THE USE OF LEGISLATIVE METHODS IN THE CONTROL OF

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

M. H. BICHIDepartment of Civil Engineering

University of Benin

ABSTRACT

The paper examines the various methods of environmental

pollution control and particularly, the legislative methods.

Various advantages and the problems hindering the smooth

administration of the legislative methods are examined and

analyzed. Steps that would ensure efficient and effective

administration of legislation for the control of environmental

pollution are recommended in the paper.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES AND POLLUTION

Even in the absence of man, the natural environment undergoes

continued change. Whereas some of these environmental changes are

irreversible (e.g. eutrophication of a lake), others are cyclic

(e.g. the annual climatic cycle) or transient (e.g. droughts).

Superimposed on natural environmental changes are those

produced by man. Even as a hunter-gatherer, man's use of fire

modified some natural environments. Then with the domestication

of animals and the introduction of agriculture, the effects of his

action become more widespread, especially as large human

settlements come into being. The rate increased with the

development of industry as muscle power was replaced by energy

derived from fossil fuels. Until during the last few decades

human impacts have reached an unprecedented intensity and affect

the whole worlds, due to a vastly increased population and higher

consumption per head.

Man's increasing 'control' of his environment often creates

conflicts between human goals and natural processes. In order to

achieve greater yields or for other purposes, man deflect the

natural flow of energy, by-passes natural processes, severes food

chains, simplifies ecosystems, and uses large energy subsidies to

maintain delicate artificial equilibria. In some cases, of

course, these activities may create surroundings that man

considers desirable, as, for example, aspects of the European

country side, which reflect careful husbandry during many

generations [(Munn, R.E. (1979)]. However, long term maximization

of benefits may sometimes require a penalty of irreversible

environmental degradation.

In many other cases, the activities of man create outright

devastation and degradation in the environment. This affects the

water, land, air and the social environments. According to the US

News and World Report (1970), the world's population explosion has

created an endless cycle of environmental degradation. The report

noted that more people burn fuels to get the energy to feed the

growing population, which in turn demands more and more food,

which calls for more energy, which creates more and more

pollution. Technology has also brought about multiplicity of

technological devices capable of generating noise. The growing

number of noise sources and the increase in noise levels, though

somewhat annoying and not a really hazardous phenomenon, have been

accepted as the price of modern life. However, noise pollution is

now known to be dangerous.

The continued degradation of these various segments of the

environment, therefore, threatens the existence of man, himself,

on earth.

1.2 THE NEED FOR ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION CONTROLRoberts (1979) noted that the changes man now conducts with

the environment are on so vastly expanded a scale that

qualitatively new consequences are possible. The reasons given

for this are:

i. Materials are being extracted from the earth's finite stocks

at such a rate, and with such acceleration from year to year,

that exhaustion now threatens.

ii. The scale of industrial activity now affects quite basic

properties of the earth as a medium for life: its air, its

water and even its temperature.

iii. The rate of increase of industrial activities poses the

problem of qualitatively new environmental damage on a global

scale emerging within the life time of a single generation -

and requiring to be solved just as rapidly.

A lot of effort is now being put into packaging and

implementing various plans, programmes, and action with a view to

controlling this degradation of the man's only environment.

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE PAPER

The main aim of this paper is to survey the various methods

used in environmental pollution control and, in particular examine

the legislative methods involved.

The paper seeks to particularly identify the various

legislative methods employed, their advantages and the problems

militating against their smooth and effective implementation. The

paper will then suggest some ways out of these problems with a

view to making them more effective.

1.4 SCOPE OF THE PAPER

The scope of this paper will be limited to the examination of

the legislative methods and the mention of other methods of

environmental pollution control will be limited to how they

complement each other in the achievement of the general objective.

2.0 ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION CONTROL METHODS

Whereas no single best method of environmental pollution

control exists, several methods exist complementing to each other.

