i s i t a prolific layer, beginning at thetime when Ayles ury eggs are hard to get for si tting, butthe ducklings are plump and fatten easi ly and qui ckly .

G EE SE

Housing.—G eese do not require elaborate houses , all

that is necessary being a roomy shed well li ttered wit-hperfectly dry bedding . G ood ventilation is essential, butdraughts must be avo ided .

Feeding. For the most part the stock birds wi ll feedthemselves , if they can be turned on to good grazing land ,

but a li ttle corn may be suppli ed in the morn ings .

Lay ing. After the morning meal the birds are best leftin for a li ttlewhile, so that any eggs laid wi ll be deposi tedin the houses .

Breeding.—Immature birds must never be mated, and

the best age for breeding stock is from two to eight years .

Strong unrelated ganders should be used . As a rule threegeese are mated wi th one gander , but the birds should beput together in the autumn if early eggs are required , as

they take a long time to become acquainted .Very often

geese will not breed at all during the first season unless puttogether early . For utili ty purposes a cross between theToulouse and Embden vari eti es give the best results ,using a gander of the former breed . As a layer theEmbdeni s hardly so good as the Toulouse , but the Toulouse i s nota reli able sitter . A young goose will begin to lay in her

CHA PT E R I I

INCUBATION

Natural and artificial incubation— M odem com b ination of two m ethods—The brooding—Care and m anagem ent of the sitting hen

—M aki ngthe nest—Testi ng for fertili ty

—Develo m ent of the em bry o

Assi sted hatches—Various types of incu tion—General m anage

m ent—The m oi sture problem Dead in shell.”

AT the present date both the na tural method of in

cubation ,where the hens are permi tted to hatch out one

or more broods of chickens dur ing the season , and theartificial one, in whi ch eggs are incubated by heatedmachines , are being carri ed on s ide by side . It i s not atall likely that the old method will ever be supersededentirely, even taking into account the great advanceswhich have been made along artificial lines .

In the “ s i tting breeds the desire i s very strong , and

even in the light M edi terranean breeds one sometimescomes across the maternal instinct, even though it be ofa transi tory nature . Undoubtedly by long disuse thefaculty of brooding wi ll atrophy, as wi tn ess the fowls ofEgypt, in whi ch country successful artificial incubationhas been carried on by means of heated ovens for thousands of years , and where the fowls are all stri ct non

sitters in the extreme sense of the phrase . In thi scountry, however, it i s probable that both methods wi llcontinue to be carri ed on as at the present time, only thatthey wi ll be used more and more to supplement each other’sadvantages and defects .

NATURAL INCUBATION .

Broodiness a Natural State. Even in the very largeyards where incubators are of necessi ty used to turn out

the imm ense quantiti es of chi cks requi red , broodies36

INCUBATION 37

wi ll continue to be used , if only for the sake of the restafforded to a heavy layer after a long winter

’s work,

especially if the hens are allowed to rear at least one broodduring the year . W here thi s i s not possible, i t i s a wi seplan to permit every heavy layer three weeks’ rest on

china eggs , in order that her egg organs may be relaxed ,

and that she may get through the moult at an earlier stagethan she would do otherwi se.

To Encourage Broodiness. —W here i t is desirable toencourage or hasten broodin ess , ei ther for the purpose ofprofitably d i sposing of o ld hens during the early months

Fro . 6.— H0T-A m INCUBATOR.

(G loucester Incubator Co .)

of the year as si tters, or where a si tting of eggs needs tobe put in hand at once, the hens required should be shutup in a dark, qui et nest-box and liberally fed on a carbonaccous di et, including maize, buckwheat, and hemp . A

few days of the treatment will as a rule have the desiredeff ect .

Test of Broodiness.— Before setting a hen it is necessary

to be quite certain that she is really desirous of her work .

Thi s i s specially necessary when hens are being purchasedfrom a di stance or where they are being sent off on arailway journey, as the travelling frequently puts themoff if they are not genuinely nest-ripe . It is a wi se precaution, when hens have had a railway journey, to put them


on china eggs for four or five days before entrusting themwith valuable ones . If a broody abandons the perchfor the nest-box at night, the sign i s fairly reliable, but i tfrequently happens that if a hen i s only half broody shewill refuse to sit when put in the nest-b ox , or W lll forsakeher nest after a fewdays . The ruffled feathers and characteri stic cluck cluck are good indi cations of a realdes ire to sit, and if , when a hand i s gently placed underthe hen’s breast as she si ts on the nest, she settles downcomfortably on it, spreading her feathers out wi dely,

instead of standing up and fluttering , she is pretty safe as asi tter .

The Best Type of Hem— All hens , even of the s i ttingbreeds , are not good si tters ; but one of these breeds shouldbe selected , as the M editerranean breeds for the most part,though they o ccasionally get a fit of broodiness , are not

to be reli ed on . As good a cross as can be obtained i sfound in the Silkie-W yandotte . Thi s makes an idealsi tter, being very doci le, not too heavy , and yet wi thplenty of flufly feather . Very heavyhens are not advi sed ,

as they break so many eggs i f they are at all clumsy . A

ni ce medium-sized hen , wi th neat movements , plenty of

fluff ,”

and having a qui et , doci le d i sposi tion , is theideal si tter . R estless, exci table fowls ruin many a si tting,

and they wi ll not bear the necessary handling . Dorkingsare good mothers , as they stay wi th their chi cks such along time , and in the case of early broods thi s is important .

G ame fowls , too , make excellent mothers as a rule , whilea Partridge W yandotte we once possessed was the mostperfect si tter we have ever known but there are good andbad s i tters in every breed . As a rule we prefer hens topullets , the latter being more unstable, but many peopleuse ei ther indifferently . Only perf ectly healthy fowlsshould be used as broodies, and i f a hen goes off colourwhi le si tting she should be removed .

It is an interesting po int to note that hens whi ch havebeen brought up entirely on the scratching shed systemrarely make very sati sfactory mothers , thei r scratchingpropensi ti es being fraught wi th much peri l for the chi ckens ,as they indulge their proclivi ti es for exerci se very oftenat the expense of the lives of their off spring . Thi s i s atleast according to our own experi ence wi th broodies broughtup under such condi tions .

INCUBATION 39

Insect Pests.—"Before setting a hen it is essential thatshe should be absolutely free from vermin , otherwi se thetorment she wi ll endure on the nest may make her deserther eggs and in any case the lowering of her vi tali ty wi llrender her unable to keep the eggs thoroughly warm, and

a less successful hatch will be the result. A home broodyshould be above suspi cion, and a dusting wi th pyrethrumpowder ought to sufli ce in thi s case, but all hens fromother quarters should have a thorough in spection and thepowder well rubbed into their feathers . In addi tion "

to

thi s , the nest-boxes should have a good di sinf ection and

sprinkling wi th powder, and if an anti-vermin egg i s placedin the centre of the nest the extra precaution will be foundworth the cost .

Eggs for Sitting.— All eggs for incubation should be

collected daily and carefully stored . In winter it i sdesirable to collect three or four times a day whi le thefrosts last, or the germ wi thin the egg may be destroyed .

All eggs should be as fresh as possible ; and though eggsa month old , or even older, will hatch , it should be understood that the nearer the egg approaches to the newlaid the b etter are its chances of hatching . W hen setfrom home stock, their quali ty should be above reproach ,

as they should be marked wi th the date before storing,so that they can be used in rotation . They can ei ther beplaced on their si des in bran or in a rack, when they mustbe turned every day to prevent the germ from adheringto the side of the shell . Some authori ti es recommendtheir being placed wi th the large end downwards , othersadvi se i ts being at the top. Theformer method is probablypreferable , but the latter is more conveni ent . A simplemethod is to store them in travelli ng boxes, when they maybe turned dai ly en bloc. They may thus be put up incletches , in a conveni ent form for handling, the date of

laying being pencilled on the box . The old idea thatthe long ,

narrow eggs contained the cock birds and theround ones the pullets has been exploded long ago , butin selecting eggs for s i tting, preference should be given tothose whi ch are of moderate s ize, nei ther too. large nor

too small , of normal shape and smooth shell , abnormallyshaped eggs or those wi th rough shells being rej ected .

Eggs whi ch have come from a rai lway journey oughtalways to be rested for twenty-four hours before being set ,


and the place where incubation eggs are kept should befree from draughts and vibratio

‘ns , and not cooler than40

°in temperature . Before finally putting the eggs under

the hens , i t is wise to draw a ring round them wi th bluepenci l, so that if any are laid in the nest, as sometimeshappens, they can be at once removed .

The Sitting-Box."—It is usual to term hatching under

hens natural but, when one comes to think of i t fromthe hen’s point of view, i t i s highly artificial to take herfrom the nest she likes (and whi ch her owner probably doesnot like) and shut her up in a wooden box . Consequently,

though from a utili tari an point of vi ew it is qui te out of

Fro . 7 .-SITTrNc-BoxEs AND RUNS.

(Hebditch . )

the question to allow a hen to pi ck her own nesting-place,every effort should be made to adhere to natural cond i tionsas far as possible, and removal to the made nest should takeplace as ently and as soon as can be. W here only a fewhens are cing used , the common orange box is not to bedespi sed , as it makes qui te a good nest, and, being so cheap ,

can be burnt after use, thus avo iding the annual disinf ectionotherwi se necessary .

Any ordinary wooden box will answer the purpose if onesi de i s knocked out, so that the nest rests on the ground ,

and if a pi ece of board three or four inches high i s left onthe front so that the strawwill not fall out.

W here many hens are set, however, these rough andready arrangements will not do , and those poultry-keepers

INCUBATION 41

who work on a large scale usually fit'

up a shed wi th nestsand runs , so that the hens are all together . Sheds like thi sshould be kept fairly dark, and ample venti lation be provided . In the warm weather it is not a bad plan to let thehens sit outside , provided the front of the box iswired in toprotect i ts occupant from vermin . W here the nest-boxesare indoors , they should not rest on a wooden floor, butshould have a square of turf to keep the nest damp.

Tethering Hens. -W hen hens are set outside, the usualgamekeeper

’s plan of tethering each hen to a peg dri veninto the ground , bymeans of a swivel and rope, is adopted .

The hens can thus obtain exerci se , and are yet prevented

fro

mgo ing back on the wrong nest or fighting wi th neigh

ours .

Nests and Runs— The majori ty of appliance-makersmanufacture at a fairly low cost ranges of si tting-boxes ,wi th a small run attached , so that each fowl i s confinedto i ts own quarters and there i s no possibility of mixing .

Thenests should be of a simple pattern, and easi ly accessibleto the attendant . A deep coop wi th a small door makesthe attention to the eggs very di fficult .

M aking a Nest.— The instinct of the hen i s to choosea secluded corner where she can scratch out a hollowand deposi t her eggs on the bare ground . Following out

thi s i dea , the man-made nest should rest on an earthbottom , ei ther sim ply a shovelful of finemould or a squareturf beaten down in the centre to form a cup-like hollow .

Shaping the nest is a matter of some importance, as if thehollow i s too shallow the eggs roll out, and if it i s too deepthey lie in a heap , and some will certainly be broken .

There must be no corners in the nest , or the eggs will rollinto them and get chilled , and the lining of straw or haymust be well worked into the corners by the hand . Strawi s less liable to harbour insects , and in summer affords moreventilation than hay, but the latter is to be preferred inwinter . Clean ,

sweet nests are important and should beinspected each day , and fresh li tter belng suppli ed if

necessary .

M oisture — There i s no need to supply mo isture if theturf is put in ,

unless very dry east W inds prevai l, when itcan be wetted wi th "tepid water towards the end of thehatching period .


Settling theBroody .— Hens are all more or less nervous

and exci table, and should be handl ed as gently and qui etlyas possible. It is well to put a broody on her eggs atnight, when she is more tractable, and asa rule, i f she

i s

put down gently in front of the nest, she W ill walk.

straighton to it and settle herself ; or, if she i s already ei ttm g on

china eggs , they can be wi thdrawn one by one, and the realones slipped undem eath her .

Dai ly M anagement— W hen the hen i s settled wi th.

hereggs , her dai ly life should proceed as regularly and qi netlyas possible. Once a day she must be allowed off for asufficient time to feed, drink, and take exerci se and a dus tbath . As far as poss ible, the attendant should make theround of the si tting-boxes at the same time every day . Anyirregulari ty in vi si ting them causes restlessness and a.

tendeney to stand up on the nest,when the eggs may get chi lled .

Very often a zealous si tter will refuse to get off the nestat the beginning of the time but thi s should not beencouraged , and those hens whi ch will not come off thei reggs should be gently lif ted off and placed wi thin reach of

food and water . If left alone they wi ll get into poor cond ition , and the eggs wi ll not get sufficient cooling . W henlifting a hen off the nest , rai se each wing in turn to see thatn o eggs are underneath them ; then put the hand under herbreast, and li ft her gently out, taking care that the hen

’slegs do not sweep any eggs out of the nest as she is beingwi thdrawn on the hand of the attendant .

Cooling the Eggs. —The length of time that the henshould be off thenest vari es very much wi th the time of yearand the state of the weather . Fif teen minutes to thirtyminutes may be taken

'

as the minimum and maximum ,

though it is often di fficult to make a very keen si tter stayoff her eggs fif teen minutes , and , on the other hand , it i s

not to be supposed that eggs wi ll not hatch even after aprolonged absence from the nest . Beginners usually err onthe side of giving the eggs insuffici ent cooling, but we donot advi se longer than thirty minutes at any time of theyear. If a hen shows no d i sposi tion to return to her nest,she should be quietly coaxed and driven towards i t, but nothurri ed or frightened in any way . If possible, it is well toavo id lif ting a hen back on her nest, as some of the eggsusually get broken .


i s too much for the vi tality of the hen ; and her bodi ly heatbeing in consequence much reduced , the eggs incubate tooslowly. Thi s does not apply, of course, to cases where a henmerely starts a sittting ,

which i s afterward fin i shed off bythe incubator, allowing her to proceed wi th another batchof eggs, as in that case the si tting period is only reasonablylon

If is wise to set three hens or more at a time , and whentesting for fertili ty on the seventh or eighth day to divideup

'

the fertile eggs among two of the hens , giving the thirdone a fresh batch to commence wi th again .

Variations in Bodily Temperature— The temperature of

diff erent hens vari es very widely, hence the wi sdom of onlypermi tting one hen to attach herself to one si tting of

eggs . As incubation progresses , the embryo begins to

generate heat of its own , and the gradual increase of

temperature in the eggs i s balanced by the proportionatedecrease in that of the hen’s body, ideal condi tions includ ing thi s deli cate natural adjustment . It is easy to

understand ,therefore, that any change of broody would be

harmful to an advanced si tting of eggs , especi ally when iti s remembered that, according to actual readings , thetemperature of five s i tting hens selected at random has beenfound to vary from 98

°to nei ther of the extremes

giving such good hatching results as those of hens whosetemperature readings were between these two points .

Testing for Ferti lity .—It i s usual to test on the seventh

and eighth day , and again at the beginning of the thirdweek, of incubation, and the necessi ty for accurate andregular testing is obvious . Unf ertile eggs can be removedand some of the hens started afresh , and the unfertiles themselves used for cooking or for sale at a low pri ce to photographi c paper makers , or where the quanti ty i s small theycan be utilized in making custard for the young ch i ckens .

Addled eggs, if not removed , are a source of danger to thedeveloping embryos , owing to the impure gases whi chescape through the pores of the shells . Testing eggs isbest done at night, and is accomplished by means of alamp made specially for the purpose, giving a strong lightthrough an opening covered overwi th transparent materi al,so that the heat from the flame cannot injure the eggplaced before i t. By holding an egg up to the opening of

INCUBATION 45

the lamp in a dark room , the appearance of the embryocan be di stinctly seen as a dark spot wi th radiating threadshaving somewhat the appearance of a spi der . In verythin-shelled eggs , and when the germ i s very strong, theembryo can be detected even at the third or fourth day ,

but by wai ting ti ll the seventh or eighth there i s no possib ility of mistake . It i s best for the beginner to try whi teshelled eggs before brown ones , and an Aylesbury

,

duckegg i s the best of all , as , being extremely transparent , theembryo wi thin i s beautifully vi sible . A dead germ i s lightin colour, and if putrefaction has begun shows cloudyagainst the light . A broken yolk will show as an i rregularred line again st the light, and an unf ertile egg having .

no impregnated germ wi thin it will appear clear and un

changed .

At the eighteenth or nineteenth day of incubation theli ve chi ck appears as a dark mass , wi th a clearly-defined air

space in the egg chamber .

Testing by Im m ersion . The water test is an Old

fashioned and , in our opin ion,an unreliable one. Un

needed mo i sture i s suppli ed in the first case, and in thesecond case a strong chi cken might be thrown away as adead germ . The eggs whi ch float on the top of the waterare held to contain the live chi cks, and those whi ch sinkdead germs or d ead chicks but suppose that a chi ck hasreached the stage of development where i ts beak i s aboutto pi erce the membrane of the egg chamber, such an eggwould sink almost certainly, even though the chi ck wasperfectly strong and well developed .

Developm ent of theEmbry o.— The gradual growth of the

chi ck wi thin the egg chamber by means of the warmthafforded by hen or incubator i s extremely wonderful, andcommences wi thin a fewhours of incubation , segmentation ,

as a matter of fact , being brought about even before theegg i s laid , owing to the natural warmth of the hen , butremain ing arrested until incubation is once more com

m enced by the broody .

”

The blastoderm , or germ-spo t, expands considerably evenduring the first day . From the first to the fourth day thehead ,

the opti c nerves , and the vesi cles of the brain , develop ,

together with the d igesti ve canal, kidneys , liver, and pancreas . By the end of the fif th day the arteri es have begun


to form ,nouri shment i s absorbed from the blood , and a

rudimentary respiration begins . From the fif th to the ni n thday the spinal cord , the thoraci c cavi ty, and the pelvi c

girdle, are evolved , and on the tenth day the growth of downand feathers i s begun . On the fif teenth day the beak i s

fully formed , and from that day gradually hardens (alongwi th the development of the other parts of the body) , tillon the nineteenth day it i s ready to p i erce the air chamber ,when true respiration commences . The whole structurethen proceeds to develop rapidly, the yolk (whi ch has beenaffording nutriment to the developing b ird from the be

ginning of the process) i s passed into the stomach , and thetwenti eth or beginning of the twenty-first day finds theperfected chi ck breaking the shell .

Hatching.— As soon as chipping has begun the hen

should be fed on the nest, and not allowed to come off , anychi lling to the eggs being particularly harmful at thi s time .

The golden rule i s to leave well alone , interfering as li ttleas possible except by the clearing away of the eggshellswi th a gentle hand from time to time . Otherwise the henshould be left in peace to fini sh the hatch , and then givenanother feed on the nest . The coOp should be preparedfor her occupancy, but she should not be moved for twelvehours after the last chi ck i s out— that is, unti l . they areall perf ectly dry . For treatment of newly hatchedchi ckens the chapter on R earing gives full directions .

Assisted Hatches — These are seldom successful ; and

though thebeginner i s always anxious to help chi ckens out ofthe shell, i t i s only really permi ssiblewhere a strong chi ckenhas obviously got into d i fficulti es , or where the head hasbeen presented at the small end of the shell . In nine casesout of ten a chi cken whi ch i s not strong enough to get outof the shell i tself i s not worth its salt, and should be leftto its fate . Assi sted hatches usually mean the survi val ofthe unfit, and ailing chi ckens whi ch have to be coddl edthrough life are of no use of the uti li ty poultry-keeper .

Eggs of Other Fowls— The Aylesbury duckers generallyuse a large number of hens to incubate their duck eggs .

The only diff erence in treatment i s that the duck eggsrequire more moi sture than the hen eggs , and that theirtime of incubation i s longer— twenty-eight days . Hens aregenerally used to incubate goose eggs early in the season ,

INCUBATION 47

and not more than five eggs should be put under a hen .

Thirty days i s their usual time of incubation .

The turkey hen i s a marvellous si tter, and in France i sused as a kind of incubator, bringing out batch afterbatch of chi cks . They are generally allowed to incubatetheir own eggs in thi s country, and a good-sized turkeyhen will cover s ixteen to eighteen eggs . Twenty—seven and

twenty-eight days is the time reckoned for hatching .

ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION .

Advantages of Incubation.— The vast strides whi ch the

poultry industry has made of late years i s undoubtedly duein a large degree to the perfection of methods of artificialincubation (and rearing) . W here thousands of chi cks areturned out for the day -old chick trade , or where largequanti ties of early chi ckens are desired , the incubator i s anabsolute necessity . Incubators are much cheaper thanthey were , and once the original cost is surmounted , thecost of working , even wi th the best o il, should not amountto more than a penn y per chi ck, and as far as increasedprofits are concerned an in cubator wi ll soon pay for i tself .

If a good machine i s obtained and directions well carri edout, the oft—repeated statement to the eff ect that incubatorchi ckens are less healthy than naturally hatched oneswould seem to be wi thout foundation , though we mustconfess that for our own stock birds we prefer to use thosewhi ch are hen-hatched . An incubator is ready for workall the year round , when brood ies cannot be obtained ,

and as far as mechanical perfection is concerned i t wouldseem that i t had every advantage over the frequentlyblundering and clumsy hen ; but it i s nevertheless acurious fact that the hen can hatch many eggs whi ch no

incubator ever built could have done, and in all probabilitythe best plan i s to combine the advantages of the two .

Hens and Incubator in Com bination .— W here the hen

scores i s during the first ten days of incubation , as anydoubtful eggs appear to get a better

“ start ” wi th herthan they do wi th the machine ; but where the latter scoresis during hatching time , no chi ckens being lost throughcrushing and trampling, as i s often the case wi th hens .

Again ,an incubator , even a large-sized one, will take up

far less room than the number of broody hens required to


hatCh a simi lar quanti ty of eggs ; and when the unferti lesare removed from broodies started at the same tim e asthe machine, the ferti le eggs can all go together into theincubator and be fin i shed off in them, while the hens havea new lot of eggs suppli ed to them . In thi s way both hensand machine can be made to do double duty . If i t i s

desired to let the broody sit out her full time; the eggscan s imply be taken away from her on the nineteenth day ,

and allowed to come out in the incubator drawer .

FIG . 8 .— HOT-W ATER INCUBATOR .

(Spratt. )

Types of M achine.— The vari ety of incubators now on

the market is almost endless , but for the most part, if weexcept the newest type, the electric incubator, they resolvethemselves into two types —the hot-air or the hot-watermachin e .

Hot-W ater M ach ines.— Hearson , as i s well known , wasthe first really successful maker of the tankmachine, owingto h is introduction of the famous thermostati c capsule

,

whi ch , wi th varying modifications , i s found in most of thehot-water machines of to-day . Thi s capsule i s composed

INCUBATION 49

of two pieces of metal soldered together at their edges , andcontains 20 dr0ps of a fluid whi ch i s known to boil at acertain temperature . The capsule expandswi th the heat,an d by means of a connecting rod raises a damper whichpermi ts the escape of the surplus heat . This extremelysensi ti ve regulation gave the Hearson machine a supremacyin the beginning of artificial incubation whi ch it has neverlost , though many makers , such as Phipps , Tamlin , and

others , have made excellent machines of a s imi lar nature.

Hot-Air M achines.— In Ameri ca the hot-air machine isfar more generally used , and the Cyphers incubatormay be taken as a specimen, or the English G loucester .

”

In these the thermostati c capsule is replaced by doublethermostati c bars of metal whi ch are sensi tive to heat, andexpand and contract in accordance wi th the temperature.

Comparison of theTypes.— There is very li ttle diff erencebetween the two types as regards the distribution of heat .

In the tank type the ventilation i s provided in the shapeof holes evenly di stributed over the bottom , the air filteringthrough a pi ece of canvas , whi ch i s kept wet by the waterin thewater tray .

It i s claimed that in the hot-air machines the incomingair is warmed and di stributed so uniformly and slowlythat all draughts are avo ided , and from that point of vi ewthey might be consi dered superior to the tank machines .

They certainly economize o il more, and the fact that thereis li ttle or no need to apply moi sture is a pointo in theirfavour . They are di stinctly more sensi tive and qui ck inresponding to changes of temperature, and thi s may constitute a grave danger if perfect attention i s not given tothe lamp

,whi ch can never be left wi th safety as long as

that of a tank machine .

On the other hand , the body of water in a tank machine(though it certainly takes a li ttle time to get up to therequired temperature)wi llmaintain the temperature steadyfor some time, so that even i f the lamp were to go out thelatent heat in the water would keep the egg chamber from

getting cold for several hours , thus preventing fatal results .

It follows also, that heating by hotwater tends to preventfluctuations and sudden ri ses in temperature . Capsulemachines are, however, very sensi ti ve to changes in thebarometer ; and a capsul e thermostat should never work

4


unchecked by a barometer in addi tion to a thermom eter inthe incubator room .

Sm all andLargeM ach ines — Provi ded a good make of incubator be obtained and the d irections of the manufacturersfollowed , it would seem that there i s li ttle importance i nthi s question ; but our own practi cal experi ence i s that themedium-sized incubators are more reliable and work betterthan ei ther the extremely large or the very small s izes, andon comparing notes wi th several large breeders ; we havefound our own opinion corroborated . W e do not attemptto explain thi s curious li ttle fact , but only state i t accordingto our own experi ence .

General M anagement—Having chosen a reliable make,the instructions given by the maker must be observed ,

by the beginner at least, very thoroughly . It i s all verywell for experi enced workers to slightly alter directions ,but for amateurs the strict letter must be carri ed out.

Each incubator has i ts own li ttle pecul iari ti es , whi ch canonly be found out by practi cal working . The incubatorshould always be carefully levelled , as thi s wi ll help tokeep all the corners of the egg drawer at a fairly uniformtemperature and will assi st the lamp flues in workingproperly .

TheRoom .—A sui table room i s an essential for successful

working . It must be qui et, airy, and dry , wi th a wellfitting door and good ventilation , and free from no i se,j ar , and v ibrations , as these wi ll cause death ordeformi ti es .A stove or bri ck building (or, better still, a half -cellar) isthe most sui table of all. The half-cellar is better than aroom entirely aboveground , as i t i s less likely to vary intemperature, whi lst a room entirely underground , unl essspecially drained , is apt to be damp . A bri ck bui ldi ng ,

wi th a good roof , sound floor, and wi th plenty of ventilation , should answer the purpose very well . A glass buildin gis the worst of all, as it i s quickly heated or cooled ; andwhilst air is des irable, it i s not wi se to put in cubators justunder the draught of a window . All air must be pure

,as

the developing embryo needs oxygen , and all smell of o ilmust be avo ided .

Therm ometers.— These should always be kept in the

paper tubes provided for their safety and when the drawerhas to be opened or the thermometer read , it should only

52'

UTILITY'

POULTRY-KEEPING

eters before using, as appliance-makers test thoroughlybut if things go wrong unaccountably, it i s a wi se precaution to compare the thermometer wi th another one

by putting them both in warm water . Before opening theegg drawer always take a reading of the thermometer, asit i s of very li ttle use to take one unless the drawer hasbeen closed for qui te three hours previously.

TheLamp. Care must be taken of the wi ck, to preventsmoke, and a dai ly rubbing down of the corners wi th a stiffpi ece of paper is better than too much cutting . W hen i ti s necessary to trim i t, the corners should be cut downso that no tai ls can occur. Only the best Ameri cankerosene should be used , and cheap o il i s a dangerousand troublesome investment . See that the glass chimneycovering the lamp comes into close contactwi th the bottomof the lantern flue, or draught and flare wi ll bothresult . It i s necessary also to note that the perforatedscreen under the cone of the burner does not get charredwi th carbon refuse from the wi ck. If the holes get stoppedup , they should be scrubbed wi th a smallbrush , as otherwi sethe flame cannot get enough air. Tank machines aremore liable to sooty flues than the hot-air kin d , and thi spoint must be carefully watched . To test flues for smoking,hold a li ghted match over the return flue ; and i f the fluesare clear the match will immediately go out, but if theyare full of carbon refuse the match will continue to burnbrightly. N ever turn the eggs af ter trimming the lamp ,or the pores of the shells may get blockedwi th carbon refusefrom the fingers .

Cleanliness— Between each using the incubator shouldbe well scrubbed out wi th Izal and water, includ ing theegg drawer, and ( if a tank machine) the water tray andcanvas , to prevent the appearance of mould and bacteria .

Any so iled eggs should be wiped over wi th Izal andwater, and addled ones at once removed on account of thenoxious gases ari sing from them .

Eggs for Incubation.—These should be under a week old

whenever possible, as an incubator i s not so successfulwith stale eggs as a hen . In any case they take longer tohatch than fresh ones, and protracted hatches are rarelyvery successful . Eg in winter should be collected frequently, for fear of rost getting to them, and should be

INCUBATION 53

stored in a cool, qui et place . Only normal eggs should beset , and those from reliable stock birds .

Incubator Charts— These are essential, and . if properlyentered up they are very valuable for future reference .

The printed ones are the best, in whi ch the name of

the incubator , the breed , the number of eggs put in it,and the date when started and when hatching i s due,the number of fertile , broken , addled , and hatched eggs ,etc . , can all be entered . The temperature of the room , of

the egg drawer, and of the outside air , as well as of the mo i sture in the atmosphere (to measure which use a hygrometer) , Should all be entered in the double-ruled columnsprovided for the purpose of entering details of the morningand evening vi si ts to the incubator room .

Temperature.— As far as possible, an absolutely regular

temperature should be maintained in the egg drawer .

To variations in thi s are due deaths in shell and deformedchickens , and a too high temperature i s more likely to causea poor hatch than a too low one. The theory of absolute

regularity is , however, rarely attained ei ther by hen or

incubator, but as li ttle variation as possible Should bea imed at . Th e following table of degrees of heat i s agenerally accepted on e

For a room at 50°keep incubator at 105

°

60°

104°

70°

103°

A_

room of 50°is, however, to be avo ided , and 103

°is

generally accepted as being the best working heat . Of

course, at the tenth or eleventh day the chick begins togenerate heat of its own , and the strongerthe bird is thehigher wi ll the thermometer read , ti ll later in the hatchthe d i ff erence may be as much as It must not beassumed in a case like thi s , where the temperature graduallyri ses, that anything is wrong wi th the regulator, and theheat can be easily combated by lowering the flame of thelamp or gas .

AS far as poss ible, it iswell to avo id touching the regulatoritself during a hatch , unless the turning down of the lamphas no eff ect in reducing the heat . Excessive heat i s veryharmful indeed , especially during the first few days of

incubation , but a good bri sk heat should be maintainedwhen the eggs are just chipping to bring off a good hatch


and while the eggs are hatching avoid opening the drawermore than can be helped , or the temperature W i ll rapi dlyfall, and a chi ll at thi s time is very harm ful .No hard-and-fast rule can, however, be laid down , the

make of machin e and the posi tion of the thermometerin the drawer altering the case very much , whi le the number of inf ertile eggs aff ects matters consi derably . As anaverage, however, we may take the best temperature of

the actual'

eggs at the beginn in g of the occupancy to belo2i

o

to

M oisture.— In a normal egg there is suffi ci ent of thi s to in

cubate,provided that the venti lationof the incubator i s good

enough to prevent undue evaporation . In tank machinesthe water tray i s necessary for the supplying of mo i sture,owing to the means of ventilation provided by d i rectopenings ), as the rapi di ty of evaporation is in proportionto the rate of the airmovement and the mo i sture of the airsurrounding the egg chamber . Excess of moisture, i t isnecessary to po int out, i s just as harmful as lack of the same,particularly during the early stages of development . A number of experiments have been carri ed out in thi s country andin the Uni ted States of Ameri ca to d i scover what degree ofmo i sture exactly gives the best results ; but at present nodefini te d i scovery has been made, the type of machin e ,the state of the weather, and atmospheri c condi tions of theroom, all bein g factors whi ch have to be considered . W henhigh east winds prevail, Slightly more mo i sture should begiven , even to hot-air machines , whi ch are considered torequire none under ordinary condi tions . In the tankmachine the temptation i s to overdo mo i sture ; and whi lewi th a low temperature thi s i s not of much importance,with a high one it i s absolutely fatal . M anuf acturersadvise the filling of the water tray from the very beginning,

but we have personally had better results wi th i t only halffull for the first ten days . The test we have foun d mostreliable as to the quanti ty of mo isture which it is right tosupply is to set a batch of eggs under a hen (under naturalcond i tions as nearly as possible) , and at the end of everyfew days after the first ten days to compare theair spacesin both lots of eggs . If these co incide, i t may be takenthat the right amount of cooling and . mo i sture i s beingsupplied . If the hen eggs Show much larger spaces thanthe machine eggs, i t shows that the m achine eggs are

INCUBATION 55

having ei ther too little cooling or too much mo isture, andvi ce versa .

Testing.—Thi s is even more important in incubator work

than in natural hatching, as several unfertile or addledeggs in a drawer may aff ect the temperature of the othersvery materially, and the addled eggs in parti cular may ,

by the gases they give off , do serious damage to the others .

The seventh or eighth day , and , again , the fif teenth , willbe found the most sui table times for testing for fertility .

Cooling — Cooling, like mo isture, can be overdone,'

butit must be remembered that in very cold weather it takesthe mach in e longer to warm the eggs up

'

again to theirformer temperature than it does a hen . In the majorityof cases , however, the danger lies in the eggs getting iasuffici ently . cooled , and th is seldom results in a good hatchof strong ch i ckens . In a warm room it is only necessaryto cool while turning, for the first week, and , after that, incold weather they Should be cooled in the morning for aboutten minutes , in warm weather from fif teen to twentyminutes , while at night it is only necessary to give them thecooling they get whi le being turned . W h en the first eggis observed to be chipped cooling should cease .

In hot-air machines , with a room temperature of about50

°and a working temperature of cool from fif teen

minutes the first week to twenty the second and thi rd .

Turn ing — It is necessary in in cubator work to turn theeggs twi cedaily , in order that the germ does not sti ck to thes ide of the Shell, and in order, also , that the eggs may varytheir posi tion in the drawer, as , although in theory all

parts of the incubator drawer are supposed to be of equaltem perature, in practi ce the centre of the drawer or one

of the corners nearest the lamp is usually much hotterthan any other part .

W hen turni ng the eggs in the morning , a few should betaken from the centre, whi ch wi ll cause the top ones toroll gently down to fill their place, and the first ones takenout can be put in the corners . In this way all the eggs willbe shif ted in posi tion daily .

The egg drawer should be left open in the morni ng forthe necessary cooling , but at night the eggs are simplyturned . W h enworking in a very hot room (to be avo idedif possible, it m ay be necessary to turn the eggs thri ce


daily . Eggs Should never be turned -withcold hands , and

should be m oved gently wi thout jarring . On testing daysit i s not necessary to cool or turn the eggs , as they getqui te enough handling while being tested . After the

eighteenth day eggs Should not be turned , and on the lastmorning place the b ig end of thefeggs shgh tly lower thanthe small end , so that the chick (wh i ch turns completely

FIG . l l .—EG G -TESTER .

(Toope. )

round in the Shell on the nin eteenth day ) avo ids the dangerof jamb ing the head , which often ensues i f the egg is restingon its small end .

General W orking.— The in cubator should always be

working at a regular temperature for a couple-

of days beforethe eggs are put in . N ever pack the eggs tightly together ,they are much more d i fficult to handle and the eggs hatchbetter when the drawer is not quite full, as the d evelopingembryo can draw upon a purer supply of oxygen . It is bestto put all the eggs in together forgeneral convenienceofwork

INCUBATION 57

ing but if any have to be added , a strip of flannel folded andwarmed should be placed between them and the other eggs .

If eggs are chipped , do not in terfere with the machine, andavo id assisted hatchingwhenever possible . Regulari ty in attending to the machin e is essential, the lamp being filled andtrim med daily , the thermometer read ings carefully taken ,

the cooling and turn ing not forgotten , and the temperaturemaintained at an even level. Do not expect too much of

the mach in e, for , sin ce its capaci ty is about five times thatof a hen , a much larger number of unf ertiles , deaths , etc . ,

may be expected and while many people get hatchings of90 per cent . from their machin es , 70 per cent . m ay be considered a very good average .

Hatching — Ii in structions have been carried out and

strong ferti le eggs have been used , the chi cks should beginto chip the shells on the twenti eth day , and make theirappearance unassi sted twelve or eighteen hours afterwards .

W hen the eggs begin chipping , keep the drawer closed as

much as poss ible . If a shell should be chipped on thelower side . turn it round so that the chick can get out . If

the chi ck breaks the shell at the small end , or if the Shell isimpeding the breathing , it is perm issible to offer assistance,but obvious weaklings are best left alone .

Chickens fai rly out of their shells should be transferredto the drying box , its zinc bottom being well littered wi thpeat moss , as the air in the egg drawer will be too hot forthem . If only a few are in the box at a time , the glass lidm ay be kept Shut but if a great many are in together, thelid should be slightly raised , putting a pi ece of flannel

Ecross, and in three or four hours they will be dry and

uffy .

Comm on Causes of Dead in Shell. D ead in shell is ,unfortunately ,

a very common trouble in incubation work ,

and among the causes are— using eggs from parents that areinbred , too young , too old , very fat or badly fed , over or

under-mated ; using eggs that have been chi lled or overheated ; supplying t-cc much or too li ttle moisture in theincubator , the air being too damp to dry out the air cell,or so dry as to dry up the membrane . Even wi th thegreatest care, it is not always possible to avo id thi s inincubator work ,

whereas wi th hens the trouble is d istinctlyless

, and we are coming to the conclus ion , suggested long


ago ,but never really debated ,

that the diff erence li es in theprotective covering of o i l which comes from the breast ofthe hen and envelops the eggs , thus acting as a kind of

lubri cant to the im portant membrane of the egg chamber .

An incubator cannot supply th is , and , though the sug

gestion may seem absurd to some people,we are m

clined to th ink that by wearing a pair of shgh tly greasy

gloves when turning the eggs (provided the grease i s of

a clean, odourless nature) the same eff ect mi ght be pro

duced . There i s certainly a great d ifierence in the feel ofincubator eggs and hen -brooded ones towards the date ofhatching , and we venture to suppose that the lack of thi sprotective covering ,

slight though it is, is the mai n reasonfor the excess of

“dead in shell ” in incubator-hatch ing

as compared wi th hen-hatching.

Hatching'

of Other Eggs.— Duck eggs are being hatched

in creasingly in incubators by large duck fatteners , and theirgeneral management is pretty much the same as the eggsof the common fowl, except that the incubator needs to beworked 2° lower in machines of the tank ty pe, and to 1

°

in hot-air machin es . Ventilation must not be of too rapida nature, and more mo i sture must be suppli ed . Ducklingsare slower in getting out of the shell than chi ckens , but arestrong and vigorous , and can be ass isted out wi thout dangerof injury . They do best when hatched alone, not mixedup wi th fowl or other eggs . A strip of flannel wrung out ofhot water and laid over the eggs for a fewmin utes two or

three days before hatching will ass i st matters considerably .

Cleaning M ach ines.— After the incubators are fini shed

wi th for the season , they must be carefully disinf ected , and ,

if tankmachines , empti ed of their water and allowed to dry .

Hot-air flues and radiating chambers must be cleared fromsoot , or it may eat the metal away . Spare parts should beoverhauled , thermometers packed carefully away, and lampstaken to pi eces and cleaned , while water trays and coveringsshould be thoroughly bo iled and dri ed to prevent th eba

t

ci

teria whi ch may have been introduced from remainingac i ve.


the poultry industry has made during the past fewyears i slargely due to the adoption of the artificial system of hatching and rearing . The early spring chi cken trade has beenmuch helped , s ince the chi ckens can be put on the marketexactly at the most profitable tim e . The labour of lookingafter half a dozen b rooders, each hold ing from 50 to 100

chicks, is infin i tely less than that requi red to attend toO

thewants of th e requi si te number of broody hens . It i s acurious fact that hens often bring ofi the best chi ckens,whilst brooders make the best rearers . Brooder-rearedchi cks are freer from insect pests , and so have the chance ofmaking better growth are more under control, and can

be kept from m a-randing vermin there are no trampledchi cks and ,

provided perf ect cleanliness , proper f eedi ng.

and ample venti lation , are arranged for, brooder-rearedchi cks are perfectly healthy and strong . On the otherhand , the beneficial effect whi ch a spell of si tting and rearinghas upon hens must not be forgotten , and it is often advieable for heavy layers to be perm itted to indulge theirnatural proclivi ti es . M any hens make admi rable mothers ,and for the poultry-keeper who only intends to rear a fewbatches of chickens there is the question of the expenseof a brooder to be consi dered . It is highly improbablethat the natural method wi ll ever be abandoned , some ofour largest farmers— both exhibi tion and utili ty—giving itas their opinion that the best results are obtained by theuse of both methods in combin ation .

NATURAL BEARIN G .

First M eals. Once more the axiom must be sta ted thatit is qui te unn ecessary, and , indeed ,

absolutely harm ful , tofeed ch i cken s for twenty—four hours after emerging fromthe shell . Nature has provided for the chi ck for thatlength of time by means of the yolk wi thin the egg frcmwh ich the chi ck is hatched , the yolk being absorbed in tothe stomach of the ch i ck the last thin g before hatch ing , anddigested after its arrival in the world . A longer periodof abstinence from food is even advisable , th irty-six hoursbeing really the most suitable time . Some authoritiesrecommend giving no food for an even longer period ,

but weare not in agreement with them .

Thehen, however, should be fed on the nest as soon as the

BEARING 61

hatch is over, letting her have a liberal supply of com so

that she wi ll settle down comfortably and not get restless .

A good feed for the mother consi sts of W heat which has beenmixed in a hot mash , and then allowed to cool , when it willbe found to have slightly swelled . W ater should be supplied , too , but many hens will not drink on the nest .Coops. —The next matter is the removal to the coop ,

which should not take place for twenty-four hours or so

after the hatch and whi ch in damp or cold weather mustbe carried out carefully, s in ce a chill contracted by thechi ckens at this period has a most injurious eff ect . Unlessthe weather is exceptionally wet and stormy , or the monthof the year very early, W e think it wise to put the chickensout into the open as soon as possible

,as they seem to do

so much better than when kept under more artificial con

Fi G . 12—00 0 1> W ITH DOOR .

(Toope. )

ditions . If the weather is bad , the coops may stand undera dry shed or outhouse (preferably onewi th an earth floor) ,from whi ch the youngsters can venture out in search of

fresh air and exerc ise . All coops should be strong and wellmade , and those intended forwinter use constructed of good

solid wood . The large-sized ones are most sui table, and

wherever possible a sloping roof , proj ecting a little over thefront to carry off the rain should be provided . A moreexpensive type, but a very excellent one, has two cornpartm ents—one in whi ch the hen is confined , the other W i than open front of netting , serving as a covered run for thechi ckens

, and having a sli ding panel across the front ,whi ch can be adjusted accord ing to the stateof the weather .

M any makers bui ld the coops wi th adjustable shelterboards , whi ch are hinged and let down right over the frontof the coop , so that the coop is completely shut in for the


night . In many distri cts this is absolutely essential , so

that field vermin cannot enter but caremust be taken thatthe ventilation holes are suffi ci ent , since nothing can beworse for chi ckens than to sleep in a stuffy, badly venti latedcoop night after night .

The late M r . Lewi s W right gave it as h is op1n10n thatwooden floors for coops were advi sable unless the coops wereremoved every day to fresh dry so i l, although , he added ,

where this could be done no better plan could be adopted .

W e hesi tate to put forward our vi ews in opposi tion to so

recognized an authority , but, speaking from our own experience, we absolutely taboo wooden floors for chi ckencoops under any cond ition whatever . Certain ly by theuse of some litter, peat moss or chaff , the wooden floor canbe kept perfectly clean and dry ; but in the majori ty of

cases , however thickly it may be strewn , the hen scratchesthe li tter all away into a corner , and the chi ckens have thei rfeet on the hard floor . As a natural consequence , cramppresently ensues , and for that reason we do not recommendthe use of wooden floors . If no dry so il can be found , athi ck layer of granulated peat moss can be spread on theground , as thi s substance i s h ighly absorbent , consequentlyi s not eas i ly fouled but whenever a p i ece of dry earth or

good short grass can be found , let the coops be placed on

that . It is a good plan to take the hen to the coop first,having previously dusted her thoroughly wi th py rethrumpowder, and let her have a good meal before taking out

her brood , as after she is sati sfied she will be more likely toattend to

.

their requirements .

Feeding Young Chickens.—The chi cks’ first meal is the

next consideration , and there is much difference of op inionas to what consti tutes the best material for it . Theold - fashioned method of hard - bo i led egg mixed wi thbreadcrumbs has a good deal to recommend it ; the onlyobjection to its use being that it causes constipation whencontin ued long . W e prefer to give egg custard made of

cooking eggs , or even of unferti les rej ected from othe '

hatches . The best way of making thi s is to warm somedripping in a pan over the fire, stir in the beaten eggs andsome m i lk, and to continue sti rring until the custard has setand begins to dry , af terwards mixing in some grated breadcrumbs . Thi s is more d igestible than the hard-bo iled eggs ,and is always greatly relished by the ch i cks . Chicken

BEARING 63

m eal, of whi ch there are several well-known and reliablebrands on the market, scalded with boi water ti ll it iscrumbly, but notmoi st or sloppy , is a good 00d uponwhi chto start chickens, but W e have always preferred to give theegg and bread crumb for the first two day s at least .It must be remembered that a highly nutri tious di et i s

necessary for chi ckens , Since they have to face the strainof rapid growth (involving the production of bone, muscle ,and feathers ), and a correct nutri tive ratio for themshould be as high as 1 in 3 1 part nitrogenous to3 of carbonaceous food material . For the first fortnightchi cks ought to be fed wi th great regulari ty every two hoursduring thedaytime, and if possible, during the early monthsof the year , one or two meals should be given by candle

Fro. 13 .—Ho'r-Ai a INGUBATOB.

(Toope.)

light. The chi cks wi ll soon get ac customed to byartificial light, and will come out as they see the light coming . As early in the morni ng and as late as possible shouldbe the rule in chicken-feeding ; and where it is not possibleto prepare a warm meal very early in the morning , a feedof dry chi ck grain should be thrown down , so that they canbe working away until their breakfast arrives . For thefirst fewdays the meals should be given on a clean board ,

whi ch is removed after they have finished andwhen thechi cks are older, feedi ng troughs of galvanized iron or of

V-shaped pi eces of wood nailed together and provided wi thlegs, and having a guard rail across the top, should besuppli ed . The troughs must be kept scrupulously clean ,

nothing being more likely to cause bowel trouble than sourfood left about . Sloppily-mixed soft food is another


comm on cause of the same com plain t food should bemixed dry enough to crumble in the fingerswi thout sti ckingto them . The best results are as a rule obtained by givingalternate meals of dry and soft food , the first meal of theday being of soft and the last one of dry food , and byhaving as much variety as possible in the menu . Food of

a very fatty or starchy nature is not sui table for chi ckensun less given occasionally . M any poultry-keepers pref er tof eed on dry food from the very start, but when s ize in thestock i s d esired soft food should be given as well .

Oatmeal well mixed with milk is an excellent food foryoung chi cks, and after three weeks there is not a finer foodthan ground oats . It should not be fed under that periodon account of the husk it contains . Biscui t-meal is excellent, and middlings a re very good for rearing whenmixed wi th other foods , but should not be used alone .

Dry Foods.—There are many excellent dry foods on the

market, but i f a very large number of chi ckens are beingreared it is cheaper to buy the necessary ingredients anddo the mixing one

’s self . Th e following mixture i s advisedby the Board of Agri culture in their leaflet on feeding .

For the first eight days

Canary -seedM illet-seed

kFinely -crac ed green peasHem pseed

And after that period the followingRough oatm ealFinely cracked wheat

m aize

green peas

whi te riceCanary -seedM i llet-seedHem pseed

Two soft food mixtures also advised by the Board ofAgri culture consist of

Scalded b iscui t m eal .

bran .

Pea or been m ealBarleym ealBuckwheat-m eal

REARING 65

Scalded bransharps

Oatm eal

M eat.— One meal a day of cooked lean meat is oftenadvised , but meat-giving can be overdone in the case ofvery young chi ckens . An imal food is, however, a necessi ty ,

but naturally-reared chicks can generally find suffici ent ifthey are on a grass run . If they cannot, then a li ttle meatmay be given , and some ants

’ eggs suppli ed in add i tion .

W e do not advi se green bone for birds under two monthsof age, and then it should be fed sparingly .

The intervals between meals must, of course, be graduallyincreased in length , till at two months four meals in thetwenty-four hours are qui te sufficient .

Variety .— '

I\vo little variety meals for chickens areas follows1. Take a small quanti ty of left-over bo iled potato es and

smooth away any lumps ; then, wi th the blade of a knif e,add oatmeal till the two are thoroughly mixed . If properlymixed it results in a light crumbly mass whi ch is muchreli shed .

2 . A cupful of chi ck ri ce should be soaked in a gill ofskim milk , and cooked slowly in the oven ti ll all i s absorbed ,

when it should be mixed wi th breadcrust, whi ch has beenhardened in the oven and then rolled out . G roats soakedin milk and cooked till sof t are also much enjoyed by chi cks .

It is by giving these occasional changes of di et, and bytempting the appeti te if the chi cks seem to flag at all, thatlarge healthy birds are made . In damp weather a li ttlebo iled linseed or a small quanti ty of hemp should be fed ,

and any tendency to d iarrhoea should be checked by feedingrice for a day or two . W e have found excellent resultsobtained by giving Phosto (a li quid preparation of phosphates) to young chicken s , any tendency to soft bone orleg weakness being obviated by its regular use .

TheFeathering Period.—A cri ti cal stage through whi ch

all chickens have to go is the feathering period , felt moreacutely in the heavy than in the light breeds , in conse

quence of their carrying more feathers . Often a flock of

chickens appears to lose ground during thi s period whi chit never regain s afterwards , and. extra attention

at thi s


tim e is well worth the trouble entailed . Foods suppliedat this stage should be of a n itrogenous character, as th i selement en ters so largely into the composi tion of feathers .

Pea or bean meal, chopped sunflower - seeds , and bo i ledlin seed ,

should all be in cluded in the di etary . W i th regardto quanti ty of feedi ng ,

the golden rule is , Li ttle and often ,

keeping the birds hungry and active, so that they search fortheir own living and are constantly on the hunt, and theymust never be fed so li berally that they hang about thecoop wai ting for the next meal to be given. Keep theb irds working , and their health will be satisfactory , as theamateur is far more likely to overfeed than to underfeed .

Green Food — G reen food is a highly important arti cleof the chi ckens’ di etary . Chopped grass or lettuce cut upvery finely wi th a pair of sci ssors is much reli shed . A

handful of grass, another of stale breadcrum bs , and anotherof coarse oatmeal all moistened with a li ttle skim milk ,

makes a capi talmeal for a young brood . M ustard and cresscan be grown in shallow boxes , also sprouted oats , givingonly the tender young tops . Dandeli on leaves are excellentfor the birds , and we are firm beli evers in the vi rtue of

boiled nettle leaves .

Chopped onions or garli c should never on any accountbe omi tted from the bill of fare, since it has been shownover and over again that chi ckens who have had

‘

either of

these regularly fed to them have been practically immunefrom d isease, and that the dread di sease of chi ckenhood ,

gapes ,”is successfufly kept at bay by theiragency .

W h ere there is a very small run , i t is an excellent plan toprovide a li ttle treat for the chicks as followsThree or four frames of light wood , 3 or 4 feet square and

covered with wi re netting ( l -inch mesh ) , are laid over ap i ece of ground wh i ch has been sown wi th grass and cloverseed . The chickens must be kept away from the vi cini tytill the grass has grown, and then allowed to p ick at thegreen stuff through , but they cannot scratch it up nor foulit very much by reason of the netting over the top.

W ater.—The question of water for ch icks has been very

much debated . M any experienced poultry-keepers seemto get excellent results by wi thhold ing it altogether whilethe chi cks are quite young , though for brooder chi ckens itis wi thout doubt absolutely necessary . Certa inly ,

when a


renewing the appli cation at' the end of three weeks

'

or amonth chi cks treated in this way will be comparativelyfree from the dreaded tick, which is principally

“

found onthe head , throat, and neck

M ercurial ointm ent 1ounce.

Heated till sem iflui d, and one drop applied with the headof a m atch .

Caution must be observed in dealing wi th this o intment,since an excess of mercury would be dangerous .

ARTIFICIAL BEARING .

Typesof Brooders.-There are two types of heated brooder

very much used at the present day—the one heated by hotair, the other by hot water, corresponding to the two ty pesof incubator . In the latter case thewarmth is supplied bymeans of a tank filled wi th water, whi ch is heated from ano il lamp , the hot water either passing through a coi l orbo iler , and then through circulating tubes to the tank . Inone design of hot-water brooder the brooding chamber isfitted wi th tubes runn ing around its walls .In the hot-air brooders the heat from the lamp passes

d irectly into the tank by means of a flue, si tuated in theouter chamber, so that the fumes from the lamp do not

reach the chickens . The tank i tself forms the inner roof ofthe brooding chamber .

Each type has its own advantag es and di sadvantages .

W here the hot-water tanks are very large, it is di fficult toregulate the large body of water in accordance wi th weathercondi tions . W hen the temperature i s made suffici entlyhigh for the night , there is the danger that the water keepshot too long , and in the greater warmth of the day thebrooder will be working at far too high a temperature unlesssufficient ventilators can be provided to carry off the surplusheat . W h en the tank is small and the circulating pipesystem is adopted , the danger is lessened , since the body ofwater is less , and can soon be cooled by simply loweringthe flame of the lamp .

Some people prefer hot-air brooders , just as some preferhot-air in cubators , and certa inly in thi s type the tem perature can be raised and lowered very easily and rapidly to

BEARING 69

sui t weather condi tions . The hot-air type of machinewhich -has no tank , but in which the lamp stands in thecentre of the broodingchamber (the heat striking an irmer metal roofwhi ch acts as a radiator) ,is not recommended , as

it is scarcelypossible thatthe fumes of the lamp canbe successfully carriedaway from the chi ckens .

Brooder Houses .

W h en rearing chicks ona large scale .

in the earlymonths of the year ,brooder houses are usedby large rearers to econom ize the labour whi chwould be involved byusing a great many smallbrooders . The generaltype of house is thatsuppli ed wi th heat byhot-water pipes runn inground the house, havingwire guards to keep thechi cks from getting toonear thewarmth . Hoversof board covered wi thnarrow hanging strips offlannel allow the chicksto pass in and out asthey like .

One well-known formconsists of a gabled roofbuilt over a trench in

the ground , entered bysteps at each end . The

ground on ei ther sideforms a platform , levelwi th the wai st of the person who attends to the chi cks ,and each platform is covered wi th litter, and d ivided intoruns of different sizes to sui t chi cks of diff erent ages .


W indows in the roof are fitted wi th louvre venti lators ,whi ch can be kept open or closed at wi ll .The more sim ple the apparatus , the better, so that

perfect cleanliness can be attained ,and where the

'

fittm gs

are very elaborate th is i s a matter d ifficult of attainment .Co ld brooder houses require an efficient venti lation

system worked in combination wi th a suffici ent of shelterand warmth , or the losses will be heavy .

G ood Points in Bearers— There are so many excellentrearers on the market that it would be in vid ious to particularize,

but a few general hints on the purchase of

rearers may not be out of place . The best type is that inwhich the heat goes right down to the floor of the warmchamber

, giving the chickens the same warmth as theywould obtain when nestling beneath a hen ; having anequable temperature all over its surface , wi th no awkwardcorners in to wh i ch ch icks can crowd , the wood being wellseasoned and the roof well constructed to carry off therain ; having the lamp s ituated outside the night nurseryand of reliable construction , provi d ed wi th a Stemp wi ck,and protected by an asbestos cover to obviate risks of fire ;having ample venti lation , but wi th no draughts playingupon the

'

chickens ; a rai sed floor arranged well off th eground to avo id damp all the parts well put together andof simple construction to faci li tate perf ect cleanl iness andairing , and no unnecessary fittings and adjustments to getout of order .

M anagement of Brooders.— The general management ofbreeder-reared chi ckens diff ers in some respects very li ttlefrom that of naturally-reared ones , but there are certainpo ints where considerable diff erence of treatment i s necessary .

The question Howmany chi cks should be reared in abreeder i

”i s often asked , and opinions d ifler widely . It i s

wi se to remember that overcrowding must be stri ctlyavo ided , and that the birds increase in size very rapi dlyconsequently a foster-mother b ig enough for fif ty day -oldchi cks will by no means suffice for their requirements atthree weeks . It is always well, as in the case of incubators ,to run rearers under the estim ated number whi ch they aresupposed to contain . Pure air is an absolute essential f orhealthy stock, and it is a mi staken idea to imagine that the

BEARING 71

more chi ckens there are in the breeding chamber, the betterthey wi ll be in cold weather . They may certainly bewarmer, but they cann ot possibly be so healthy, if they are0vercrowdedCoddling i s very much out of place in chi cken-rearing ,

and the question of temperature at which the'

W armchamber is to be kept is a most important one. Everyprecaution must be taken to avo i d chi lls when the newlyhatched chicks are being brought from the hen or incubatorto the breeder, as chill at that tim e i s very serious .

TheFloor.— Previous to its being used the breeder shouldhave beenworking for a couple of days , so that i t is perfectlywarm and well aired before the chi cks enter it . It is sur

pri sing howdamp and cold appliances get when they havebeen stored away for any length of time . The floor shouldbe well covered wi th granulated peat moss , wheat flights ,or chaff , and littered down 2 inches deep if possible, so thata solid floor of the li tter is obtained which i s not easilyscratched away or blown away, exposing the hard woodenfloor underneath . M any people appear to imagin e that athin layer of li tter is ample, whereas it rapidly becomes ofno use, and the chi ckens get cramp in consequence of beingon the bare boards .

The Temperature.— For the first week the temperature

of the breeder should be the tem perature bei ng taken

after the chicks are in . The natural warmth of the chicks’

bodies will considerably rai se the temperature ; and if thebreeding chamber had 90

°of heat before they were put

in , it i s obvious that after they had been in occupationfor any length of time the temperature would be utterly unsui table for their well-being . The second week the temperaturemay be reduced to the third week to and

left at that for a li ttlewhile, afterwards being graduallyreduced ,

until,as the chi cks grew older, they are only having

a li ttle heat at night till the cold brooding time comes .

Of course, all these temperatures are to be consideredas liable to alteration, whi ch should be made by theattendant in sympathy wi th the atmospheri c condi tionsprevailing . They are, however , those most sui table forthe early cold months of the year, the months in whi chheated b rooders are most largely used . The light breeds ,which feather more rapidly than the heavy breeds ,


may be cold-brooded , provi ded weather condi tions are

sui table, at six or eight weeks old . Heavy breeds maysometimes require from ten to twelve weeks if the weather

is cold and they are feathering slowly . It is im portantto remember that overheating the breeding chamberdoes far more harm, and i s

producti veof farmoreseriousevi ls, than underheating . Inthe latter case the birds’

growth and progress wouldmerely be slightly checked ,

but overheating is the cause,not merely of bowel com

plain ts , but of inflammationof the lungs , roup , and a

general lack of stam i na and

vi gour . An experi encedrearer can tell at a glance,wi thout using h is therm om

eter,whether h is rearers are

worki ng at too high or too

low a temperature .

"

In theformer case the chi cks willbe separated to a markedextent, and wi ll appear tobe gasping for breath and

obviously di stressed ; in thelatter case they will becrowding and huddling to

gether for warmth, makingli ttle plainti ve cheeps .

”

Chi ckens can stand dry coldwell as a rule, but wet and

high winds sometimes tellseverely upon them . Theyshould have ample space,fresh air, and sunshine (the

rearers‘being moved daily into fresh ground) , and beplaced facing south, in as sheltered a posi tion as possible.

The brooding chamber should be aired daily, and scrupu

lous cleanliness main tained therein . Lamps should have

Srmnx

REARER

NewPoultry

Syndicate.

BEARIN G 73

regular attention and the best o il only—W hi te Rose or

other refined petroleum o il for preferencefi m ust be used .

Care of Lamps.— In the majori ty of.

cases where a fireoccurs it is due to careless attention , since the modernlamps are so well and carefully made . The Stemp patentwick needs very li ttle attention , one or two trimmings lasting the whole time of a batch of chi ckens in the breeder.

Otherwicks need regular daily attention , and the morning i sthe best time to see to them . W i cks should not be cut wi thordinary sci ssors , as these do not usually possess the necessary edge . All top charring should be first of all rubbedoff wi th a piece of soft paper, and then the wi ck should beevenly trh m ed wi th proper lamp scissors . It i s a wi seplan to allow two lamps for every rearer, since they can beused on alternate days and trimmed at lei sure .

The night nursery ought to be cleaned out and wellscraped down every day , and it i s a good plan to sprinkle athin layer of dry sand on the floor bottom before puttingin the litter, the sand absorbing a good deal of mo isture .

OuterRuns.— Themost useful type brooder has two outerruns, one of which, roofed over and wire—netted , may betermed the day nursery

” whilst the other has no floor,but is s im ply netted in all round wi th ratproof netting, so

that the chi cks can get directly on to the grass in theday tim e in goodweather. It is best to have a wood floor onthe covered run , so that the li tter is not lost every time therun is shifted . Chafi , wheat fli ghts , or eat culms

,make

good litter, and must be lai d thickly down ,as in the sleepingchamber . By scattering their dry grain in the coveredrun, the chi ckens are forced to take a good deal of exerci se,and it forms a splendid playground for them when theweather is too wet or windy for them to be let into thegrass run . For the first fewdays of the chi ckens’ existencethey may be fed in the heated chamber if the weather isvery cold ; but it must not be continued long, and all foodmust be fed on boards and removed after a meal, as nothingis more li kely to cause bowel trouble than soured food .

Do not move the foster-mother on to sodden grass , butwait unti l the wet has dri ed off a li ttle .

Sickly Chicks.— Every effort must be made after thefirst fewdays to get the chi cks to feed and exerci se in theopen run ,

as the more fresh air and sunshine they get the


better and stronger they will be . An y weakly or di seasedchi cks should be killed off at once, as they teach the othersto crowd , and in the more or less artificial condi tions ofbrooder life one or two si ckly birds are more a source ofdanger to their neighbour chi cks than would be the casewi th hen-reared birds . It i s a waste of time and food try m gto rear s ickly birds , as they generally get trampled on bythe stronger birds, and succumb in the end , after much foodand time has been wasted on them .

Brooder chi cks are rarely troubled much wi th insectpests, but i t i s wise to di sinf ect and limewash the broodersbetween each occupancy .

Feeding of Brooder Chicks.— This d iffers in some respects

from that of hen-reared chi ckens . In the somewhat d ifferent condi tions of their life, i t is found that brooderchi cks need constant exercise and work if they are togrow sturdy consequently the system of dry feedingentirely has become a recognized practi ce . It is foundthat soft food has a tendency to cause bowel trouble. Byscattering the grains among the li tter, together wi th theflint gri t sui table for their age, the birds are constantly keptactive . The economy of tim e and work is considerable inusing dry food , and a poultry-keeper working on a fairlylarge scale and using many brooders finds thi s a not unimportant side of the question . Breeder chi cks must havewater, whi ch must be suppli ed regu larly in fresh condi tion ,

for if left for a long time wi thout it (and being unable toprocure it for themselves ) , they rush to itwhen it i s brought,and drink to such an extent that death ensues .

G reen food is almost more a necessi ty for brooder ch i cksthan naturally-reared ones , and a perf ectly regular supplymust be given, bowel troubles being frequently caused byi rregular feeding of green food . It i s well to supply finelychopped grass for a week or so ti ll they have acquired ataste for it, and wi ll get it for themselves out of their run .

Animal food must also be provi ded , and lean meat cookedwell and chopped finely, ants

’ eggs , and granulated meatsuch as Crissel, can be supplied . During the first partof their career, while the temperature of the warm chamberi s fairly high , it i s a wi se poli cy to feed sparingly ,

as it wi llprevent them from developing cramp— ali as gout— whi choften attacks brooder ch icks whi ch are being fed too liberally and are not taking sufli cient exerci se .


that they should be put wi dely apart as soon as th is instinct begins to make i tself felt . A flock of youn g cockerelsbrought up together gets along perfectlywell, and an old

cock may be taken from one of the breedi ng pens and putwi th them to keep order, in stead of penm ng h im up alone.

The heavy breeds never grow so large i f cockerels and

pullets are allowed to run together, and in the case of. the

small active breeds the young cockerels are often a posi ti venui sance, needi ng separation sometimes before 811: weeksof age. It is easy to pi ck out the cockerels m a flock, say,of Leghorns , their headpi eces being di stincti ve very earlyin the day ,

but i t i s not so easy to di stinguish sex In someof the heavy breeds at a very early age. W hen any doubtari ses i t is saf est to leave them together a li ttle longer, andi t may not be necessary to separate them ti ll twelve weeksold .

FIG . 16. SUNBEAM HOT-AIR REARER.

(Tam lin . )

As a rule in the heavy breeds the heads are larger, andare carri ed more boldly in the case of the cockerels ; andthe shape of the tai l of the male bi rd di ff ers from that of thefemale even when qui te young, but it is never possible forthe in experi enced to be qu i te certain unti l the appearanceof the saddle hackles .

Pullets whi ch are allowed to run on wi th the cockerelswill come on to lay far too early, andwi ll not only lay verysmall eggs , but their own bodi ly growth and developmentwi ll be seriously aff ected .

Shade.—Shade for growing chi ckens is an importantpo int in summer management, hot sun being most harmfulto young stock. Trees and shrubs are the best of all shelter,and an orchard (except in very wet seasons) is an i deal placefor rearing . W hen the run i s small, bush frui t can beplanted, sin ce li ttle chi ckens do good to the trees byscratching, keeping the soi l open round the roots , and by

BEARING 77

the manure deposi ted by them . Sunflowers should find aplace in the rearing ground , since not only are they ornam ental ih appearance, but they are di stinctly useful , ro

viding a great deal of shade and a nice playground . heyalso afford a valuable by—product in the shape of theirseeds ; chi ckens greatly reli sh sunflower seeds split up,while they are a valuable addi tion to the menu of themoulting hens . If no shelter of a green nature is possiblein the run, then makeshi f t shelters of hurdles covered bybranches or fern leaves, or of coarse sacking or sai lclothstretched on sti cks driven into the ground , must be provided .

Changeof Perm—The great point in rearing chi ckens isto keep them continually progressing, and that is not

always an easy thing, especially when space i s limited and

theweather hot. Stock reared on free range or on a farm

generally push along pretty well, growing large and m uscular, and not putting on much superfluous flesh . It i s otherwi sewith chickens reared on a small range, which often flagperceptibly in the middle of the summer, getting torpidand listless, not moving about very much , and in conse

sequence getting fleshy, whi ch i s not what is required in

young stock birds, though all right for table chi ckens . The

commonest cause of thi s is that their run is graduallygetting tainted , not perhaps to a degree perceptible to us ,but probably to the fowls , since they are breathing the airclose to the ground . R emoval to a fresh pi ece of groundis the best cure for thi s debili ty, and i t is always wellwherever possible to keep a reserve pi ece of land whichcan be used as a run just about thi s time. W hen the hayis carried, the clear fresh land forms an ideal chan e ofair for the chi ckens ; but any pi ece of run whi ch has eenvacant long enough to be sweet and clean is reli shed , and

the birds seem to appreciate the newness and change of itjust as much as human beings would do . Even if a newgrass run cannot be supplied , a clean pi ece of earth whi chhas been dug over, or a vacant portion of the vegetablegarden,will suffice to give the chi ckens the fresh start theyseem to require .

Sorting the Ch ickens.—D rafting out the chickens i s an

Im portant step . All absolute wasters should be consignedto the boi ling-pot surplus cockerels sold thosewhi ch are

7s UTILITY POULTRY-KEEPING

intended for future breeding stock put far away from thepullets

,having an old cook at their head to keep them in

order ; stock pullets kept growing, but not fed in such away as to encourage premature laying ; and all chi ckensintended for table use fed and reared separately from thosewhi ch are to be kept for the breeding pens .

Batches of chi ckens of diff erent ages rarely do verywell together ; the small ones get no fair chance in thematter of food , whilst, on the other hand , the number ofmeals the li ttle ones get is too many for the older chi cks .

Nei ther must be slighted for the sake of the others ; theli ttle ones must have their proper number of meals , andthe older ones must have the requi si te amount of food

sui ted to their greater size and appeti te .

In the hot weather it often happens that the birds go off

their food a li ttle, and if they do i t i s a wi se plan to omi tone meal a day , and to give a lessened quanti ty for a fewdays at the other mealtimes , bo i led nettles being an important item in the menu . It is a wi se plan, where i t isdesired to retard pullets from laying too soon , to feed thestock pullets from the age of three months on an all-graind i et , using a vari ety of grains , but giving them separately ,

not all mixed together . Then , when the early autumnarri ves and eggs are required , the softfood mixture of akind sui ted to the production of eggs may be resumed .

First Lay ing of Pullets.— W e do not advocate the en

couragem ent of pullets laying unti l they are qui te six monthsold . D uring the last two or three winters the poultrypapers have contain ed many letters from poultry-keepersdelighted wi th the prowess of pullets whi ch have com

m enced to lay at four and five and a half months . W e

think results of the kind should be m atters of regret ratherthan congratulation . Six months i s qui te early enoughfor egg production , even though it may be a m atter ofd ifficulty to prevent pullets from laying before . It ismuch better to sacrifice a few eggs for the sake of havinga properly-developed bi rd whi ch w ill lay a decent-sizedegg . Of course , it must not be taken for granted that apullet wi ll lay of necessi ty at any parti cular age. Breedhas a good deal to do wi th it, the heavy varieties naturallycoming on later than the lighter breeds . Strain affects them atter, since early laying is to a certain extent heredi tary ,

and by careful selection for two or three generations a

REAR ING 79

flock of pullets which wi ll come into full lay between six

and seven months of age can be obtained , whereas in un

selected stock i t is often nine or ten months before the birdsstart work . Late February or early M arch hatched birdsof the heavy breeds , and April and early M ay pullets of thelight vari eties , wi ll start laying in the autum n before thefrosts begin , and wi ll probably go on through the winter .

Feeding and housing alter dates of laying to some extentalso , and where it i s feared that a pullet wi ll start layi ng tooseen thi s can often be prevented by moving her aboutevery week or ten days to fresh ground , giving hard corn ,

and only enough of that to keep her comfortably . Earlyhatched pullets of the heavy breeds will sometim es come onto lay very early unless they are checked in tim e, and then

go into moult in the autumn like old hens , not resumingwork ti ll after Chri stmas .

The stock pullets must be brought into cond i tion forlaying about September, giving plenty of sound nouri shingfood ,

a warm morning mash (including a li ttle good poultryspice twi ce a week) , and some cooked lean meat , and forcingthem to take plenty of exerci se by working for buried grain .

Perches—Both pullets and cockerels after four monthsof agemay be allowed to perch on bread lowperches one ortwo feet from theground and towards the end of Septemberthe pullets whi ch are to be thewinter layers of the currentyear must be moved into thei r permanent winter-quarters ,since nothing afiects layers more than constant shiftingabout .From thi s tim e onwards the chi cken may be

said to have merged its career in ei ther the pullet or thecockerel, and the rearer may transfer h i s attention tothe chapter on Stock Bi rds for information as to th eir adultrequirements .

DUCKLINGS .

There are, however, branches of profitable rearing to beconsidered other than that of the rearing of chi ckens

, and

wewi ll next consider the best methods of managing youngducklings , turkeys , and goslings . It is somewhat surprising that more people who keep poultry should not

attempt the rai sing of ducklings as well , sin ce they areadm ittedly far easi er to rear than chi ckens , and m ore freefrom di sease ; they requi re half the labour that ch ickens


do , and for people who only have a smallpi eceand have to consider neighbours, there Is theadvantage that a 2-footwi re netting W i ll keep them W i thi nbounds . Elaborate housing arrangements are not necessary

,and a. pouring wet day or succession of da s, wh i ch

in some mysteri ous way often throws chi ckens ack andpi cks out the weaklings , i s only a source of joy to theecstati c duckling. Excellent pri ces are paid for wellfattened ducks in the spring ; the demand 1s large and

increasing, and the turnover is qui ck, as the ducklings growso rapidly. Ducklings must not be kept In the same run

fowls , as they would certainly make the chi ckens’

Fro. l 7.—Cm ea -Hovss

(Hebditch . )

drinking water in a mess, and the same methods of feedingare also not appli cable . It i s a mistaken idea to supposethat swimm i ng water is an absolute necessi ty for the successful rearing of ducklings . M any thousands of ducklingsfor table purposes are reared in thegreatj

“ducking distri cts

of Buckinghamshi re and Bedfordshi re whi ch never enterswimming water at all. Of course, swimming water is anessential for ducklings which are in tended for stock, as onlyin thi s way will they develop large muscular frames andhealthy consti tutions . For about a month stock ducklingsand table ducklings can be reared together, but af ter thattime thei r ways must part . The m anagement o f young

REARING 81

ducklings offers fewdifficulties, and few people who havereared a couple of broods wi ll ever omi t them again fromthe spring programme .

FirstTreatment— Ducklings when newly hatched shouldremain under the hen or in the drying-box of the incubatorfor about twenty-four hours, -to obviate any ri sk of chill.The essential of success in rearing depends upon gettingthe bird on as quickly as possible wi thout any setback atall , and chill at this early stage of their exi stence i s distinctly harm ful . They are, however, extremely hardy, anddo not require nearly such a prolonged brooding

'

as ch ickensdo , and at the end of a week the hen or rearer can be dispensed with and the ducklings allowed thei r liberty. Theyget on better and growmore qui ckly as a rule than whenthey are allowed to remain with the hen too long . W hen

,

there are only a few, a large roomy coop will suffice for thei rrequi rements, the coop being substantially made, free fromdraughts , and resting upon the bare ground . A woodenflecr never seems to answer in the case of ducklings, as theysuff er from cramp and leg weakness when thei r feet areresting upon boards .

Housing.— W h en a good many are being reared , they can

be housed in a large roomy shed , preferably one whi ch isopen-fronted , provided , however, wi th wooden or canvasshutters for protection on cold nights . Ducklings wi ll notfly over a 2-foot boarding , and i f the shed is divided bymeans of low fences, from twenty to thirty can be kepttogether in a. flock . The duckli ngs intended formarket arenearly always reared in this manner ; they are allowed verylittle exerci se, and are not permitted to swim at all, unlessit be the day before ki lling, as this cleanses the feathersand is supposed to make them easier to pluck.

In warm weather the ducklings can be reared outside,on a plot of ground divided up into small pens . Of

course, theseducklings whi ch are intended for stock can be

allowed thei r liberty, and can have as much exerci se as theywill , though for the fi rst month it will be best to keepthem in the sheds wi th the others at night, allowing themtheir liberty, however, during the daytime. The li tter inthe sheds, pens , or coops ,must be changed very frequently,

and either peat moss or straw wi ll do for the purposepreferably the latter, as it is cheaper .


Breeds.—The breeds most generally used for thespring duckling trad e are theAylesbury and the AylesburyPekin, ducklings eight weeks old of the first breed oftenweighing 415 to 5; pounds . The Bufi Orpington duck i s

rapidl com ing to the front for the duckling trade, as it 18a qui ckgrower and very hardy, and in addi tion the bi rd sare good win ter layers , consequently eggs can be obtam ed

at the most valuable time . Rouen ducks are more frequently used for the autumn and winter trade, as they areof slower growth ,

but make fine b ig bi rds by the time thevare required .

Feeding— Of course, the f eeding question is of greatimportance, espec ially during the first fewweeks , as verymuch of theprofitdepends upon their treatm ent at this time .

For the first week they should be fed every three hoursif possible, during the second week every three hours , andafter thi s period to about five weeks old th ree meals a dayare suffici ent . At a month or fiveweeks those intended f ormarket must be separated from the stock ducklings andfattened for the market . It is most profitable to sellducklings at eight or nine weeks old , as after thi s date the

pin f eathers begin to grow.

Variety of Diet.—The pri ncipal thing to aim at is to haveas much, vari ety as possible in the feed ing, and as manydi fferent foods should be used as are possible and inex

pensive. For the first few days they can be fed on hardboi led eggs chopped finely and mix ed wi th breadcrumbs,and biscui t-meal moi stened wi th skimlike thei r food in a more sloppy condi tion than do chi ckens ,and do not appear to suffer from thi s , but the other extrememust also be avo ided .

After three days boiled ri ce may be gi ven, and there isno more excellent (or inexpensive) food . It should not becooked too qui ckly, but allowed to sim mer on the fire ti llall the water is absorbed .

Egg feeding for a fewdays is wise, as it gives them a goodstart, but it is too expensive to continu e long . Barleymeal m ixed wi th sharps , and dri ed off to a crum bly con

di tion, is a good standard food , but when gi ven alone is aptto be too heating . An o ccasional feed of ground oats m aybe substi tuted , and one feed a day of oatmeal mi xed wi thskim milk wi ll bring ducklings along adm i rably .


under the shelter of a shed , but when the weather is goodthey are better in the open. For the first week or two the

goslings are best penned in wi th movable hurdles , sin cethey are apt to wander too far and get overdone if left tothei r own devi ces but after this time, when they are wellon their legs, the more freedom they have the better .

Feeding.—As regards the feed ing , they may be given a

start for the first fewdays on hard—bo iled eggs, well chopped ,

mixed wi th biscui t-meal and skim mi lk . Oni ons and

dandelion leaves are exceedingly valuable for goslings, andshould invariably form a porti on of their daily

'

dietary .

The egg feed ing is too expensive to ccntinue long , and

cooked food mixed wi th hot water, barleym eal, groundoats , and sharps , make good staple foods . At two monthswhole wheat, dari , peas , and beans , can be given , also clippedcats , but not whole cats or barley, as the husks are un

suitable for young stock .

M uch of their food the goslings will fin d for th emselveson the grass, and they,

fortunately, increase the finergrasses

at the expense of the coarser ones . This appli es when smallnumbers are run on pasture, etc . , and since the geese eatoff the seed s and ergot of the rye-grass , other stock thri vesbetter . In large numbers they crop too closely, and wouldsour the land . In a very dry year goslings , of course, donot get on nearly as well owing to the poo r grass , but wherethere is a good growth of grass they grow up into younggiants , and as sturdy as possible . Af ter the age of twomonths , two good m eals daily should be allowed and ali ttle meat given, the birds being ready for m arket whenabout three months old .

TURKEY—REAR1N G .

M any people are deterred from thi s branch of poultrywork— in i tself a very profitable one— by the exaggeratedideas which prevail as to the deli cacy of young turkeys .

It is perfectly true that they are not nearly as vigorous asyoung goslings or ducklings , and more difficult to rear thanthe average chicken , but there are three very commonreasons for deli cacy which can be removed by the exerci seof common sense . In the first place

,turkey chicks must

never be.bred from related parents , such birds rarely pro

ducing V lgOI‘

OllS offspring. In the second place,many

BEARING 85

people use first-year turkeys as breeders , and this is ahighly mi staken poli cy, since the turkey only reachesmaturity at three years, and mating immature stock i smuch to be deprecated . Th e thi rd reason is concernedwi th the land on which the chi cks have to live . Damp ,

cold ground whi ch is low-lying and heavy wi ll never suitturkeys . They can stand dry cold much better than wet .

Abundant room is also necessary for turkey-rearing, and

the general farmer who has plenty of land at h is di sposalis the most advantageously si tuated for thi s purpose .

Turkeys retain some of the characteristi cs of wi ld bi rds ,and will not thrive on tainted land or that which has beenmuch used by other fowls ; and the bigger the range thatcan be suppli ed , the greater the chance of success . The

American Bronze approaches more nearly to the wi ldturkey than our English varieties, theNorfolkBlack and theCambridge Bronze, and , since i t is less domesti cated , doesnot do as well as they do unless it has plenty of fresh cleanground and a very wi de range, although it i s of a morehardy di sposi tion naturally .

Turkey chicks must be allowed to remain on the nesttill they are perf ectly dry . At the end of thirty-six hoursthey may be cooped with the hen in a roomy coop , whi chpreferably should stand under

'

a cart-shed for shelter, sincecold is highly detrimental at thi s early stage .

G eneral M anagement— It is better to coop them undera roof , and away from long wet grass , so that they can getexercise wi thout any risk of chill or wet . The chicks needno food for twenty-four hours , but at the end of that timeegg custard mixed up wi th biscui t-meal and mi lk may begiven . At the end of three days , if the chi cks are thriving,the egg may be di scontinued , and the biscui t-meal allowedto form the staple food . Vari ety is as necessary to youngturkeys as to any other form of young stock, and barleymealmixed wi th ground oats orsharps forms a nice change .

All soft food must be given in an almost dry condition .

sloppy food having d isastrous eff ects .

"

G reen food , preferably chopped onion and dandelion , must be suppli edwi th every meal, and fresh water and gri t are equallyessential . Turkey chi cks have very small crops , and

cannot manage b ig meals at a th e. They need_feed ing ,

in

consequence, far more often than other young bi rds : everytwo hours for the first fortni ght, and the in terval between


the meals lengthened gradually aft-er that period . The

chicks eat very slowly, and must never be hurried .

If the weather is warm and the coops are brought out inthe open

,they must be put on short grass , and a li ttle run

placed in front of the coop , giving both hen and chi ckensthei r liberty in the sunny part of the day . After threeweeks they need only be cooped at night, and on coldnights pi eces of sacking ought to be put over the coop tops .

At three weeks of age grain may be added to their menu,beginn ing wi th dari , cracked maize and cracked wheat,buckwheat, lenti ls , etc . , and lead ing on to the larger grains .

Steamed oatmeal is a valuable food , but if given raw h as badresults . At threemonths old threemeals a day are sufficient,and at four months two f eeds . As soon as the stubbles areready the turkeys can be put on to them, and from thattime till the November fattening they will need very li ttleother food .

Shooting the Red.— The dangerous period of a turkey’s

life occurs at about eight weeks— ti e , the process knownas shooting the At this time they lose their appetites and look seedy and wretched , and everything mustbe done to tempt them to eat . They must be kept qui tefree from wet and away from long grass , qui te free fromdraughts in their sleeping house, and given extra quantiti esof lean meat , together wi th the following toni c extensivelyused among turkey rearers

Powdered cassia bark

ginger

gentian

ani seed

Iron carbonate

The ton ic should be m ixed wi th the m ea l at the rate of one teaspoonful

per average brood of ten turkey ch icks. It should be given on wetday s and as a preventive of diarrhoea .

Af ter the growth of the red on the neck is complete,they

wi ll be pretty well fledged , and can be considered out ofthe danger zone . If carefully treated during this period ,

there is no reason at all why they should not be as hardyas other young bi rds .

CHAPTER IV

TABLE POULTRY

Effects of foreign com peti tion—The best m arkets— M erits i n the table

fowl—Useful crosses—Seasonal prices— Rearing table chi ckens

M ilk chi ckens—Fatted fowls—The Surrey sy stem—Cram m ing

M arketing— Fattening of ducks, geese, and turkey s.

THIS highly important branch of th e poultry—keepingindustry is likely to become even more important each year,and the present tim e is one of golden opportuni ti es for thefar-seeing breeder . During the past ten years the con

sumption of table birds has increased enormously , and

side by side with quantity there is growing a desire forquality in the matter of dressed poultry . The taste fortable luxuri es has spread among all classes , and our Londonmarkets show a variety of fowls sui table for all kinds ofpurchasers , from the large London hotel or W est End clubdown to the poorest wage-earner who can afford to buy aboi ler .

The efforts of a soci ety like theUtili ty Poultry Club havematerially aided in raising the standard of our Englishproduce . Sin ce its formation the club has done much toencourage the production of table birds , especially amongthe farm ing community , and by its provi sion of prizesat shows for table poultry classes has done a good dealto arouse interest in the matter among the generalpubli c .

Continental Competition — Foreign competi tion . has doneinfini tely more good than harm to our English . producersin the case of table fowls , despi te the dreary fulm inationsof i ll-advi sed persons against it .

Continental methods were for many y ea-rs considerablyahead of ours, and the finest fowls exported . from France

87

8 8 UTILITY POULTRY—KEEPING

and Belgium were undeniably eye-openers to many anEnglish poultry dealer .Educating Pub lic Taste.

—It is very largely to thesemagnificen t specimens of fatted fowls and to the pri ceswhich they commanded in the best markets that we owethe education of the Bri tish palate, and the willingness toadmit that it is infin i tely better to pay 5s . and 65 . for a finefatted Engli sh b ird than 28 . 6d . for a lean and unfinishedspecimen .

LO N DO N

F m. l 8. —M OVABLE Housr. FOB. G ROW IN G Bum s.(Spratt.)