These methods are broadly classified into three: technological,

political/administrative, and legislative. The first two are

reviewed in this section, and the third method is examined in the

next section.

2.1 TECHNOLOGICAL METHODS

Technological methods of environmental pollution control

involves the use of methods, facilities, and techniques that

enables:

i. Making manufacturing and processes more efficient with lower

waste production;

ii. Easy and efficient collection, transportation and find

disposal of the wastes with minimum danger to the

environment;

iii. Treatment of the waste to reduce waste loads and render the

wastes harmless to the environment; and

iv. Recycling of the wastes.

Various methods are employed in the control of pollution in

water, air and land environments. These are briefly outlined

below, according to these three segments of the environment.

2.1.1WATER POLLUTION

The technological methods of water pollution control involve

the design and operation of facilities to restore and maintain the

physical, chemical and biological properties of the water.

The various methods used include:

i. Storage - this reduces dissolved, suspended and settleable

solids; and destroy harmful microorganisms through the use of

ultraviolate radiation in sunlight.

ii. Screening - this removes grits and bigger particles.

iii. Coagulation and flocculation - these aggregates finer

particles and microorganisms into flocs for ease of removal

by sedimentation.

iv. Sedimentation - this removes particles, bacteria, etc by

gravitational settling.

v. Filtration - this removes particles and bacteria by

mechanical straining and surface absorption, and stabilizes

organic materials.

vi. Disinfection - this destroys pathogenic organisms.

2.1.2AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution comprise of particles and gases constituting

nuisance in the air environment, as well as noise nuisance. Noise

pollution can be controlled by use of sound proffing in buildings,

use of muffler to reduce noise, and using smoother surfaces for

better reflection of sound. Air pollution is controlled through

improved design to reduce the amount of waste discharge into the

air, and the use of very tall chimneys to take the gaseous

emissions far away from the community and to allow for safer

dispersal and assimulation of the gaseous emissions into the

atmosphere. Detoxification of toxic emissions also reduce the

dangers to the environment. The US News & World Report (1970)

also identified the following technique step of controlling air

pollution:

i. Removal of dangerous pollutants from automobile exhaust to

prevent photochemical smog;

ii. Limitation on gaseous emissions;

iii. Exhaust re-circulation to route part of exhaust gas back to

the cylinders;

iv. Cleaning exhaust gases by sending them through special

catalytic mufflers before they reach the air;

v. Elimination of the use of gasoline as a fuel for future

automobile engines; and

vi. Finding alternative means of fuelling cars to reduce

pollution.

2.1.3LAND POLLUTION

Technological methods of land pollution control essentially

involve the design and operation of facilities for proper disposal

of solid wastes. The solution to unsanitary dumping of solid

waste, according to the US News & World Report (1970), has been

sanitary landfill. In this method, trash is hauled to unused

area, dumped into open trenches, compacted by bulldozers and then

covered with soil. This eliminates the rat and disease problem,

but the possibility of polluting groundwater remains.

Many other methods are also employed in the management of

solid wastes. These include:

i. Incineration;

ii. Recycling;

iii. Composting; and

iv. Biological oxidation of degradable solids

However, whatever method is used, land for tipping will be

required. The method to be adopted is usually mainly based on

local circumstances and regional considerations.

2.20 POLITICAL/ADMINISTRATIVE METHODS

The successful implementation of any management programme

depends on sound initial planning, correct identification of the

problem, and proper execution of the formulated plans.

There is no single plan or method for this. However, Miller

(1982) has identified several factors which must be considered in

the development of an efficient programme. These include:

i. Establishing the relevant government agency

ii. Giving priorities to problems by seriousness and magnitude

iii. Settling realistic standards

iv. Assessing funding methods and sources

v. Process changes/treatment requirements

vi. Operation and training

vii. Monitoring and surveillance

The first step towards successful management of environmental

problems is the formulation of a sound policy and the

identification of realistic policy objectives. An agency of the

governemnt then requires to be established to implement the

programmes outlined in the policy. This agency, for it to

function effectively, requires the necessary legal and financial

backing. The public then needs to be mobilized to appreciate the

gravity of the problems at hand, and hence participate in the

collective effort to address the problem. The agency then ensures

continuous monitoring and evaluation of the programmes as a

necessary input into any subsequent re-evaluation of the plans

towards improved performacne and better realization of the

formulated objectives.