Our English fatters and breeders have had for their

pocket’s sa 9 to adopt better methods and to produce stuffwhich could vie wi th French and Belgian produce, andhave met wi th great success , some of the birds turned out.from the Sussex fattening sheds being second to those ofno other coun try .

Exhibition of TablePoultry .— Exhibi tions of table poultry

have undoubtedly assisted also in thi s m atter, though _it

TABLE POULTRY 89

may be doubted whether they have qui te the practi calvalue for whi ch they are given cred it . M any of the reallysplendid specirnens of the fatter

’s artwhich onemay see ina dead poultry class at a show have cost so much tobring to that pi tch of perfection that for purely commercialbusiness they would result in a loss rather than a profit .

Still , as ob ject-lessons they have a d istinct value, espec ia llyin the matter of dressing for market . To mention one

point only, the indefensible practi ce of smashing the breastbone (still so prevalent in remote country distri cts) b eingabsolutely tabooed in birds entered in a show hasresulted in a yearly decrease in the number of b irds sent tomarket in that cond i tion .

Extension of Breeding for Table needed.— At the same

tim e it is idle to deny that the same progress has not beenmade in the direction of table poultry as has been done inthe case of eggs . There are very few distri cts of Englandand W ales in whi ch rai sing table birds i s absolutely out

of the question, and very many in whi ch the industrycould be developed with an amazing degree of success .

But at the present tim e many opportuni ties are beingsadly wasted , and available material is not utilized as i tshould be . M ethods of breeding, rearing, fattening, and

marketing, time of production , and selection of the bestbre

éads, leave much to be desired in many quarters even

to ay .

Imports—There is every likelihood of a largely increaseddemand every year. M any countri es whi ch formerly exported large quanti ti es of dead fowls into England are nowceasing to send large suppli es owing to increased consum ptionwi thin thei r own boundari es , G erm any and theUni tedStates being two noted cases in point. Ireland , again,whose shipments of poultry into England » are of greatertotal value than those of any other country, i s beginningto fatten table poultry for herself , and in consequence therewill be a shortage of Irish chickens for the Sussex fatteners ,who wi ll have to turn to Engli sh breeders to fill thei r demands . Some 700 tons of Irish chickens enter this countryevery year for fattening purposes ; and since thi s supplywi ll be gradually absorbed by Ireland herself in the courseof the next few years, there is a grand opportuni ty forrearers at home.


In 1911our principal imports of poultry were from

Russia

France

Austria-HungaryU .S .A.

Other countries

Total of less re-exports colon ial and foreign,

Frozen Fowls.—Some proportion of our imports consi sts

of frozen. birds of cheap quali ty, and we can hardly cavil atthese, since a large number of our poorer population wouldnever be able to pay the pri ces at whi ch Engli sh breedersfind i t profitable to sell and if we can secure the marketsfor the better-class fowl, we can afford to disregard

“

i tems ofinferior class .

In Russia , for instance, labour is no tori ously cheap , and

Russia can therefore afford to send frozen goods in at verylow rates but i f the Bri ti sh producer were to attempt tosell at the same price, the cost of food and labour wouldreduce his profits to nothing . The same remark appli es tothe quanti ti es of cheap foreign turkey s sent to our shores ,but, on the other hand , we im port large quanti ti es of ducksand geese which, by reason of our good grazing grounds an dabundant water-courses, we could very easi ly rear at home .

Study ing the M arkets.— The wi se breeder of table fowls

wi ll take every opportun i ty whi ch exi sting demands giveh im , and where possible will do h is best to open up newmarkets . Certaindemands are limi ted and seasonal, as in th ecase of the -

profitable peti t poussi n . In the spring, again ,

the stamp of chi cken requi red is very diff erent from the fat,heavy birds of the capon class which are in demand atChri stmas .

The wise man will remember, too ,that from January to

Apri l spring chickens that are plum p and well-flavoured wi llfetch topprices,while the same bi rds put on a glutted marketin Jun e or July would be nothing but a drug . Provincialmarkets, again , have a very d iff erent range of pri ces (andof quali ty) f rom Leadenh all , and whereas well—fatted birdsof prime quali ty wi ll always be sure of top prices in London ,

i t i s qui te on the cards that the sum obtainable in severalof the northern di stri cts of England would not be suffici entto cover the increased cost of production . Yellow legs and;


the question of the breeds or crosses likely to producethe same . In the ideal fowl, of course, there would beso many meri ts that i t would be scarcely possible to fin dthem combined in a single bird . The perfect table fowlwould have a large carcass , long and d eep , wi th fine boneand very small amoun t of offal, good flesh wi th a pleasantflavour, no unnecessary fat, plenty of breast meat, wi thwhi te legs , flesh , and ski n .

Some purchasers , of course, judge a fowl mainly by i tssize others , by the amount of breast meat or by fin enessof bone and from the po int of vi ew of the producer thereare the equally im portant meri ts of speedy maturi ty, cheapness of production , and capaci ty for fattening .

The following standard for table poultry has been drawnup by the Utili ty Poul try Club

1. Size and quali ty2 . Youth , quanti ty and quali ty of breast m eat

3 . Strai ghtness of keel, fineness of bone, absence ofoffal and surplus fat

4. G eneral m arketable appearance, colour of ski n ,

etc.

W i th regard to thi s matter, i t may be again statedthat the cost of attaini ng a high standard has to be considered by practi cal breeders , and , whi le endeavouring toreach as high a measure of success as possible, the questionof market value is bound to enter in . In connection wi ththi s , i t is interesting to hear that several Sussex fatteners ,while admi tting the adm i rable quali ti es of a G ame-Dorkingcross for the finest specim ens, state that for ordinary com

m ercial purposes the Sussex or Faverolles fowl meets thei rpurposes better, as the bi rds develop more qui ckly, and inconsequence leave a wi der m argin for profit.

General Build of the Table Fowl.— The ' breeder of tablefowls must not only have birds of a sui table breed ,

but theymust also come from a strain whi ch has not lost i ts tablecharacteristi cs in favour of heavy egg

—producing ones .In

many cases‘

crosses give the best results , as what i s lackingin the one breed can be made upwi th the other. Table birdsshould be square and cobby in shape

,wi th good flat backs

and short legs . They should be large-bodi ed and deepbreasted , especially in front , so that good sli ces can be cut .

A deep keel will give this quali ty, and.

such a bird appears

TABLE POULTRY 93

very broad at the shoulders . Narrow-breasted fowls willnot supply many sli ces of meat .

Value of Crossing.— The reason why crossing i s valuable

is that the largest pure breeds are generally a li ttle defici entin quali ty, while the best quali ty table fowls are frequentlydeli cate and slowgrowers . W here it is desired to im provethe general table quali ti es of a flock, a male from one of

the recognized table breeds should be selected , and yellowblood is best transmi tted through h im , as the majority of thechi ckens bred by h im will have pale-coloured legs and flesh .

Best Breeds and First Crosses. Among the best purebreeds for the table we may reckon the Dorking, thatprime Old English favouri te, with its splendid breast developm ent the Sussex, the typi cal farm er

’s “fowl in all

its vari eti es the Faverolles, hardy and of excellent bui ld ,

although a li ttle coarse in texture ; the Buff, W hi te, andJubi lee Orpingtons and the Old Engli sh G ame .

As regards good first crosses , the choi ce is almost un

limi ted .

Nearly any Dorking cross is good , Old English G ame orIndian G ame cockerelswi th Dorking hens m aking m agnifi

cent table bi rds , albei t not as qui ck growers as somecrosses . Again , the G ame

"

cross can be used wi th advan

tage on Buff Orpington fowls or the Buff or Barred Rock .

In the case of a Rock cross , the Old English G ame would bepreferable , as the progeny would have white legs for themost part. Brahma-Dorking or Sussex-Dorking will alsoproduce very large specimens .

Houdan Buff Orpington is becoming a very popularcross so also Houdan-Faverolles and Faverolles-Orpington .

Plymouth Rocks are hardy and qui ck growers , the yellowlegs being the only drawback, but in crossing thi s can beobviated . M any of the Iri sh chi ckens sent across for fattening are of Rock crossingwi th Dorking or Light Brahm a .

M any breeds flesh very qui ckly, while it has been aptlysaid that one might as well try to fatten a greyhound assome of the M editerranean breeds . If yellow-legged breedsor crosses are u sed ,

care should be taken that the birds areof a large size—l i e , W yandottes , Indian G ame, or Rocks .

Rhode Island Reds seem to sell well, though they haveyellow legs but the skin is as a rule fairly whi te, and thebirds attain a very good s ize .


“duet—Surrey and Sussex f atters wi ll g ive good pricesfor birds all the year round i f sent up at the age of Six teenweeks in lean condi tion. During January, February, andM arch ,

as a rule well-fattened chickens are scarce, and willaverage 33 . 6d. api ece. In Apri l and M ay the pri ce risesto 4s . 6d . ,

sometimes 5s . In June this is lowered slightly,

3s. 9d . to 3s . 6d . being the general rule . After that pri cesdrop to 2s. 9d . and 2s . 6d . for the most part, beginni ng tori se again in November, and reachi ng 4s . in D ecember. Of

course, all these pri ces vary very greatly in accordan cewi th the general state of the m arket and the locali ty. W e

have seen pri ces quoted in the same week for London and

provincial markets wi th as much as 28 . d iff erence betweenthem . London is the best market, especially for

“ luxuri esand out-of-season dainti es , and some of the small countrymarkets have deplorable pri ces (from the point of vi ew of

the producer, that is ) . In’

any case we cannot comm andthe pri ces here in England , even for our best fatted stuff ,that can be obtained in France or Belgium . In someEnglish di stri cts 2s. 6d. was regarded not so very long agoas the top pri ce to be paid for a fatted fowl, but pri ces aresteadil advancing.

Smallducks make low pri ces , and are hardly worth thesend ing, as they have to compete wi th the cheap foreignbirds . Good large bi rds , whether ducks or ducklings , makegood money, however. D ucklings wi ll fetch 78 . or 8s . eachbefore the regular season begin s , but as a rule the difficultyof getting eggs f rom Aylesbury ducks for si tting has prevented an early supply of ducklings in any quanti ty .

W hen one consid ers that bird s hardly bigger than a pigeonwill fetch that pri ce, it seems worth any trouble to secure itand the Buff Orpington duck, whi ch is co to the frontso rapidly both asan egg producer and table bird , i s overcoming that difficulty , as its eggs are produced at the righttim e i f properly managed .

Capons and large heavy bi rd s of that class will fetch Is .to 1s . 3d . per pound at Christmas . Turkeys pay betterper pound if heavy birds , and an average lot weighing20 pounds each would f etch 2d . or 3d . a pound more thana numberweighing 16 or 18 pounds each .

Sizeof Birds.— Chickens are required tod ay to be of goodbreed , but not of abnorm al size . The Chri stmas market isthe only one demanding heavy birds (those of the capon


G ood table breeds or crosses must be selected , and hatching carri ed on at regular intervals, so that a supply mayalways be available ei ther for home fatting or for d i sposalto fatting establishments . Chi ckens do best when kept i nlots of simi lar age, so the capaci ty of the pens must begauged , and the d iff erent batches sent off as soon as ready .

From February to M ay , when the supply rarely meets thedemand ,

the fatterswi ll give as much as 38 . or 48 . a chickenin unfini shed state and as the cost of growing chi ckens totwelveweeks ought not to exceed l s . 3d . or 1s . 6d . , includingthe original cost of the egg fromwhich the bi rd was hatched ,itwill be seen that rearing for the fatter is i tself a profitableside line in poultry-keepin g .

Petit Poussins.— Efforts should be made to popularize

the taste for these delicate li ttle morsels . If a brisk demandcould be created , thi s would be found a very paying branchof work. At present the market li es among large Londonhotels and private houses , clubs and restaurants , and inthe larger ci ti es of the provinces . The bi rds are killed at sixto eight weeks old , and should weigh from 10 oun ces to1pound . Such well-fleshed and ni ce-flavoured birds , wi thli ttle bones and a dainty appearance,wi ll fetch from l s 36 .

to 2s. each , the demand being practi cally identical withthe London season.

The taste for these birds originated on the Continent, asthe name denotes, and even to -day £0 per cent . of the bestspec imens onemay see are of Continental origin . Fluctuations in the French markets of course have a bearing on

the number of birds sent over here, and therefore on thepri ces .Only qui ck-maturing breeds are suitable for this trade,

and it is interesting to note that , whi le the French use theHoudan and Faverolles— notably the latter— the Belgiansprefer the Brackel or Campine . As a matter of fact, thenon -si tters Leghorns, Campines, etc . make excellentpeti t poussi ns, since they mature very rapidly, and whenkilled at that early age the flesh i s still tender and soft, anddevo id of the stringiness one associates wi th the majori tyof the non -si tting breeds .The Dorking forms a splendid milk chi cken

,but is

rather delicate, and for o rd inary purposes the Faverolles ,La Bresse, Houdan-Orpington, or Houdan-Faverolles

,wi ll

answer the purpose admi rably . Chi ckens of that age have

TABLE POULTRY 97

in any case notmuch flavour in their flesh , but the essentialthing is to turn out plump and well—fleshed li ttle birds , likeplum p partridges . From the shell, flesh-inducing foodsmust be used, mainly of a soft nature, for the rai n tewhi ch succeeds qui te admi rably in the case 0 sto ck birdsdoes not answer in the case of milk chickens, soft foodm akingthe fleshwhi ter and softer.

The first feeds may be of egg and breadcrumbs , or eggand biscui t-meal mo istened wi th skim mi lk, continuing thi sfor a week or so , after whi ch a good cooked food may besubsti tuted . Vari ety in feeding is essential in order thatthe chi ckens may not si cken, and that they may be temptedto eat as large meals as po ssible . For the first fortni ghtevery two hours during the day is not too often to f eedthem, wi th one or two meals by candlelight in addi tion i fpossible .

Oatmeal,mi ddlings, boiled ri ce, barleym eal, bi scui t-meal,and ground cats , are all useful to ring the cha es on , to

getherwi th chopped green food and steamed 0 over hay .

M ilk should be supplied for drinking aswell as formixing inwith the soft food ; but whilst whole milk appears to givethe finest results , the chi cks frequently sic-ken, and for

general purposes skim milk i s preferable . The morequi ckly the li ttle bi rds can be developed , the greater i sthei r profit, and any check in growth must be guardedagainst. Thei r life is so short that methods of feedi ng andrearing can be used whi ch would be otherwi se unsui table.

If the cockerels of ordinary stock chi ckens can be detectedat six weeks, it is an excellent plan to turn them into milkchi ckens b a fortnight

’s feed ing on milk and meal, whenthey wi ll e found plump and tasty, though hardly asripe aswhen reared from the shell as such.W hen the tim e arrives for ki lling, the birds should be

starved for eighteen hours before ki lling, and pluckedwhile warm . The skin of such young birds is extremelytender, and great care must be exerci sed in plucking . Thebeak, ey es , and legs, should be careft wiped , and no packing attem pted unti l the bi rds are perfectly cold . A cleanbasket should be lined wi th whi te paper, and the chi ckenspacked tightly together, wi th paper between each andover the top the number of birdson each hamper, and they should be sent off as soon aspossible. As the market for these deli cacies is lim ited , and


the trouble of preparing the birds not small, i t is.

well tom ake preparatory arrangements before despatching the

bi rds . A ni ce uni form lotwill command the best pri ces .

Poulets de Grain — Thi s is a Belgian term for a fowl ofsimilar character, fed in the same manner, but ki lled at agreater age—from two months onwards . The

.

M alinesfowl, which is the principal Belgian table breed , IS m ai nlyused for thi s purpose .

Broilers. Am eri cans are parti cularly fond of these,whi ch are simply small chi ckens killed at six to tenweeksold , accord i ng to their growth , and weighing from 3 poundto 2 pounds . The name is derived from the method of

cooking, the birds being spli t in two down the middle, andthen broi led on a gridi ron. They are reared in brooder

S PRATTS PATENT L'

P

Fro. 20.—FA'1'rm c Cases.

houses or small chi cken runs, but are not crammed in anyway, soft food being fed , and milk provi ded forAm ericans use for the most part the W h i te Leghorn andPlymouth Rock, whi ch are rapid growers , and at an earlyage qui te tender and jui cy. At the present tim e there isnot a large demand in England ,

but an enterprising poultman might make a good thing out of i t by popularizing t edish as a novelty .

Spring Chickens and Fatted Fowls.—These form the bulk

of the best Engli sh trad e, and i t is in thi s di rection thatmarkets are opening out so widely . W i thin the limits ofthe Sussex fatten ing industry alone, an area of someacres , we are to ld that the yearly ci rculation of moneyamounts to a quarter of a mi llion pounds , the chi ckens beingturned out at the rate of one and a half mi llions per annum .


operation . In large establi shm ents , where labour has tobe reckoned, the expenses connected wi th fatteni ngwouldbe more than 5d but the output is so much greater that i twould work out to about the same .

Age forFattening.—The bulk of the spring chi ckens are

put up for fattening from three months of age upwards(though the spring chi cken for the London season m akesi ts way on the market between the ages of twelve and

fourteen weeks) , and the best fowls are turned out fromquarters where the reari ng of the fowls has been carefullycarried out.

Feeding—Feeding from the shell should be nourishing(yet inexpensi ve), and of a nature calculated to make speedy

growth. Soft food is much pref erred to grain, as the continual use of soft mash es d evelops a lar

ger crop for future

cramm i ng, as well as conducing to so t flesh and quickgrowth .

Breeds.—These vary very much , even among the recognized table breeds , as regards sui tabili ty to the fattening process . The birds must not only be strong and ofsound cons ti tuti on , but of a qui et and tractable disposition ; otherwise they will simply fret their flesh ofi insteadof putting it on in the fatteni ng coop . For instance, Gamefowls , both Indi an and Old Engli sh, whi le making fleshsplendi dly on the run ,

frequently become restless and thinwhen put up to fatten. Sussex fowls , on the other hand,or Dorkings or a Brahma cross , wi ll settle down readily,and proceed to m ake flesh wi thout any innuble. It is interesting to note that three of the mo st popular breeds, theSussex in England , the M ali nes in Belgium , and the Faverolles in France, have been evolved by producers fromcomposi te breeds for thei r own practi cal needs , and in allthere is hardn ess and general fitness combin ed wi th perfectsui tabili ty for the fattening process .

Half-Pam Fowls— There is a good demand for these,in many di stri cts a greater dem and than for fully-fattedbirds , and at present thi s seems a m arket of great promise.Half-i a is both cheaper and easi er than the full process, thong the birds can h ardly be said to equal theripened specimens .

The process simply means that the birds are put 11 forfeedi ng i n cages, for the most part out of doors , wi t out

TABLE POU LTRY 101

any cramming at all . The birds are shut u in the pens orcages (to be described presently) , and fe from troughshung in frontof the cage twi ce daily. At the end of ten days ’

feedi ng they are ki lled , and that is the most profitable dateof killing. To continue the process longer would be toexceed half-fatting, and though the value of a half-fattedbird is more than that of one taken off the run and killed,the margin of profit is not so great as to allowany increasein the cost of producti on. Certainly in many parts of thecountry,where the consumer has

,

not been educated up tothe pri ces requi red for ripened birds, it form s an ex

cellent method of leading them on to the more expensive

Sussex Fattening M ethods—W e wi ll now consider thefini shed article, the ripened or fully-fatted fowl, and themethods adopted by the most successful exponents . Duringthe whole process the bi rds are kept in fattening ca

'

es .being fed for about ten days from troughs, wi th anot erten days’ cramming . These periods vary considerably,as each bird difiers as to its stage of readiness ,

” and the

iett

firs can gauge to a ni cety the condition of individual

ow

ThePent —M ost of the fatteni ng coops are about 7 feetlong, and di vided into three compartments , with a

’

slidingdoor in each. As a rule eighteen bi rds are put in a cage,six in each di vision. The cages are made of wooden slatswi de enough apart to allow the bi rds to get their headsthro h, but no more. The bottom is slatted also , theslats cing specially cut to allow the bi rds to stand com

fortably on them, the droppings falli ng through .

The tops are usually made of matchboarding, but thatchis often laid along the top if the pens are outside. Eachcage is about 3 feet from the ground , the droppings fallinginto loose earth or sand , whi ch is removed daily.

‘

The

accumulation of manure under such condi tions wouldspeedi ly cause disease, and therefore scrupulous cleanli

ness is observed . Between each occupancy the cages arewashed out wi th lim ewash , and the sh ed in whi ch , in themajori ty of cases , the cages are placed , is also treated .

In mi ld weather out-of-door fattening is frequent, andi f the cages can be placed in a shady orchard the condi tionsare very favourable, provided proper protection against


rain can be given. The main idea is to keep the bi rdswarm, qui et, and in semi -darkness , and for

“

the last reasonit would seem that indoor fatteni ng was the more sui table .

A roomy,well-ventilated shed answers the purpo se very

well , and if curtains can be dropped across the front of eachcage between mealtimes , the bi rds wi ll get more benefitfrom their food . In cold or damp weather indoor fatteni ngis of course essential, that the food may no t be used up forthe maintenance of heat, but may be all turned into flesh .

It is better to have several bi rds in the one compartment,for if one bird is placed by i tself i twi ll usually pine , whereasa number wi ll eat in competi tion wi th each other .

Six , on the otherhand , seems rather a large number, andit i s possible that three fowls in a cage would give the bestresults , but there would be the expense of so many ad d i

tional cages that a large fatter would rarely attempt i t.

Feeding.— For the first ten days or so the food is placed

in V -shaped wooden troughs ,which are hung on to the frontof the cages , and removed between meals , being frequentlyscoured and scalded . The hours of meals are

‘

not i mportant, provided they are given wi th the utmost regulari ty .

Seven o ’clock in the morning and seven at ni ght are sui tablehours . Before putting bi rds in the pens, it i s highly important that they should be starved for twenty-four hours,as they wi ll then have a hearty appeti te when penned ,

wi lleat a good meal, and settle down com fortably . Amateurfatters should feel the crop of each bird im mediately aftera trough meal, and if it feels soft and flabby the appeti temay be failing, and the bird should be closely watched . Ifany bi rds appear to go off colour whi le being trough-fed ,

a day or two in the open run on h ard grain , and only one

feed of that, wi ll usually put them right . Si ckly fowls,however, or persisten bad doers,

” should be put out ofthe fattening pen , as they wi ll never make good specimens .

Foodstuffs— W here first-class results are desi red ,pure

Sussex ground oats , mixed wi th soured skim milk andshredded mutto n fat , gives the best results .

Birds which are n ot requi red for the best tradewi ll fattenvery well on a mixture of sharps

, barleym eal, and Sussexoats . M a izem eal, though cheap , is not advi sable , as ittends to form yellow fat of a greasy nature. Bo i led potatoes , well cooked and mashed finely, m ay also be added to

UTILITY POULTRY-KEEPIN G

the mouth ,then gently presses round the gullet ti ll the food

is passed into the crop . Each fowl receives about fifteenof these pellets , and a ski lled operato r can do the work W i thsurprising qui ckness . Af ter the pellets are all swallowed ,

the bird is returned to the cage .

Funnel Feeding.—Funnel feed ing i s not comm on in Eng

land ,the French employing it to some extent . The funnel,

whi ch has a pi ece of rubber tubing fixed to the lower end ,

is placed in the gullet of the fowl, and the food is thenpoured down into the gullet through the mouth of the

Fro . 2 l .—CBAM M ING M ACHIN E .

(Tam lin . )

funnel. For thi s process the food has to be mixed thinlyand wi th perfect smoothness . Th is is much qui cker thanhand feeding, as in the former case the qui ckest workercould not get through more than forty or fifty birds anhour whereas in the latter seventy or eighty could bedealtwi th qui te easily .

M ach ine Cu mm ing—Thi s is much the most comm onmethod in England . The machine is worked on a pumpprinciple, the food being poured into a hopper, throughwhi ch it passes to a lower division, from the base of whicha “ plunger,

” worked by a pedal, forces up the food ,by

TABLE POULTRY 105

means of a rubber tubing , into the gullet of the bi rd . Thefoot works the pedal, so that both hands are free to attendto the bird , whi ch i s securely held under the arm. The

slightest pressure of the foot forces a quanti ty of food intothe crop . Theoperator, holding the fowl, extends the neckof the bird , and , holding its tongue down , inserts the rubbernozzle d own the gullet . Th e operation is qui te simple ,but needs care . W i th the di sengaged hand the crop is felt,and when it is sufficiently full of food (which i smixed to theconsi stency of thick cream in order that it may flowdowneasily) the pedal is released wi th a sharp jerk before takingthe nozzle out of the gullet . Thi s precaution i s very necessary, as otherwise a good deal of food may be pumped intothe windpipe, causing suffocation . Care must also betaken not to fill the crop too full , or itmay burst. A ski lfuloperator can cram between two and three hundred bi rds anhour by thi s system .

Fasting — W hen the bird i s sufficiently ripe, it shouldbe fasted for fully twenty-four hours before being killed ,

in order that the crop and intestines may be qui te emptyof food . This precaution i s specially needf ul in hot

weather, as the birds wi ll soon begin to smell di sagreeablyif decomposing food is left in the body.

Killing.—Cutting the throat and palating sti ck

ing a knife through the roof of the mouth and the brain ofthe fowl—are equally messy and disagreeable methods , anddislocation of the neck i s the most hum ane and the mostcleanly way.

W hen properly done, there i s no blood on the head , as i tall drains down into the cavity formed when the neck isbroken, and the body flesh is perfectly whi te if the bird i skept in the same posi tion head downwards— as whenit was killed . Practi cal demonstrations are better thantheory in a case of thi s kind , but a bri ef description may beof use. The bird should beheld by the legs in the left hand,keeping thewings sti ll wi th two fingers . The head is thentaken between the first and second fingers of the other hand ,

the comb touching the palm of the hand . The neck i s thendrawn out qui te straight to its full length , and then upwards wi th a sharp pull . There can only be a second of

pain ,as the vertebral column is instantly severed from

the brain.


Plucking.— This should be done whi le the bird is yet

warm, as the feathers come out much more readi ly . The

best posi tion to adopt is to sit on a low chai r, holding thebird by the legs , wi th i ts head dangling downwards . The

feathers are pulled out the reverse way from whi ch theygrow on the body, and a sharp pull is less likely to tear theskin than a more cautious one. Only practi ce makes aqui ck as well as a good worker, but thoroughness mustcome before speed . The back should be plucked first, thenthe breast and under-part, the neck being plucked to wi thi nan inch or two of the head . The legs need careful attention,

so also do the wi ngs, while if the tai l is carelessly done thefleshgray easily be torn , and nothing is more unsightly than

torn esh .

Stubbing.—This is not always necessary wi th young

chi ckens, butwith older fowls it is very necessary to take outthe sho rt thick quills which have not formed into feathers .

An old kni fe, not too sharp , put under the stub and grippedwi th the thum b, will usually extract them i f a sharp backward pull is given .

Singeing.-The practice of d ipping fowls i n to bo iling

water to get ri d of the fine hairs is to be condemned , asit spoi ls the look of the flesh for market purposes . As,however, the hairs look very unsightly,

it is well to lighta wisp of straw (paper will do , but i t is apt to char andblacken) and pass the bi rd over it, holding the body by thelegs , and turni ng it round and round very qui ckly , so thatevery part receives attention .

Shaping.—Shaping boards , consisting of two boards

nailed together at ri ght angles , and arranged in ti ers on awooden framework, are used for making the most of thefowls before they are sent up to market . Th e legs shouldbe ti ed loosely at the hooks , then the feet and legs bentdownwards at each side of the breast, and the wings folded so

that they nearly meet and will li e flat . The bi rd i s thenheld between the hands , and the stern pressed up againstthe wall, so that the breast is plumped up and the bodyrounded . W hen putting the bird in the shaping board .

the stern should lie against the back board , and the breastdownwards . Heavy weights are then placed on the top,

and when the press is full of bi rds it is kept for six or eighthours ti ll they are perfectly cold and set . Thi s treatment


those from six to twelve month s old— preferably theformer and before i t they must be starved , and afterwardsnot allowed to perch or run wi th the other bi rds for fouror five days, being kept in a coop deeply li ttered wi th peatmoss . It is not proposed to give detai ls of the operation,

as we should not advi se anyone to undertake i t wi thoutfirst watching a. ski lled operato r, and then practising themselves upon

‘

dead birds . The efiect of caponizing is to

retard maturity, and to permi t great size and bulk wi thoutlosing tenderness of meat . If only a few birds are to becaponized , the servi ces of an expert can be obtained at a costof 1s . or thereabouts per head , but of course the practi calfarmerwi ll learn the work himself . The cost of caponizinginstruments runs to l or 15 guineas .

Fattening Cockerels on the Run -M any farmers whodi spose of a large quanti ty of late-hatched cockerels in theChri stm as market (where size rather than quali ty appearsto be the great consideration , in many quarters at least) donot go to the trouble of fatting in pens , but sim ply fastenforty or fif ty birds up in a large barn , giving them a deepbeddi ng of straw, and feedi ng liberally three or four tiniesa day in troughs standi ng on the ground . Two

'

meals atleast should be of soft food , ground oats and barleym eal,mixed wi th mashed boi led po tatoes and skim m i lk . Thisform s an excellent fatting m i xture, and one whi ch has theaddi ti onal meri t of cheapness . The food should be mixedinto a paste, not a sloppy mass , and put in the trough a li ttleat a time, so that the bi rds will clear it up readi ly. Sharpgri t must be provi ded , and milk for drinking . The lastfeed of the day should be of grain (preferably bo iled ),giving wheat and maize alternately. As the fowls are proteeted from weather influences—a very important po int inwi nter fatting—the whole of the food-supply is avai lablefor the making of flesh "Fatten ing Ducklings. For the most part the duckers

of Aylesbury use theAylesbury bird for thei r early duckli ngtrade, or else an Aylesbury-Pekin cross but 'the duckfarmer is beginning to realize the value of the Bufi Orpington duck for this purpose . Birds hatched in Januaryare ready for the M arch and Apri l markets . For the firstm onth; the di et is usually composed of bran and pollard ,

wi th bo iled rice, the whole being m i xed wi th the li quor in

TABLE POULTRY 109

which meat has been boiled . In the second month meatm ay be given more liberally, a small quanti ty only beingallowed until the ducklings reach that age, and greaves andbarleym eal may be added to the menu . G ri t must alwaysbe suppli ed . As much milk as possible should be given ,preferably mixedwi th the soft food as an alternative to themeat li quor. The rough fat must not be fed in lum ps, butrun through an old sausage-machine or something of thekind then, if boiling water is poured on it, i t will melt inwi th the meal . Lo cust-meal has been recom mended to us

by several duck raisers, and buckwheat-meal is alwaysrelished as a dainty . Peam eal is also fattening to . a certainextent, and can be used to ring the changes on barleym eal,middlings , or bi scui t-meal . Small potatoes make a goodfattening food . Ducks will practi cally cram themselves

FIG . 22 . Com noox DUCK-HOUSE .

if they can get at the food , but they should have three goodtrough meals a day , and at eight weeks, i f given a fortni ghtof this special feeding, they should be qui te plum p and ready

It does not pay to keep them over ten weeks,as the pin feathers then begin to w. No access toM ingwater must be given , and t 0 birds are best confined in small pens in an ai ry shed , slightly darkened , andwell li ttered down wi th straw . Do not let the ducklingsdrink un ti l th have had a good feed, and then removethe dish . Duhklings. like chi ckens, need to be starvedbefore killing, the necks di slocated , and the body fully

glucked , wi th the exception of the large wing feathers .traw and clean whi te paper should be freely used

Espacking, and the bi rds despatched in ham pers or

ets .

l lO UTILITY POULTRY-KEEPING

Autumn Ducks. —For this purpose a larger-sized bi rd isrequired , and the Rouen breed is most frequently used .

These are kept in small pens in open-fronted sheds , andfed on barleym eal, ground oats, and sharps,mixed wi th milk,

or, for the finest specimens , ground oats and mi lk solely .

Ducks and ducklings stand forcing very well, and do not

suffer apparently, from tainted soi l or overcrowding to anythi ng like the extent chi ckens would . M aizem eal is oftenused to fatten

’

autumn ducks , but should be used sparingly,

orgreasy yellow fatmay be form ed . The food i s best givenin troughs, and mi xed to a semi -li quid consi stency

Goslings and Geese.—Goslings are usually sold as green

gosling just taken off the run and ki lled—butM ichaelmas and Chri stmas geese need to be of large sizeto comm and the best markets . Fattening should continuefor a month before killing , and all those geese shut uptogether should be killed at the same tim e, as if only twoor three are taken out from a lot the others fret . An birdwhich does not respond to the call of the food pai l ouldhave a dose of warm castor-o i l. The birds should not beshut up in the dark, but lef t in open-fronted sheds . Thefood should consi st of barleym eal, sharps , ground oats .and middlings, for the morning meal, to whi ch m ay beadded small potatoes, and some mutto n fat at the rate of2 ounces each bi rd per di em . The fat must be very wellboi led down beforebeingadded tothe food ,and onehundredweight of fat should fatten more than fif ty geese . The

afternoon feed should be of grain , ei ther wheat or ma ize ,and it may be placed in the water troughs , geese preferringthei r grain outof water. W hen the grain i s eaten , the watertroughs must always be removed .

Themost humane way of ki lling is by d islocation of theneck, but, as thi s is a di fficult Operation in the case of sostrong a bird , i t is best to hang the goose up by the legsfrom a beam , by means of a rope with a noose and runningcord , which being tightened , holds the bird eff ectively inplace . A strong pull down and then up will d i slocate theneck, and if the bi rd is lef t hanging for twenty minutes orso all the blood will flow into the cavi ty formed by the dislocation , and the body wi ll be beautifufly white .

Plucking should be done very carefully, lest the skin betorn , and most professional pluckers si t on a low chai r,wi th a linen apron over the knees to keep the goose clean ,


trouble. A week’s crammin g is sometim es given , but forthe most part the month’s fattening suffices .

Sussex ground oats, as usual, give the finest results whenmixed wi th milk and fat to a sof t but not sti cky mass, andfed in troughs, which can stand on the floor . G ri t is essential . Barleym eal, potatoes, and bo i led swedes , form valuable addi tions to the menu . D i slocation of the neck, afterthe preliminary eighteen or twenty-four hours’ starving,forms the best method of ki lling, and the method describedabove, in the di rections for the ki lling of geese, m ay befollowed . The bi rds should be plucked while warm , andthe feathers pulled out in the same di rection as they grow.

The whole body is plucked , but not the neck feathers , andgreat care and a hard pull are requi red to get the tai l andlarge W ing feathers out without tearing the skin ,

whi chwould seri ously lower the market value of the bird .

The bi rds should be packed between plenty of cleanwhi te paper and straw, and as tightly as possible, to avo idbrui sing . Best pri ces are obtained fer birds of good s izeand appearance, and straightness of breast-bone . In somemarkets medium-sized turkeys are in d emand , but for themost part large heavy bi rds wi ll fetch 2d . or 3d . a poundmore than a lighter lot of birds .

CHAPTER V

DISEASES OF POULTRY

Causes of di sease—Precautionary m easures—Di sinfection—D iagnosisof di seasch Com m on ai lm ents affecting chickens and adult fowls,ducks, and turkey s

—Vices of fowls.

EV ERY poultry-keeper should have some slight generalknowledge of the di seases common amongst fowls , in orderto detect at an early stage any signs of ind isposi tion . Ithas been said that hero i c remedi es are the best , and thatai ling bi rds should be promptly despatched in order tosafeguard thei r companions . To a certain extent thi s i sundoubtedly true . A very high standard of health oughtto be maintained for the sake of other poultry—keepers

, and

where the consti tution of a bi rd has been seriously impaired , i t i s a grave fault, in particular, to breed from i t.

Such breeding is responsible for very much of the poorstock that on e sees from time to time ; and since we areaware that the tendency to contract certain d i seases isheredi tary, the practi ce of putting fowls which are supposedto have recovered from tuberculous growths, rheum atism , and diphtheri ti c roup , into the breeding pen m ust becondemned severely .

Hero i c measures taken during an outbreak of infectiousd i sease are undoubtedly the best and safest, unless thebirds are of exceptional value , when it m ay be worth theowner’s W hi le to nurse them into convalescence. Chi ckenswhich are bad doers , and constantly ail ing while veryyoung,

are rarely worth the trouble of rearing . In our

early days of poultry-keeping we took the usual amount oftrouble over ai ling chickens , only to find that d i sease overtook them as they reached maturity, and that our labourhad been in vain . In addi tion to the worry a nd troubleof nursing sickly youngsters , there i s the fact that they takeup much valuable space, and thei r excreta fouls andp

o i sonsl

114 UTILITY POULTRY-KEEPLNG

the ground ,maki ng the rearing of the healthy stock mo re

difficult .At the same tim e it would be ridi culous to ki ll off every

fowl whi ch looked a li ttle out of order, since the troublemight be very slight and easi ly put ri ght .It i s im portant to remember that d i sease i s an abnorm al ,

not a norm al, condi tion , and that where it exi sts m i s

management in one form or another i s generally at thebottom of the trouble .

Causes of Disease.— Overcrowded run s , fouled land , in

sani tary or insect-ridden houses, impure water, unsui tablefood , i rregular feed ing, lack

‘

of green food , lack of sharp gri t ,too much stimulating food or forcin g spi ces , un naturalwarmth and sudden changes of temperature, wi ll all contribute towards a lowered standard of health . Infection m aybe carri ed by new fowls whi ch have been purchased fromstrange yards , and if bi rds are shown at all they may contract any inf ectious di sease in the show tent . l

Isolation — It is a wise precaution , and one whi ch shouldbe invariably observed to quarantine new purchases for aweek or so , during whi ch tim e any signs of i ll-health willusually make themselves mani f est . Second—hand fowlhouses or brooders should receive a thorough di sinf ectionand fumigation before being put into use.

Any suspected cases of i llness should be i solated at once,and on every poultry -keeper

’s premi ses som eplace , howeversmall, should be put aside for thi s im po rtant purpose .

Disinfectiom—Troughs and water vessels used by diseased birds should be destroyed , unless valuable, in whi chcase they should be soaked in strong di sinfectant beforebeing used again . All bodi es of fowls which have di edfrom inf ectious d iseases should be burnt, not buri ed . W hena severe outbreak of roup , gapes or cholera, hasoccurred , the tainted ground should be evenly dressedwi th lime (one hundredweight to each pole of land ) , put insmall heaps , slaked wi th water, and left un ti l the lime iscompletely slaked . A pole of land i s about 40 square yards ,and a conveni ent method of insuring even di stribution ofthe lime is to place the lime heaps (1hundredweight) about6 y ards apart, beginning 3 yards from thefence . W interweather will complete the‘cleansing . Some authori ti esrecommend a 1per cent . solution of sulphuri c acid , two or


food , and permanganate of po tash . W i th these remedi esthe majori ty of poultry diseases can be successfully fought .

Post M ortem Exam ination . If a fowl d ie suddenly(other than from an accident or some very obvious cause) ,it iswise to have the body opened and examined, for future

gui dance. It is, of course, possible to make a rough and

ready examination oneself , and , unless the cause of deathhas been of an obscure nature, i t is as a rule di scovered bythi s means . But to successfully conduct a post-mortemexamination is difli cult for the ordinary poultry-keeper,and it is really the wi sest plan to submi t the body toexpert, to ether with all inf ormation likely to be of use .

M ost o the poultry papers have experts attached to

thei r stafis who wi ll for a small fee inqui re into the causeof death . The body should be sent off immediately, so

that no signs of decomposi tion present them selves . Anysymptoms noticed , food s used , eneral treatment of thebi rds, ldnd of land and nature of fowl run , should be described as fully as possible, in order that the expert shallnot be working absolutely in the dark.

D ISEASES or CHICKEN S .

Under this heading we propose to di scuss those ailmentswhich are peculiar to chi ckenhood , and also those whi ch,whilst they appear in adults as well as in young birds ,requi re parti cular attention in the latter case.

Cramp.—In the case of young chi ckens thi s is caused by

damp , and is a common trouble in the early months of theyear. It must not be conf used wi th legweakness, fromwhi chi t di ffers a good deal, though the sym ptoms are rather alike.The first symptoms are failure of power in the legs, whi choften swell , and contraction of the claws . The chi ckencannot walk steadily, and as the claws get moredoubledup the bi rd seems actually to be walking on the knuckles .

W hole batches of chi ckens are often lost in this way duringa wet season . W arm th i s an essential, and a thi cklybedded dry floor (not of wood , i f possible) , is very advisable .

Peat moss, finely granulated , is an excellent thing for keeping chi ckens

’feet dry . Nouri shing food should be given ,

and the claws and legs massaged as frequently as possiblewi th o il or embrocation .

DISEASES OF POULTRY 117

Other causes of cramp are overfeed ing and overeoddlingthe cramp in these cases being of a gouty nature. If thebi rds get over

-fed , uric acid accumulates in the tissues , andthey are too lazy to work i t off . For thi s trouble the bestremedy is 1 grain of salicylate of soda for each chi ck,

togetherwi th 2 grains of Epsom salts , twice a day . The

legs must be massaged wi th o il , and the quantity of food

given must be reduced , so that the chi ckens run about andwork, instead of staying under the mother hen and becomingoverheated .

Chi ckens reared in a greenhouse (one of the worst of allplaces for the purpose, but one whi ch many people arefond of using) are very apt to suffer from this complaint .They should be at once taken out into the air, to an Openrun in whi ch peat moss or ashes have been strewn. For afew days the should be kept on limi ted rations , so thatthey become ungry and active . In the majori ty of casesthe crampwi ll di sappear .

Leg W eakness.—In young sto ck there are two causes of

’this trouble . Thefirst one is improper feeding—43.e. , a di etaryin whi ch there i s a lack of bone-making material, orwhi chis of too forcing a character . Young cockerels , and thoseof the lon -legged vari eties in parti cular, are very proneto leg weai ness, if their food i s not correctly balanced .

Parri sh’s chemi cal food i s about the best toni c to be foundfor this trouble, and may be given liberally. W epersonallyhave had no trouble wi th leg weakness in our own sto cksince we began using Phosto , a liquid preparation of phosphates (not a med i cine) . It can be given wi th perfectsaf ety after thechi ckens are a week old, and is equally goodfor adult stock.

Bonemeal should be dusted into all the soft food supplied ,

and oatmeal and ground oats should not be omi tted fromthe daily di etary . W ant of green food often causes legweakness in young chi ckens , because the whole system i s

lowered and growth is checked . Grass contains a gooddeal of much-needed lime .

Theother common cause of leg weakness ,where the bi rdfalls about and is unable to li ft i tself on to i ts legs (theclaws, however, not being contracted as in the case of

cramp), is the keeping of young chi ckens on wooden floors,whi ch results in the atrophy of certain muscles . W herechi ckens have plenty of ashes, some peat moss, or an nu

l 18 UTILITY POULTRY-KEEPING

even floor on whi ch they can roost, this form of legweaknessspeedi ly disappears .

Bowel Troubles. D iarrhoea is one of the plagues of

ch icken-rearing, but ma for the most part be avoided bycareful treatment and eeding . Some of the commonestcauses are impure water, soured food , food given too hotor in too sloppy a condi tion, too much fluid gi ven in add ition to that contained in the soft food , sudden changes oftemperature, overheated brooders , and irregular suppli esof green food .

Slight cases can be treated by small doses of castor-oil,whi ch assi sts in expelling the foetid m atter from the system .

Fro .—CHI0KENS ' DRINKING FOUNTAIN .

(NewPoultry Syndicate. )

after whi ch several meals of rice , boiled in mi lk overwhi chpowdered chalk has been sprinkled , may be adm inistered .

If caused by verywet or chilly weather, a drop of camphoressence over each feed for a day or so wi ll usually check it.

Formore obstinate cases chlorodyne should be given—not

more than 2 drops if the chi ckens are under a week old ,

nor more than 5 drops for those under a fortnight . Th edose may be repeated every three hours unti l the di arrhoeais checked . Hard-bo i led egg very often causes constipation , and that in its turn causes diarrhoea .

120 UTILITYPOULTRY-KEEPING

marshy ground used for rearing (whi ch appears to favourthe growth of the gapeworm) ; and allowing chi ckens todrink di rtywater from di rty vessels .

The best preventives of the di sease are plenty of freshclean land , purewater, the addi tion of garli c and choppedonions to the dai ly bi ll of fare, and the anointing of thehead of each chi cken wi th the following ointment :

M ercurial ointm ent

hurCrudepetroleum

Lard

Healthy bi rds should be immediately separated from theo thers, and removed to fresh ground , the land on which infected birds are running being afterwards drenched two orthree times wi th a l per cent . so lution of sulphuri c acid .

As regards treatment of infected bi rds , they should bekilled and burnt, and no bodi es should ever be buri ed .

All drinking vessels should be scalded every week . A

feather dipped in eucalyptus-o i l or oi l of cloves should bethrust down the throat of the bi rd (takin care not to suficcate the sufferer), turned round , and wit drawn , when thebright red worms will be seen adhering to i t. They shouldbe at once burnt, together wi th the feather . Camlin is anexcellent remedy, and should be used in conjunction wi ththe feather treatment .N o land on whi ch gapes has m ade i ts appearance shou ld

be used for chi cken-reari ng for fully two years, and in theinterval it should have a good dressing of qui ckl ime, andbe allowed to lie fallow or to have a good growth of grassupon it.

DISEASES or AD ULT S'rock .

Apoplexy .—Th is i s not uncommon among fat old fowls,

especially those of the heavy varieti es . Ri ch food or

overfeedin may also induce i t in young birds . In thecase of a s ight attack, put the head under a flow of coldwater, apply ammonia to the nostri ls, and pen the bird up ,keeping on very lowdi et for a fewdays . A dose of Epsomsaltswi ll help to put matters right . If a bird , otherwi se ingood condi tion, is seen to stagger unsteadily about, i tshould be penned up and kept on lowdiet, as thi s may wardoff an attack .


Bronch itis.—Sudden changes in temperature , or a chi llcontracted on a journey,

wi ll often cause thi s ailment, soondetected by the heavy

,qui ckened breathing and cough .

The bird should be kept, i f possible, in a warm, steamyatmosphere, and dosed wi th 3 drops of ipecacuanha wineand a fewdrops Of warm glycerine . Sometimes bronchi ti sbecomes chroni c, but if not severe the bird wi ll be all rightin other respects . Some cough lozenges di ssolved in thedrinking water, and a teaspoonful of warm glycerine nowand then , wi ll prevent the bird from getting anyworse.Bumble-Foot.—There are two opinions as to the cause Of

bumble-foot, the one bein g that daily jumping from theperch on to a hard surface causes a hard growth under thefoot ; the other, that i t is caused by the presence of aparasite . In any case , i t i s wise to brush paraflin over theperches used by any fowls suffering from the complaint .

A bird in an unhealthy condi tion may scratch the ball of

Fro . 25.— M ARKI NG RING FOR POULTRY.

(Hebdi tch . )

the foot and set up inflammation. If the swelli ng is hardand horny, resembli ng a simple corn , i tmay be pared away,and the foo t anointed wi th sali cyli c o intment.If , however, the swelling is soft, and develops into an

abscess , the bi rd must be put into a coop bedded thi cklywi th peat moss . The place should be well painted wi thiodine, and if no reli ef is gi ven it should be poulti ced, andthen cut Open and the matter squeezed out . W ash thewound wi th Jeyes’ flui d , and dress wi th Calvert

’s carboli cointment, bandaging the foot ti ll the place is healed .

Cholera. Thi s highly infectious and generally fataldisease is not very comm on in England , though we havehad outbreaks, and a hot summ er i s the most usual tim efor its appearance . Impure food or water, a bad drain or

tainted ground , may set up the complaint, which muchresembles enteri tis . The important thing when the diseaseonce makes i ts appearance is to isolate the bi rds imme


d iately ,collect and di sinf ect all inf ected droppings, burn

all dead bodi es , and apply preventive measures to thehealthy sto ck, spreading them out in small lots .

The symptoms are—Blood in the evacuations (whi ch,

first being Of a greeni sh-whi te colour, become afterwardsfor the most part blood and j elly), great thirst, pale or verydark comb, a huddled and drowsy appearance, and occasionally convulsive movements . It is rarely that bi rdsattacked by cholera can be cured , and i t is wi ser to killthem and burn the bodi es, and concentrate all energy uponpreventing the spread Of the disease . The water-supplyshould be stopped , and boi led water given instead , in whi cha li ttle iron solution has been placed . Thi ck barley-waterwill prevent the perforation Of the intestines, and sweet-oi lwi ll serve the same purpose. If perforation once begins ,there is small hope of saving a bi rd . Tainted ground mustbe purified wi th lime or sulphuri c aci d , as described on

p. 114 .

Colds. —These must be carefully watched , or they maydevelop into the dreaded roup . Bad weather, exposureto wind or rain , and draughty houses , wi ll cause colds , thesy m ptom s

’

beingwet eyes and nostrils , coughing or sneezing,and ruffled plumage . If the slightest sign of matter ispresent about throat or nostri ls , or i f the breath is off ensive,i solate that bird at once and treat for roup. G ive warmth ,

nourishing food , and a good tonic , to the other suff ererswi th a little roup-powder in the drinking water 5 drops Ofcamphor for each bird mixed in the soft food will Oftencheck a slight cold .

Crop-Bound."—The sym ptoms Of thi s are the usual evi

dences of out-of -sorts,”and a swelling, hard or soft , in

the region of the organ . Irregular feeding, overf eedingafter a long fast, twi sted grass , a pi ece of bacon rind , or

other foreign substance in the crop , are comm on causes .

W hen the crop is only slightly distended , and no hardmatter is felt, gentle kneading wi th the finger, followed bya small dose of warm casto r—o il, will give reli ef . NO foodshould be given for eighteen or twenty-four hours , butplenty of water (in whi ch a li ttle Epsom salts has beend i ssolved ) may be suppli ed .

W here the lump feels hard , and the crop is much distended , a slight operation may be performed . Fi rst remove


caused by condiments or too much meat, and are not commouly Of any importance . Black spots , however,

“

are asa rule a sign Of a di seased ovary , and the hen whi ch layssuch eggs should be killed . Overf eed ing i s as a ru le thecause

“

of abnormal eggs— fie , those whi ch are unusuallylarge or small or of curious shape . Fright, or lack of

shell-formingmaterial,wi ll cause the production of shell-less

eggs .

Egg-Binding .— Thi s o ccurs not infrequently, and must

be qui ckly dealt wi th i f the hen i s obviously di stressed .

The symptoms are—The hen go ing about wi th the talldepressed ,

haunting the nest-boxes , wi th sensi tiveness onthe left side near the vent, where the lump can usuallybe felt . Old hens are much more li able than pullets andyoung birds to thi s trouble, partly because the organs arebecoming naturally weaker wi th age, and partly because ,the oviduct being wi dely di stended , there is a tendencyfor two yolks to get together to form a s ingle egg . An Old

hen,becom ing fat and lazy, lays fewer eggs , but of larger

size . If taken in time, a pill of soot and soap twi ce dai lywi ll often eff ect a cure, and we have seen warm treaclerecommended as a preventive . There should be as li ttleinterference as possible, and thi s should not be hurri edlyappli ed , lest the egg be fractured , in whi ch case seriousconsequences may follow . If , however, i t is seen that thehen i s Obviously unable to get rid Of the egg, she shouldbe held over hot steam to soften the vent, and a featherdipped and soaked in O i l should be worked gently roundthe passage to soften the walls . The hen should then beleft on the nest for an hour or two , and i f by that time theObstruction i s not removed the operation should be re

peated .

Fracture.— Ii in a case Of thi s kind the egg has become

fractured , the greatest care must be exerci sed as , i f fragments Of shell rem ain behi nd and there i s escape of eggsubstance,

"

inflamm ation, and even gangrene , may be setup . The vent should be soaked wi th Oil , and any portionof shell whi ch can be seen should be gently wi thdrawn unti l ,wi th gentle .movements , the whole can be removed . Itwi ll usually come away together. Af ter the wi thdrawala good dose of castor-oi l should be administered , and thefowl kept qui et and away from the other hens for a li ttle.


Egg Cramp— Thi s is a common complaint among pulletswhi ch have just commenced laying, and appears likeparalysis of the legs . It is caused by the muscular resi stance Of the strong walls of the oviduct to the eggs as theypass along . The only thing to do is to keep the hen perfectly qui et, to feed sparingly, and administer a dose Of

castor-o i l. In old hens i t may be caused by exhaustionafter a long spell of lay i ng .

Prolapsus.—The common name for thi s among poultry

keepers i s down behind ,

”and i s a condi tion of muscular

weakness after prolonged laying , on whi ch a portion Of theintestines protrude . A hard lump can Of ten be felt . The

vent should be bathed wi th a strong infusion of cold tea ,the part gently pushed back and held in place , repeatingthe Operation frequently . Low di et i s essential, that theproduction Of eggs may be checked .

Favus.—This serious and highly contagious di sease i scaused by a minute vegetable fungus whi ch attacks thehuman subj ect as well as poultry , dogs , cats , etc . G reatcare must be exerci sed in handling fowls suffering from i t ,as any scratch on the hand would be enough to set it upin the operator . Frequently the di sease i s brought intohealthy yards by fowls bought in publi c markets and sales .

In i ts first stage i t i s a di sease of comb and wattles ,appearing as di rty whi te spots on the comb ,

whi ch afterwards form crusts , the skin underneath being red and sore .

If not taken in time, it may spread to the head and neck,

causing loss Of feathers , and if i t has reached that stage i ti s better to kill the fowl, as i twi ll probably die of weakness .

D i sinfectants must be freely used when treating thebi rd , which should be quarantined ,

fed wi th plenty of

greenstuff, and have Epsom salts in the drinking water .

The crusts should be washed wi th vinegar, followed upwith tar and sulphur dressing . The Board of Agri culturerecommends an ointment of 5 per cent . n i trate of si lveri n lard , to be well rubbed into the aff ected places . Allcrusts removed must be burnt, and rigid cleanlinessObserved .

Frost-Bite.—In winter-time thi s i s not an uncom mon

trouble , especially in the North of England , and amongthe large-combed vari eti es , which ought to be shelteredas much as possible and forced to take plenty of exercise

,


good deal Of tenderness and pain , especially in the regionof the right leg . The skin usually shows rather yellow,

and the evacuations are yellow, sometimes tinged wi thblood . If the bird is held o ver a kettle Of boili ng water,the steam will relieve the inflamm ation . In addi tion ,

10 drops of chlorodyne may be given . Bread and mi lk insmall quantiti es may be fed whi le the attack lasts , andafter it is over careful di etary should contin ue, wi th ani ron toni c and Epsom salts in the dri nking water.

Liver D isease.— Overcrowding, insani tary condi tions , in

breeding, ri ch food , lack of exerci se and greenstufl , areall contributory causes in setting up thi s dread di sease,whi ch i s in reali ty tuberculosi s . Liver di sease i s generallymarked by emaciation , going light as it i s often called ,

loss Of appeti te, li stlessness , rough plumage, lameness ,tenderness in the region Of the li ver, and dark-colouredcomb and wattles . The baci lli are considered to enter thebody Of the fowl ei ther by means of the food or from thedroppings Of affected birds ; but unl ess there i s a predi sposi tion to the di sease i t wi ll not get a firm hold . For

that reason di seased bi rds must never on any account bebred from ; and though apparent cures may be made byremoval to fresh surroundings , feed ing on meat and oat

meal, and the admini stration of cod-li ver-Oi l and drugs ,such cures are emphati cally not worth the trouble theyentai l, and tubercular bi rds are far best out Of the way .

All bodi es must be burnt and buri ed in qui cklim e, and thetainted runs and the houses must receive a thoroughpurification and di sinfection .

A post-mortem examination reveals the characteri sti cappearance Of the liver known as spotted li ver,

” the li verbeing studded wi th round tubercles vary ing in size, whi chcan be separated from the surrounding tissue, butwhi ch arefound right through the liver and not just on the surface.

The lungs are less frequently affected than‘ the liver and

intestines . W hen once the di sease gets a footing in theflock, drasti c measures are the best—li e kill off all thebi rds , di sinfect the premi ses as thoroughly as possible, andstart wi th a fresh stock f rom a yard that i s known to befree from di sease . Hens in an advanced stage of thedi sease do not lay , but, sti ll , there i s always the earli erpossibi li ty of transmi ssion of di sease through the egg to beguarded against .


Roup.— There are two vari eti es of thi s di sease—onemuch

more serious than the other, and more highly infectious .

Catarrhal roup is much more inf ectious than a m ere

cold , but frequently com mences as such , wi th runningfrom ey es and nostri ls , sneezing, and coughing. Thecatarrh becomes , however, more acute, and the di schargegrows more sti cky , especially from the eyes, and has a badsmell . In a later stage the di scharge may become cheesy,but does not form a membrane as in diphtheri ti c roup .

All afiected bi rds must be i solated , and a good roup-powdermixed in the drinking vessels of both healthy and ailingbi rds . The beaks, mouths , nostrils, and eyes, of suchbirds must be washed several tim es a day , using ei ther astrong solution of permanganate of potash or of peroxideof hydrogen and water (equal parts) . Keep the hens indry pens, well bedded down wi th granulated peat moss ,and give a nouri shing di et . Tainted ground, as in allother inf ectious di seases, needs to be thoroughly cleansedbefore using again .

In order to guard against outbreaks of roup , shelteragain st cold winds and drivin g rain must be provided,and sudden changes of temperature guarded against as faras possible .

Diphtheritic Roup.— Thi s i s of an even more contagious

nature, the parti cular symptom being the appearance ofa yellowi sh membranous growth,

forming rai sed patchesin the mouth and throat . Even in cured cases of roupand diphtheri ti c roup the disease takes such a hold on thesystems of affected bi rds that they should never be usedin the breeding pen . For the most part, aff ected bi rds,unless of value, should be killed off , as endless loss andtrouble m ay attend the patching up Of som e few bi rdsOf comparatively small value .

If a cure is being attempted , the membranous mattermust be removed as it forms, and the places swabbed wi thpermanganate of potash (a strong solution), or a 10 percent. solution of sali cylate of soda, as recomm ended bythe Board of Agri culture. M r. Lewis W ri ght, in h is

Book Of Poultry,” advises the following dressing

Carboli c acid 1 drachm .

Sulphurous aci d 3 drachm a.

Tincture of perchloride of i ron 4

G ly cerine 4


Ni trate of si lver is another excellent thing for touchi ng theaffected parts after the growths have been scraped awavwi th a

’

sharpened pi ece Of wood .

All swabs used in dressing should be burnt after using .

A remedy much used in France, and quoted by the sameeminent authori ty,

consisted of equal parts of tar and turpentine, whi ch is burnt in the hen house at night, the doorbeing closed . Thi s appears to be eff ective if employed atan early stage, the membranous growth being d etached .

It i s said to check infection to the others .

W hen convalescent, nouri shing foods and toni cs must besuppli ed liberally .

Scaly Leg —A parasi te, the i tch mi te, is the cause of thi sunsightly ai lm ent , the insect burrowing under the scalesof the leg,

whi ch in old fowls are more wi de apart anddi stinct than in young bi rds . As the di sease is very con

tagious, all perches used by inf ected birds must be wellscrubbed wi th paraffin and soft soap put on hot . Qui teyoung chi ckens can also contract it if the hen whi ch isbroodi ng them is suffering from scaly leg .

The appearance Of the birds’ legs i s peculiar, the coatingof whi te scurf whi ch covers them being sometim es so

thi ck that it forms lum ps i inch in depth and if the bi rdi s neglected the trouble wi ll spread to the joints , and theaff ected lim bs may actually drop off .

A parasi ti cide should be employed , the legs and feetbeing thoroughly cleansed first of a ll by scrubbing wi th hotwater, and afterwards wi th vinegar, using a rather sti ffbrush . One good parasi ti cide i s m ade up of

CreosoteCam phorOil of turpentineSweet-oil

Another, equally good , i s made by di ssolving 4 poundsof soft soap in 1 quart Of water, adding 1 quart Of paraffinto the solution . The whole should be well shaken up ,

and then allowed to cool and settle, drawing it off as

requi red .

W hen applyi ng ei ther of these lotions , the fowl shouldbe held on its back wi th the feet uppermost , so that theli qui d can get right under the scales to the aff ected part .


TURKEYS .

Intestinal Troubles. —Young turkeys are prone to diarrhoea and intestin al irri tation, and requi re very carefulfeedi ng on thi s account, avoiding sloppy food or new grain .

If diarrhoea makes i ts appearance while the bi rds are sti llhaving egg f eed in g, the egg should be omi tted from themenu, and chi cken-meal, scalded and mixed with ri ceboiled in mi lk, substi tuted , sprinkling a li ttle powderedchalk over the meal.

Swelled Head—A chi lly or windy day fo llowing hotdays is very apt to cause thi s . In order to preven t i tfrom spreading, put a li ttle camphor in the dri nking waterof the other turkeys , and i solate the suff erer. The swollenface should be bathed wi th lukewarm water containingJeyes’ flui d , and fomented wi th hot water in wh ich poppyheads have been infused . If the matter can be squeezedout, so much the better, and the bathi ng can be contin ued .

If the swelli ngs have become hard , an incision wi th a.

boi led penkni f e may be necessary, after whi ch the placeshould be well rubbed wi th Calvert’s carboli c Ointment orcarbolized vaseli ne. A li ttle roup-powder should be putin the soft food , and small doses of Epsom salts gi ven forthree or four dayswill help to clear the system .

Catarrhal Roma—The sym ptoms in turkeys are verymuch the same as in the case Of fowls—41a ,

f everishness ,thirst, whi ty-yellow substance forming in the throat andmouth, to

gether with swelli ng and inflammation . The

causes bot of this and of swollen face are fairly sim ilar—insani tary, overcrowded quarters , wi th lack of venti lation . If turkeys do not roost i n open-fronted houses theyare peculiarly liable to disease.

The cheesy matter must be scraped away, and the placesthen swabbed wi th peroxi de Of hydrogen and water (equalparts ) 30 grains Of Epsom salts must be given dail in thesoft food . All houses and runs must be thorouggly disinf ected , and the bi rds well sprayed wi th potassium perr

flnar

l

i

i

ganate before being put back wi th the rest of theoc

Black Heath—This is caused by a lowform of parasi ti c

hfe, and may be contracted by turkeys at any time ofhfe, one attack apparently gi ving no im muni ty at a later


period . It is thought by many emin ent authoriti es thatthe common hen (whi ch occasionally contracts the di sease ,but rarely di es from i t) acts as a carrier of the organi smand if that is definitely proved to be the case, turkeys and

hens should not be allowed to m ix together at all. InAmeri ca i t has had di sastrous results ; and though unti llate years it had never been known in England, it has ,unfortunately,

made its appearance . The name was given


to the di sease because at a certain stage the turkey’s head

was qui te black . The symptoms are drowsiness and refusal to eat , wi th li qui d evacuations Of a yellow colour ,the evacuations being the main source of infection .

The liver is the main region Of the di sease, and thedi fficulty , fer the average breed er, li es in the fact that thedi sease is not always clearly indi cated until it has Obtaineda firm hold . A post-mortem examination is necessarydi rectly a dubious case of i llness occurs .

Up to the present time no curative treatment has beenfound whi ch can be claimed to be wholly successful, andit is best to concentrate attention on di sinf ection and prevention . Dry ,

sandy soils appear to prevent the di seaseto some extent, whi lst heavy land seems to conduce to i tsdevelopment . Slaked lime should be freely used in theyards, the houses and roosts , and any other bui ldings towhich infected birds may have or have had access . Rearingshould not be attempted for a full six months af ter thedis inf ection . W hen applying slaked lim e whi lst hot tohouses , etc . , care must be taken to protect the eyes againstaccidental Splashing .

Ch icken-Pox.—This ailment frequently attacks growing

turkeys, and is a form Of scrofulawhi ch is highly inf ectious .

The heads of the turkeys become covered wi th largeyellow sores , full of di scharging matter, whi ch fo rm scabs .

Each bi rd must be dealt wi th separately, the places beingbathed with a strong solution of permanganate Of potash ,

and then paintedwi th Jeyes ’ flui d . The bi rds must be kepton fairly lowdi et, and have Epsom salts once a day . Oneof the commonest causes Of thi s di sease is overfeeding,

bin

dmuch feeding of maize, whi ch i s too starchy for young

11‘ s .

VICE S OF FOW LS .

Egg-Eating.—Thi s is, unfortun ately,

a comm on vi ce,whi ch needs dealing wi th at once, as , unless the culpri t1s di scovered and checked , She wi ll teach the habi t to theother hens . Busy hens seldom contract bad habi ts , andi f plenty Of exerci se is allowed , and a li beral supply Of

green food and broken oyster-shell provided ,there wi ll be

less inclination to bad habi ts Of this kind .

To_

detect the Offender, an ordinary hen’s egg should beempti ed Of its contents

, and through the hole treacle

CHAPTER VI

BACKYARD AND SUBURBAN POULTRY-KEEPING

Opportuni ties for the sm all poultry -keeper— Causes of failure—Sui table

breeds—Housing and feeding— Keeping the run sweet—Profits of

dom estic poultry keeping Egg records The balance sheet?

Chi cken-rearing— Duck-fatteni ng

— The day -old ch ick trade.

IT is very gratifying to note the large increase year byyear in the number Of resi dents in towns and suburbs Oftowns who are taking up poultry-keeping on a small scalefor the purpose Of supplying thei r home tables wi th eggsand chi ckens , and who are not only keeping thei r bi rdswi thout loss , but who are actually making good profitsout Of their work. W i th the advent of sound practicalteaching on the subj ect , and the radual growth of interestamong the general publi c , it is , owever, more wonderfulthat a sti ll larger number Of householders have n ot embarked upon poultry-keeping . If every person who possessed a small grass run , or even an earth backyard ,

wereto keep fowls just for their own use, we should hear agood deal less about the im ports of fresh eggs and poultrywhi ch enter thi s coun try . The demand for fresh eggs inour large towns i s still enormously i n excess of the supply,

and i s likely to be for many years yet ; and i f all the wastebits of ground up and down the land on whi ch fowls couldbe kept wi th excellent results could be added up ,

it wouldsurpri se most people to learn what opportuniti es are beingthrown away every year . M any people are deterred by theimagined difli culties and troubles Of looki ng after live-sto ck ,

but the trouble is really a pleasure and a hobby lik e thi si s of great value to many a jaded ci ty worker.Special Advantages Of the Small Poultry-Keeper.

— Thehouseholder who intends to take up poultry-keeping forhome purposes has many advantages peculiar to h is

136

SUBURBAN POULTRY-KEEPING 137

posi tion . He has no extra rent to pay for h is land . so

that hi s birds do not have to meet that expense beforethey y i eld a profit h is food bill can be kept at qui te alowfigure by the skilful use Of home scraps, and those Offri endly neighbours who do not keep fowls , and who wi llreadi ly save the household Odds and ends whi ch wouldotherwi se go into the fire hotels and restaurants wi ll giveaway or sell at a low pri ce their very considerable leavings greenstufi sufficient for a fewfowls can be Obtainedatis from the local reengrocer, and i f a small regularorder

or lights, li ver, etc Ireplaced wi th the butcher, hewi ll Oftenthrow in a fewextra ti t-bi ts whi le li tter for house and runscan be obtained from nei ghbours

’

gardens when the leavesare falling, or, for nex t to nothing, in the shape Of strawfrom stores where good s are being unpacked . Again ,there is no di fficulty in di sposing of the produce, theaverage housekeeper being only too delighted to purchasegenuin e Briti sh new-laid eggs whi ch are above suspi cion .

W here the Am ateur often fai ls - Oi course there arefai lures from time to time among those who are just beginning thei r backyard or suburban poultry-keeping, buti n nine cases out of ten where these have occurred errorin management has been the cause, and i t i s wi ser, wheresuccess is not forthcoming , to examine into one’s methods ,and painstakingly worry out the reason , than to throw upthe sponge in di sgust and loudly affirm that oultrydoesn’t pay.

”Poultry can be mad e to pay, and as pay

even in a cramped backy ard run i f proper methods are

adopted, as we have ourselves seen by the perusal ofmany a pleasing li ttle backyard balance-sheet . Amongthe chief causes Of non -success may be included the following The selection Of an un sui table breed, Of a strain inwhich the birds have never been bred for laying birdsthat are too Old or that have been hatched too late overfeedi ng or feedi ng on an unsui table di et overcrowdi ng inthe run tainted ground diseased bi rds being allowed toenter the yard , and thus affectin g the other inmates or

careless management during a late moult . G iven a sui table breed

,the hens being hatched at the r ight time, and

nei ther kept too long nor allowed to become fat,with sui tablehousing and feeding, there should be no di fficulty in keeping up a good supply of eggs indeed , we are of opinionthat it is the small poultry-keepers , who wi ll, in


measure, solve the problem of the winter egg, sincetheir birds, being few in number, can have the indi vidualattention impossi ble in a large establi shment, and beingin covered runs , well sheltered from W ind and rain ,

wi ll be likely to produce an ample supply in the coldmonthswhen eggs are at a prem i um .

Selecting aBreed.—

. It is a great mistake to suppose thatpoultry wi ll not flouri sh in confinement, the great pointbeing the selection of a sui table breed . In the majori tyof cases one of the heavi er breeds should be chosen, as theyare for the m ost part more inclined to winter lay ing thanthe M edi terranean breeds, and W in ter eggs should be theconsideration in vi ew. On the other hand , if the run isvery small, such fowls are apt to get fat and lazy unlessvery carefully watched and fed , and any of the light activebreeds , such as the Leghorn or Campine, would be better.M any strains of Leghom s and some of M inorcas are capi talwinter layers , and wi ll give excellent resul ts , whilst theyhave the distin ct advantage . over the heavi er breeds of

not going broody, and consequently wasting much valuabletime, from an egg

-producing point of vi ew.

Among the recognized wi nter layers sui table for con

finem ent we can confidently recomm end the Buff or

Barred Rock, the Coucou de M alines , the Sussex, and theOrcad Langshan .

M aking a. Beginning.—W hen stocking the yard , two

alternatives are open to the beginner : ei ther eggs can bepurchased from a reliable breeder in the spring, and thechi ckens reared ready for the autumn orgood stock pulletscan be bought in September or October ready to startlaying by the beginning of November. W here space isvery limi ted the second method i s to be pref erred ,

as agood deal of experi ence is necessary to rear chi ckenssuccessq y in a lim i ted space, and thi s the amateur wi llhardly possess . The second method is easi er, as it is muchs impler to successfully look af ter matured bi rds, even inthe winter months , than to try rea W h ere chi cksare to be reared , every available b it

n

dl

fgground must be

gi ven up to them, and great care exerci sed as regardscleanhness. Purchased fowls should be bought on thedepo si t system, and when they arrive they should becarefully examined , no ting the eyes and mouth for any signs


bi rds on free range, so should be fattened up a li ttle andsold in the beginning of July, before thi s takes place, at2s. or 2s. 3d . as li ve bi rds , there being a good demand inJewi sh quarters for fat live bi rds . Of course this i s a

good deal less than they wi ll have been bought for, butthe profit comes in wi th the large number of eggs laid.

and as the food bill i s lowwhen only a few hens are keptthi s profit should be a good one. M ost backy arders

find the poli cy of forcing for egg production a wiseone, andwi th the judi cious use of ovary toni cs the bi rdsshould yi eld a large number of eggs . If the bi rds are keptthrough thei r first summer they should be made to moultearly, and to lay a good number of eggs up to Chri stmas ,when they should be induced to go broody and may be soldto exhibitors who need them for rearing early si ttings , andwho wi ll pay 3s. to 4s . 6d . for a good well-feathered hen atthat time . No old age pensioners should be main tained .

Kind of Eggs to M arket— W hen the home table aloneis supplied , it does not matter if the eggs are whi te-Shelled ,

or they can be harmlessly tinted by putting them in thecoff ee-pot for a few minutes . W here outside customersare to be suppli ed , however. i t i s generally found that thebrown-shelled eggs fetch the best pri ces , especially in thewinter, and the breed or cross-breed kept must be one thatwi ll comply wi th market requi rements .Eggs wi th pale yolks often cause complain ts from

customers , and the trouble can be remedi ed by the inelusion of more green food (especially steamed clover hay)and Some meat in the di et, together wi th a li ttle i ron inthe drinking water. W hen eggs are sold for table, caremust be taken, too that nothi ng gives them an objectionable flavour, as cm ons , rank cabbage, stagnant water, ormuch fish , are all apt to do .

Number of Birds to Keen—No hard-and-fast rule can belaid down about thi s, as i t all depends upon the size of therun, and whether i t consists of grass or earth but , as anexample, six hens could be comfort-ably kept in a house4 feet by 6 feet, wi th a run 14 feet by 6 feet . W i th largernum bers in the run such proportionately good resultswould not be maintained , and , indeed , one of the com

monest causes of fai lure among amateurs is overcrowding .

M any people make half a dozen hens succeed very well ,

142 - "UTIL ITY-revLa‘

nY-KEEPINc

and immediately jump to the conclusion that the m orefowls they keep the bigger wi ll be their profits , and proceedto double the number of the fowls whi le leaving the run sthe same size . If too m any hens are kept the home supplyof house scraps

, on whi ch a few can be main tained verycheaply

, wi ll be qui te insuffici ent, and extra lots of food”

wi ll have to be bought, whi ch wi ll bring up the cost verymuch .

Housing — Very often the housing question i s the rockover whi ch the backyarder trips , entirely unsui tableerections being too often considered sui table for theunfortunate fowls . One has only to walk about someof the back streets and lanes of our towns and ci ti es inorder to get an excellent obj ect-lesson in how not to keeppoultry . Of course economy has to be considered , and

also the uti lization of exi sting walls and other erectionsIt may be doubted whether it is as cheap to bui ld one’sown house as to buy it, even if the labour, being sparetime, is not counted , as timber of a sui table nature isso dear when i t has to be purchased in small quanti ti es .

The large manufacturers , owing to the immense quanti tyof wood purchased and their great output, can turn out

some really excellent houses at a pri ce sui table for the mostmodest pocket, and in the m ajori ty of cases i t wi ll becheaper to buy . W here the house i s to be home-made ,however, a good wo rking plan should be sketched out

beforehand , and the haphazard sort of erection whi ch doesduty for many a poultry house up and down the coun trystri ctly avo ided . Large packing cases wi ll not m ake abad sort of house, as they are of a good thi ckness and cheapinto the bargain . W here a south wall exi sts , the houseshould be put up against i t, so that the front wi ll face duesouth . If a south-west angle is present, the condi tionsare very good , as the house can be put up with i ts back tothe west wall, and the run at right angles to i t, so thatthe run faces south and as the fowlswi ll be in the run thegreater part of the day , they wi ll get every avai lable rayof sunshin e .

It is not well to build where, owing to cramped con

ditions, it i s not possible to extend should increase of stockdemand i t. The run can probably be extended if necessary

,

but not so the roosting house, and thi s should thereforebe always a li ttle larger than may seem essential at the time .


right up to the roof except on the front , so that perf ectshelter from snow and strong win ds i s afforded . If theslight addi tional expense can be afforded , wooden shuttersmight be fitted around the framework of netting, and madein sections , so that in the summer the shutters (whi ch wouldonly be screwed to the framework of the netting) couldqui te easi ly be taken to pieces and stowed away . In thesummer months i t would certainly be a great advantageto have the netting only , as so much insect lif e and extrasun shine would make their way through to the bi rds .

Keeping the Run Sweet.— One of the greatest enemiesthe backy ard poultry-keeper has to face i s uncleanness inei ther house or run , and strenuous measures have to betaken to avoi d this . D roppings , of course , can be easilyremoved from the roosting house i f a deep li tter of peatmoss is kept therein , and if the excreta from the droppingboards is rem oved dai ly and saved for garden use .

W here land i s rather more abundant, the small poultrykeeper can adopt the two-

plot system , growing cabbage ,.potatoes , or mustard , on the one half , whi le the fowls areon the other, and di gging each half very thoroughly inturn . If the run i s very small, i t is yet possible to adoptthe same method , permi tting the fowls the run of thewhole plot for some li ttle time (wi th the precaution of

sweeping up the droppings dai ly wi th a stiff brush ) , thendividing the run lengthwi se wi th netting . The fowls wi llremain on the one half whi lst the other is roughly forkedover, sown wi th cabbage and lettuce very thi ckly in thespring months , or wi th rye in the autumn , and left for asuffici ent time for the seeds to come up well. The hens canthen be turned into the rye or cabbage patch ,

as the casemay be , and their late quarters treated in the same manner .

A gravel run i s advised where the space i s very crampedindeed , and where it would be even im possible to keepan earth run in a sani tary condi tion . The surface of theearth should be dug out for about 9 in ches , and filled upwi th sound clean gravel then rolled ti ll i t i s qui te sound .

By means of dai ly sweeping and removal of the droppingsthe run can be kept clean for a very long time, and whencommon sense shows that i t is necessary that the gravelshould be removed , i t can be simply dug out , placed inthe open air, and exposed to the action of the weather

,

which will clean i t by the tim e th at the second lot of gravel


put in its place has in turn become soi led . A couple of

loads should sufficefor a small run for several years .

An ordinary earth run will , however, keep sweet for along tim e if plenty of li tter is provided and the whole keptdry but we recently saw an excellent plan advocated bya wri ter in the Poultry W orld. One part of the run is

elevated about 6 inches above the other by filling up wi thsoft soi l from the other portion . The lower half i s to betrodden down ti ll i t forms a hard floor, and on thi s partthe greenstuff and bones , etc are to be fed , and the softfood in troughs . On all the soft earth a thick layer of

li tter is spread , and the grain thrown among i t. The

fowls appear to enjoy the li ttle change from the one halfto the other, and the exerci se they derive from jum pingabout . If a few inches of the lower division are dug awaytwi ce a year, and fresh earth put in and well beaten down ,

there should be no fear of tainted land . If for any reasonthe earth run has become tainted , the best thing to do isto move the fowls to other quarters , if this can be arranged ,

or to sell them off , and have the top 6 inches of so i l eutirely dug away ,

the ground treated wi th di sinf ectants ,and new earth carted in from elsewhere .

Drinking Fountain — This must always be kept perf ectlyclean and placed where the fowls cannot tip it over . If

it stands on two bri cks there is less lik eli hood of the fowlsscratching dust and ashes into it.

G rit.— Thi s must always be suppli ed , and should bekept in a shallow tin nai led up in the run .

Dust-Bath .—A deep box for dusting is desi rable, other

wise the fowls wi ll be always scratching the ashes overthe run

,making i t constantly un tidy . A fresh supply of

ashes can be brought from the house every day , and theold ones removed . It is not a good plan to place eggshells among the ashes un less they are well broken up , or

the vi ce of egg-eating may be started . If the bath i s

placed in the sunni est part of the run , the fowls wi ll spendmany half -hours revelli ng in it.

Feeding —Th e feedi ng of fowls in confinement calls forspecial care and thought . The birds must

'

aIW ay s be keptactive and working ,

yet they must have good feedi ngmaterials in order to do thei r work well . Th e greatmajori ty of hens are too fat, and hence thei r egg

1(prgans


become out of order, and in extreme cases actuallydi seased .

The great fault among amateurs li es in overfeedi ng, and

though bi rds in confinement need three meals a day , theymust never be allowed to become lazy , and must be i n ducedto take ceaseless scratching exerci se in thei r covered runs .

A laying hen requi res 35 to 4 ounces of food per di em ,

but not more, or she wi ll proceed to put on fat and downwi ll go the egg record .

G reen Fowl —Animal food i s essential for bi rds in con

finem ent, and a regular supply of green food i s a vi talnecessi ty . If sunflowers are grown in the run , they W i ll

be found highly useful, not only for the shade they afford ,

but for thei r hi ghly nutri tious seed s , whi ch are of specialvalue during the moulting period . Cabbages , lettuces , and

FIG . 30.—SPROUTING Box FOR OATS .

(Randolph M eech . )

other green vegetables , can generally be obtained as surplusstock of any greengrocer but if a spare corner of the runcan be utilized , and they are sown rather thi ckly, a regularsupply can always be maintain ed . A cabbage head hungupon a string i n the run wi ll afford exercise to the fowls ,and swedes and turnips cut in half are much relished . If

all green vegetables fai l, steamed clover hay should beadded to the mornin g mash .

Howto prepareSprouted 0ats.— One of the best and most

economical methods of supplying fowls in confinementwith the green food so necessary for thei r health and theirsuccess as egg producers consi sts in sprouting oats andfeeding them i n blocks . The system i s extensively practised now in England , and has solved the question of the


of the moisture-supply will be understood , and the trayscan then be stacked over one another and the water allowedto run through , but at first this should not be attempted .

The M orning M ash .—Bi scui t-meal, barleym eal, sharps ,

and bran , may all be used as the foun dation of the morningfeed , together wi th all the house scraps available. Too

much bread or too many potatoes should not be given, asthey are likely to cause fat rather than the form ation of

muscle ; but both may be used in moderation, togetherwi th scraps of lean meat, bi ts of pudding and v etables ,bacon ri nd, and all the other odds and ends 0 housekeeping remains . A sto ck—pot should be kept for the useof the fowls, and where every available bi t is served upit is simply wonderful what can be saved in the way offood . If the stock-

pot is kept going, the contents can

simply be poured in wi th the scalded bran , and dried offwi th one or other of the meals used . The whole shouldbe mixed to a crumbly, moi st consistency, and never madetoo wet, or i t forms a glutinous mass round the fowls

’

beaks whi ch they do not appreciate at all . The mashshould be given warm , but not hot, and poultry spi ce ormustard may be added thrice a week (the latterwell sti rredin and not given in lumps) in in clement weather. Smallpotatoes , for a change, can be boi led and added to barleymeal, and the two following menus have been proved verysatisfactory by a backyarder who wi ll, we trust, pardonour quoting them

Peam eal 1part Dried ofiBaked breadcrum bs 2 parts wi th sharps.

Green bone t ounce foreach bird

2 parts Dried off with1part barleym eal.1ounce for each bird

Soft food should always be given in troughs in a smallrun , or i t may get contaminated wi th droppings .

Onlyive as much as the bird wi ll clear up at a time, as sourood causes d iarrhoea .

TheM idday M eal. —In the majori ty of cases it is betterto give a moderate quanti ty of food for breakfast

, so thatthe birds wi ll not stand about lazi ly in the cold . If half


rations are given first thing in the morning, grain shouldbe buried in the scratching shed , but not too thickly, or

they wi ll find i t too easi ly wi thout obtaining the needfulexercise ; nor too thinly, or they will give i t up as a badjob . Thi s will keep them and employed all themorning, and at midday they may be given a handful ofcats in winter, or spli t peas in summer, together2 oun ces each of fresh out green bone or boiled meat(lights , liver, or

'

paunch), and the day’s rations of greenstuff— cabbage, sprouted oats , Brussels-sprouts , etc .

TheEven ing Feed—Thi s i s the last meal of the day , and

should be of a substantial ord er, that the birds may go to

FIG . 3l .— Coor AND RUN .

(J. W ilcock. )

rest wi th full crops . Oats are about the best grain to use ,

alternating regularly'wi th wheat. Barley and maize are

allowable in cold W eather as they are both heating, butboth should be given cautlously to birds in confined runs .

In co ld weather boi led corn is much relished,'

or as a titb i scorched corn,

” prepared by filling a shovel withcorn and holding it over the fire ti ll it scorches , but doesnot burn. It is surpri sing how a few li ttle changes of thi skindwi ll benefit the bi rds ,who like vari ety nearly as m uchas human beings .

Cost of Feeding.—W here more than three or four hens

are kept, food should be bought in as large quanti ti es as

possible, if i t can be stored in a dry place, as a consi derable


amount can be saved by thi s means . If every advantagei s taken of the house scraps and any extra ones whi ch canbe obtained , the cost of f eedi ng should never exceed15d . per hen per week, and wi th very careful managementi t can be brought down to 1d . This brings the cost ofeach hen’s main tenance to 45 . 4d . a year in the latter case,whi ch represents a certain amoun t of managemen t and

economy. At 15d . per head per week the year’s cost of

keep for one hen would be 63 . 6d . , and the number of egshe would have to lay in order to make a good profitwe (1

have to be increased .

Profit of Domestic Poultry-Keeping." -It is extremely

difli cult to gi ve hard-and-fast statements in cases like this ,where so much depends upon the selection of the sto ck,thei r management, the cost of their food , and the pri ce atwhi ch thei r eggs are sold .

Even a good ordinary hen ought to lay 120 eggs a yearwhi ch , i f put at 1d . each , would bring in 10s. per annum .