Several policy instruments are available to governments for

dealing with environmental pollution within the set objectives

institutional framework. According to Fano and Brewster (1992),

some of these policy instruments include:

i. Direct charge on industrial effluents as an incentive to

polluting industries to reduce waste loads.

ii. Subsidies to promote pollution control using tax relates or

paymentsto offset costs of pollution control.

iii. Setting effluent and gaseous emission standards.

iv. Government licenses under which permits will only be issued

to industries/organization using clean processes.

v. Requirement of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA).

As noted by Millard, R. (1969), the standard and quality of

any environmental control programme depends on good maangement.

This involves the management of resources and personnel. Unless

both the resources and personnel are properly managed, an

otherwise wll formulated plan could end up as a disaster with

little or none of the set objectives achieved. Relevant

legislative provisions are also required to ensure proper

compliance with the laid down policies and programmes.

Legislative methods are examined, in more detail, in the following

sections.

3.0 LEGISLATIVE METHODS

The effective implementation of any environmental management

programme requires the formulation of the necessary legal and

institutional fraemwork. Fano and Brewster (1982) noted that

unless the efforts of environmental management rests on a solid

legal foundation, they are almost certain to fall short of

achieving their objectives. Various international, nationa, and

regional/state/local legislations employed in environmental

management are briefly outlined below:

3.1.0INTERNATIONAL LEGISLATIONS

According to Hamouda (1982), there isvery little information

on existing international waste management law, but there are many

forms of international cooperations in the area of waste

management. This cooperation consists of collaborations among

different nations on a bi- or multi-lateral basis, such as

exchange of information.

The General Assembly of the United Nations (UN), through

resolution 2997 of 15th December, 1972, decided that the Governing

Council of the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP)

should 'keep under review the world environmental situation in

order to ensure that emerging environmental problems of wide

international significance receive appropriate and adequate

consideration by governments' UNEP, 1979). However, in terms of

binding international coordination and regulation, interantional

law is, at present, very limited. There is only a number of

international conventions and agreements. These include:

1. International Convention for the protection of pollution of

the sea by oil signed in London and amended in 1963.

2. Declaration of the UN Conference on Human Environment (1972).

The first principle in this declaration states.

Man has the fundamental right to freedom,equality and adequate conditions of life, in an environment of a quality that permits a lifeof dignity and well-being, and he bears a solemn responsibility to protect and improve the environment for present and future generations.

3. Principle 6 states that 'the discharge of toxic or other

substances and the release of heat, in such quantities or

concentration as to exceed the capacity of the environment to

render them harmless, must be halted in order to ensure that

serious or irreversible damage is not inflicted upon

ecosystems'.

4. In principle 22, the following statement is made:

States shall cooperate to develop further the international law regarding liabilityand compensation fro the victims of pollutionand other environmental damage caused by activities within the jurisdiction or controlof such states to areas beyond their jurisdiction.

3.2.0NATIONAL LEGISLATIONS

National legislations on environmental pollution control are

usually designed to regulate waste discharges and degradations of

the country's water, land and air environments. This is usually

achieved through, among others, the following enactments:

i. Water Quality Legislation - aimed at controlling pollution in

rivers, streams, reservoirs and groundwater.

ii. Water Pollution Control Act - aimed at restoring and

maintaining the chemical, physical and biological integrity

of the Nation's waters.

iii. Environmental Protection Agency Acts - this establishes EPA

which sets waste quality criteria, treatment requirements,

effluent limitations, and new source performance standards as

well as monitoring of environmental protection programmes.

iv. Air Pollution Control Act - This sets limitations on

emissions into the atmosphere, and regulate exhaust

discharges from machinery and automobiles, e.g. The German

Federal Commissions Control Law (BImSchG) of March, 1974.

v. Noise Control Acts - this regulates noise pollution.