That is a low estimate for a town where new-laid eggsfetch 2éd . and 3d . each in the win ter months , and seldomgo above fif teen for ls . in the summer ; so that even ifthe cost of food be reckoned at 15d . a week, each layinghen would be earning about 3s . a year, and if food werereckoned at 1d . the profit would be about 5s. If goodstock is owned , the average should be over 150, whichwould make a vast diff erence to the profit-earning capab ili ties of the flock whilst the 200-egg hen i s apossib i lit even in the backyard . Of course, depreciationof stock like to be allowed for, but wi th skilful managementthis can be reduced to a very small amount, whilst thereis the value of the manure to be reckoned in ,

and therewi ll be side-lin es in addi tion .

It wi ll be readi ly understood that in such an estim ateas the above, where a small flock of hens is kept for homepurposes, and tend ed in spare time, no allowance has beenmade for labour and establi shm ent charges .Keeping an Account— Thi s is highly necessary, but need

only be done in a sim ple mann er. In an ordina pennynotebook one side can be kept for receipts and t e otherfor expend iture, and bo th should be ruled off into monthsand days , when the regular entering up wi ll prove a vervshort matter.


start lif e wi th a sound consti tution . The pens ought tobe divi ded up so that bi rds of d ifierent ages can be keptand a regular succession of rough chi ckens can thenbe sent up to the fini shers of Surrey or Sussex,who W i ll gi veood pri ces the whole year round for lean chi cken s of largerame.

Rearing Table Ducklings.—In the same way day—old

ducklings or a setting of duck eggs m ay form a veryconsiderable source of profit, as they are such hardy bi rdsand wi ll stand very small quarters wi th no in j ury to

health, and. they fatten so rapidly that m ay be

‘FIG . 32.—HOT-W ATEB

'

Incunx'ron .

(New Poultry Syndicate. )

turned into money at ten weeks old . If the right time ofthe year is chosen, and the ducklings are well fed and readyfor killing in April or M ay , the top pri ces of (is. to 88 . acouple may be obtained— not bad

,

for a backy ard er. Inany case, if a succession are reared they wi ll provide agood dinner now and then for the home table, and therewi ll be a ready sale for them in the neighbourhood.

Day-Old Ch icks.—That there is money in the day -oldch i ck or day

-old duckling busin ess i s easi ly shown , andamong the most successful in thi s line of busin ess havebeen small poultry-keepers . W e know of two ladi es whostarted wi th a couple of second-hand incubators , and a


FIG . 33.—PATENT

'

REGULATOR ATTACHED To A HOT-W ATER TANK

INCUBATOR.

(New Poultry Sy ndi cate.)

Fro . 34.-SEC'I‘ION or HOT-W ATER INCUBATOR , SHOW ING PATENTREGULATOR AN D VENTILATOR COM BINED .

(New Poultry Synd icate.)

supply of eggs for hatching from the yard of a farmerfri end, and who , by di ligent attention to business , ski lfuladvertising, and a determination to send out nothing but


the right stuff , have so increased their field of operationthat they are thi s year the possessors of fourteen largeincubators , and an order li st nearly as long as the incubatorroom from satisfied customers of previous ears .

The backy arder’s own birds will not, 0 course, be able

to supply the necessary eggs, and these should be obtainedfrom other sources , preferably f rom farms where thestock birds have free range . A contract pri ce is usuallyarranged when a quantity is taken, the day

-old chi ckseason lasting from January to t he end of M ay , unlesschi cks are specially ordered or wanted for the table trad e .

Popular breeds or cross-breds should be selected, and i t isa wi se precaution , when settling terms wi th the farmer, toarrange that not more than one vari ety should be kept onthe place, unless there are special faci li ti es for separation,in or

der to minim ize the danger of miscellaneous eggs being

su ied .

1?is, of course, li ttle use to embark on this ‘ side-lin e

thout a good incubator-room, a half -cellar being excellentfor the purpose ; and where second-hand machin es arebought, they should be of a reliable make and well examinedfor condi tion before purchase is made . The general directions for hatching by incubator should be studi ed , and thechi cks when dry despatched immediately in the suitableboxes made for the purpose by all appliance -makers ,labelled carefully, and despatched by passenger train . If

they are being sent to towns , the railway companies wi llin most cases deliver them very qui ckly ; but where thechi cks are to be sent to remo te d i stri cts the purchasershould always be advi sed , so that the box can be f etchedat once .

Every effort should be mad e to fulfil orders promptlyand in rotation , and orders only taken for as many as canbe guaranteed to the date prom i sed . In many cases wheretoo many orders are received the customers are kept wai tingweeks and weeks, and where thi s occurs repeat orders arenot li kely . W here a certain breed is ordered it must besent any mi stake here spells future fai lure . At thesame time, the novi ce purchaser must not hastily assumethat a dealer in day -old chicks i s a fraud sim ply

because,

when they arrive, they do not conform to hrs idea ofthe breed . Croad Langshans , for example, when youn goften show a good deal of whi te ; in fact, the best adult

CHAPTER VII

POULTRY-FARM ING

Defini tion Quali fication and traini ng Capi tal Choi ce of land

Plant—Food b i lls— Stocking—Branches—" Accoun ts and profits

W om en poultry farm ers— The daily round .

Definition of the Term.—An unfortunate sti gma has long

attached i tself to the word poultry-farming, ari singmainly from the ri di cule passed upon an exploded fallacy,

whi ch maintained that poultry-farming could be profitablycarried on qui te apart from all other branches of agri culture .

M any people went to the length of refusing the ti tle of

poultry farm to any holding whi ch maintain ed otherstock or practi sed the cultivation of crops , even though theproducts went in both cases for the upkeep of the featheredstock. Such mi sconstru ction of a right and proper termdeserved its fate and practi cal experi ence has shown that,where poultry-keeping is practised on an extensive scale , itcan only be econom ically conducted when supplemented bysimultaneous agri cultural operations , whi ch can and shouldbe made to work successfully and profitably along wi th themain busin ess of the farm .

The uni t dealt with in poultry-keeping i s so small thatprofits are bound to be lowunless the acreage i s suffici entlyincreased for the accommodation of the required head of

stock, and thi s , by necessi tating the operations of agriculture, at once upsets the theory that poultry can standalor

ga, pay all expenses , and provide a large margin of

pro t .

Between the extremi st on the one hand who draws i dealpi ctures of coun try lif e and of poultry-keeping as a shortcut to imm ense fortun e, and the extremi st on the otherwhoregards the business as the last refuge of the feeble-mindedunable to take up any other career, it appears at firstsigh t difficult to obtain a just vi ew of the question .

156

POULTRY-FARM ING 157

As i s usually the case,both parti es are simultaneously

right and wrong . There i s money to be made out of

poultry-farming, and there are numbers of men and womenwho are making a good income from the occupation ,

wh i lsthere and there one comes across instances of wonderfulsuccess .

On the other hand , there have been many fai lures of

thosewho have wi shed to go back to the land , and theseare probably responsible for the unduly pessimi sti c attitudeadopted in some quarters .

G enerally speaking, the successful men have been thosewh o have possessed both skill and experience , orwho werefortunate in being able to cater for or open up a parti cularmarket and where fai lure has occurred , i t has been in themajori ty of cases due to errors of management and an insuffici ent appreciation of the difficulties of the enterpri se .

It must be clearly un derstood that the average hen i s notcapable of providing a W i de margin for profit the while shei s fully debited wi th the rent and the food and labour bi ll .

Certainly she should be able to pay for her keep and expenses , and leave that small profit which amounts in theaggregate to the yearly in come of the poultry farmer butin order to secure that narrow margin it i s necessary forthe farmer to be well up

‘

in the details of an intri cate business , and to have the necessary training and qualifications ,as well -as a genuine love for the work .

Som e Aspects of the Question . It i s a m i stake to

imagine the poultry farmer’s life an easy one and one in

whi ch any person whatever can make a bri lliant success .M uch of the d etail work i s hard and unremi tting . W eathercondi tions will often make the dai ly round di stracting to adegree, and ,

whatever the climatic condi tions , there mustbe no in termi ssion or postponement of duties . Fowls arenot in evi tably healthy, or chi ckens always easy to rear ,and Sundays and holidays are as full as weekdays of

the routin e work of the farms . Stock must be fed , eggscollected ,

chi ckens watched , broodies vi si ted , lamps filledand trimmed , and the rest of the thousand and one detai lsof a poultry farmer’s lif e attended to . Lazy, lie-abedmethods wi ll not answer wi th poultry , and the man whoexpects to make money wi thout working for it will be

gri evously di sappo inted if he hopes that thi s occupationwi ll answer h is purpose . Not that we wi sh to act as the


proverbial wet—blanket ; on the contrary ,

”

we are of'

theopinion that the li f e i s one of the most interesting and

absorbing it is possible to fin d . The mysteri es of breedingand incubation, and the processes of growth and development of young lif e, are always fresh and full of fascination,and there i s ample room,

on the uti li ty as well as on theexhibi tion side, for personal research and investigation .

There is, moreover, such an awakened interest in the industry , and so much improvement in methods of working ,

that ( taking into account the unf ai ling demand for fleshand eggs) the possibili ti es for the poultry—keeper appear tobe almost unbounded at the present time .

Personal Qualifications— It would be distinctly unwi sefor anyone to give up a settled occupation on the strengthof a desi re to take up poultry-farming, unless he werecertain th at he possessed the necessary qualifications . Theprospective poultry farmer must know both practicallyand theoreti cally the ins and outs of a somewhat intri catebusiness, made up of a mass of small details he must havepati en ce, common sense, and perseverance, and the knackof making opportuniti es . The man who would risk thewhole of a li ttle capital in establishing a farm , knowingli ttle or nothing of the sci ence of its management, andhaving no incomewi th whi ch to support himself durin thebui lding up of the busin ess , would only have b imse to

blame for failure, since in no other trade or prof ession wouldsuch a pi ece of egregious folly be dreamt of . Th e incomewhi ch may be derived from a going concern depends forthe most part on the character of the man who has bui ltit up , and in the matter of poul try-farming luck can hardlybe reckoned as a factor in h is success or fai lure . He i s notat the mercy of the weather like the general farmer, muchthough it may affect h im and whi lst the work is not tobe regarded as a. short-cut to fo rtune, i t is yet one of thefew outdoor o ccupations at whi ch a fai r in come can bemade.

‘

If the work be not thoroughly congenial, it is am istake to embark on it and a keen busin ess in stinct is anecessi ty in these days of stem competition .

Training — Bo th theoretical and practi cal knowledge areessential, and the more of the latter the better

. Noamount of second-hand knowledge pi cked up f rom bookswill suffice there must be sound practi cal knowledge, only


but we consider that two years would be a suffici ent timein the "majori ty of cases, though three would be evenbetter .

Utility or Exh ibition.—The question as to the branch of

work to be adopted must be settled in good time, and thetraining regulated accordingly . It is usually consideredthat the exhibi tion man has the better chance, because heis able to sell h is pi cked specim ens at such good pri ces ;but it must not be forgotten that it takes time, ski ll, andat the present day the expendi ture of a good deal of money ,

to make a name in the fancy ,

” wi th competi tion growingkeener every year . The expenses of a b ig establishment arevery heavy, and a much larger capi tal is necessary to covera longer period of wai ting for profits . In the case of autili ty farm the profits come in more quickly , though suchhigh pri ces are not obtainable in stock and eggsFarms purely for table eggs and flesh are few in number

in thi s country , as the general farmer, havi ng more advantages in this respect , is prin cipally concerned in such enterprises . N early all the best utili ty poultry farmers combin ethe advantages of stock and uti li ty bi rds by aim ing, not atshow standards exactly, but by breeding true to ty pebi rds whi ch are yet excellent layers or table fowls . Th i si s very profitable when practi cally worked , as there i s agood demand at high pri ces for bi rds possessing goodeconomi c quali ti es , and whi ch are at the same time trueto type and breed .

The wi sest plan in active working is to combin e severalbranches of the industry , economy , and in consequencein creased profit, being attained by a judi cious dovetailing .

Undoubtedly , those who have been most successful inuti li ty poultry -farm ing have been those who have lookedahead , and created a demand rather than wai ted for it .

Of late years the demand for pedi gree utili ty stock has beenfar ahead of the supply, and trap—nested layers and theirprogeny f etch excellent pri ces whilst eggs for incubation,or day

-old chi cks from tested laying strains , the rearing of

table chi ckens of undoubted quali ty, or the rai sing of

young stock for the fatters of Sussex and Surrey,are

profitable sources of revenue . W hatever line is to beadopted , that one should receive special attention durin gthe preliminary years of training , and the less congenialbranches should as far as possible be avoi ded ,

as they are

POULTRY-FARM ING

not likely to pay as well as those in to which the wholeinterest can be thrown .

Am ount of Capital required— Thi s is an extremely difficult matter to settle defin i tely, so much depending uponcircumstances and personal qualification . One thing iscertain that in taki ng up poultry-farm ing as a m eans ofli veli hood, and not as an ad junct to another busin ess , theremust be a suffici ent capital to live upon for the first eighteenmonths , ti ll profits begin to come in . The first year or twois always the difficult th e to tide over, and expenses seem

Fro . 35 .—RA.NGE or POULTRY YARDS .

(Boulton and Paul. )

endless and incomings a minus quan ti ty . So many poultryfarms have been cri ppled simply because the owner hassunk all h ismoney in the venture, and tri ed to take h is livingout of it from the very first, a pro cedure whi ch amountsto living on capi tal . The whole affai r should be regardedas buying the goodwi ll of a business , and be religiouslylooked upon in that light . If money—capi tal— is beingconstantly withdrawn during this prelim inary building-upperiod ,

the affai r is crippled at its very outset . It is d ifficult to over-estimate expendi ture, and wi th even the most

11


ri gid economy—the purchase of many appli ances secondhand , the reduction of outside labour to as low a figureas possible, and the construction of many arti cles at home

will not go far in the equi pment and sto cking of thefarm ,

and another £100 will have to be added to thi s forliving and working expenses during each of the first twoyears . W e should therefore put £300 as the lowest figureon which to start, and would prefer personally that theintending poultry farmer should possess £400 . W hen one

considers the host of small i tems whi ch are needed for theplant alone—houses, sheds , runs , netting, stakes, food-bins ,agri cultural implements , barrows , bone-cutters, tools , eggboxes , incubators, etc .

— i t will be seen that the latterestim ate is not any too high .

It would be a sui cidal poli cy, again , to purchase cheapstock sim ply because i t was cheap, and to econom ize onthat si de of the busin ess at the expense of valuable quali ti es .One so frequently sees arti cles in whi ch the prospectivepoultry farm er is airi ly told to purchase 100 or 200 pulletsof good laying strain at 25 . or 28 . 6d . per head , fromwhich during the first year he wi ll reap a golden harvest .

That there may be such bargains we are ready to admi t ,but personally we have not come across them, our experi

gplt

l

z

lehggmg that a m i

n who hals

al

spe'

nt years of work on

u a strain 0 edi gree ers is not 0‘

to partwi th the flbwer of his fld

’

ck at suchylowfigures

g.

11

That it ispossible to purchase flocks of pullets at such a low figu

we grant, but there is absolutely no guarantee that theywill all be even moderately good layers . Successful eggfarming depends upon a stud of bi rds bred for layi ng, andthese cannot be purchased right off—at all even ts, not atcommercial pri ces— though the stock bi rd s capable of producing them may be . G ood stock cocks for the breedingpens cost money, and there are the expenses of thei r keepout of the breedi ng season .

In addi tion to the expenses of plant and stock,there

are numerous odds and ends of expendi turewhi ch haveto be considered in addi tion to the upkeep of the farmdur1ng the di fficult first year . There must be money inhand to meet o ccasional emergenci es, losses from di seaseor vermin ; and where market produce is. sold in largequanti ti es the purchasers may requi re three months’credi t, thus adding to the ri sk of bad debts . Th e g

reat


the farmer in experi ence, diff erent branches of work suitableto the locality can be opened out , and non-paying ones

dropped or modi fied . W here a beginning has been m adeon too large a scale, i t i s often di fficult to do this , and seriousloss m ay be incurred .

Choice of Land.—At the same tim e i t is always well , even

where modest begirm ings are m ade, to have one’s eye on the

future, and to extend operations in a thoroughly systematic

m anner. It is a mistake to start with too small a piece of '

land . Even i f only a few pens , etc . , are being run up forthe present

,the land must be there, or there wi ll be trouble

in the future. A model poultry farm must econom ize labouras much as possible, and thi s cannot be done i f houses areerected all over the place, as is in evitable when a few acresare taken in from tim eto tim e . Thewhole schem e must beproperly plann ed on paper beforehand ,

and sufficient acreageallowed for breed ing and laying pens, rearing grounds , andemergency runs, making all possible use of exi sting buildingsand natural Shelter. Plenty of good grass land

'

must beavai lable for chi cken-rearing, preferably near to the dwellinghouse, and large enough to divide into two parts , only usingeach in alternate years . The soi l for a good farm should bewell drained and fairly dry , though it is a mi stake to regardsandy or gravelly soi l as ideal. Such soi ls certainly areeasi er to keep sweet, but are deficient in natural food and

insect li fe. High land is preferable to low-lying ground , buta portion should be protected by hills and trees from northerlywinds . Arable land needs careful apportionment , and shouldbe turned to the best accoun t by judi cious cropping .

Fowl-sick land m ust be stri ctly avo ided , and a farm overwhich a large head of poultry has been running for someyears (andwhich may have been very successful during thatperi od ) should be carefully inspected before renting or purchasing, nothing being more conducive to failure than taintedground . W etweather is the best time to in spect a prospectivepurchase, as one sees the land under i ts very worst con

ditions. D i stance from good markets must be considered ,

also the distance from a good railway line, carriage oftenrunning away wi th the major part of the profits . W h at atfirst may seem to be an excellent holding m ay turn out to

be the reverse by reason of transport d i fficulti es , and a highrental may be counterbalanced by advantages Of marketing .

Rent of land varies very widely, and it is impossible to give


hard-and—fast prices . From 10s. to £2 an acre may be re

garded as existing figures but the poultry farmer can oftenmake arrangements with the general farmers of the districtwhereby his birds can be boarded out for a sm all consideration, the value of the manure deposi ted being takenInto account when paym ent is being arranged .

The sui tability of the holding must be considered also inrelation to the other branches of the farm, since successfulpoultry-farm ing involves husbandry as well . If these otherbranches are able to stand a heavy rent for ri ch land , it m aybe wise poli cy to secure it, bearing in mind that the fowls

thrive proportionately better on good than on poor

Reels-ru se Corvu cu'r.

FIG . 37.—A M ODEL POULTRY PLAN T .


soil. To a certain extent the choice of breeds must dependon the nature of the land, though there are fewdistricts Inwhi ch some breeds are not sui table .

Local Considerations. If there is no lim i tation to any particular county or di stri ct, the poultry farmer can pick h isown lines of work, and settle in a part where that parti cularbranch has been found successful—as, for example, thesouth-eastem counties for the production of table fowls theAylesbury, Bucks, and Beds di stri cts for ducking Norfolkfor turkeys ; the neighbourhood of a coast town or largemanufacturi ng city for a mixed trade in eggs and table fowls,or of an egg

-collecting depot for the egg farmer pure and

Sim le.

Where there is no choi ce as to locality, and a certain di strictis imperative, the obj ect in vi ew must be to produce in


accordance with the local requirements and custom of theplace. If a number of people in a locali ty are all engaged Inone kind of occupation, i t is inevi table that the traffic shouldbecome organized to a certain extent, thus obtain ing betterfacili ti es for transit and reduced rates, whi le as a naturalconsequence the cost of production is lessened ,

and themarketable value in creased . This is specially important ina business like the oneunder consid eration,where the marginof profit i s never very wi de. W hen the business is being runon more general lin es, the locali ty i s of less importance,provided it is near a good lin e of rai lway and not too far

from a b ig town butwhere a special lin e or special lin es arebeing taken up ,

very exact prelim inary inquiri es ought tobe made before embarking on any scale, as it is fatally easyto get in to a wrong di stri ct for such things . It is in themajori ty of cases wi ser to generalize than to particulari ze,unless a market seems obviously open or a parti cular personal qualification is strongly marked, as the ri sks aremoreevenly di stributed ,

though the profits may not be as stri king.

There are many openings for the establi shment of farmsfor table poultry and eggs only, though if in addi tion a fewpens of pure-bred birds are kept for breeding urposes, thei rprogeny can be sold at a higher figure than t ose ln

'

lled for

table . The production of eggs must be on a large scale, andthe table birds turned out by hundreds rather than bywhilst there must be a suffici ent head of stock on the land toprovide work for the whole year, and thus allowof a certain

Erecting the Plant. It is highly im portant that thepoultry yards should be carefully plann ed out beforehand,and it is well for the prospective poultry farmer to visi twell—known establi shm ents , for the purpose of observingtheir methods of yard—planning . Failing thi s, the Uti li tyPoultry Club, or the experts attached to the principal poultrypapers , wi ll afford valuable assistance for a nominal fee.

The essential thi ng is the avoidance of unnecessary labourand the adoption of time—saving appli ances .Ranges of breeding or lay ing pens should be placed on each

s ide of a central passage to econom ize time in the frounds, and to enable any one pen to be reached at willwi thout entering the others . If houses and runs are placedalongside, much timber and netting can be saved , and thereneed be no trouble wi th the male birds i f the bottom of the


flocks in confined runs more di fficulti es occur, as when theruns are very small thelabour bi ll i s too high , and , on theother hand, egg production falls off when the flocks arelarge. Thi s difficulty can be overcome by double stocking,allowing fifty birds

“

to a quarter of an acre, and then removingto another sweet run . Double runs are all ri ght

“

i f movablefencing or poultry hurdles can be erected on a part of oneside, so that a cart can pass through to load the hay. Ifthe entire stock could be shi fted on to another half of thefarm each year the plan would be i deal, but fencing usuallymakes this too troublesome . The mere value of the m anureor of the extra crops is not the only question involved , thegreat thing being that the manure is consum ed, so that theland is perpetually kept clean and sweet .

The reari ng-ground should be near the dwelling house, sothat a close eye can be kept on the young birds, and a dry ,

sheltered place is Specially necessary where early chickensor peti tpoussi ns are to be reared . The 000ps and broodersshould stand in long rows , for the purpose of economizinglabour, and as much land as possible should be spared forthis important work. At the age of ten weeks or so , whenthe two sexes are separated , they can be drafted off to thesecond piece of rearing-ground , and housed in small, easilymoved houses . If free range i s to be given, much nettingetc . , may be saved but it is usually best to divide them upinto batches according to age and size, and use hurdles orroughly-erected fencing to keep them in runs till their fateis decided on . The laying flocks can either be run on thecolony system (in whi ch case movable houses must be used) ,or housed in lots of fifty in laying pens, or kept on the intensive system in big lots in a special intensive house . Theincubator-room must be sui tably arranged , well ventilated ,

and of equable temperature, and Should contain a cen tralpacking-table, so that day -old chi cks can be despatchedin their boxes as soon as dry , obvi ating the ri sk of chi lls andwaste of tim e whi ch would occur had they to be transferredto another pac -room. The packing-boxes can be storedon shelves above t e incubators i f there is no fear of damp .

The food-room and store-room can be bought for a nominalsum in the shape of old railway-carriages, and one wonderswhy these very cheap yet durable buildings are not morefrequently m ade use of . G ood bins must be provi ded in thefood-room , whi ch should be as near to the fowls’ quarters as


possible, and to which water should be laid on . If the extraexpense can be afforded , the provi sion of a water—supply tothe whole farm will save endless trouble and worry, and

natural sources of supply can often be divertedwi thout muchtrouble. The bon e-cutter should find a place in the foodroom, together wi th a cooker and boiler for prepari ng thefood and rendering down fat for table birds , etc .

A good fattening shed wi ll be a necessi ty, and can also beused , i f space is limi ted , as a packing-room for d espatchingsi ttings of eggs , though where a large number of eggs aresold for si tting , in addi tion to the ones sold for table purposes , a special egg-packing store will have to be provided ,

to hold the cases fordespatch as well as the eggs themselves .

A series of small pens can serve as rearing enclosures fortable chi ckens or for ducklings . For the latter a verylimi ted ground area is all that is requi red .

N etting is often best put up on rough quartering, on to

whi ch it is li ghtly tacked by staples, so that it can be easi lyrem oved f rom one place to another . Houses for layerson free range, together wi th the cost of labour in erection,

should not come to more than £2 105 . each those for layingpens , together wi th thei r fitting up , may run to £3 whi lebreeding pens will not be put up much under £4 . In

cubators and rearers vary in pri ce, of course, wi th the makeand size, but it may be said that cheap stuff here will notpay . Small houses for young stock and cockerel boxesshould not run to more than £1 whi le coops and

boxes will show a reduction if bought by the dozen .

Food Bills.—W here a large head of stock is kept , thi s

i tem will be of necessi ty rather heavy, and for purposes ofbookkeeping it is always well to have one quarter’s foodin hand . Birds on free range ought not to cost more than1d . each per week all the year round but the breeders andlayers will run up to 15d . each , and even more, i f economy isnot considered . To rear a pullet to a laying age, exclusiveof cost of labour, isgenerally estim ated from l s .6d . to 1s . 9d . ,

and a three weeks’ fatteni ng bi ll comes to about 5d . For

half the year there wi ll be the expense of the keep of thebreed ing pens and of the spare cocks and in spring-tim te,

when the rearing season i s on , the food bills wi ll seem veryheavy

,unless other products , in the shape of day -old chi cks

or fatted chi ckens, can be turned in to money . The prac

tical m an has not much to gain by constant fidgeting over


W eights and measures , a good workin knowledge of valuesand the composition of the Various oodstufis being suffi

ci ent . It is, however, necessary to know sui table di ets forlaying, breeding, or fattening sto ck, economi cal m ethodsof utilizing home etnfls, and the sci en ce of buying . All

possible foodstuff s should be grown on the farm, but whatmust be bought should be bought in as large quanti ti es aspossible, and stored sui tably .

A contract should be made wi th a local butcher for aregular supply of lean meat for the layers, and green bone,which can be chopped at home . A cheerful medium be

tween the happy-go-lucky and the ultra-scientific methodsshould be struck . As an average, a hen requi res 3% ouncesof food per diem all the year round , and her keep shouldnever exceed 63 . 6d . per annum ; more than this shows awastage somewhere. Fancy foods must be avo ided i f thel i d . per week limi t is to be observed, and a bad purchaseof corn may make a d iff erence of several pounds in themonth .

Stocking the Farm . W hen comm encing a utili typoultry farm, i t is essential to start wi th cod stock bredfrom yards where the economi c quali ti es 0 the bi rds havebeen the first consideration .

Sui table breeds of good strain and pedigree wi ll costmore to begin with , but they wi ll pay in the end . An

autumn-entering tenant would do well to purchase a flockof hardy M arch-hatched pullets, for whi ch not less4s . wi ll have to be paid . In addi tion to this flock, fromwhi ch he W ill have to select and di scard according to

thei r coming year’s work as layers, there will be the

breeding sto ck to select . This is a more serious matter,requiring careful selection, and must not be undertaken ina hurry , as there ismore in selection of stock than anythingelse . The bi rds must be of good strain , but not too highin pri ce, and only breeds whi ch are the most likely to make

profit must be considered . For the production of thefirst year the laying stock must be p ets , and , if economyhas to be considered very much, it should be among thelayers, not the breeding sto ck . G ood healthy cro ss-bredsreared on a farmwill do very well for the first year’s stock,whi ch can be brought up to the requi red standard afterwards ; and thi s wi ll certainly reduce expense

,though i t

is less possible to guarantee thei r quali ti es than when they


breeders in the spring . It is far better to make themost of a pullet’s first year, and let her rest and moultbefore the strain of breeding begin s , and to breed fromthe two year -olds , using the pullets’ eggs for com

m ercial purposes . The age of hens must be regulated ,

old hens being ri go rously weeded out, or the egg-supply

will be lowered , and thi s means that the egg connectionwi ll suffer. Overcrowding in the case of stock birds mustnever be permi tted , and where many poultry farmers ,who have done excellently thei r first year. fai l to maintainthei r rate of progress is by thei r increasing the head of

poultry in the same runs, instead of increasing the spaceproportionately .

Rucu n u a Con stant.

Fro . 38 .-RAN GE or Housss , snowm c Bounu Runs.


Choice of W ork— The poultry farmer will find i t best tohave defini te ideas of the work he intends to take up , and

to divide his flock into laying, fattening , and breedingstock, specializing as he pleases in one department or theother. There i s an un limi ted demand for new-lai d eggsand good

-class table poultry . Duck rearing or fatteningoff ers a good opportunity formone -maki ng, and trad e inday

-old chicks, especially tho se oi7

good pedigree uti li tyblood ,

i s yearly increasing . Eggs for incubation fromgood

-class uti li ty birds will always comm and a good sale, i foff ered at lowrates in the beginn ing, until a name be made .

There is good money to be made from fattening birds ,


provided the business is understood , and also from thesale of rough chi ckens ready for the final poli sh, many of

the fatters turning out 100 dozen birds per week duringthe busy months of the year. Pure-bred stock birds of

ped igree uti lity parentage can be sold at a good pri ce to

improve other strains .

Egg Production . W here egg production is the mainobj ect of the farm, Operations must be systematized , and

a regular supply of eg s obtained the whole year round tokeep up contracts . The d i fficulty of obtaining them in

the moulting season is overcome by fro uently movingflocks from one quarter of the farm to anot er, so that thetendency to moult is kept back among a certain numberof the fowls , others being encouraged to moult in the usualway, and by hatching in August as well as in the springmonths , so that one flock fills in the gap left by theothers . Broodiness must be . stri ctly kept under, and areasonable amount of forcing must be carri ed out in orderto obtain the maximum profits . M uch of the success ofthe balance-sheet wi ll d epend upon the contract pri cesobtained , and the bigger the contract of course, the betterth e pri ces obtainable but i t i s far W i ser to take a slightlylower pri ce, and deal wi th people and firms whose money issafe and reputation above suspi cion , than to take ri sks .

It has been stated that, to make £100 a year out of eggproduction only— fie , using the surplus cockerels for thetable—a sto ck of 500 layers should be kept regularly .

To be a success , each hen should show a profit of 5s . a headper annum ; and to do thi s it i s necessary that the averageof the flock should be high, for the di fference betweenaverages of 120 and 180 eggs per bi rd per annum means adi ff erence of a good many pounds in the balance—sheet .

One hundred and fifty eggs may be regarded as a verygood average for a flock,

but thi s is not unattainable, provided the birds are carefully bred , penned , housed , and

fed . If , however, owing to bad management, the egg'

eld only averages 100 or 120—wi th the bulk of these"did during the warm months— i i hatching operations arewrongly timed , or i f a bad contract is made, the poultryfarmer has only h is own mi stakes to blame for h is lack o f

success . There is no doubt whatever that, wi th propermanagement, eggs can be profitably produced all the yearround .


The depreciation on pullets may be reckoned at aboutIs. 3d . per head, and this must be taken into accountwhen making up the balance-sheet but in very few casesis i t advi sable to keep old hens, as , though a savin in

chi cken-rai sing is certainly m ade when the whole floc i s

ke t on for several years, the small number of eggs laidw

'

hardly balance it, and few old hens will average 120eggs per annum . Pullets lay m ore eggs. and lay them at

t e most paying season of the year, and as a rule moultabout midsummer, when thei r place can be filled up bythe August and September hatched birds . Assum in that50 per cent . of all hatches turn out cockerels, doub e thequantity of eggswill have to be set to produce the requisi tenumber of layers for the upkeep of the winter egg-supplyand the maintenan ce of the home sto ck, the cockerels beingsold or transferred to the fatting department .

Table Poultry .—There are several branches of the in

dustry whi ch are capable of much greater development .The production of mi lk chi ckens , a field speci ally opento those who keep the lighter breeds of fowls , is likely toprove very profitable i f the right class of bird is producedat the right time . As a separate branch of the work theseli ttle bi rds are hardly profitable, but as part of the wholeworking of the farm it is a profitable way of uti lizing theyoung cockerels .

The increasing demand for good-class table poultry i sfar from being filled at the present date, and poultry farm ersshould speciali ze in this branch of the trade, and masterthe details of fattening . The reports of M r. Edward Brownon the poultry industri es of Ameri ca and Belgium showthat the production of win ter fowls weighing f rom 8 to

'

10 pounds might be most profitably carried on in thi s

country, as i t as been over there ; also the breeding ofducklings for table, and of green goslings .

W hen the table side of the undertaking is subsidiary toegg production, it isnot advisable to rear more chickens thanare actually required to keep up the stock of pullets , unlessthere is a good local market . W here prices range f rom2s. 6d . to 2s. 9d . for a young fowl, people requi re a largeone, and to rear these, and cover the losses from deaths ,etc amon layers , does not leave a large margin of profit .In many istricts where the standard of pri ces i s higher,qui te a young cockerel can be sold for 3s . 3d . or 3s. 6d .


Sale of Young Stock — As the advantage of possessinggood

-class utili ty bi rds becomes mo re widely understood ,

there wi ll be a yearly increasing demand for pullets ready tolay ,

especially among farmers and busy men who have notthe time to devote to rearing young bi rds and whi lst thi swill necessi tate the keeping of a very large head of stock,

it i s likely to prove very remunerative .

Ducks for Eggs.—For egg production alone the Indian

Runner duck leads the way , flo cks of selected layers oftenaveraging 150 eggs per annum , and by seasonable hatchingfrom January to M ay eggs may be had the whole yearround . Ducks consume large quanti ti es of food , and beforeinvesting in a large number (where eggs for edible purposesare to be sold ) it is wise to inqui re among the principaldai ri es and large shops to find out what pri ces they wi llpay all the year round . Engli sh duck eggs fetch morethan fowls’ eggs— generally a halfpenny each more— and

i f thi s pri ce can be obtained it is well to start . On three orfour acres of good grassland 400 layers could be kept , anda little space besides would answer for rearing . Ducksrequire much less room,

and are far less likely to suff er fromtainted ground ,

than fowls and chi ckens . Ducks whoseeggs are merely requi red for edible purposes need not haveswimming water provided , but where pens of breedingducks are to be kept thi s i s essential in order that theeggsmay be properly ferti lized . The demand for ferti le eggs inthe early months of the year is very large , and si ttings fetchgood pri ces . Th eBuff Orpington and Blue Orpington duckshave to a certain extent solved the di ffi culty of the veryearly egg , and where si ttings are to be sold pens of thesebi rds will be found very useful, especially as both th esebreeds combin e excellent table quali ti es with high layingcapacity .

As regards the production of ducklings for table, thegeneral consensus of opinion among the large dealers i sthat they cannot get nearly enough ducklings of really goodquali ty early in the season , the demand being always keenand the supply always short or inf erior .

The rearing of table ducklings need not be separatedfrom the production of duck eggs ; in fact , the two cango on si de by side . It i s remarkable that more poultryfanci ers do not in clude thi s most profitable branch of wo rkin their scheme, since ducklings are so easy to rear, requi re

POULTRY-FARM ING l 77

so li ttle space, and are marketed at eight or ten weeks old ,

thus giving a qui ck cash return . Even on a small scale i tcan be very successfully carri ed out, thi rty stock ducks of

good strain keeping half a dozen incubators go ing duringtheir laying season .

Business Habits.— I.f the poultry farm i s to meet wi th

any success, the whole concern, whatever the branches orsub-branches of the work undertaken , m ust be carri ed out

wi th method and foresight, quali ti es more necessary thanever in these days of keen competi tion . D espi te the oftenquoted proverb , the poultry farmer m ast coun t h is chi ckensbefore they are hatched , must have an eye perpetually on

the future, regulating hi s affairs a year in advance, planning h is yards, preparing h is appliances , seeking freshmarkets , and developing those already in existence, andnow and again creating a new demand . All hi s contractsmust be carri ed out to the letter, and every customer mustbe liberally treated and thoroughly satisfied .

Advertising plays a highly im portant part in the business world to-day , and the successful poul try farmer mustbe able to draw up enti cing do cuments for the press , andmust be prepared to expend a not inconsiderable portionof h is capi tal in making himself known to the generalpubli c .

Keeping Accounts—Thi s is an absolutely essential partof the poultry farmer’s business , yet howof ten a neglectedone, albei t there is no industry in whi ch detai l plays amore important part than thi s one. Yet many peoplewho are employed in poultry farming on qui te a b ig scaleare comparati vely in ignorance of thei r actual fin ancialposi tion . They may be paying out wages and receivingsums of money for market transactions, but they are oftenenti rely ignorant as to the profit , or lack of the same, inthe di fferent branches of their work and whilst they maykeep an account of thei r receipts , they may be totally inthe dark as to the cost of production .

For examples of simple yet comprehensive bookkeeping we may refer the reader to the leaflet (No . 240) of theBoard of Agri culture dealin g wi th farm bookkeeping, or

to the more specialized work of M r . Ty sili o Johnson,“The

Utili ty Poultry Keeper’s Record ,

” whichwi ll be found mostvaluable .


If the different departments of the poultry farm ared ivided , and the account of each kept as clearly and d i s

tinctly as possible, i t can be seen at a glance whrch are theprofitable and whi ch the non -paying drvrsrons, and thelin es of work can be regulated accordingly . The man whodoes not know what i s the co st of rearing h is pullets tolaying age, of producing chi ckens or ducklings for market,the cost of the eggs produced each month , or the profitsfrom h is day

-old chi ck busin ess, is not likely to make h isbusiness pay . Any negligence in accoun ting for eggs lai d ,

for the death of chi ckens , for addled or unf erti le in cubation eggs, for value of m anure and feathers, expenses of

marketing, postage, adverti sing, and carri age, is bound toaff ect the profit question .

An elaborate system is not necessary indeed ,

'

one of thesimplest may serve . If one page be given up to thereceipts , and the other to the expendi ture, each being ruledin to thirty-one horizontal spaces , so that onemonth

’s workcan be seen at a glance, the whole being again subdividedinto the different departments of work , and diligentlyentered up each day , the profit or loss of each section forthe month can be readily seen , though thi s plan is not

so enti rely successful as the separate entering up of thedepartmental accoun ts .

Trap-nested birds must have thei r own charts , thoughfor safety’s sake a duplicate entry might be made in thegeneral account—book ; and a stud-book , in whi ch a bri efdescription of all stock main tain ed and bought can beregistered , i s another necessi ty where breed ing operationsare carri ed on .

All produce used at home must be properly valued and

credi ted . The day-old chi cken trade, whi ch is a slightly

compli cated affai r, should have a separate trading accoun t ,and all parti culars should be entered up in order that theafter-fortunes of the stock can be accurately traced .

Hatching records of all eggs set are desirable also . Thebalance-sheet i s usually settled in D ecember and June,and i t i s essential that a careful valuation of all live anddead stock be made when the books are opened , and againwhen they are closed , basing the valuation on what the stockwould fetch at a compulsory sale, and in cluding an annual10 per cent . depreciation of all dead stock (houses ,and allowing a 5 per cent . depreciation for accident, ill


ness, and various expenses ( including keep of male bi rds ;W here poultry i s not the sole stock ke t, only a

portion of labour and rent should be debi ted to t em .

ProfitableProduction .—By means of these accoun ts the

highly important question of the lim i ts of profitable production can be ascertained , serving not merely to determine the prime and supplemental cost of production inrelation to that of receipts, but, what is even more important, giving a clue to the causes of loss or success .

Profitable poultry and egg production may be limi ted by anumber of trading circumstances , varying in individualcases , but unnoti ceable wi thout the aid of accurate

'

book

keeping.

Fro . 40.—Cy rrfl m ’

s IN CUBATOR .

Poultry-keepers are too frequently tempted to forceproduction wi thout considering the relation that costshould bear to returns , and under some circumstancesincreased output may be obtained actually at a monetaryloss . Both in the matter of egg and flesh production therem ay be every appearance of profit wi thout i ts reali ty ; andwhere a doubt exi sts as to whether the busin ess has beenworth the trouble and cost, the blame is very often lai don. competition or the unf ortunate middlem an ,

”instead

of on what is really the case . The selection of f eedingstufis and thei r relative cost affords a fin e field for error,as cheapness and deam ess are purely relative terms,according to the fin al market value of the finished article


and the quality of the same . In the case of stock bi rds ,for example, where there is a lengthened rearing period ,i t is not desi rable, though at times i t m ight be very tern t

ing , to use inf erior foodstufi s, since these would hin or

the bui lding up and development of the frame . On the otherhand,where fowls orducks for the table are concerned ,withthe exception of those of the highest class (and in that casethe relatively high cost of production is balanced by themarket value of the fin ished specimen), it is qui te allowable,

_

in vi ew of thei r short span of life, to use foods which ,

though they tend to hasten the production of a marketablecondi tion, are yet of an inferi or order to those foods provi ded for bi rds whi ch afterwards form part of the stock ofthe

‘

farm . W i thout the keeping of accounts , facts likethese are apt to be overlooked , since the condi tions varymuch in individual cases and from . ear to year, and thisis undoubtedly the difficulty the po try f armer has to facewhen he i s endeavouring to cut down expenses . Notlooms larger in the balance-sheet than the labour bill , andthere is an amoun t of hard work on a poultry farm of

whi ch fewoutsiders have any i dea . It is necessary to havethe gif t of handling men in order to get the most out ofthose employed , and one very important part to consider inthe case of the permanent employees, is the exacting natureof the work, since the bi rds can never be lef t Sundays orweekdays , and the hours are bound to be long . As far aspossible, the place should be planned so that the work canbe done wi th the m inimum of outside labour, sin ce themore immediately the work

'

is‘ under the master’s eye the

better wi ll i t be carried on , and the more economi cally .

One cannot help being struck by statements made by menof experi ence, to the eff ect that profits ranged

' comparatively higher when the work was attended to by one or

two men working di rectly under their own supervision ,

than when, owing to the b ig scale of Operations , a large

staff had to be employed , which was of necessi ty lesssubj ect to supervi sion .

W omen and Poultry-Farm ing. A question frequentlyasked is, Are women likely to make successful poultfarmers and whilst a few pessimi sts here and there holdthe negative opinion, the general consensus of opinion isthat

, given a love of thework, a suffici ently complete training , and adequate capi tal, the practical , hard-working


woman poultry farmer has as equally good a chance of

success as her brother . Very many in stances could begiven of women who are making thei r living out of poultryfarming, and a good living at that, some purely from u til i tywerk, others from a combin ation of fancy and utili ty . Insome cases the proprietors attend to the whole of the workthemselves , or employ the servi ces of other women ; inothers the labour of a couple of m en or boys is employedin addi tion .

If up-to-date methods are adopted , much of the old

heavy work (moving heavy houses, for example) , whi chwas said to render the occupation an unsui table one for

women , can be dispensed wi th , and there is as much scopefor women poultry f armers in thi s country as there i s inFrance, Belgium, or D enmark, where for the most partthe poultry—keepers are women . The woman contemplating thi s busin ess should be active, energetic , and

methodi cal, having a good busin ess head and a thoroughknowledge of the work, and able to give personal attenti onto all branches of her industry . In our opinion , providedthe di fficulti es are fully realized and there is a genuine lovefor the work, a woman i s essentially sui ted for the pursui t ,and the fact that so many are already making a reallysuccessful thing out of it goes far to disprove the assertionsto the contrary made by pessimi sti c people .

Certainly there have been fai lures here and there, butthey are attributable for the most part to causes similarto those whi ch have been at the root of m asculine non

success and were we asked for a defini te opinion on thi smatter, we should say wi thout hesi tation that there i s ,and will continue to be, an excellent future in poultryfarming for women .

Daily Ronni — It i s not our purpose here to outline adaily scheme of work for the poultry farmer— methods wi llvary in almost every case, accord ing to the parti cularbranches of work undertaken— but the following roughsum mary of the details whi ch wi ll have to be attended toon a general poultry farm of any size wi ll give the inexperi enced some idea of h i s possible future duti es . Eachsection— the layers , the breeders , the youn stock,

thefattening bi rds , and the moulting fowls have to beseparately d ealt wi th . Foods wi ll have to be selected ,

blended, and mix ed , the large coppers whi ch supply the


turned and tested ,whilst between each hatch the machin es

have to bewashed out and di sinf ected . Broody hens must betaken off, fed ,

watered , dusted , and watched back on thei rnests chi ckens requi re constant attention coops , brooders ,and brooder houses must be kept scrupulously clean ; dayold chi cks selected and packed for despatch orders youngbi rds ringed in order to distingui sh thei r strain s eggs formarket collected , stamped , packed , and despatched ; eggsfor own use or for hatching orders collected , stamped ,

sorted , and despatched ; moulting stock attended to housescleaned , dropping-boards scraped and disinf ected , perchesdisinfected and creosoted fresh li tter, flin t grit and oystershell supplied where necessary fowls dusted regularly wi thinsect-powder ; ailing bi rds isolated and treated adultstock for sale sorted out and despatched breed ing stockselected and mated-up for own or customers’ orders fat

tening fowls trough-fed'

or crammed killing ,plucking ,

shaping birds formarket, etc .

Among these and other duti es the day will be divided ,

and there is no gain saying the fact that the work i s arduousand exacting . N evertheless it i s full of interest , and offersmany opportuni ti es for fascinating study and originalresearch ; and we consider that , in the light of modernsci ence and under condi tions of up

-to-date working ,thi s

industry is one of the most promi sing of the outdooroccupations , and worthy of the serious interest and con

s ideration of the intelligent and far—seeing man .

CHAPTER VIII

THE PLACE OF POULTRY ON THE FARM

Farm m ethods of the past—Drawbacks and advantages of poultry

keeping for the farm er—The colony sy stem—M anurin the land

Bird s on arable and pasture land—The stubbles lecting the

best lay ers—The spring-chi cken tardy —W inter eggs

—The fox

question—Ducks , geese, and turkey s, for the farm er.

ONE of the most noti ceable advances in agri culturalopinion is the recent change of vi ew wi th regard to theplace of poultry upon the farm . Not very long ago i t

would have been hard to find a large farmer who wouldhave condescended to talk poultry wi th any seri ousness .

And to-da'

4 G o in to any county of England or W ales ,and talkwi t any class of farmer, large or small, and as ageneral rule—though there are sti ll many exceptionspoultry—keeping will be di scussed wi th all seriousness , asbefits one of the most profitable side-lines of generalfarming .

The reason for this alteration in the point of vi ew i s

not very far to seek .

Old-fashioned M ethods. At one time—not so very longago , ei ther— the fowls kept upon the farm s of this countrywere intended merely to supply the needs of the house,and as such were left to the haphazard care of anyonewhomight happen to take a passing interest in them . The

farmers themselves never beli eved in them at all from thepoint of vi ewof money-makers , and any outlay in the shapeof good houses, pure

-bred sto ck, etc . , was never dreamtof . A collection of mongrels for the most part were to be

indeed ,they are sti ll in some benighted spots

scratching round the homestead (of all others , the placewhere poultry can exist most unprofitably ) laying whenand where they pleased , half the eggs being stolen by thefarm hands the bi rds living on a liberal di et one day and

18 5

186 UTILITY POULTRY—KEEPIN G

starvation fare the next allowed to sleep in dark, no i someroosts ,

” whi ch rarely received the luxury of a coat of

whitewash , and were seldom, if ever, cleaned out . The

stock rarely received the renovation of new blood , matingbeing carri ed on in the most casual m anner, and inbreedingbeing disastrously common ; whi le hens were allowed toexi st many years after thei r productive powers had ceasedto be valuable . As a natural consequence, poultry d id not

pay , and small wonder. Yet this pi cture was not a luri dconception, but the general rule, and i t i s time to say aword in prai se of the much-abused fanci er,

” sin ce it i sundoubtedly to him that we owe the preservation of our

native breeds in their puri ty, as well as the introductionand production of very many breeds whi ch figure so largely,

from the utili ty point of vi ew, in the publi c eye to-day .

W e mention this because many utili tarians appear to takea deli ght in abusing and beli ttling all those who take aninterest in breed ing and exhibi ting

“fancy poultry, and

a timely recogni tion of the debt we uti li ty poultry-keepersowe to their efforts may not be out of place in thi s work .

Agricultural Depression and Sm all Industries. The

gradual change whi ch has come over the farmer’s opinion

is due to a good many causes . A well-known agri culturi ststated in one number of the Quarterly Journal of theNati onal Pou ltry Organ izati on Soci ety that the reasonfarm ers di d not go in more extensively for poultry wasthat they had too much money . Certain it is that thebad years whi ch exi sted for agri culturists towards the endof the nineteenth century drove the Bri tish farmer to paymore attention to the smaller sources of revenue, whi chhe had previously regarded—unli ke h is Contin ental neighhours— as too small a matter to be seriously cons idered .

Po

l

ultry-keeping was one of these side-lin es of agri

cu ture .

Propaganda W ork — Books and magazin es began to

appear, in whi ch useful hints and suggestions were putforth, and that pioneer soci ety,

the Poultry OrganizationSociety, was founded . Under i ts auspi ces much valuableli terature has been ci rculated , cc-operative soci eti es havebeen organized , and lecturers engaged to do propagandawork . The Board of Agri culture began to wake up to theim portance of the new movement , and on its own account

18 8 UTILITY POULTRY-KEEPING

been wrestled wi th, and i f haphazard methods had beenallowed to creep in .

Labour.— Then there is the question of labour, since thekeeping of many head of poultry , and especially the rearing of chi ckens, takes up a very considerable amoun t of

tim e . W i th regard to thi s matter, however, we are firmbeli evers in the desirabili ty of a regular poultryman beingin stalled on all large farms , h is wages being £1 a weekupward ,

wi th a li ttle extra for the chi cken-rearing season .

Such a man would work the poultry at a profit just asmuch as any other skilful agri cultural worker, and thebusy farmer would— provided he engaged the right m an

only be requi red to give a weekly consultation as to the .

di sposition of the bi rds about the fields , and the feedingproblems whi ch the di ff erent seasons might presentand , of course, a general supervi sion would be exerci sedover the whole . It is a mi stake to relegate the care of thebi rds to any casual person . Poultry—keeping on a farmis pretty hard work when one considers the distances to betraversed and the heavy weights to be carried and sincethe success of poultry-keeping mainly d epends upon thepersonal in terest and enthusiasm of the person undertakingit, it i s essential that the farmer secure a man who iskeen and up

-to -date in h is work . An advertisement inthe poultry papers generally disposes of that difficulty ,

since there are to -day , fortunately, no inconsiderablenumber of hard-working, practi cal poultrymen, who wouldbe highly valuable to a large farmer i f permi tted to useup

-to-date methods in their work .

The Fox Question .—Poultry-keeping in a fox-hunting

di stri ct is often di fficult for farmers, and losses are sometimes heavy . W i th the great increase in the number ofpoultry-keepers every year, the question i s becoming moreacute, especially in some districts . Farmers are as a rulethe greatest suff erers , owing to the freedom of thei r birdsand while compensation is often Obtained , it rarely coversthe actual loss . At present the question is a thorny one.

Advantages of the Farm .—These far outnumber the

drawbacks enumerated above . In the first place, thefarmer has no rent to charge for h is feathered flock, sincethey di splace no other stock, and thei r account can bereckoned in wi th the four-footed beasts on the land . There

THE PLACE OF"

POULTRY ON THE FARM 189

is no fear of tainted ground ,the fresh pastures

,newly

ploughed arable land , and stubbles, providin ample roomfor young as well as adult bi rds . The food ill need not

be heavy , since not only do farmers’ b i rds, ranging atliberty, secure nearly half thei r living for themselves , butsurplus crops can be economi cally utilized , and grain thatis sound, but of poor quali ty, wi ll help to fill the birds

’

cro s .Ifgain , fowls kept on free range are much more healthy ,

as a general rule, than those kept in confin ement, or atleast they are less liable to di sease, since thei r active habi tskeep them in better condi tion, and that, again , tendsnaturally to better results . Another and a very greatadvantage consists in the valuable m anure deposi ted bythe fowls on the land . Thi s poin t is not always thoroughlyunderstood , and many farmers who have not tri ed theexperi ment still hold the opinion that poultry spoil goodpasture . As a matter of fact, the case i s exactly opposi te,numerous instances being brought forward every year ofy i elds of hay being greatly increased by runn ing poultryon the meadows, and of poor pastures being enri ched and

made more valuable, not only by the manure, but by thefact that poultry tend to increase the finer grasses atthe expense Of the coarse ones . The mi staken idea thatpoultry do damage has probably arisen because carelessfarmers have habi tually kept large flocks of fowls in a

permanen t house in lim i ted quarters , the natural resultbeing , of course, th at the grass gets worn down round thehouse and where the fowls are fed , and the land in consoquenco becomes foul . But since that is directly opposedto the principles of profitable farm poultry-keeping on

correct lin es, i t does not aff ect the general truth—el a , thatpoultry is directly beneficial to the land , and damage tothe grass infini tes im al.*

TheColony System . .To deal nowwi th the best methods

for adoption by the farmer. The fowls do best when keptin the modern and approved style—M the colonysystem

,

” whi ch consi sts simply in di stributing the stockvery widely over the farm in portable houses , whi ch can

For interesting exam ples of farm ers who have teetfied to the valueof poult on thei r farm s we would refer the reader to the revi sed

edition 0 Lewis W ri ht’s Book of Poultry , aswe have not space to

deal wi th particulars ere.


be shifted from field to field , in stead of allowing the hensto congregate round the hom estead , roosting in a permanenthouse, and making the W hole place look untidy when theyroam about the yard . Thi s plan enables the farmer toincrease h is head of stock very largely, and to keep themmuch more economi cally than the small poultry—keeper.

The use of perm anent houses instead of movable onesmeans a great annual loss in manure (whi ch in the lattercase is evenly distributed all over the fields) ; and alsoinvolves much unnecessary cleaning . It is folly to erectpens and use up posts

'

and netting when there is free rangeavailable . The portable houses are not expensive—one

can get a very good one for £3 or £3 10s .— and when they

are well and strongly made the depreciation on them is

FIG . 43.-ANOTHER TYPE or FIELD HOUSE .

(A. E . W . Ph ipps. )

very small, and i t i s noticeable that even after years ofhard wear they always fetch very good pri ces at sales .

It i s advisable to have them stronglymade, since horses andcattle have an awkward habi t of finding out the weakplaces in a thin ly-bui lt house and they should have broadrims and fai r—sized wheels for convenience in m oving inthe fields . Still , they m ust not be too heavy ,

sin ce thatwould increase the labour of moving . Those on wheelsor the sledge type of house are the most sui table forfield work, but wi th the in troduction of the Trolleverthe problem of moving presents li ttle d ifficulty ,

sin ce twomen wi th its aid can shif t the heavi est po rtable house fromfield to field in a fewminutes . All that i s requi red besidesthe machin e i tself , whi ch is easily ad justed , is a pai r ofwheels costing a fewshillings .


or forty to the acre . The ann ual manurial value of a fowlis reckoned by the Board of Agri culture at 1s . per headbut we are in clin ed to rate it higher than that, sin ce therei s the young stock to be reckoned wi th, and the excretaf rom fatting fowls , wh i ch is highly valuable . Themanureof fowls is especially ri ch and concentrated , and each fowli s calculated to produce nearly a hundredweight in thecourse of a year. It should be regarded as one of themostvaluable f erti lizers farmers possess , and not allowed to bewasted in the yards or on waste so i l . It is m ore valuableif partially dri ed , sin ce i f i t is simply stored whi le f reshmuch of the ammonia is lost . M arket gardeners learnedto appreciate its value long before the general farmer, andwi ll always give good pri ces for i t. Light dressingswill befound as a rule to give the best results, the manure beingso highly concentrated , and many authori ti es recommendmixing i t wi th dry earth or wood ashes, never wi th lime,as i s sometimes done .

W eeding out the Stock.—Ou many farms, before be in

ning with the colony system , it may be necessary to c earout the greater part of the old stock , d i sposing of old hensto the higglers , in addi tion to any weedy , un likely pullets .Spare cockerels can be fattened up and wasters weeded out,only the best pullets and any specially good laying hensbeing retained . Any old houses whi ch are to be kept fordiff erent purposes— as , for example, an i solation hospi talshould have their surplus fittings removed , a thoroughdisinf ection and fumi gation carri ed out, and a coat oflimewash given . The new colony houses can then beput on to the meadows or arable land , and the stocktransferred to them .

Sizeof Flock—W e consider twenty-five to thi rty is ui teas many as should be put into an averaged-sized co

'

n

house, and our own opinion is that the bi rd s do better insmall than in large flocks . There is the addi tional safeguardthat, if any di sease should make its appearance, it wi ll beeasi er to lay ho ld of it at once. On a 200-acre farm aboutfif teen colony houses m i ght be run , w ith thi rty bi rds in ahouse, gi ving a laying sto ck of 450 . A larger head couldeasi ly be run , but thi s might interfere wi th other stock .

ArableLand.—Runn ing the birds on arable land requi res

rather more judgment than pasturing, but is even more

THE PLACE OF POULTRY ON THE FARM 193

advi sable . The bi rds can obtain innum erable worms andm sects in freshly ploughed land , to say nothing of the twofold benefit of the manure they deposi t upon the land and

the harmful insects they take out of the land . W i rewormi n parti cular can be largely eradi cated from a field by therunning of a fairly large head of poultry upon it.

Of course there are only certain times of the year whenthe bi rds can be allowed on the land , but wi th

'

a li ttleplann ing and forethought their stay can be lengthened out

considerably .

In winter, for exam ple , there is little to be found in thopastures , but the birds can be on the land without do ingany damage. A fortnight after ploughing is, however, longenough for them to do much good , stale ploughed landbeing of li ttle value for them . To obvi ate the di ffi culty ofthe wet land we observed a successful plan carried out byseveral up-to-date farmers in the north-eastern d i stri ct ofYorkshi re, W here a good deal of very modern enterpri seprevai ls . As each field was ploughed the headlands wereleft un ploughed for a tim e, and the colony houses hadtherefore a pi ece of fairly dry solid ground where the henswere fed , and W here they could rest, going foraging overthe sti cky land in the intervals . W hen the next field wasready (again except for the headlands ), a horse pulled thehouse through, and the team returned to the first field on

its way home, and ploughed up the b it whi ch had previously been left . A vast amount of food is saved by lettingthe layers follow the plough , allowi ng the young stock thebenefit of the ri ch pasture . In the spring-time there i s noneed to leave the headlands un ploughed , since the land isless heavy

, and the birds can remain on the pasture afterthat , or on the fallows when the hay meadows are shut up,

comin g back on to the fresh clean land after the hay iscarri ed .

The Stubbles.—The stubbles in autum n form a splendid

ground for the young bi rds as well as the layers , and thereis no reason why the wi ld birds should have whatbe m uch more profitably di sposed of W i th the advent ofthe self-binder—W hi ch often means a shedding of threebushels to the acre—the opportuni ti es for poultry havebecome great, and there i s much waste of good food in

fields and hedgerows in addi ti on . Backward young fowlsput on the stubbles freshen up wonderfully, but the

lpullets


and cockerels must not be allowed to run togeth er . W e

are in favour of giving the pullets the preference , S i nce the

grain di et and abundance of vari ety and exercrse w i ll getthem in to splendid condi tion for the autum n . There 18

plenty of an imal and vegetable food to be found , and

enough corn for a good—sized flock. The bi rds should behandled frequently to see if they are in condi tion as sometimes, though they may look well, they are not i n reahty

getting suffi ci ent to eat . A keen eye must be kept tono ti ce exactly how the corn i s lasting out, and the housesshould be frequently moved , so that all surplus corn i s

cleared up and the manure evenly di stributed . Thewatersupply must be attended to also , as birds on the stubblescannot as a rule obtain thi s for themselves . Sin ce the sunis still hot, an earthenware fountain, whi ch does not getas heated as an open di sh , is the best vessel to provi de,and f resh clean water must be suppli ed at regular intervals

Feeding of Farmers’ Birds—This does not di ff er greatly

from that of other fowls . They do not requi re as m uchfood , but it i s a mi stake to suppose that any cheap or non

nourishing food wi ll do for them . W h at they have shouldbe good . In win ter we think the warm morning mashgives the best results, together wi th a small quanti ty of

wheat and maize at night but in late spri ng and sum mera good handful of wheat in the morning will be all that isfound necessary . Some skim milk, whi ch is gen erally lef tfor the benefit of the pigs , can be given very profitably tothe chi ckens , and the waste produce from the vegetablegarden can be shared among pi gs and poultry .

Selection of Stock— It i s knportant in the first place toobtain the layers (ei ther by purchasing them as pullets orby hatching from si ttings of bought eg s ) from genuin euti li ty strain s whi ch have been bred Ior laying . M i s

marked exhibi tion stock i s often sold for utili ty purposesto farmers , and too frequently the results are bad . Fowlskept for uti li ty purposes must have been bred for thei rwork , and now that there are so many poultry farms inEngland whi ch make a speciali ty of breeding for layingpurposes, there should be n o di ffi culty in getting hold ofa good strain . The farmer i s advi sed to keep generalpurpose fowls—since chi cken-rearing i s an important i temfor h im , and some broodies will be requi red-s—and a flock


wi ll collect all they can beneath them , the warmth of thei rbodi es assi sting in the development of the germ i n the

.

eggs ,thus doing a good deal of harm from the market porn t ofview i f they are not d i scovered in time .

The Spring-Ch icken Trade— It i s a good plan to.

m ateup a few pens whi ch can be kept near the yards m theautumn

, so as to have a few broods of early chi ckens , thanwhi ch nothing

'

i s more profitable to the farmer if it is not

overdone . Chi ckens hatched in January can be reared inthe shelter of the farm bui ldings ; and since the farmer andh is men will be more round the yards at that season , and

will be less occupied than in the busy spring season , theyoungsters thrive splendidly, and wi ll bring in 63 . or 8s .

a couple if they are of the right sort . Some of the pulletsmight be kept for stock, and i f fed carefully they shouldlay through the early autumn , and possibly go broody intim e to rear the next winter chickens .

”

In order to get the fullest profit out of the spring-chickentrade, incubato rs and rearers should be used . There is noone so advantageously si tuated in the rai sing of flesh for.

the table as the farmer . W i th exceptional opportuni tiesof clean ground , free range , and cheap food , the youngbirds will develop wi th great rapi di ty and at a comparatively low cost . R earing young stock for the fatterswhere it is not desired to fini sh the fattening process , i sfound a very remunerative busin ess . Seasonable hatchingi s a very necessary i tem in making the most of thi sbusin ess, bearing in mind the tremendous demand , as yetlargely unsati sfied , for good

-class spring chi ckens indeed ,

all the year round Surrey and Sussex fatteners wi ll gi vegood prices for twelve or fourteen-week—old chi ckens inlean condi tion whi ch are well grown and of sturdy frame .

During the early months of the year, despi te the fact thatthe production i s so much more restricted ,

better pri cescommercially are to be obtained for hen—brooded chi ckensthan for those whi ch are artificially reared .

The W inter Egg Trade— The egg trade must receivecareful organization at the hands of the practi cal farmer.

At the present day too many farmers are content to hatchthei r pullets too late in the season , sim ply because i t i s lesstrouble, and in consequence the winter egg

-supply leavesmuch to be desi red . W e have been vi si ting in the country


in the winter-time when even in the best of agri cultural

d i stri cts winter eggs have been almost unattainable on thefarm s,whereas in the sum mer the markets in the neighbourhood are simply glutted wi th eggs . Thi s di fficulty isovercome by correct hatching— late February and earlyM arch: for the general purpose fowls , and April and M ayfor the light breeds whilst a flock of August-hatched pulletsw i ll fill in any gaps whi ch may arise . It i s not profitableto keep a hen as a layer beyond her second laying season ,

but as breeders, second—season hens are vastly to be preferred to pullets in our opin ion, when matedwith a vigorousyoung cockerel . Certainly , the farm bi rds whi ch are exposed to weather wi ll not lay qui te so many eggs in winteras those bi rds whi ch are kept in warm runs and scratchingsheds, but they lay a great many more in the summerand since the cost of feedi ng them is much less,we

'

considerthat the profit works out better. One large farmer hassaid that he calculated h i s laying hens (whi ch , being of

selected strain s, averaged 150 a year) paid the rent of thegreater part of h is land .

Fresh Blood in thePoultry Yard.— Early-hatched pullets

should not be sold , even though the higglers’ prices may

soun d tempting, but kept to repleni sh the owner’s stock,

the fresh blood whi ch is so essential for the uti li ty breed erbeing supplied by unrelated . cockerels bou ht from otherquarters and introduced in the yards eac year. Linebreedi ng and inbreeding are to a great extent necessary inexh ibi tion poultry , and in skilful hands li ttle harm i s done,but the farmer whose obj ect is to supply flesh and eggsfor the market wi ll achi eve most success where inbreedingi s rigidly tabooed .

D isposal of Old Stock — Old hens are most profitablyd isposed of by killing and selling privately as . boi lers .

Of course they can be di sposed of to dealers, but these arerarely inclined to give very b ig pri ces , and i f the carriagecomes to very much all the profits are reduced to a minimum .

Th e Jews purchase a large number of hens alive, since theirreli gion prevents them from eating flesh other than thatki lled by thei r appoin ted pri est ; but again carriage and

cost of conveyance have to be deducted from the pri cethey are wi lling to give . If old hens are ki lled , plucked ,

and trussed, private customers can generally be found


in the nei ghbourhood ,but they would as a rule requi re

the fowl to be prepared for table .

Another method of disposing of old hens profitably i s

to pen up a number in the winter or very early sprm g,when broodies are scarce , give them a good deal of warmnouri shing food , including buckwheat , to induce broodiness , and keep them in a qui et and secluded co rner unti lthey get in to a good si tting frame of mind . At thi stime of the year there i s a great demand among exhibitionpoultry-keepers , and also among gamekeepers , for reliablebroodies,

"

and we know of one farmer’s wi f ewho makes ahandsome sum out of her old hens, whi ch she i s able todi spose of at 4s . 6d . a head to a large exhib i tion poultryfarm in the neighbourhood during the months of Januaryand February, the order being qui te unlimi ted . W henshe i s able to send off twenty or thi rty at a tim e at 4s . 6d .

per head , one can understand that even the despisedancient ones have their uses .

Other farmers do well by the sale of a hen with herbrood , many people not wi shing the bother of incubatingor purchasing unknown day

-old chi cks ,

’ but gladl‘y pur

chasing a clutch of chi cks a W eek or a fortnight old , withthei r mother in attendance, from a reliable poultry—keepero f thei r own neighbourhood . An adverti sement in a localpaper generally brings plenty of purchasers willing to takethe batch away themselves , thus saving the cost of carriageand di sposing of the old hens of the flock .

The Profits of Farm Poultry .—It i s a modest estim ate

that the gross annual return in sales of eggs and poultryshould amoun t to £1 an acre , and on some very wellmanaged farms , where the poultry is regarded as a moneymaking affai r, it amounts to considerably more . At presentthere are thousands of acres up and down the countrycarrying no feathered stock at all, and many thousandsmore whi ch might be supporting a larger number of birdsthan are at present running on them .

Circumventing Foxes.— In m any d i stri cts fowl-keeping

on farms i s , unfo rtunately , rendered very di ffi cult by theprevarlm g custom of preserving foxes . In order that fowlsm free range should get the fullest benefit, it i s essentialthat they should be out enjoying thei r liberty as early aspossi ble after daylight the whole year round , and R eynard


If the birds are marketed in late wi nter or early springthei r flavour is deli cious , and poulterers use th em to fill i n

the gap between game and early chi ckens m February ,

when both are scarce . The bi rds weigh about 3 pounds ,and carry a good deal of flesh , whi ch i s dark i n colour andon a small carcass . They sell for 3s . or 4s . ,

and need no

fattening for the table . Th ere is also a good dem and for theeggs for table use , as they are considered a great delicacy .

From 1d . to l éd . each can be obtained .

Geese.— The requirements of geese are such that only the

farmer or those who possess much grazing-land can keepthem properly and profitably . G oose-eating has to a certain extent gone out of fashion , but there are si gns of arevival in the publi c taste and sin ce some rearers assertthat they make as much as 3d . a pound on each goose theymarket, i t seems a pi ty that more waste or comm on landshould not be utilized as goose-rearing grounds . W herethere i s plenty of grass avai lable, they can be kept (afterthe gosling age) at a very li ttle co st in the matter of foodand geese are obliging birds in that they wi ll thrive con

tentedly , though they naturally prefer good grass , uponland on whi ch other stock could obtain very li ttle food .

Swimming-water i s desirable for them , though they usewater less than ducks . Such b ig bi rds need a large house,whi ch need not , however, be in the least elaborate, and i spreferably open in front except for netting . It is a mi staketo attempt to house them wi th poultry, as some farmersdo for the sake of economy, for nei ther bird gets on so wellas when separated into i ts own natural class . Immaturestock must be avoided for breedi ng purposes , and stockbi rds are best purchased in the autumn, so that they maybe well settled down for the breeding season . At breedingtime i t is well to give the stock birds a small f eed of softfood in the morning and of corn at ni ght . For M i chaelm asgeese about three weeks

’ preparation is necessary (afterthey have h ad the run of the stubbles ) , feeding wi th barleym eal, cooked potatoes , sharps and bran mixed wi th skimm llk or meat liquor, wi th oats as a night feed . G eesewhi ch have been penned up together in yards for fatteningmust never be killed off in twos and threes

, or the othersW 111 refuse thei r food and pin e . All must be marketedtogether . Chri stmas fat geese must be very much biggerb i rds , and can be folded on turnip

-fields with great ad


vantage, and penned up for feeding at the end of

October .

Ducks.— In all di stri cts where duck-rai sing is conducted

on very large commercial lines, as in the celebrated Aylesbury di stri ct, the work is divided between the breed ers andthe rearers, nei ther branch touching the work of the other.W here the production i s small , as on the mixed farm , thetwo divi sions generally go hand-in-hand . Stock ducks

Fro . 4d.— ROUGH FOW L-HOUSE FOR FARM USE (E"TRA STRONG ).

require sheltered valleys, wi th fai rly light soil and abundance of swimming-water, in order to attain the greatestmeasure of success , though , of course, we are not suggestingthat i deal condi tions are in di spensable . On most farmsa good duck-breeding yard could be constructed wi thoutmuch trouble, the great essentials being plenty of pastureland with access to running water and plenty of shelterafforded by trees and shrubs . A large pond surrounding


an island where the bi rds can sleep , forms an ideal placefor them . For ordinary farm stock an o rdinary poultryhutch does very well as a sleeping-place, but the floor mustbe out of the reach of water . Two drakes and five ducksgenerally give the best breedi ng results , and the matingshould take place about October in order to get earlyducklings . For general detai ls of treatment of breedi ngducks we would refer the read er to the chapter on StockBirds .

Early hatching is essential i f the best pri ces are to beobtained for ducklings , and for thi s reason the farmer isadvised to adopt the Buff Orpington duck, sin ce i t providesferti le eggs so much earli er than the Aylesbury or crossedAylesbury vari ety . Its bui ld specially fits it for the table,and m akes splendid ducklings for the early trade . The

seaside resorts claim a large number of ducks and ducklingsduring the summer months , and the farmers in the neighbourhood of flourishing watering-places mi ght make verymuch more than they do by marketing larger quanti ti esof well-fattened ducks than are to be seen at present . The

common practi ce of smashing down the breastbone of bothfowls and ducklings unhappily prevails in many countrydistricts , and thi s much mili tates again st a good pri ce .

Turkey s.— The farm is the place for turkey-rearing ,

owing to the wi de range which can be provi ded to supplythe continual appeti te of these birds . Care must be takennot to overfeed during the win ter months , or the turkeyswi ll be in an unsui table condi tion for breedi ng and layingin the spring . An orchard provides a good place for rearing the young bi rds , but the stock birds should have thefullest range possible unti l the penning-up time arrives .

The whole process of rearing, in the case of turkeys , shouldbe progressive right up to the fattening period , and it isto be feared that upon some farms thi s important fact i sforgotten, and there is some neglect after the young birdshave once got through their baby stage un til the timecomes for the final preparation . Such neglect invari ablymeans loss , since a turkey cann ot be hurriedly fin ished offin the same way , for example, as a fowl .It i s a mi stake to breed from youn turkey s , and three

year-old hens mated to second or t ird year cock-birdsproduce the best result . Degeneracy i s, in the case ofturkeys, the result of wrong m ethods of breeding and

CHAPTER I"

COM M ERCIAL M ARKETING AND ORGANIZ ATION

Foreign com petition— Irish organi zation

—Nati onal Poultry Organ ization Society

— British Poultry Federation , Lim ited— Collectingdepots

— M arketing points— Form ation of local societies— Egg

preservation—Equipm ent of depots.

FROM tim e to time arti cles appear in our leading newspapers deploring the lack of enterpri se shown by Briti shtraders in competing w i th foreign imports , and the poultryindustry has always come in for a fai r, or rather unf ai r,share of criti ci sm on thi s head . The oft-repeated statement that the forei gner i s ousting the Bri ti sh producer inthe egg market i s generally coupled wi th the remark thatmi llions of Bri ti sh money goes out of the country every

year for eggs , which might just as well be put in the pocketsof the British poultry-keeper.

”To a large extent and in

the broad sense of the phrase thi s i s true, but those cri ti cswho are loudest in their condemnation are usually deplorably vague in thei r suggestions as to remedi es . They tellus how highly necessary i t i s that we should in our turnoust the foreigner from our markets , but we are left absolutely in the dark as to the methods we should adopt forthe attainment of that obj ect .

If it be solely a question of increasing our own output ,necessary though that may be , we shall not be much betteroff . The natural result would be a reduction in pri ces

,

whi ch would hardly sui t the Bri ti sh producer, who oftenfinds that it i s hard enough to get a decent profit wi th foodstuff s at thei r present level of pri ces . Fu rthermore, weventure to say it would not aff ect the Contin ental im porter

,

who would still continue to send in suppli es so long as hefound there was a small margin of profit beyond the costof shipment for in most cases (owing to lower rai lway ratesand improved methods of marketing) he i s able to produce

204

COM M ERCIAL M ARKETING 205

at a lower cost than h i s Engli sh rival . In order to starvethe foreigner out we should be compelled to produce atstarvation rates ourselves , and the benefit would be anegligible quanti ty . SO long as our markets remain opento the world it i s extremely unlikely that we shall eversucceed in blocking the importation of forei gn eggs and

poultry . So that , if it be a question of in creasedproduction on our part, thi s must of necessi ty imply anincreased demand , and that can only be stimulated bylower pri ces, whi ch under average trading conditions— asthey exi st to -day— would tend to reduce the profit of theproducer sti ll more .

Foreign Com petition not altogether Harm ful.— For our‘

own part , we consi der that the foreign com peti tion hasnot been an unm ixed evi l. In the first place , it has hadan immensely stimulating eff ect upon our poultry—keepingin dustry , whi ch would in all probabi li ty never have grownand developed in the manner in which i t has done had itnot been for the competi tive instinct whi ch has beenaroused . M uch of the educational and organizationalwork which i s beginn ing to bear fruit to-day would neverhave been attempted i f the need for enterpri se in recapturingthe market had not been very pressing .

Then, again, the genuine new-laid egg and fatted fowlwere arti cles of luxury not of general di et ( except amonga certain class of the population) , not so very many yearsago , and thei r pri ces were such as prohibi ted thei r beingbrought into common use . By the in troduction of cheapforeign suppli es the taste for eggs and flesh has been en

couraged and developed among all sections of the com

muni ty, to thei r present benefit, and to the future prosperi tyof the Bri ti sh producer.

M uch of the Continental trade i s in eggs of an inf eriororder, prin cipally the Russian eggs , many of which arealmost rotten when they arrive after thei r thi rty or fortydays’ journey, but whi ch serve admi rably for the numerousmanufacturi ng processes for W hich they are used . It isabsurd to suggest that the Bri ti sh egg , whi ch costs farmore to produce, can possibly compete wi th imports of thi sclass . As condi tions of lif e in Eastern Europe im prove, i ti s possible that Russian eggs wi ll ri se in pri ce ; but atpresent the standard of living in the remote coun try districts from whi ch the bulk of the eggs are collected is very

206 UTILITY POULTRY—KEEPIN G

low, and the fowls receive li ttle attention , pi cking up.

m ostof their food themselves consequently _

they can be shi ppedin to thi s country at extraordinary low pri ces . There 18

really no evi dence to show that the foreigner has oustedthe Engli sh from the market ,

”or that Engli sh eggs cannot

be sold because of forei gn ones . The case i s simply thatthe demand for flesh and eggs suddenly increased , and asthe Bri ti sh producer could not or would not supply it, theforeigner stepped in and took h i s place . That the averageEngli sh person much prefers to deal in an all-Bri tish supplyof food i s easily shown by the fact that such a supply findsa better market at a higher pri cewhenever i t can be obtainedand guaranteed.

Increased Consumption — Oi late years the increaseddemand in thi s country for eggs and poultry has beenenormous , especially in the large town s , and si de by sidewi th the increased demand has come an increase in values .

In the London market our own new-laid eggs fetch from17s . to 22s. the “

long hundred during the months of

D ecember and January , whi ch prices are above French topprices and it is noteworthy that thi s market has grownup in the face of foreign competi tion—La proof , i f necessary ,

that the Bri tish producer has not been standing still , sincehe is selling many more eggs , and those at higher pri ces ,than formerly . M oreover, market sales do not include thewhole of the business done, sin ce thousands of small packages are sent to pri vate customers by post or rail .It i s not, therefore, an increased production solely whi ch

is necessary , since we see that a steady growth has beentaking place both in the production of flesh and eggs oflate years . W hat i s needed is a sti ll higher standard of

quali ty, together wi th an improvement in our somewhatantiquated methods of marketing .

Continental M ethods— If we glance over the li st of countri es whi ch send poultry and eggs into G reat Bri tain ,

weshall see how closely thi s question of marketing is con

nected wi th their successful trade .

France.-Here there i s a great demand for eggs and

flesh , and much poultry-keeping i s done on the small farm s ,prm cipally by the women . Every town or vi llage has itsweekly market , to which the egg merchants send their vans ,buying all they need and carting away to the central ware


and employs a number of collectors , the producers beingpaid cash and the collecto r about i d . to Qd . per poundfor collecting . As a rule the packing—station provi desthe boxes and pays carriage where a collector sends h i ssupplies in by rai l . D i rty or stale eggs are almost un

known at the centre , though all are tested and gradedbefore being shi pped . During the cheap season largequanti ties of eggs are preserved in cement tanks , andretai led at a slightly lower pri ce during the W inter. The

organization of the egg trade i s practi cally perfect, andthough the Bri ti sh farmer is on the whole averse to co

operation, it is certain that i t i s upon these lines we mustcombine to organize our trade if we wish to recapture thehome market .

Russia— TheRussian egg trade has already been touchedupon , and can hardly be consi dered as a serious menace tothe first quali ty Bri ti sh egg trade, considering the di stancetraversed ,

the slow collection, and the widely diff eringquali ty . The dead poultry trade (frozen , of course) i s oflarge dimensions , and the bi rds usually arrive on theLondon market at an early season of the year , restaurantsbeing the chi ef consumers . Th i s trade i s rapidly growi ng,and the pri ces run low, the packages being carried atabsurdly low rates by the Governm ent lin es of railway tothe Balti c ports , where they are shipped to England .

The cold-storage trade has had some effect in steadyingthe market, but all countri es exporting goods of this classcan only compete wi th second-quali ty Bri ti sh , as , once goneinto store , a bi rd has to be sold for 6d . or ls. less than if i twere fresh , and has to be used immediately it is broughtout. In the early spring months, when Bri ti sh chi ckensare consp i cuous

'

by thei r absence, the Continental birdsarrive in the ni ck of tim e, neatly packed , and tho h theaverage Bri tish salesman would much prefer selling om e

grown birds if he could get them , he has to m ake up forthe lack of regular Bri tish supply by di sposing of theim ported frozen good s .

G ermany i s steadily absorbing a good portion of our

supply of foreign eggs and bi rd s , and whi lst in the long-runi t may be beneficial, tend ing to develop our resources morerapi dly, we have at present to meet a large increase in thepri ceof good-quali ty imports , owing to the in creaseddemand .


Ireland. During the last year or two Ireland has exported more eggs and poultry to G reat Bri tain than anyother country in the world, the growth of the industry inthat country being quite phenomenal .Some years ago the Iri sh egg trade got a very bad name

for i tself , being neglected and badly managed , and thewhole poultry management of the country left much to bedesired . The problem was first seriously tackled by theIri sh Agri cultural Organization Soci ety, whi ch began byspending several thousands of pounds in sending expertsall over the coun try to preach the gospel of co-operationto the farmers , and in general educational work on modernlines, including practi cal demonstrations in fattenin

plucking, packing, and marketing fowls, and in the Dani ssystem of collecting , purchasing, and packing eggs forexpert. The work in Ireland has been aided further bythe D epartment of Agri culture and Techni cal Instruct-ion ,

whi ch has , since its inception in 1900, given much practicalaid , establishing publi c breedi ng-centres for the purposeOf raising the standard of breeds kept, and in stitutingtravelling poultry farms on the caravan system . The Iri shAgri cultural Organization Soci ety has aimed at establi shinglocal cO-Operative soci eties all over the country (whi ch col

lect and forward produce in the most up-to-date marketingstyle) , and has published many valuable leaflets in sim plelanguage, whi ch have had such a bearing on the livepoultry trad e by thei r hints as to

'

selection and manage

ment of sui table breeds that the export of live b irds or

fattening in to the Surrey and Sussex area has increased byleaps and bounds, and the pri ces obtain ed have been rai sedpracti cally to those received in Sussex i tself . Somesoci eti es are encouraging Iri sh fattening for the Londonand Liverpool trade, but at present the bulk of the expo rttrade i s in lean birds . There is, however, such a growthin the consum ption of poultry in Ireland itself that muchof the trade will be absorbed into that country, and theSussex fatteners wi ll have to look to Engli sh rearers tofill the gap.

W i th regard to the Iri sh egg trade, instruction has beencarri ed out on D ani sh lin es, the servi ces of a D ani sh experthavin been obtained . As an example of how the localsoci eti es have developed , wemaymention onewhich exports

eggs weekly . As a.rule the centre stations are in a

14

210 UTILITY POULTRY‘KEEPING

seaport town or at a good railway centre giving easy accessto a seaport . The local depots are all wi thin carting d i stance of the central stores , and receive thei r eggs fromm embers dai ly, purchasing for cash and by weight of eggs ,

not numbers . It i s stated that the eff ect of purchase byweight has been mo st beneficial, Iri sh pou

ltry-keepers beingmore parti cular about the breeds and strain s they main tain ,

only looking favourably on those whi ch lay eggs of largesize. The eggs at the sub

-stations are packed in divi dedboxes , each holding eggs . On arrival at the centralstation these are tested , graded , and packed in export casesin the Continental style, three sizes of case being used ,

FIG . 45.— ROBm SON

’s ANTI-SM ASH EG G -Box , $110m FITTINGS .

the largest holding twelve long hundreds , the next ten ,

and the smallest three long hundreds . The eggs are carefully packed in layers , each layer being composed of rowsof a certain number according to the size of the box , and

wi th practi ce the packing i s done so accurately that theeggs occupy the same posi tion when taken out as they di dat starting . W ood-wool i s used as the packing materi albetween each layer, a 2—inch layer being placed at the topof the box , wi th a layer of dry clean straw above that .

Breakages , of course , do still occur, though much less frequently , and in the m ajori ty of cases the fault lieswi th therai lway and steamship company’s porters , who -h ave not


seasoned cases , has had much to do wi th the past badreputation o f Iri sh eggs , whi ch were Often found to have adi stinctly musty flavour on thei r arrival at Liverpool orLondon . W here a central packing—station ex i sts , thi s di fficulty i s obviated , and the testing and grading , whi ch canonly be carri ed on in a sui table covered room , has beenmuch facili tated . The use, too , of standard packages isbeing adopted on the recommendation of the D epartm entof Agri culture , and a carefully-designed pattern has beenplanned out. The ini tial cost of standard packages isheavi er, but, as stated in the recommendation i ssued bythe D epartment, the general adoption would tend to areduction of pri ce, as the makers would be able to m anufacture large quantiti es to standard size in stead of havingto arrange for various sizes and

” shapes to suit differentcustomers , whi lst , according to exhaustive inquiries carriedout by the D epartment, the breakages Of properly-packedeggs in the cases recommended for use should not exceed2 per cent . , provided reasonable care i s exerci sed in thei rhandling . M any indivi dual shippers of Iri sh eggs have, ofcourse , taken great care in the grading and packing of thei rsuppli es , but in the majority of cases Continental methodsare superior (mainly owing to the larger quanti ties dealtwith) , and i t i s the Continental method whi ch the IrishAgri cultural Organization So ci ety has taught to its affiliatedsoci eti es .

The W ork of the National Poultry Organization Society .

—In 1898 the National Poultry Organization Soc iety wasfounded in thi s country to get the home trade in poultryand eggs into a better condi tion , and from i ts commencement the soci ety has aimed not only at obtaining betterpri ces for its mem bers , but also at rai sing the standard of

quali ty .