Perhaps the first legialtive method of pollution control is

through the moral pressures. All example is the voluntary code of

waste disposal practices. In Britain, as far back as 1867, the

law of nuisance was enacted, which forbids constitution of

nuisance. The law defined nuisance as being created when

deleterious things escape into another's land, for example water,

smoke, smells, fumes, gas, noise, vibrations, electricity, disease

germs, animals and vegetation. The law made public or common

nuisance a criminal offence, and defined it as an act or omission

which materially affects the reasonable comfort and convenience of

life of a class of Her Majesty's subjects. (McKnight, et al,

1974).

In Nigeria, item 17, part II of the second schedule to the

1979 constitution empowers the Federal Government to 'make laws

for the Federation or any part thereof with respect to health,

safety and welfare of persons...'. Before the establishment of

the Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA), the defunct

Environmental Planning and Protection Division of the Federal

Ministry of Works & Housing was the body assigned to handle 'all

environmental problems and matters in the country'.

The Koko toxic waste episode of August, 1988 stimulated the

consciousness of government and Nigerians to the gravity of

environmental problems in the country. The harmful wastes

(special criminal) provisions decree of 1988 promulgated in the

wak of Koko toxic waste episode was the first major effort to

criminal liability legislation (Olurontola, 1990). Then FEPA was

established by decree 58 of December 1988. The then head of State

General I.B. Babangida, launched the National Policy on

Environment on 27th November, 1989 in Abuja.

FEPA, in conjunction with industries, sets guidelines for

pollution abatement in May 1990. According to the guidelines

(FEPA, 1990);

i. Collection, transportation, and final disposal of industrial

wastes (from cradle to grave) are the responsibility of the

manufacturer.

ii. No industry shall release toxic substances into the air,

water and land of Nigerian environment.

iii. No new point sources of industrial pollution shall come in

stream without compliance with the provisions of FEPA

guidelines.

iv. Table 1.3 of section 1.2 sets effluent limitations and

gaseous emissions guidelines for specific industries.

v. Table 1.3 of section 1.2 sets effluent limitations and

gaseous emissions guidelines for specific industries.

vi. Section 2.2 sets water quality guidelines for domestic

waters.

vii. Section 3.1 stipulates guidelines for owners of and operators

of facilities that treat, store, or dispose of dangerous

wastes in surface impoundments, waste rites, land treatment

units, or landfills, for the protection of groundwater.

viii.Section 3.8 specifies general groundwater monitoring

requirement for owners and operators to satisfy the provision

in section 3 of the guidelines.

ix. Requirements for specific water impoundments are contained

in section 4.0 of the guidelines.

National legislations are usually supplemented and reinforced

by regional, state and local legislations.

3.30 REGIONAL, STATE AND LOCAL LEGISLATIONS

Regional, state and local legislation for the control of

environmental pollution takes various forms. Whereas some are

primarily designed to control environmental pollution, others are

designed to achieve some other objectives while at the same time

exerting some form of control on environmental pollution in the

area or region. These legislations could be in the form of:

i. Local sanitation laws requiring local authorities to provide

for the collection, transportation and disposal of community

wastes.

ii. Local authority to be compelled by law to provide dust bins,

disposal sites, etc for wastes.

iii. Civil penalties to be imposed on dumping wastes on some other

person's premises or land (i.e. trespassing).

iv. Criminal penalties to be imposed by states or local authority

for unauthorized or improper dumping of wastes or abandonment

of old and scrap vehicles.

v. Public health acts to provide for sanitary inspectors to

ensure conformity with environmental sanitation laws.