The success of thi s society has been very great , and it i sthe duty of every poultry-keeper to suppo rt i t in i ts workof establishing local soci eti es and collecting agenci es forthe forwarding and marketing of local products . Alreadya good number of di stri ct associati ons exi st , and it hasalways been found that an increase in the value of eggsand flesh has followed the formation of such soc i eti es .

The producer and consumer have been brought into touchmore closely , and the small sender, who , under ordin arycondi tions of marketing, i s so severely handi capped by the


large producer and the foreign importer , i s able to have h issm all lot sold at a good price after the cost of prepari ngthem for market has been deducted .

If egg and poultry depots were establi shed all over thecountry , the markets would be much stead i er and the widevariations existing in local markets to-day would not befound . Even

'

in adjoining pari shes there may be a diff erence of S ixpence a dozen in the pri ce of eggs , whi le indifferent di stri cts as much as a shi lling per dozen may evenbe noted , all thi s owing to our lack of system and organization . Uni formi ty and co-operation are the only watchwords to success , and so long as producers refuse to see thatindividual effort is a mi staken poli cy, so long will our

marketing system lag behind that of our rivals .

The work of the so ci ety has been most uphi ll, and evennow i t has to fight many di ffi culti es . The average Bri ti shfarmer has a roo ted di slike to any form of co-operativeeffort , and much prejudi ce has to be broken down in somequarters . M em bers wi llxnot realize the fooli shness of thepracti ce of holdin g back eggs in order to get better pri ceslater— farmers being the worst offenders in thi s respectwhi ls-t for many years the importance of the winter eggsupply was under-estimated . Another problem has alwaysbeen the temptation off ered to members by local traders ,who have previ ously fixed lo cal pri ces , and are not overjoyed at the prospect of the market control slipping fromtheir hands . Such men will often off er higher pri ces thana depot can gi ve, even though the terms of the depot areabove the pri ces formerly recei ved by the individual producers and forgetting the latter fact, the members wi llsometimes desert their soci ety and accept the trader’sterms

,wi th the natural result that the soci ety i s in jured

or even ki lled , and the old rate forced again upon the smallproducer .

W hen the National Poultry Organization Soci ety wasstarted , i t was not meant to do more than organize producers in rural di stri cts , and bring them into direct comm un ication wi th retailers , making a general advance inquali ty and quanti ty of home produce at the same time .

In thi s respect , and also in the eff ect upon ordinarytraderswho have correspondingly improved their methods ,the work of the soci ety cannot be too highly prai sed . Itwas

,however, soon found necessary to assume responsi


bili ty for the control of the trading of the lo cal affili atedsoci eti es , so a m arketi ng secti on was formed , whi ch has

gradually developed very large proportions as the numberof depots in creased . It was then judged wi ser to form af ederation to deal wi th the sale of produce from the affil iated depots , and accordingly theBri ti sh Poultry Federation ,

L im i ted ,was formed and regi stered under the Industri al

and Provident Soc i eti es Act of 1893, and establi shed upona co-operative basi s . Thi s has set the parent soci ety muchfreer to attend to i ts real work of organizing the collectingdepots and in the

,

teaching of the detai ls of collection ,

testing, grading, and packing, by the local soci eties as theyare founded ,

wi thout whi ch knowledge the fullest advantages of the system cannot be attain ed by producers .

The obj ect of the local soci eti es is not to m ake large profits ,but to secure better pri ces for the produce . Nevertheless ,in every sub-soci ety establi shed up to the present date bothof these very desirable ends have been attained .

The premi ses of the Bri ti sh Poultry Federation are in theheart of the London provi sion trade , and i ts work and business done has exceeded the hopes of the organizers .Every egg, whether large or small, new-lai d or merelyfresh ,

” even cracked ones, can find a market in thi shuge clearing house , to whi ch new customers are constantlybeing drawn , many of them wi lling to purchase for com

m ercial purposes eggs whi ch could not have been sold atthe provin cial depots . In thi s way extra profits can bemade for the local branches , as previously cracked eggs inparticular were a source of loss . The Federation preventsthe overlapping of work and any possible competi tion of

the depots one again st another, whilst the customers ofthe National Poultry Organization Soci ety are assuredof a constant supply together with regulari ty of quali ty ,

and even in the financial matters trading is renderedmore sim ple , as instead of receivin g several accounts permonth only one i s required , and that easily collected fromthi s London clearing h ouse wi th its able staff of experts .

It is estimated that the Federation wi ll eventually beable to handle or worth of produce annually,and contracts for and eggs per week all theyear round have been actually received during the pastyear of working .

Every egg is tested in a dark testing-room by means of


eggs for preserving ,a good testing and packing room ,

and outside ample accommodation for brooding and reari ngthousands of chi ckens . In 1911over chi ckens werefattened ,

thi s branch of the work being found most profitable . It i s interesting to note that in the table department.members

, who wi sh to supply eggs to be“in cubated and

the chi ckens reared for killing purposes, must keep a cock ofa good table breed , the light breeds being penalized by thepayment of 1d . per pound less for the birds . Th e advan

tage of the incubating department, especially to the smallman , i s very great , as he has no trouble wi th stock bi rdsor broody hens , and day -Old chickens and birds of all agescan be purchased from the farm . Th e day

-old chickentrade has grown very rapidly and shows a good profit .

Each day the collecting van goes out on its ten-mi leround collecting eggs and birds . It i s estimated that theweekly cost of collection i s about 25s . , but that thi s is compensated for by the labour-savi ng in the testing room at thedepot, and the regular supply , especially duri ng hay-timeand harvest when the farmers have not tim e to bring theeggs in . Thrs system of collection is of great convenience tom embers , who have the addi tional advantage of the betterpri ce obtained by the soci ety, whi ch i s able to enter in to goodcontracts wi th large compani es for guaranteed new-laideggs ,

”and also of the lower rai lway rates obtained by send

ing in bulk. The depot does not entertain contracts of lessthan sixty dozen per week, and requires that spring con

tracts shall be for double the number of eggs requi red by awin ter contract . The members receive a higher dividendon winter eggs than on spri ng or summer suppli es , sincenot only are prices much higher from October to M arch ,

but London merchants give marked preference in summerto the producers -on whom they can rely to send a regularsupply in the winter months , when they are most needed .

These members who bring eggs in large quanti ti es duringthewin ter monthswi ll make double profits , but thi s impliesthe keeping of sui table winter-laying breeds and the rearingOf chickens at sui table tim es .

The Street depot has always insi sted on scrupulous carein the co llection of its eggs to avo i d the slightest chance ofstale or doubtful ones bein g included ; and in i ts educational work (whi ch i s very regularly carri ed out in theneighbouring vi llages) lays parti cular stress on good ,


who lesome feeding , the free use of clover hay and f resh cutgreen-bone, and the best methods of obtaining winter eggs .The current local rates are paid for eggs sent in , and the

margin between thi s and the sale pri ce is held , and afterpayments of expenses and a provi sion made for the reservefund , to whi ch entrance fees and a percentage of profits isadded the balance isdivided among shareholders as dividendin accordancewi th thenum ber of eggs sent in but m embers

m g more eggs in any m onth than four times theaverage number received from the months of October toD ecember are not paid d ivi dend on the surplus . Thi s ru leand the one relating to the extra winter dividend has beenadopted to prevent members from taking unfai r advantageof the depot by glutting the centre wi th eggs during themonths when they are cheapest

, and selling to othercustomers duri ng the winter .

M embers are expected to hold shares in proportion tothe amoun t of business done for them . If they take payment in cash , the proportion i s one share to every fif teeneggs accepted (the reckoning being made on the largestnumber of eggs accepted by the depot on any one day )but if monthly paym ents are made, oneshare to every thi rtyeggs . M embers, however, who send regular supplies in bythe collectors may claim that one-eighth of thei r monthlyto tal be reckoned instead of thei r largest delivery .

The depo t has invented its own egg-boxes , whi ch are

suppli ed for collection and also sold to outside customers .They are li ght, strong, and durable , wood-wool being usedas the packing material .Foods are also sold co-operatively , grain, m eals , greaves ,

gri t, etc . , being obtainable at li ttle above wholesale pri ceand by purchasing through the depot members are not

only purchasing cheaply , but are also lowering thei r owncost of production , making mo re profit on the goods soldto the depot, and securing a higher dividend on the profitmade by the depot . It i s easy to see how thi s pri nciplecan be extended by all d epo ts . W here a member wouldhave to pay the ordinary pri ce for a house or scratchingshed ,

a number could be bought by a depot at a reductionof 15 or even 20 per cent . By the co-operative systemnot only i s the consumer brought in to closer contact wi ththe producer, but much of the interm ediate expenses andprofits is bound to be saved .


Organizations like that of Street ought to be extendedinto all parts of the country , all the knowledge in theworldof every detai l connected wi th poultry-keeping not avarlm gthe producer if he has no ready means of reachin his

market . Every day brings the lesson home more 0 earlythat only by rapid marketing of eggs and the use of correctmethods in the fattening of fowls can the highest pri ces beobtained . Take the cost to a small farmer in a remotecountry di stri ctwho has eggs or a few hampers of birds todi spose of . He ei ther must sell to a higgler, who fixes h isown pri ce, or to the nearest shopkeeper, m whi ch case therewi ll be rai lway rates, carting, market dues, and salesm en

’s

commi ssion, to come out of h is profit. Ei ther from theconsumer’s int of vi ew or from that of the salesman ,

who must ways be an important link in the chain , it

is obvious that lack of organization has its di sadvantages .

TheTown Salesman—Theposi tion of the town salesmanis one of great responsibili ty and full of worry he has tostand between the buyer and seller, and if possible to pleaseboth . His customers vary between clubs, hotels, restanrants, etc . (all good customers , but very parti cular) , andretail shopkeepers,who have the choi ce of several salesmenin the placing of thei r orders , and are often difficult todeal wi th . Irregulari ty of supply i s the salesman’s chi efdifi culty , poultry (the home product, that is) being con

demand, but fluctuating in supply. As we saidbefore, in summer and early autumn there i s often an

excessive supply, but in the winter months a scarci ty andan inf erior quali ty of arti cle, dri ving the wholesale man tothe purchase of the frozen Contin ental suppli es ,wi th whi chhe would gladly di spense could a regular Bri tish supply bemaintained .

Again , in the egg trade i t is sti ll, unfortunately, a commonoccurrence for eggs to be held back even from one

month to another, in order to obtain high pri ces , and producerswi ll not learn that eggs over three day s old have tocompete wi th foreign eggs . They are frequently un

reasonable enough to blame thei r salesman for not givingtop prices for inf eri or quali ty, whereas for trade at newlaid pri ces it is essential that eggs should be marketedthri ce a week, or at least twi ce . Though such a marketmight be occasionally glutted by an accidental rush of

goods , still a steady m arket would be growing. To obtain


payments in the form of wages ; whilst hi s losses in hot

weather—o ften unavo idable— are severe , to say nothing of

the loss by tain ting , whi ch occurs very frequently in spi teof the prin ted noti ces (relating to packing of dead birds)circulated by many dealers among producers . A spell ofextrem ely hot weather i s certainly a golden opportuni tyfor a di shonest salesman to defraud h is customers , or afraudulent dealer may candle forei gn eggs and passthem off as new—lai d Bri ti sh , thus lowering the publictaste as well as cheating in pri ce . Such doubtful characters tend to bri ng what is really a very honest and

fai r-dealing class of men into bad repute.

The Sm all Producer.—The small producer i s, however,

heavi ly handi capped when he tri es to trade individuallywi th the large salesman . Rai lway rates are a good dealagainst h im , for, though they have been much reduced ,

they are still very much higher than those on theContin entalState-owned rai lways . M any rai lways have special ratesby whi ch produce can be sent from any station on thei rline to London per passenger train , provided the producei s packed in suitable boxes which can be pi led above oneanother in the vans . The G reat Eastern charges 4d . for

20 poun ds , and the G reat Northern 6d . for the same , andthi s rate of carriage cannot be termed excessive . It isnot, of course, comparable wi th the admi rable systemwhi ch enables the Surrey fowl to be collected , sent toLondon , and the empty package retur ned , at the rate of1d . per bi rd , the light but strong peds whi ch are usedoften filling two or three vans from floor to

_

roof three tim esa week at Heathfield Station during the season . But

these facili ties have grown up out of the almo st perfectlyorganized trade of the Surrey and Sussex fatters, and thesmall trader

'

can hardly expect that equal privileges wi llbe accorded to h im . Th en , again,

the London salesmanlikes to have h is birds sent in consignments of hundreds ofcouples , all properly graded and selected , and the li ttlelots of odd dozens of fowls receive scant attention unlessof outstanding value . TheLondon market i s a very variedone, consumers ranging from thosewho requi re a superlativearticle, and are willing to pay a good pri ce for it, through thevari ous grades ti ll we reach the poorest class of customerwho i s able to purchase a fowl at all . All these differentcustomers come to the Central M arket or to Leadenhall


expecting to find what they requi re, properly sorted andclassified , and by means of the Surrey and Sussex fatteners’

business methods they are enabled to find it. In all probab i li ty they would not do so otherwi se, seeing that the depotmovement i s as yet only touching the fringe of the question .

Requirements of theBest M arkets.—TheLondon marketscould be made even more important than they are withproper organization and a better system of di stribution ,

but thei r main requirements are an improvement inthe quanti ty, quality , regulari ty, and sorting of supplies .

Birds of good breed are requi red in much larger quanti tiesthan they are at present produced , and at the right season

of the y ear, whi lst the consumer’s taste must be studied .

It is useless for the producer to rai l against the preferenceof the consumer for brown -shelled eggs and whi te-leggedwhi te-fleshed birds it i s for him to recognize the fact atonce that , whi lst yellow—legged fowls and whi te-shelled eggscan andwi ll be sold for him if he sends them up to London ,

they wi ll not receive top prices because they are not exactlywhat the best customers requi re .

As a matter of fact , the best method of marketingdepends very much on the scale of business done . On asmall farm where perhaps a hundred fowls together wi tha few ducks and turkeys are kept , and where no depotexi sts in the locali ty, i t would be more profitable to workup a good private trade in the di stri ct, or to arrange asystem of weekly hampers to private houses in large ci ti esthan to send the produce up to Leadenhall , as in order toobtain the top market pri ces, when dealing wi th wholesaletraders, it i s absolutely necessary to observe certain con

ditions whi ch the small producer can rarely fulfil .

Som eM arketing Points.— W hether dealing wi th one or a

hundred dozen bi rds , however, the m argin of profit— nevera very large one— is bound to be affected by the way inwhi ch the birds are despatched and i t has to be remembered that fowls handled by the large salesmen , ei ther inthe M etropolis or in the b ig provincial towns , have to meetvery stern competi tion , and in nin e cases out of ten i t i sthe appearance of the fowl that determines its sale, qui teindependently of i ts intrinsi c value . No crates shouldbe sent up whi ch contain other than well-plucked , wellshaped, and well-packed birds, wi th empty vents , clean


skins and legs , every fowl having been thoroughlywell chilledand set before being packed in clean fresh straw . Fm ger

drawi ng i s allowable in very hot weather, and a layer ofcrushed i ce wi ll help to keep the bi rds i n sound conditron .

R inging and topping must be rigidly avoided ,

for, apart from the di shonesty of the proceeding, no experi

enced salesman wi ll allow himself to be taken in , and wouldcertainly not accept a consignment from an unknowncustomer W i thout sati sfying himself that all the bi rds wereof sound quali ty . Honest dealing emphati cally pays, anda steady custom i s soon bui lt up for the man who wi lltrouble to study the requirements of the class of trade forwhi ch he i s catering, and who sends regular consignmentsof good quali ty . W henever direct sales can be effected ,

they should be taken advantage of , as even the saving of

a fraction of the profits from eggs or birds i s not to bedespi sed . On rai lways where the organi zed system of

crate collection and delivery i s undertaken , the small produoer in parti cular i s advi sed to send h i s stuff in unretum

able packages . The use Of boxes or crates of Similar sizeand weight faci li tates good handl ing on the journey, andi s , in reali ty, cheaper in the long—run than the mi scellaneouscollection of crates , hampers , and cases so favoured by theaverage farmer .

In the matter of supplying the egg market , too , the smallproducer, unless he avails himself of the ai d of a collectingdepot, wi ll be well advi sed to seek local trade and pri vatecustom , remembering that only three days

’old eggs truly

deserve the ti tle of new-laid that tinted shells obtainbetter pri ces than whi te ones that the very large or verysmall eggs should be kept out, the most popular size beingthe oneweighing rather over 2 ounces , or 16 pounds to thelong hundred that two or more breeds of fowls shouldbe kept to maintain a regular supply of eggs that fromNovember to February eggs wi ll f etch from 2d . to 3d .

each retai l , and that they are invariably scarce duringthose months , but that for a uni form weekly supply thewhole year round a fai r pri ce retai l would be Li d . api ece .

The weekly market system in vogue in so many parts ofthi s country simply gi ves our egg trade into the hands offoreigners , since Bri ti sh eggs over a week Old are older thanFrench , or D ani sh , and advancing toward the age of theHungarian and Italian suppli es . The small producer m ust


Those egg-collecting soci eti es whi ch have‘

been formed.(as

i s always the wi sest plan) under the auspi ces, and abi d i ngby the rules, of theNational Poultry Organi zati on Soclety ,

are enti tled to use the Rose Brand stamp at thei r depots

for eggs whi ch have passed the necessary test“

,whi ch i s

i tself a guarantee of quali ty, but the stamp i s only to beused by those depots whose managers have shown themselves capable o i doing the work, and i s not i ssued to newsoci eti es unti l the necessary experi ence in testing , grading,


etc . has been gained . The Rose Brand stamp i s not usedby i ndividuals , but only by the affili ated depot-s , and thetrade-mark can be wi thdrawn by the on non

compliance wi th i ts rules .

M embers of soci eti es and managers of soci eti es mustalways adhere stri ctly to the standard of egg excellencewhi ch the retai ler and consumer require, and must re

member that top pri ces whi ch are to be obtained for firstquali ty eggs cannot be obtained and oughtnot to be expectedfor second or third rate eggs . A co-operati ve soci ety worksfor the benefit of all its members , and each should do h i sbest , not only to see that expenses are kept down , but thatthe best quali ty only i s being produced , so that a reliablereputation for honest trading i s attained by the parti culardepot of whi ch he is a member .

The profits received by such a collecting soci ety wi ll go ,

as we have seen in the case of the Street depot , towardsexpenses of management , the provi sion of a reserve fund ,

a bonus in accordance wi th the number of eggs or birdssuppli ed , and a small di vidend on the capi tal employed . Ina short time the simple operations of the egg

—collectingclub wi ll probably be found inadequate, since in nearlyevery case i t has been found , where such soci eti es havebeen at work a li ttle time , that the members are receiv

ing pri ces 30 to 40 per cent . better than when tradingindivi dually . A wider area will have to be covered and

operations extended , subcollecting depots and a centralpacking stati on being establi shed . Table poultry wi ll bethe next section to be taken in hand , a fattening centrebeing found as a rule even more profitable than the egg col

leeting, provi ded a sln'

lled operator i s avai lable for feeding,plucking, and shaping . Food appliances , etc . , may bebought for sale to the members , and wi th the growth of

the soci ety other branches of business may be establi shed ,

remembering that the greater the bulk of the tradedone thesmaller wi ll be the expenses in proportion to the turnover .

On the other hand , i t i s unwi se to attempt too manybranches of trade at first . Collecting the eggs i s morecostly than where members themselves bring their suppliesto the depot , and should n ot be attempted unless thenumber of members i s suffici ent to justify it, or expensewi ll mount up ; but , on the other hand , i t i s for m anyreasons the superior method .


Eggs should be preserved at the d epot during the springmonths, as thi s can be done more sui tably and profitablythan by indi vi dual members .

As the club grows , if i t has not already been defini tely

organized, i t should be turned into a cc-operati ve society,

and regi stered ( through the Agri cultural Organi zati on

Soci ety) under the Industri al and Provident Soci eti es Actof 1893, as explained in leaflet No . 97 on Farmers

’Co

operative Soci eti es , i ssued by theBoard ofAgri culture. Thed epots are, of course, controlled by their own members ,but are governed by the rules of the National PoultryOrgani zation Soci ety, whi ch requires that the methods of

collection , grading ,testing , and packing shall be on i ts own

Fro. 49.—Fowr.-Housn on W HEELS.


general system . Thedepots are all members of theFederation of Depots whi ch markets the produce of the localsoci eti es to selected retai lers in the London or large provincial markets wi thin twenty-four hours , owing to theprompt business methods adopted . TheNational PoultryOrganization Soci ety can , of course, obtain the lowestrates from the rai lway compani es , owing to the amount oftraffic i t controls .

W here these methods have been adopted, a surpri singri se in

'

] quali ty has in variably been observed, and ,

indeed, if poultry-keepers generally would take a li ttlemore trouble over their methods of sale, a much greaterproportion of home produce would be of first-grade quali ty


40°

Fahr. in temperature, and that the water wi th whi chthe water-glass is to be mixed (10 parts by weight of waterto 1of water-glass) should be previously boiled , the wholebeing mixed to as even a consi stency as possible .

Cold Storage.— Thi s method of preserving eggs i s also in

wide use, and i s very eff ectual, provided the eggs can beused immediately when taken out of store, as they deteriorate more rapi dly than when li quid preservati ves are used .

The process is too expensive also for any but large dealers .

Sterilization .— Sterilization by the Uni versal ” process

is a comparati vely new method , whi ch has the advantagesof being qui ck, eff ectual, and cheap , and the porosi ty of theshell i s not aff ected , so that eggs preserved under thi smethod are not apt to burst in cooking . Steri lized eggsretain the flavour of the fresh egg, and wi ll keep qui te wellfrom three to six months , during whi ch time they can befreely handled . The Universal Steri lizer ” i s of simpleconstruction , consi sting of cases in whi ch are rows of trayson whi ch the eggs are placed , and fittedwi th air—tight doors ,ventilators , etc . , at top, and a vaporizer beneath whi ch i sa spiri t lamp . Steri lizing tablets are resolved in thevaporizer by means of the lamp heat , and after they areevaporated the vapour passes into the air-ti ght case througha small opening provi ded for the purpose , permeating theeggs by means of their porous shells . It i s impossible forputrefaction to take place after the half -hour’s steri lizingwhi ch the egg recei ves , and there i s the addi tional advantage attachin g to thi s system thatwhen the eggs are usedthe heat of cooking evaporates the preserving vapour,leavi ng the eggs in their ori ginal condi tion both in respectof appearance, taste , and nutri ti ve value .

Equipm entof Egg andPoultry Depots.— Although a young

soci ety i s wi se to go slowly and develop i ts busin ess as itgoes along , an inadequate plant means poorer returns , andis a bad investment for the money of the shareholders .A sui table bui lding must be found as near as possible to

the station to faci li tate carting and to economize labour,and i t should be large enough to allow for the growth ofthe trade . There must be an office, a storeroom for eggboxes , a packing room , and a testing room ,

whi ch lastmust be cool, even in hot weather . If eggs are to bepreserved in the spring months , a sui table place for


storage has to be found , and thi s i s best on the lines of

an i ncubator room , wholly or partially underground ,

wooden structures being un sui table for the purpose . G alvan i zed tanks are cheaper than cement ones , working out

at about 63 . per eggs but if a permanent bui lding18 being occupi ed from the beginning, the latter. would bepreferable . Tables for grading, testing, and packing wi llbe needed , deep trays for holding the eggs, a good testinglamp , and the usual office requi si tes , whi lst the accountbooks , stationery, and stamps for marking are suppli ed bythe The packing boxes whi ch most depots havefound the best are those provi ded wi th cardboard sections tosave the trouble of counting , andwi th wood-wool as packingbetween each row. The regulation s ize is for three longhundreds and for every eggs despatchedweekly i t i s well to have nine cases , in order that the latereturn ing of empti es may not delay the trade . The cost ofthese is about 6s . , but, in addi tion , a number of cheaperboxes for the collection of eggs from the members will berequired .

The National Poultry Organization Soci ety reckons thecost of equipment of a depot whose maximum is

eggs per week at about £75 , exclusi ve of bui lding and of

working capi tal , but inclusi ve of preservation tanks and

fittings . For the working capi tal , if cash were paid to

members as the goods were received , from £175 to £225

would be required but i f the members were paid monthly£25would suffice . W here a poultry depot i s to be includedas well as an egg depot , expenses would , of course, rise . If

an exi sting bui lding could be found to answer the purpose,£30would be enough , includi ng the cost of crates for sendingto market ; but to put up a fattening shed for 500 birdswi th cages , food , stores mixers , and crammers , £60 to £80would be required at the lowest, to whi ch the cost of booksand stationery would have to be added . If the birds werepai d for as brought in , there would be about £75 requiredas working capi tal, in addi tion to whi ch about £40 wouldhave to be reckoned as food and wages bi ll, bri nging thetotal up to about £150 . Of course , where operations arebegun on a smaller scale, much less capi tal would be required , and many soci eti es work on very sm all capi tal byarranging for bank overdrafts as needed .

These figures are included by the kind permi ssion of the


National Poultry Organization Soci ety , but the full information as to the actual formation of egg and poultrysoci eti es , together wi th the full rules as to subscription of

capi tal, general management, etc . , are obtainable ei therfrom the ofii ces of the National Poultry OrganizationSoci ety, or from the Agri cultural Organization Soci ety ati ts offices in D acre House, D acre Street , W estmin s ter .

In conclusion ; we might state that the barest fringe ofthe great question has only been touched as yet, and thatthe best help the genuine uti li tari an can gi ve to h is f ellowpoultry-keepers i s the practi cal support of these methodsand organizations . It would be well for our home tradecould the prin ciples of the National Poultry OrganizationSoci ety be extended into every part of the ln

'

ngdom , and

the sooner we learn that union i s strength and di vi sion of

purpose the cause of failure, the more easily shall we beable to cast aside all f ear of foreign competi tion , restingsecure in the knowledge that the poultry production of thi scountry stands upon a fai r and stable base .


M odern Theories.—Our i deas on the subj ect of poultry

keeping on stri ctly intensi ve lines have, however, been considerably modi fied of late years owing to the i ntroducti onof Ameri can methods and theori es , and the questi on whi chseems mo st important to us at the present time i s theadaptation and sui tabi li ty of these methods for the Engli shpoultry-keeper . It cannot be deni ed that we have tothank Ameri can poul trymen for many i deas of soundpracti cal value

, and that in many respects they are aheadof us in utili ty work . TheAmeri can poultry-keeper i s outfor

“

profit , and carri es out hi s business upon as large ascale as he possibly can . The mammoth egg farmand broiler-rai sing houses,

” the duck centres from whi chbi rds are turned out in a batch , all appear strange

to our i deas ; but whi lst many of them are ephemeral andtransi tory in character, there are many well-founded and

really profitable establi shments W here the untravelledEngli shman, who passes scorn on all commercial methodsbut hi s own , might learn , not merely a thing or two , butm any l

things, wi th much profit to hi mself . It i s fooli shto condemn too hastily any innovati on on time-womethods , merely because i t i s new and startling to the conservati vemind, unti l i ts meri ts have been investi gated wi thsome degree of thoroughness . M any of the detai ls of

poul try-keeping on modern1ines,wh i ch are to-day acceptedas a matter of course, roused a storm of opposi ti on and

ri di cule at the time of thei r reception . At the same timei t i s not W i se to rush blindly into any new system, Ameri canor otherwi se, wi thout m aking a careful study, not only of i tsintrinsi c value, but of its sui tabi li ty to English treatment .

M any of the alluring statements and figures publi shedin the Ameri can journals are hi ghly mi sleadin g, especi allyin vi ew of the very di fferent condi tions prevailing in thetwo countri es . Not that we have any desi re to throwdoubt upon the veraci ty of the Ameri can poultry-keeper,but some of the mass of adverti sements relating to thevariati ons of the intensi ve system are

,though di stinctly

seducti ve, enti relywi thout value from a practi cal point ofvi ew . In the vast majori ty of cases th e

'

wonderful incomeswhi ch are so rapi dly made from the uti li ty fowl— one fortunate indi vi dual whose ad .

”li es before us i s able to realize

a profit of 50 to 100 dollars from each indi vi dual henmust be consi derably swollen by the profits on the dollar

INTENSIVE POULTRY-KEEPING 233

books whi ch the thoughtful poultry farmer has compiledfor the enlightenment of the puzzled seeker after truth .

Even in the highly interesting and reasonable book of M r .

Philo , whose system has perhaps had more di rect influenceupon Engli sh intensi ve poultry-keeping than any other ,we have found ourselves in di rect di sagreementwi th manyof hi s figures , especi ally those relating to the ratio of expenses to profits , and we are of the opinion that , whilst amodificati on of the system i s very well sui ted for certainpurposes , and under certain condi tions, yet the averageEngli sh poul try—keeper wi ll do well to make a very carefulstudy of the subj ect from the Engli sh point of V i ew beforeembarkin g on i t to any large extent .

The Phi lo system claims to produce results whi ch arenot to be obtained by any other method , amongst theseresults being a vast increase of egg production, a re

duction of food and labour bi lls by 50 per cent . , and aconsequent ri se on the profits obtainable . W e may com

pare the Phi lo plan— to be described presently— to theFrench intensi ve gardening, so much di scussed a few

'

y ears

back . In both a heavy capi tal i s invested in the productionof extremely heavy crops upon a very small area of land ,

the amount of detai l work requi red in both cases beingvery consi derable .

At the Philo Insti tute , where rather over birdsare kept on half an acre of land , the bi rds are accommodatedin small houses or coops , each holding six bi rds kept intotal confinement . The ground i s carefully laid out, and

between the rows of houses frui t trees and sunflower plantsare grown ,

the number of these small houses reachi ngabout 840 . W e are qui te unable to see, bearing in mindthat these 840 coops are to be cleared and the earth spadedup every day , how such a system lessens the labour bill ,nor, sin ce the bi rds are kept in total confinement and areconsequently unable to find any of their own food howthefood bill i s to be brought down by 50 per cent . (provi ded ,

of course, that previ ous feeding of the bi rds has been con

ducted on comm on-sense lines) , and these figures seem to usto be altogether wi d e of the mark .

Th e same experi ment was tri ed in England on theCry stal Palace poultry plant of 1911by one of our Engli shintensi ve experts, and we were interested to find that , as aresult of the experi ence gained thereat ,M r . Randolph M eech


has gi ven as h i s opinion that whereas the small coops areeminently sui ted for the needs of the backyarder or smallpoultry-keeper, in the case of extensi ve egg producti onupon intensi ve lin es, the large houses, for layers in totalconfin ement, bui lt on the lines of those in use at theCorni ng Egg Farm of New Jersey—one of the largesti n the world— are far superi or .

Indeed ,compari ng the Phi lo system wi th the colony

system,the f eedi ng, housing, and labour expenses of such

a plant appear extravagant to a degree, and where‘

gan

abundance of land i s forthcom i ng we cannot see that anything i s gai ned by the adoption of the intensi ve methods ,since the increase in the

'

number ‘

of eggs obtained by the

Fro . 50.—FIRELESS Baoonna.

(R . M eech . )

sheltered birds i s balanced by the (increased expendi tureon thei r keep . W e are inclined to think in th i s case thatexi sting methods wi ll be found less costly and to the fullas efficacious .

Advantages of the System —W here we thi nk the advantages of the intensi ve system wi ll be wi dely felt i s in thecase of the backyarder and those wi th small spaces attheir di sposal , whi lst— gi ven suffici ent capi tal , of coursethere i s a great openi ng for the man who wi ll cater largelyfor the market egg and the table chi cken . W e consi derthat the intensi ve system i s a most eff ecti ve .method forthe successful rearing of large numbers of table fowls ,always provi ded that the cost of production can be keptsuffici ently low. As i ts exponents claim , bi rds whi ch


muslin cloth i s attached being fixed in posi ti on so that asthe chi cks enter the hovers the musli n touches thei r backs,Over the muslin an ei derdown qui lt i s lai d , two bei ng neces

sary i i'

extremely cold weather i s experi enced .

In conjuncti on wi th )the -fireless brooder.

i s Qi sed thebrooding coop ,

the brooder beingplaced i nsi de i t at one

end . One half of the coop i s oored , and on ;thi s thebrooder i s placed , the other:end being of dry em ] , i nwhi ch

Fro. 5l . Cr'rr LAYING House.

(R . M eech.)

the grain i s buri ed as soon as the chi cks are old enough toscratch for thei r food . The earth has to be kept fresh bydai ly spadi ng and occasi onal renewal . The coops are ingeni ously contri ved so that chi cks cannot remain outsidethe brooder too long, thus contracting a chi ll— a point whi chhas to be careft watched during the early day s of thechi cks’ li ves . Another excell ent devi ce to overcome thesame di fficulty—«Le of the chi ckens getting chi ll ed— con

si sts in the addi tion of a smallwindow in the coop opposi te

INTENSIVE POULTRY—KEEPING 237

the entrance from the run , so that the chi ckens can see thei rway in . The brooder—coop has a li d whi ch i s opened on

fine days , so that the sun penetrates all corners and obvi atesany ri sk of damp .

At the age of three or four weeks the chi cks are transferred to the developing coop ,whi ch holds them to the agefor ki lling or lay ing . The construction i s very simi lar tothat of the brooder coops , only they are larger and havemovable perches at one end . One of the drawbacks of thi ssystem i s that the number of chi ckens has constantly tobe thi nned out as they grow and develop , and a good dealof shifting about seems necessary . From twenty-fiveto fiftychi cks i s the usual number to place in a fireless brooder , buti t i s obvi ous that at three or four weeks old , and again at(

ligll

f

t or ten weeks , the number must be reduced by aaW hen the bi rds are matured , or when layers only are

being bought and not reared , a laying house i s the nextrequi si te, modelled on the Philo lines— le . , holdi ng half adozen hens in total confinement , the floor space availablefor each being about 1§ square feet . The houses aredouble-walled round the roosting quarters , and have anadjustable muslin frame stretched across the tap betweenthe sli din g roof and the bi rds’ heads (the feedi ng and

wateri ng being done from the top) and nest-boxes , perches ,and food troughs , are provi ded . W e conf ess that it seemsdi fficult to understand how better results can be obtainedwhen each hen has but 15 feet of space than on open range,since there i s very li ttle room for scratching exerci se , whi chi s none the less essenti al i f the bi rds are to be kept healthyand producti ve . In thi s country the most frequentpracti ser of the intensi ve system has been the backyarder(and he more by necessi ty than from choi ce) , but i t hasbeen accepted as a sound maxim that the more room thefowls have the better they do . N evertheless , the intensi veexponents maintain that if thei r methods are properlycarri ed out, and the fowls correctlymanaged , better resultsare obtainable from an egg

-producing point of vi ew .

The success of the system of total confinement asOpposed to fowls kept in a small run li es , probably, in thefact that the bi rds are kept perfectly dry overhead and

underfoot , and that the ground on whi ch the houses standruns a much smaller ri sk of contamination owing to i ts


dryness and the dryness of the li tter coveri ng the floor . In

deed , i t i s hi ghly essenti al that all intensi ve houses beabsolutely weatherproof (albei t there must be plenty of

venti lation) , or their usefulness i s gone . W e must admi tthat the intensi ve system do es not allow of coddling,

”

all the coops an d houses being bui lt in a way that adm i tsa maximum of air and sunlight , whi l e they shi eld thefowls from cold and wet i n an adequate mann er . Thesesmall houses , however, requi re movi ng to a fresh plot of

ground every three months or so where possible, to avoidthe least ri sk of tainted ground .

The Large IntensiveHouses. —W here a large number ofbirds are kept for the purpose of egg producti on , the smallhouses are not advi sable, owing to the excessi ve amoun t ofattenti on whi ch would be requi red in order to keep themin good condi tion , and a large house, also to hold i tso ccupants in total confinement , bui l t on the lines whi chhave been so successful in the States , i s to be preferred .

On the Com ing Egg Farm of NewJersey, one of the largestegg farms in the world , as before mentioned , a very

successful type of house has been evolved , the bi rds beingmoved into their permanent quarters just before they comeon to lay . These houses are usually bui lt on the doubledecker system , one floor above the other , to economizespace, the approach to the upper house being by means ofoutsi de steps at each end . Thefronts are of wi re netting,one panel of glass being fixed in the centre, th

‘

e better to

admi t li ght when the canvas or muslin frames whi ch arefor use in cold weather are pulled down over the netting .

In the warm weather these frames are slung back on theroof . TheAmeri can houses have as li ttle glass as possible ,and they are rarely wi der than 15 feet , so that all parts ofthe house are equally li ght and ai ry .

The Corning houses have an earth floor for the lowerhouse, the earth being thoroughly well sif ted and perfectly dry , and of such a depth that the grain can bewell spaded in . In order to in sure good drainage wherean earth floor i s used , it i s customary to bui ld the house ona slopinglpiece of ground , boardi ng the front of the houseup to a \hei ght of 2 f eet or so , and filling up the spacewi th so i l so that the back and front are leve l and a perf ectlydry ] floor i s secured .


wooden floors of the larger houses provides a sani tary basefor the li tter, and thi s last must be provided on a li beralscale, not less than three or four tons being necessary fora good-sized house , and the supply renewed twi ce a year .The straw i s best thrown down in bundles for the hens tothrash out at their lei sure . The roofs of the intensi vehouses must be good , and a dri p-board provi ded to carryofi all wet . N est-boxes are fitted up in bo th stori es of

the double-decker houses ,”and a rai sed bench, on whi ch

the gri t-boxes, food troughs, water fountains , and branheppers, are placed .

Partial orTotal Confinem ent. A good deal of controversyrages over the question of the advisabi li ty of adopting theAmeri can system of to tal confin ement . M any intensivistsconsider that the latter plan i s the better, as they are ofthe opini on that the birds become unsettled and restless i fallowed their liberty for some days and not for others ;and where large flocks are run together i t would be hardlypossible for any saving in the food bi ll to be made, as theamount of natural food avai lable would be infini tesimalamong so many unless the run were extremely large . Theyfurther hold that ri sk of tainting would be much increased ,

and that egg production , so far from being increased , wouldbe lessened .

On the other hand , and we are in agreement wi th thi sview, it may be argued that , whi le the di rect benefits mightnot be very apparent , the indi rect benefits to the healthand acti vi ty of the fowls would be very great ; and that ,furtherm ore, the land would recei ve the direct benefit ofthe manure, so that if each laying house had a run of anacre or so attached to it , whi ch could be divi ded and

alternately cropped and sto cked , the manuri al benefitwould be very great .

Certam the labour bill i s very much reduced whenfowls are left in large lots in total confinement, as onemancan look after and prepare the food of or evenlayers kept under these condi tions , the birds all under oneroof , thei r compartments easi ly reached , and the materialsfor f eedin

gall at hand . The danger whi ch exi sts where

large num ers of fowls are run together— that of the spreadof any di sease whi ch may get a foothold in a flock of birdsi s "always present under the intensi ve system , and the mostscrupulous care m ust always be taken to maintain perfect

INTENSIVE POULTRY-KEEPING 241

cleanliness in bedding and f eeding, togetherwi th an incessantwatchfulness over each indi vi dual hen’s health, bearm gm mind the terri ble loss whi ch would inevi tably followupon the outbreak of any inf ectious di sease .

The Secret of Success.— W hen birds are kept on the in

tensi ve system, the secret of success li es in the maintenanceof no birds except those of the soundest consti tution and

most vigorous health ; in the choi ce of a sui table breed

and awell-regulated di et . A further condi tion of success

hes in the constant activi ty of the inmates , who must bekept at work scratching for food , and it is highly importantthat all means be adopted whi ch can further that end .

Except where chi ckens for table purposes are to bereared , the non-si tting breeds are advised , as not only arethey more naturally energeti c, but the danger of overfat

Fro . 53.—I.NTENSW E Housm.

ness and consequent disease is consi derably lessened . Of

all the li ght breed s, we consi der the Leghorn and theCampin e to be the most gen erally useful . Th ey eat lessas a gen eral rule than the heavy breeds— another advantage—and they mature and come into lay at an earli erage. M oreover, the heavy breeds kept under in tensivecondi tions have an appalling tendency to go broodyfar more frequently than where an open run is provi dedand i t cannot be too strongly emphasized that broodinessmust never be tolerated for an in stant on an intensi velant . Thehens must be kept constantly at work, and theBurying or spading in of grain , so that there i s an absolutenecessi ty for exertion , i s a si ne qua non i f the sy stem i s tobe a success . G ood stock must be bought to commencewi th , whi ch should be in hard , vi gorous condi tion and fairlyyoung, as i f mature fowls are placed under intensive con

16


ditions i t may take them some time to grow accustomedto their surroundings . W e are glad to see i t generallyrecommended by our Engli sh authori ti es that the pulletsused for intensi ve laying should be reared on openrange, as we do not consider i t possible that sto ck rearedintensively can be compared for rugged health and stami nawi th those reared under natural surroundings . W e con

sider that the continuous need for protection fromweather,whi ch alone enables the “

intensi ve fowl ” to fulfil i tsduti es successfully,

wi ll become characteri sti c , and that itwi ll be transmi tted to the offspring . For the present , atany rate, so far as the production of ferti le eggs goes , publicopinion i s for the open run , though we have no direct proofthat both methods are not equally sui table under correctmanagement . W e do not mean that eggs cannot besuccessfully ferti lized from stock kept on stri ctly intensivelines many experiments have proved the average of

ferti li ty to be very good under these condi tions . But weconsider that there i s bound to be a certain loss of staminaafter a generati on or two , and strong , vi gorous birds aloneare fitted to stand the close confin ement and to fill thewinter egg basket . Intensively—reared pullets are apt tomature too qui ckly, also , and seem to fai l somewhat intheir duti es after a short season .

W e consi der that the i ntensi ve system has a b i g futurebefore i twi thin certain limi ts— i .e the producti on of eggsand chi ckens for table—but the stock for producing theeggs for hatching should , we consi der, be obtained fromfowls kept in small lots on free range, hatched and rearedby hens and fed on plain food , so that laying i s retardedunti l si ze and stam i na i s attained . The intensi ve systemof reari ng i s an adm i rable one for producing soft jui cy flesh,

but we should hardly consider i t li kely to produce thenecessary muscle and stamina requi red in breedi ng stock.