4.0 DISCUSSIONS:- PROBLEMS OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION CONTROL

There is no single best method of environmental pollution

control. Each of the three methods outlined previously has its'

own merits and shortcomings. In this section, the merits and

demerits of the various methods, especially the legislative

method, are discussed.

4.10:TECHNOLOGICAL METHODS

Technology has brought about multiplicity of technological

devices with concomitant environmental problems. Ironically,

technological methods are also relied upon for the solution of

these environmental problems. However, the US News & World Report

(1970) for instance, noted that there is no technological break

through in sight that would suddenly provide a miracle solution to

garbage problems, for example, (in the United States). This is

because by treatment, the waste from can be changed - from solid

to liquid or gas, or vice versa - or energy can be produced. Or

energy can be converted to noise. But the residuals are still

there in one form or another to be discharged into the environment

where they pollute the air, the water or the soil.

Continuous process evaluation and refinement as well as

research into new techniques and methods are therefore the key

technological solutions to existing and new environmental

problems. For instance, use of degradable containers that can be

consumed instead of discarded, has been suggested as a measure to

minimize solid waste problems.

4.20 ADMINISTRATIVE METHODS

The basic advantages and problems in this method are

intertwined into the various management problems in the other

methods. The basic problem, however, is lack of enough political

will to enforce conpliance due to political patronage,

favouratism, nepotism, and administrative laxities. Other related

problems are discussed in the following section.

4.30 LEGISLATIVE METHODS

The application of the law itself constitutes a serious legal

impediment to the implementation of environmental protection laws.

Kite (1980) observed that Environmental protection laws must be

applied to the individual polluters in the light of numerous other

legal constraints.

According to Jenks (1967), law has three aspects. In one

aspect, law is essentially a restrain upon authority rather than

the command of authority; its purpose and function is to limit

rather than to reinforce political and economic power. In other

aspect, much of law is permissible rather than imperative; it does

not consist of commands but of rules for securing the desired

legal consequences, conferring rights, creating obligations, and

attaining other legal results. In this aspect, law is a positive

instrument of cooperation rather than authority. The third

element is that certainly in the law is alien to the function of

law in a dynamic society; the life of the law is a constant

interaction of factors of stability and factors of change.

However, the efficacy of any legal system in dealing with

pollution must be judged by its capability to change or prescribe

the law, to detect non-compliance, and to punish non-compliance

(McKnight, et al, 1974). These aspects are examined below:

4.31 LEGAL PRESCRIPTION

In modern democracies, the keystone in legal prescription is

the parliament which alone possess the ability to impose

obligations on citizens even though it may have delegated that

power in a particular field to the executive. Parliament acts

either by legislating itself, or by approving a bill from the

executive. The initiation of legislative action from the public,

pressure groups, or scientists sometimes only presents a need for

action in principle, without sufficient prior research to suggest

new standards. This failure to produce precise recommendations

often makes it extremely difficult for the politician to act.

In some cases, sufficient pressure is lacking or not exerted

at all on the parliament, because the offender is powerful

politically. According to McKnight, et al, (1974), for instance,

the industrial revolution in Britain) commenced with no

inhibitions whatsoever on the absolute freedom of the

industrialist. He fixed wages, determine the safety (or lack of

it) of working conditions (and the environment). Parliament acted

very slowly to curb such excesses, partly because the overwhelming

force in politics is a lethargic inertia against changing the

status quo and partly because the parliament was exclusively

composed of representatives of the rich agricultural and

manufacturing classes. In this situation, even when legislations

are enacted, there is danger that it would be ignored.

New approaches to legislative prescriptions are therefore

desirable for effective pollution control. Macrary (1989) has

identified the emergence of four general themes which will play a

critical role in the design of future pollution control policy,

and will place demands on those charged with legislative designs.