At present we admi t the question i s more or less open , and

we are aware that we are probably laying ourselves open toa storm of cri ti ci sm on the part of the thoroughgoing i ntensi vi ste, who maintain that there i s no necessi ty whateverto restri ct and limi t the operations of the “

i ntensi ve ”fowl to the producti on of table commodi ti es . W e do ,

however, consi der that, whilst a qui et ultra-domesti catedrace of fowls may and can be produced from intensi vestock, yet the same fowls cannot compare so far as real


cold brooder have been too anxi ous to condemn as cranksand faddi sts thosewho could not endorse the tenets of thesystem wi th thei r own fervour, while, on the otherhand , agood deal of very unnecessary acri mony has been di splayedby the upholders of the anci en regime,who have persi stentlyrefused to see any good whatever in the i dea .

Unti l the system has been in working a year or twolonger, i t seems unwise ei ther to rush wildly i nto pri nt onthe one hand or the other.Certainly the system has i ts advantages, but wi th equal

certain ty i t has i ts drawbacks, and thewi se man i s he whokeeps the open mi nd un ti l by personal investigati on he hassounded the matter to hi s own sati sfaction .

The di fficulty in the past has been, not the keepi ngwarmof the chi ckens , but the maintenance of drynesswi thin thebrooder ; and the general consensus of Opini on has beenthat i n our moist climate an all-the—year-round use of thefireless brooder was not advi sable, but that from M archto October or November i t was one of . the most usefuli nventi ons of modern times" -economi cal, si nce i t requi resno heati ng sati sfactory, since the chi ckens kept each otherwarm and got along extremely well and conveni ent,because there was no danger from fire or from chill in thecase of acci dental oversight on the part of the personmani pulating i t.

D uring the months of wi nter, when our climatei s not only cold but extremely damp—a di fficulty theAmeri can does not have to reckon wi th, since,

dry cold i sfar easi er to fight against thank

raw damp air—i t canhardly be sai d wi th perfect di si irterestedness that thefireless brooder can equal the hen or the heated brooder .G ranted that the monthsmenti oned above are the dead

months —i .a those in whi ch hatchi ng and rearing areadmi ttedly unnatural— the fact remains thatwinter hatching has to be carri ed on to-day by both the utili tari an andthe fanci er therefore the li ne of least resi stance—whi chin thi s case we consi der to be ei ther the hen or the heatedbrooder— should be followed . There i s no doubt that thechi ckens put i nto the fireless brooder durin the wi ntermonths can and do keep each other warm , i ut the factremains that, except i n i solated cases, losses are muchheavi er than where heat i s used , and the reason i s simplythat the moi sture in the air, together wi th the moi sturegi ven off by the breath of the chi ckens, has made the air

INTENSIVE POULTRY-KEEPING‘

245

they are breathin wi thin the brooder unfit for use . Thefireless brooder o 1913 i s, we adm i t, of vastly improvedconstruction , because the pri nciple of necessary ventilationhas been more thoroughly grasped . In thi s the moi st air18 drawn out of the hover, and there i s therefore the lessnecessi ty for the elaborate system of drying and airi ngqui lts and coveri ngs whi ch was formerly essen ti al ; buteven to-day there i s a good deal to be learnt before thesystem can be pronounced perfect . Overheating shouldalways be stri ctly guarded against, and if the chi ckensseem to be too warm thei r numbers must be reduced con

si derably . For the first few days after the chi ckens areput i n they requi re a good deal of watching and education ,

ti ll they learn not to stray away from the warm hover, andunti l they have learnt to enter when f eeling chi lled . The

space i n whi ch they can wander needs careful regulationat first, and a li ttle gentle traini ng wi th a sti ck wi ll soonbe comprehended , the chi ckens learningwhere the com fortof the warm hover can be found . For food and

they should be taught to come out of the brooder i nto thebrooder coop , and for the fireless brooders to gi ve the bestresults they should , in our Opini on, stand in dry , shelteredplaces , and only thoroughly healthy birds should be putin . W eakly chi cks, i f put in wi th others in the confin edspace avai lable, would very qui ckly start di sease and be asource of danger, so it is important that birds reared on

these lin es should be thoroughly sound and healthy .

Feeding of Chickens.—The f eedi ng of the chi ckens in thefireless brooders does not di ff er very wi dely from that ofchi ckens brought up in the ordi naryway , but greater carehas to be observed to keep them working if they are to bereared to maturi ty, and i f for table

’purposes they mustnot be overforced , or the results wi ll be di sastrous . M ostauthori ti es recommend feeding every three hours , increasingthe interval as the chi ckens grow . Two soft meals andtwo . of grai n will give bi gger size and softer flesh than anall-grain di et where table birds are requi red , but for keeping the chi ckens acti ve and employed an all-grain di et hasdi sti nct advantages, the grai n being ei ther buri ed in the

earth run or among the li tter on the boarded floor of thebrooder coop . Any good dry chi ck feed of a reli able brandshould be gi ven, and for the first day it can be put on aclean board , ti ll they can scratch . M eat is not advi sable


for intensively reared chi ckens, but many people obtainexcellent results from the free use of milk . G reen food i s

an absolute necessi ty, and should take the form of sproutedoats chopped very fin ely, and fed twi ce dai ly . The economyof sprouting oats i s very great , since one peck of dry

’

oats of

good quali ty results in a bushel of spongy, easi ly-di gested

green food ,adm i rably sui ted for intensi ve work, forwhi ch

i t i s so largely used .

W ater i s another essenti al , and must always be beforethe bi rds , together wi th sharp flint gri t and a hopper ofdry bran . Thi s last i tem comes as rather a shock to thoseof us who have always advo cated the scalding of branbefore feedi ng it, to young bi rds , since i t has been con

sidered that , valuable as an ai d to di gesti on as i t uh

doubtedly i s, thi s foodstuff was apt to cause bowel troubleif fed dry . N evertheless, very sati sfactory results havebeen Obtained from i ts use in thi s way, and i t i s possi blethat, under the ci rcumstances and given separately from the

other foods , i t does no harm . The dry bran appears to giveno harmful results, except where i t is m i xed , in an unscaldedcondi tion, wi th the sof t food whi ch has been scalded .

W here table fowls alone are being reared , sui table food sof a fattening characterwi ll have to be added to the menu ,and the usual final week of preparation gi ven .

Table Chickens.— There i s no doubt that on thi s si de ofthe business great advances are possible along intensi velin es, and , gi ven suffici ent capi tal, i t would be possi ble toturn out many thousands Of chi ckens annually from a verysmall area of ground , provided the necessary reli able eggswere forthcoming and that houses sui table for the purposewere erected .

In intensi ve chi cken-reari ng labour i s reduced to aminimum , and there are no losses from vermin ,

etc . whilstif scrupulous cleanliness i s observed , the ri sk of taintedground can be reduced very greatly .

Provided the birds are kept perf ectly dry overhead and

underfoot, wi th the m aximum amount of air and sunli ght,the li tter wi ll keep sweet for a long period,and the valuablem anure i s all saved in good condi tion .

It i s time for attention to be pai d to the further development of the poultry trade, and the intensi vi st has h i schance to make a good thing out of the increasing demandfor young birds, for,wi th the choi ce of the many excellent

248 UTIL ITY POULTRY-KEEPING

The Egg Yield.—The great advantage of the intenswe

system i s sai d to be the great increase in the egg y leld ,_

8wnd

those who have practi sed i t extensi ve] clai m.

defim telythat they obtain much better results rom thi s methodthan from others . W e consi der that i t i s too early as yetto speak defini tely, and are still in cli ned to think that smalllots of ten or twelve

, gi ven free range and a good scratchi ngshed ,will prove the record—breakers but we do undoubtedlyconsi der that, as a commerci al venture, and wi th constantrenewal of stock from outsi de sources , the intensi ve sy stemm ay be m ade a most profitable undertaking,thorough understandi ng of the methods of working . For

the town dweller and the backy arder we are i ncli ned tothink hi ghly of i t,whi lst the Phi lo and Ci ty systems shouldcertainly be themeans of introducing the sci ence of poultrykeeping among thousands of people who , owing to thelimi ted space at thei r di sposal, have hi therto d eemed itimpossi ble to produce thei r own breakfast egg or table

M ONTHLY NOTE S FOR POULTRY

KEE PER S

JANUARY .

CLEAN h ouses and fattening coops after the Chri stmas

clearance ready for spring operations. M ix 5» pound softsoap and 1 pin t paraffin wi th every 4 gallons lim ewash, and

work into all the corners . Spray roosting h ouses wi th a1per cent . soluti on crude carboli c in water. Li tter the floorswell to provide add i ti onal warmth . Provi de plenty of sh elteragainst cold an d wet . See th at h ouses areweather-proof , andthe scratching sh ed b oarded up on the windward si de. Fix

a fewperches up ab out 2 feet from the ground in the open runwh ere the morning sun wi ll fall . Th ewlswi ll si t th erepreening th ei r feath ers whi le the grass dri es up.

Empty drinking vessels at ni ght to save thawing out ,

and do not permi t fowls to drink water in to whi ch snow hasfallen. On very cold day s the chi ll m ay be taken off the

water. Provi de a dust bath in a dry corner, and do not forget

G ive lay ing and breeding stock li b eral rations, but do not

overfeed . Collect eggs frequently to avoid frost, and releasetrap-nested hens as soon as possible.

The warm m orni ng mash m ay consi st of b i scui t mealalternated with barley m eal as foundation, mixed with sharps,bran cooked vegetables, or steamed clover hay. Poultryspi ce may b e gi ven twi ce a week to layers, or m ustard sprinkledover the mash . A li ttle Douglas m ixture in drinki ngwaterwill ward off roup.

At m i dday give cooked meat ( i f th i s i s unattainable givesteamed m eatm eal in the morni ng mash ) or fresh cut green

249


bone. Hang a cabbage or turnip in the scratching shed foram usem ent .

Evening feed i s grain ,cli pped oats, wh eat , barley with

m ai ze and buckwheat as extras.

In inclem ent weather gi ve h alf the grain ration cold , the

other heated (by pouring b oiling water on , and allowing i t tostand ten m inutes) . Last th ing at ni gh t scatter grain in thescratch ing sh ed, so that the hens wi ll work in the morni ng ti lltim e for th e warm feed . Food trough s save waste, and are

easi ly knocked up.

Incubators can be filled wi th eggs from D ecemb er-matedb irds for spring ch i ckens. G ood crosses for early work areHoudan-Bu ff Orpington, Faverolles-Buff (or W h ite) Orpington,

or Sussex (Light or Speckled )-Buff Orpington.

D O not leave the incubator drawer opentoo longwhen turningthe eggs the loss of heat i s not so quickly m ade up as underhens. Regulate the tem perature of the incubator room carefully ; unevenness Of temperature i s a frequent cau se of deadin-sh ell . W inter ch i cks when hatch ed requi re plenty of

sh elter, but no coddling . Brooders Of the h ot-water ty pe are

b est for cold weath er, as they retain the heat longer than hotair m achines . Lam ps must be kept well trim m ed and welltim ed .

Feed stock ducks li berally to ob tain eggs the end of themonth. Th ese sh ould be set at once, as early ducklings, li keearly ch i ckens, fetch the b ig pri ces .

Breeding cocks sh ould be li berally fed , and rem oved for aday

’s rest once a week .

If hens are si tting , do not allow m any eggs ei gh t chi ckenswi ll be the m ost a hen can b rood th i s weath er . M ake thenests in a qu iet outhouse of damp earth, wi th hay as bedding.

Feed the hen on mai ze once dai ly ; supply fresh water, gri t,and a dust bath , and do not let her stay Off too long .

Set som e Faverolle-D orking or wh ite -legged Old Engli shG am e-D orking eggs for the peti tepoussi ns m arket .


chopped oni ons or greenstuff dai ly, and a li ttle cooked m eatafter four day s. M i lk i s invaluab le for m aking growth .

Each batch of chi ckens m ust h ave drinking fountains andfood trough s.Trim brooder lamp some time before shutting down for the

ni ght, so that any m ish ap can be rectified on the last round .

Boarded floors in coops and ni gh t nurseries must be‘ well

li ttered wi th ch aff or wh eat fli gh ts to avoi d cramp. Putsacking over the runs in wet weath er, so the ch i cks can run out.

Feed layers much as in January. Spli t peas or b eans m akea ni ce ch ange at midday, and 1oun ce Of h empseed per b ird .

Som e b oi led li nseed i s good i n very severe weath er.If day " old chi cks are to be sold in M arch ,make arrangem ents

for a constant supply of eggs (pure or cross-bred) from un

lim ited runs i f the home supply i s insuffi cient .

Popular breeds are the easi est to di spose of , also good tab leand lay ing crosses. Boxes for despatching the chi cks sh ouldbe bought now, and adverti sements inserted in poultry papersth e end of the m onth .

W herever possi ble, use fresh ground for rearing ; healthyb irds cannot be reared on tainted ground .

If fresh land i s not ob tainable, i t i s usually wi ser to keepchi cken-hatching operati ons li m i ted, and buy stock birdslater in the y ear.Coops, brooders, and roosting houses must be thoroughly

well venti lated each day .

M ARCH .

Fini sh h atching h eavy b reeds, and put down eggs of li gh tbreeds for hatchi ng in Apri l .Peti te poussi ns wi ll be saleab le end of Apri l and beginning

of M ay , and should be specially fed on soft food, giving varietyas far as possible, and aiming at deli cate white flesh ,

wi th asli ttle b one as possible. Biscui t-meal, ground oats, cookedfoods,_ oatmeal, should all be mixed wi th mi lk, and gritand greenstuff not forgotten .

Oth er chi ckens should have soft food alternated wi th dry ,

and bonem eal added to their menu. Chi ckens in broodersshould have their dry feed scattered in chaff so that they have

M ONTHLY NOTES FOR POULTRY-KEEPERS 253

to work for i t. Chi cks need every care in boi sterousweather,but coddling never pays, and deli cate chi ckens wi ll rarelypay for the trouble they cause. Newly-hatched chi cks canbe bough t to make up bad hatches.If buy ing si ttings of eggs, rest them after their journey for

twenty -four hours before setting, and have an understandingwith the vendor about replacement of unferti les.

Thi s i s often a hard month for breeding stock owing tohigh winds, and inferti li ty m ay be expected unless plenty ofshelter i s provi ded .

W h en purchasing broodies, exam i ne carefully for cheesygrowth in the mouth , or scaly leg, b oth being danger si gns ofinfecti on .

Brooders must be kept perfectly clean and well ventilated ,and never overcrowded , or di arrh oea may ensue.

January bi rds may be cold-b rooded the end of the m onthi f the weather i s favourab le, and gradually hardened off intochi cken h ouses.Ducklings for m arket must be pushed on rapi dly and

marketed at ei ght weeks . Th ose intended for stock musthave access to swimming water after they are ten days old ,

and must be fed for bone and growth , not forced in any way .

House market ducks in roomy coops or sheds,wi th woodenfloors li ttered wi th straw. Feed on b arley m eal and bi scui tm eal at first, later boi led ri ce and

‘

greaves to fini sh fattening .

Do not give much exerci se.

Keep chi ckens dry ,and place the coops or rearers so that

they are able to obtain as much sunshine as possible. M any afai ling clutch of chi ckens h as been revived by being placed on

freshly dug soi l—so much depends on their having fresh land ,and it i s easy to place them on the land b efore plantingvegetables, for example .

Sowmustard, cress, and rape in shallow b oxes covered wi thfine meshed wi re, and they wi ll enjoy the green feed . Nettlesand dandeli ons sh ould be cultivated in all hen runs ; they havevaluable cooling properties . Do not forget greenstufi for

layers thi s month.

Their morni ngmashmay be of middlings and branplus beanmeal or swede turnips b oi led soft . Bi scui t-m eal on alternatemornings, and wheat and barley at night . A li ttle ovary toni c


should be given in the drinking water. Stock cockerels mayhave a weekly dose of Parri sh

’s Chem i cal Food .

Orders wi ll be coming i n for day -old ch i ckens and ducklings ,and m u st b e filled in rotati on. They sh ould be sent as soon

as dry and strong on their feet, packed i n dozens,wi th soft hayround them, in the special b oxes made for this trade, well

labelled , and sent by a qui ck train, the purch aser being advisedof th ei r despatch . Th ey need no food before starting , butwhen arrived at th eir destination may have a warm feed of

b iscui t-m eal,and bebrooded as soon as possible .

APRIL .

Incubati on wi ll still be in full swing , as the light breeds wi llhave to be h atch ed for autum n lay ing. Anconas, Cam pines,La Bresse, Leghorns, and Hamburgh s, should be hatch ed thi sm onth and the next. Ranges of sitting-boxes may be placedout of doors now.

Eggs of geese and turkey s may be set early thi s month.

Young turkeyswhen hatched requi re food in little quantities,but often. Biscui t-meal, finely chopped hard-boi led egg

finely chopped oni ons, and later on Sussex ground oats, shouldbe suppli ed to them , wi th a dai ly quanti ty of green food .

Indian Runner duck eggs m ay nowalso be set .Chi ckens h atch ed early in the year may be cold-b rooded

now. As incubators and rearers go out of use they should becarefully overhauled and cleaned before stori ng. Hot-watertanks should be scrubb ed and thoroughly dri ed

,lam ps

em ptied , th ermometers put safely away, and fines cleared .

Parti cular attention must be paid to di sinfection and the

destruction of insect pests in rearers.All growing stock needs close attention, and as the weath er

getswarm er insect pestsmake th ei r appearance. Any droopingchi ckens should be examined carefully

, and insect-powder usedfreely under the feathers. If no insect pests are found ,

tryconstant ch ange of ground (taki ng care to keep grass sh ortround the coops, etc or the chi cks wi ll get too soaked ) anduntainted soil ; the young bi rds wi ll soon pi ck up again underthis treatm ent.


M AY .

Qui ckly maturing crosses, such as Ancona-Orpington,

Ancona-W y andotte, Faverolles-Legh orn , m ay be hatched W i th

advantage. Tab le crosses, as Faverolles-Orpm gton orHoudan

Orpington, i f h atch ed th e end of the month , should makesplendi d Christm as b irds.

Breeding pens of the wi nter sh ould be broken up, the sexesW idely separated , and placed on fresh ground to recovercondi tion. Stock co cks not required for next season shouldbe sold . Stock hens sh ould have a rest ; i f determ inedlybroody, may si t on dummy eggs for three weeks to tone upthe system in readiness for next season’s work. Continuouslayerswh o go b roody n owmay also be rested others, however,should be broken off b y penning in broody coops, where theycan onlyperch , and feeding sparingly, but allowing fresh water.Feedlayi ng stockmore scanti ly, and do not force egg produc

tion in unprofitable month s. It is well, however, to remem berthat spri ng and summer eggs help to pay the chi cks

’food bill

and that seasi de and holi day resorts are large consumers inthese month s. Surplus eggs sh ould be preserved in water

glass ready for the winter. Th ey should be put down whenqui te f resh ,

unfertile i f possi b le, and the sh ells should be cleanand uncracked.

Farmers’ b irds can m anage now wi th one meal a day of

grain, as th ey have so much natural food .

W here hay is cropped, pens sh ould be empti ed th at thegrass may grow. Land whi ch has b een in use some tim eshould be rested ; try , h owever, to h ave the y oungest chi cksnear at hand under ob servation, and protected from birds of

prey and vermin.

Chi cks should begetting alongwellnowwi th warmerweather,and close watch should be kept for insect pests ; and as thesun gets more powerful, provi de plenty of. sh elterwi th hurdlesi f there are no shady trees in the run.

January chi cks may now sleep in open-fronted houses,and those over sixteen weeks should perch a foot from the

ground on broad, fiat perches ; if thi s i s delay ed too longthe b irds wi ll hang fire. W asters sh ould be sorted out and

M ONTHLY NOTES FOR. POULTRY-KEEPERS 257

fattened (ei ther at h om e or sold to fatteners, who wi ll givegood pri ces early in the season) . Spring chi ckens should beplump, and have ni cely di stri buted fat flesh , and shouldfetch good pri ces th i s month and next.The fu ture stock b i rds must be well sorted out and the

sexes separated . Never overcrowd , and never allow di fferentages and si zes to run togeth er, or the youngestwi ll get pushedaside. Change quarters as often as possi ble ; youngsters are

apt to become stale, so every effort must bemade to keep th emhungry and working . Keep water vessels scrupulously cleanand out of the sun , repleni sh frequently, and add a fewcrystalspotassium permanganate ( only enough to just tinge thewater) .Any cases of di arrh cea must have boi led ri ce over whi chpowdered ch alk or ginger h as been sprinkled .

Chi ckens allowed plenty of on i ons and garli c wi ll be lessli able to suffer from gapes. If any cases occur, use powderedch alk and 5 grains camph or mixed as a spray.

Turkeys and geese h atched now fetch good Chri stmaspri ces . From the second week y oung turkey s m ay have ali ttle crush ed corn in addi tion to th eir soft food.

Let a gallon of cats stand in hot water for twenty-fourh ours. Spread in a shallow b ox , cover wi th sacking, dampdaily till it sprouts, wh en the hens will enjoy i t.

JUNE .

If any breeding pens remain, b reak th em upfinally, and sellthe cocks as soon as in conditi on. Com m ence m arketing old

hens to make more room. Thi s is a good month for m akingadult purch ases, as so m any b reeders wi ll be cleari ng out theirstock . Care must be exerci sed in buying, h owever, especiallywh en lay ing quali ti es are in question, as a reckless purchasemay undo the work of years .W eedi ng out of chi ckens m ay sti ll go on , and a rigorous

thinni ng usually proves the b est poli cy in the end , as the foodbi ll i s reduced , a little cash i s reali zed , and there i s new roomfor the fine specimens.Place the coops , etc. , so that the m orning sun falls on th em ,

and th en turn round so that they are shaded from the midday17


heats. Early feeding and release from sleeping quarters 15

essential.As soon as the hay i s carried, chi ckens and colony houses

should be shifted to the clean, fresh ground available, andshould thrive well on the great vari ety of natural food in afresh-cut field.

All houses should be open-fronted i f possible, and i f anyshutters exist th ey should be removed .

Do not let the chi ckens be brooded too long, as prolongedbrooding causes the hatching of so many insect pests. Keepthe chi ckens busy, scatteri ng grain as wi dely as possible, and

do not p’

vc too many meals th i s month . If the youngsters

get off their feed,” reduce th ei r quanti ty of mash , give boilednettle leaves to tone up the system, and keep th em on a low

grain rati on. Ducklings cannot stand hot sun, and must becarefully shaded. It i s a m i stake to h atch ducklings in veryhot weather. W here more duck eggs are requi red, the stockducks must have plenty of meat in their food .

Feed laying hens sparingly. Eggs are not requi red nowas

they are in the autumn, and i t will not do to use the birds’

strength. Economy in food i s all ri gh t now (up to a certainpoint), whereas i t is very bad management in October.Do not force the pullets too much , as immature layers are

not wanted, especially in the case of the h eavy b reeds. If anycase of legweakness appear, give Parrish

’s Food and bonemeal.Do not neglect separati on of the sexes, and beware of

overfeeding ligh t breeds, or th ey wi ll lay too early, go intomoult, and be unprofitable. G reen food must be liberallysupplied this month , and cress in sh allow b oxes when growingis eagerly relish ed , also lettuces that are running to seed.

Breeding and lay i ng stock need not have a soft mash in themornings, but clipped oats orwh eat, giving the alternate grainat ni gh t, and a fewpeas at midday wi th greenstuff .Preparations should now be made for hurry ing up the

moult, so as to get it through whi le the weather is mi ld and

the h ens ready to start winter lay ing . Thi s canbe done bypenni ng the birds in sh eds which get all the sun ,

by keepingon lowdi et till lay ing i s stopped, and after that a generousone of soft food, soft green vegetables, and b oiled linseedor h empseed in the soft food .


a small handful of grain or peas ; and at ni gh t a good feed Of

wheat or clipped cats, wi th buckwh eat for a ch ange.

Regard cut b one and meat wi th caution during h ot weather,as, i f tainted , ptom aine poisoning m ay be caused . Perm anganate of potash in the drinking water i s an addi ti onalsafeguard .

Provide plenty of shade, for growing ch i ckens and ducklingsneed speci al protection against h ot sun, any temporarystructure th at can be rigged up b eing sui table.

Turkey chi ckenswi ll be just shooting the red , and needspeci al care protecti on from wet, cooked meat wi th thei rfood, and a li ttle toni c. Thi s peri od over, h owever, they wi ll

give little trouble i f they have a wide range.

Pullets for tab le purposes should not be run wi th thoseintended for laying or breeding , as the d iet sh ould be di fferent .Lay ing stock m ust on no account be forced , and W here pulletsare reared wi th any degree of freedom th ey m ay be fed fromth ree months old on grain alone, unti l i t i s time for them to

start lay ing, wh en soft food can be given.

G arden refuse should now be plenti ful, and i s always m uchappreciated.

A pen that h as become much tainted sh ould be thorough lywell dug over and planted wi th mustard , whi ch , i n addi tionto puri fying the soi l, wi ll afford green food for the birds.Very old hens that can hardly be sold in the market m ay

be ki lled for home use, hung well, then boi led slowly for threehours ; they will then do qui te well.

AUGUST .

W hile the weather holds good, any building and repairingthat has to be done for the next W inter’s work should be

carried out and all plans settled . Tarring can also be done,and any fencing orgate-mending or netting that seems requi si te.Stores can be overh auled , and all apparatus mended and

painted .

Creosote i s cheaper th an paint, and as good a preservative,th ough not so si ghtly. It should be appli ed h ot, and allowedto sink well in .


Farmers have the “ advantage of their stubble fields—wheat,barley, or oats —on wh i ch the birds can be placed as soon as

each i s available, and in th i s way food b i lls can be kept downduring August and Septem ber. In m any cases farm ers wi llpermi t poultry -keepers to run their fowls on the stubble for asm all consi deration in money or kind . Turkeys and geesem ay be turned out, too . If neith er of th ese are kept, let thebiggest chi ckens have the benefit of the land .

If there i s any trace of leg weakness in the most forwardch ickens , i t wi ll be showing now, and should be ch ecked bythe admini stration of Parrish ’

s Food, and plenty of greenstufi'

,

bonemeal, and oats. D o not allow any fattening foods to be

given unless it i s a bad case, when the bird sh ould be madeup for market, and not kept to maturi ty.

Incubation should begin again the end of thi s month readyfor Ch ri stmas trade, Chri stmas chi ckens being requi red of

larger size and greater wei ght than spring chi ckens . Hensare better than incubators at thi s season, and i f incubatorsare to be used, great care in regulating the tem perature m ustbe exerci sed . An underground cellar i s for the sam e reasonto be preferred to an outside sh ed or room (unless that i sbui lt of stone ) owi ng to the di ffi culty of regulating the tem

perature in a bui lding exposed to sun-heat .If any batches of ch i ckens have not been sorted out y et ,

the sexes sh ould be, W i th out further delay, separated , and

the pullets kept out of si gh t and h earing of the cockerels.Pullets that have any appearance of lay ing sh ould be

checked b y constant rem oval to fresh groun d and surroundi ngs, and by a lim i tation i n the quantity of food , keeping th emstri ctly to grain for at least a m onth . Eggs are not wantedb efore the end of Octob er, and though m any light breeds, suchas Ancona, wi ll lay at five month s i f well fed , th i s i s not a

good th ing . In the first place, because i t stops growth and

development ; and , secondly, because, after lay ing a few sm alleggs, the b ird wi ll go into moult, and perh aps waste the W holeseason.

All fowls at th i s season are very liab le to be infested withi nsects. A sh arpwatch should be kept, and frequent dustingsof pyrethrum powder given. Nest-b oxes should also receivefrequent dustings.


Turkey poults must not be neglected, since even feedingand steady growth i s wh at m akes a good market b iI d A

good soft feed m ixture i s sh arps , ground oats, b arley m eal, and

b oi led potatoes.Stock ducks will be moulti ng, and should h ave a generous

di et of b ran, sharps, and ri ce boi led in the m orning, and grainat ni gh t. Avoid all fattening foods. Let th em h ave a good

grass run .

Young goslings need plenty of water and gri t , and plentyof b edding— straw or hay .

SEPTEM BER.

Bring M arch pullets along for autumn lay ing wi th nouri sh.

ing food and plenty of exerci se.

It is best th at pullets should not lay before six m onth s, sothat th ey may be well matured ; and the y ounger chi ckensshould be retarded, i f they show signs of lay ing, by movingth em about and keeping on a grain di et .If eggs for table purposes only are to be produced, no cock

will be needed, of course ; but where any cock has to be purchased, the choi ce should not be delay ed long.

As combs redden up, watch that pullets do not begin bylay ing away from proper nest-boxes.Shut June chi ckens up for fattening for seaside resorts, etc.

Keep y oung turkeys ofi wet grass and shut up early. Feedstock ducks and hens li berally for themaintenance of condition,but do not permi t them to get fat.

M i chaelmas geese take ab out three weeks’ preparation .

Keep in clean, small yards with plenty of straw bedding, andfeed on barley m eal and cooked potatoes m ixed wi th m i lk,dri ed off wi th sharps and bran. M aizem eal i s apt to givethe skin a yellow tinge. The mash may be boi led wi th meatliquor instead of mi lk, and some melted fat should be given .

Oats form the b est ni gh t feed . D o not kill off two or three ata tim e, or the oth ers wi ll pine. Chri stmas geese m ust be of

a larger size, and m ay be turned on to stubbles or into turni pfields wi th advantage.Clean pens at the end of September, removing feath ers and


OCTOBER .

Venti late roosting houses well . Roup easi ly develops fromcolds b rough t on b y the sudden change from an over-h eatedhouse to the exposed run . Open -fronted h ouses are b est.Draugh ts must be avoi ded , b ut th ere sh ould be an air

space of several inch es running from front to b ack ri gh t underthe roof , giving a current o f air well over the h eads of thefowls. Houses must be snug and water-tight for the winter,and any h oles stopped upwi th pitch .

Prepare scratching sheds for use, and obtain a good supplyof li tter —straw or dead leaves— and granulated peat moss forthe roosting houses under perches.

Appli ances that are well painted and tarred last muchlonger. Enclosed runs of earth or gravel may need attention,and a load of fresh soi l or of gravel sh ould be put down beforethe land gets sodden.

Place colony houses i n as sheltered, well-drained, and

accessi b le si tuations as possi ble, b oth for the sake of the birdsand thei r attendants. M ovable h ouses should always havegood wi de wheels with broad rims for field work, and thosebui lt in secti ons are the most conveni ent.W h ere au tumn chi ckens are reared, keep the grass closely

cropped round the brooders to avoi d chi lls.If coops are used , a covered run must be attach ed, and the

chi cks kept in till the wet h as dried off the grass somewhat .Vi si t brooders late at ni ght, and note i f the chi cks are huddlingtogether. If so, the tem perature must be rai sed , as thenights will be getting colder.G ive lay ers an extra allowance of m eat— l to 1; ounces

per b ird dai ly. G ive soft food as early as possible, and ri ngthe changes as often as possible on bi scui t-meal , granulatedmeat, sh arps, bran, table scraps, ri ce, barleym eal, etc. Alittle poultry spice may be added twi ce a week.

At m i dday bury grain i n th e‘ scratchi ng shed ; at ni ght,

alternately, wh eat, barley, or cats. A li ttle maize on coldnights.Pullets just coming on to lay m ust have a liberal supply

of food, whi ch can be reduced when in ful l lay . Th ose whi ch


look like lay ing but seem to hang fire can have extra m eatrati ons for a few day s.Supply greenstufi wh ere grass is not obtainable.

All bi rds should occupy th eir winter quarters now. Do

not shif t about or make alterations i n stock— lay ers are extraordinari ly sensi tive to changes. Twenty-five i s the largestnumber to run and h ouse together, and, on the wh ole, smallflocks give better averages th an large.

To obtain winter eggs, pullets and hens must have beenbred from strain s in whi ch several generations of winter lay erscan be traced , the pullets being hatched nei ther too late nortoo early, the hens not more than two years old , the housingcomfortable, and the food able to supply egg material andrestore waste. Exerci se must be constantly encouraged bywork in th e scratching shed, and no m oping allowed .

Stock ducks for January breeding sh ould be settled downin good , nouri sh ed, store condi ti on (not too fat). Ferti leeggs i n Decemb er and January are largely a matter of m anagem ent . D o n ot mate too many ducks wi th one drake, or

fertili ty suffers.

Pen Ch ristmas turkeys and geese about the 15th of the

month, and feed li berally.

Fourteen-week old chi ckens fetch excellent pri ces fromfatteners i n January ; some should be hatch ed in October,and push ed on as rapidly as possible .

NOVEM BER .

Layers sh ould be doingwell and bekept moving, wi thplentyof range and nouri shing food , but not forced wi th condiments,or there wi ll be b ad results i n the b reeding season. Housescraps (not much bread or potato ) should be all uti li zed, boi ledup wi th the morning mash . G ive sof t food in troughs toavoid waste, and the last meal of the day as near dusk as

possible. Late bi rds may have three meals a day— two soft ,one of grain.

M ake snow blinds out of old sacks opened up and nai ledoutsi de the netting of covered runs, preventing dri fting and

keeping the floor dry .


Any eggs under h ens sh ould be covered wi th flannel whi lethe hens feed, as frost m ay spoi l the germ.

Table b irds forChri stmas must be pushed along , though .as the demand for fat caponswi ll last for two months beyond ,only themost forward sh ould be penned . G ive li ttle exerci se,warm housing, and food of not too fattening a nature ready forth ei r final three ‘weeks’ penning .

Feed twi ce a day on soft food (b arley m eal and mi lk,

ground oats and warm water, ri ce b oi led wi th m ilk— any of

these dri ed down with m i ddlings) . At ni gh t gi ve corn upto the end of November. Any quarrelsome cockerels and

wasters should be ki lled and eaten at once. It i s wasteof food f attening them, as the form er unsettle others, and thewasters may contract di sease. Keep th em qui et and restful,and give thei r mealswi th the utmost regulari ty.

Three ducks are enough for each drake thi s month , and the

stock must be unrelated th oroughly h ealthy, and mature.

If confined in runs, give two meals dai ly, one warm (barleymeal, m i ddlings, pea or b ean m eal , and h ouse scraps wellb oi led). At night, either anoth er m ash or a feed of wheator cats. G ive plenty of meat, gri t , and green vegetablesfish-headswell boi led,wi th the b ones powdered , make excellentfood when eggs are not being sold for table purposes. Scaldedclover hay promotes ferti li ty .

G ive surplus m i lk to the turkey s in their mash of b arleymeal, ground oats, potatoes, and mi ddlings.W h en birds are first penn ed for fattening, fast them for a

day , wh en they will settle down comfortably.

Treat Chri stmas ducks, turkey s, and geese li ke fowls—La ,

lim i t exerci se, feed li b erally, but do not force ti ll the finalth ree weeks.Do not allow lay ing ducks to enter swimming water ti ll

about ten or eleven o’clock (by whi ch tim e they wi ll probably

have laid for the day ), or the eggs wi ll be lost in thewater.Sheds for ducks and geese sh ould be of stout materi al,with

well li ttered floors and plenty of ventilation .

G eese should be penned thi s m onth , and fed on ground oats,barley m eal, and m i ddlings m ixed wi th prepared fat. Feedat day li ght, and and put th ei r last feed (of grain )into th ei r drinking trough s ; th ey wi ll eat much more out of


spring-hatched birds com e on to lay , and the old b irds 111011117

Th ey m ay not lay through the winter, but m ay m oult and

com e on again wh en the M arch -hatched b irds are resti ng ,

or i f preferred , can be fattened in autumn and sold as y oungfowls.

In cubati on for the spring-ch i cken trade wi ll be in progress atthe end of themonth , and as weath er condi tions are so try i ng.every possible care and attenti on to detai l must be given.

W h ere h ens are used, only give a few eggs, as six or sevenchi ckenswi ll bemuch more easily reared than a larger quantity .

Early ch i cks should be fed every two hours, one or two mealsbeing given by lamplight at night, and plenty of warmedm i lk suppli ed.

Chi cken coops sh ould be placed in sheds or in the sh elterof haystacks, where the youngsters can run in and out , and

yet be sh eltered from wind . Reari ng must not be overdonethi s weather ; a few well cared for wi ll give better resultsth an a large humber. The stock from wh i ch winter chi ckensare b red m ust be strong, vi gorous, and well matured .

Birds h atched too late for Chri stm as markets should be

held over ti ll the end of January , when supplies are usuallysh ort .

Christmas marketing i s the bus iness of the month. An

agreem ent with private customers or salesmen sh ould be

made early in the month. Th ey wi ll usually fix the day fordeli very , and ki lling must be timed accordingly.

Put all Chri stmas stock into fattening coops, and feed threetim es a day on Sussex ground oats m oi stened wi th skim m i lk ,

giving each meal in three or four small helpings. Keep indarkness between meals, and keep troughs sweet . For the

last ten day s add shredded fat to the food .

Before ki lling, starve for twenty-four hours, and kill bydi slocati on of the neck. Pluck immediately. Keep the

head down, so that the blood drains away, leaving the fleshwhi te. See that the feet are clean, and empty the vent.Tie fowls down or sh ape in trough s. D o not break th e breastb one. All b irds must be .thoroughly ch i lled before packingin plenty of clean straw, and packed ti ghtly to avoi d brui sing .

APPENDI" A

L IN E BRE ED IN G

FnLcn’

s Cm r.*—Thi s chart shows how a large number of

birds of th ree di stinct strains can be produced from a single

pai r of fowls, the progeny h aving the size, vigour, and colour

of the original pai r. The dotted lines indi cate the female

Reproduced from the Poultry W orld Ann ual of 1910, by perm ission

of the Poultry W orld, 154, Fleet Street, E .C.

269


parentage and the full lines the male parentage ; the ci rclesrepresent the progeny. The numbers against each circleindi cate the proporti on of blood of the original sire and dam

( I and la). Thus, circle 10 represents a mating of circles7 and 5 , the pullet 5 possessing i the blood of the ori ginaldam Ia, and the cockerel 7 having 5 the blood of the originalsire I . The progeny therefore contains 5 the blood of theoriginal m ating, I and la . In ci rcles and 10 we haveb irds equal to the first mating sh owing the possibi li ty of

breeding for an unlim i ted peri od wi th out going outsi de theowner’s strain for fresh blood. The ci rcles 5 , 8 , 13, etc. ,

sh ow the female strain ; the circles 7 , 12, 17 , etc the li neof m ale descent ; circle 15 sh ows the third di stinct strain of

blood .

APPENDI" C

RECIPES

I . OIN TM ENT TO KEEP CHICKEN s FRE E FROM TICKs, E TC .

M ercuri al o intm entLardPetroleum

Heat till sem iflu id ; 1 drop to be appli ed wi th the h ead of

a match. To be used wi th caution, mercury being dangerousi n excess.

II . TON IC FOR TURKEY CHICKS W HEN SHOOTIN G THE RED .

Powdered cassia bark

Iron carbonate

The toni c to be mixed wi th the meal at the rate of one teaspoonful per average b rood of ten turkey chi cks . To b e

given on.wet day s and as a preventive of diarrh oea.

I II . CRAM P IN CHICKEN S .

One grain sali cylate of soda to each chi ck,together wi th

2 grains Epsom salts.

IV . FROST-BITTEN Comes.

An o intment ofLardQuinineKerosene

APPENDI" C 273

V. ROUP : A DRE SSING FOR APPLICATION To THE

M EM BRANOUS G ROW THS .

Carboli c aci dSulphurous acid soluti onTincture of perchloride of ironG lycerine

VI. A GOOD PAR ASITICIDE To BE USED IN TREATM ENT OF

SCALY LE G .

CreosoteCamphorOil of turpentineSweet oi l

V II . FOR USE IN CASE S OF SEVERE D IARRH"EA AND BYSEN

TERY .

To be given as a pi ll twi ce daily.

VIII . To CHE CK LAYING IN CASE OF E G G -BIND ING .

CalomelTartar emeti c

I". CATARRHAI. ROUP .

Half a teaspoonful of Epsom salts, to be followed bya pi ll of

Balsam copai b a 1ounce.Liquori ce (powdered ) 4 drachms .Piperin e 1drachm .

W i th suffici ent magnesia to make into a mass.

APPENDI" D

AG E OF FARM ERS’ BIRDS

IT must be apparent th at i f poultry are to have free run,some sy stem of age record must be in operati on. Ringingis not always possible in the case of a very large head of

poultry , and something simpler i s essenti al for the ordinaryfarm er. One such suggesti on made to me by M r. LeonardCrawshaw i s to change the breed wi th the year. The colourwould then indi cate at a glance the age of the birds, and

three-year-olds would adverti se themselves and be easilyweeded out. The System supposes th at the farmer shouldnot hatch any of hi s own eggs, but purch ase or exchange therequired sittings ; thus th ere would be a three-year rotationof appropri ate breeds . Such breeds might very well be, forexample, W hi te W yandottes and W hi te Leghorns for the first

y ear, Brown Leghorns and Buff Orpingtons for the secondyear, and Anconas and Houdans or Houdan-Orpingtons forthe thi rd ; or any oth er simi lar arrangement whi ch sui ted thepersonal fancy of the farm er.

276

Housing and feeding, 142Housing of stock, 6

Inbreeding, 23Insect pests, 67Iri sh organi zation , 209

Keeping the run sweet, 144

Lay ing competi ti on, 27L imi tati ons of system, 242

M aking the nest, 41M anagement of brooders, 70M anagement of stock ducks,geese, and turkeys, 33

M anuring the land, 191M arketing, 107M arketing points, 221M eri ts in table fowls, 91M ilk chi ckens, 96M odern combinati on of twomethods, 36

M oi sture, 54M onthly notes for poultrykeepers, January to D e

comber, 249, 268

Nati onal Poultry Organizati on, 212

Natural and artificial incub ati on, 36

Natural m ethods, 60

Opportuni ty for the smallpoultry -keeper, 136

Parti al total confinement,

240


Philo system, 232

Plant, 166Precauti onary measures, 114Pri ces, 94Profits of domesti c poultrykeeping, 150

Purch asing poul try , 4

Qualifi cati on and traini ng,158

Rearing table chi ckens, 95

Secret of success , 241Selecting a breed, 2Selecting the best layers, 194Separati on of sexes, 75Spring-ch i cken trade, 196Stocking the farm, 170Sui table breeds, 138Sui table di etari es, 13Sussex system, 101

Stubb les, 195

Table eggs and table fowls,246

Testing for fertili ty, 44Trap-nesting, 30

Useful crosses , 93

Vari ous foods, 64Vari ous types of incubation,47

Vi ces of fowls, 134

W inter eggs, 196W omen and poultry farming,18 1

BILLING AND SONS , LTD ., PR INTERS, G UILDFORD

Utility Poultry-Keeping - Forgotten Books

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