These are:

i. Anticipation - in which non-reactive mechanisms of control

allow prior identification of future pollution loads and

types.

ii. Integration - is the need to consider the inter-

connections between possible control strategies.

iii. Participation - is the involvement of general public in

decision-making (i.e. public, polluter, and regulatory

agency).

iv. Explicitness - is the extent to which pollution standards

receive overt expressions in legislative instruments.

4.32 EXECUTIVE ADMINISTRATION

Proper execution of any legal prescription on environmental

pollution control requires sound administrative machinery with

adequate authority to act. The two most important aspects of any

executive administration are the ability of the authority to

enforce compliance and to monitor and ensure compliance. McNight,

et al (1974) for instance identified the problem of enforcement of

the public nuisance acts in Britain as being few private

individuals or groups having at their disposal, the means,

financial and technical, to prove the necessary causative links

between interference with their enjoyment of land and operations

of neighbouring factories, quite apart from the costs of bringing

an action.

Bugler (1972) also reported that the industrial super-

corporations who do most of the polluting in Britain are not

prosecuted, adding that between 1920 to 1967, there were only

three prosecutions. El-Gamal (1982) identified three major

problems in the implementation of Environmental Protection laws in

Egypt.

i. The regulations were not applied to the public sector,

industries and inspection was not encouraged or the rules

enforce;

ii. The penalties for not complying with the law were very

lenient.

iii. The ruling that the licenses for any non-complying factory be

withdrawn was not applied because of the fear of hindering

industrial production.

It is observable that these problems also apply to the

situation in Nigeria.

Lamb (1980) also noted the following problems as hindering

the smooth administration of environmental legislation in the

United States.

* Differences in laws between states

* Money-quantity, source, projects to be financed

* Environmental protection law Vs public health laws

* Punishing polluters

* Integrated agriculture

* Quantity/quality planning

* Implementation after planning

* Inter-disciplinary coordination

* Public participation

overlapping authority, according to McNight et al (1974),

also exist in some areas that involved related agencies. Kite

(1980) also noted that inter-agency conflicts, duplication of

responsibilities, land use control by a separate agency, and lack

of control over the whole environment by the agency are additional

administrative problems in environmental management.

4.33 ATTITUDE OF JUDICIAL AUTHORITIES

Inefficient and corrupt judicial authority is the final nail

in the coffin of sound legal environmental management effort.

Carson (1970) noted that the courts, in their approach to what is

euphemistically called 'white collar crime', reflect the soft,

timid approach of the executive administration. While the

executive administration is at all times unwilling to prosecute.

When prosecution are launched, the courts are notoriously lenient.

This attitude of the courts has also been reported by El-Gamal

(1982).

5.0 RECOMMENDATIONS

The efficient and effective realization of any environmental

protection efforts is hinged upon the formulation of realistic

standards, enforceable laws, efficient and effective

administration, and proper monitoring and evaluation. On the

basis of the issues discussed in this paper, the following

recommendations are made with regards to sound and meaningful

legislative environmental pollution control efforts.

1. Realistic and enforceable standards that takes cognizance of

the peculiarities of the socio-political environment should

be evolved.

2. The responsibility for controlling the release of pollutants

by industry and domestic users to the environment should be

shared between central and local governments, each of whom

employing its own inspectors. The calibre of the inspectors

is in no doubt as high as can be obtained at the salaries

paid. It must be noted that such inspectors deal with high-

powered industrialists who are often extremely wealthy, and

the salary differentials are marked. The inspectors should

therefore be adequately renumerated.

3. The executive administration must be efficient and effective

in ensuring that there is compliance with the law, that

violations and non-compliance are detected, and that wrong

doers are brought before the courts for appropriate

punishment. Each law then requires a team of officials for

this purpose, whether they are police, tax inspectors, custom

officials, parking wardens or scientific inspectors. Such

team of officials need to be:

i. Sufficient in number;

ii. Of high calibre;

iii. Independent in mind and operation;

iv. Prepared to prosecute wrong-doers; and

v. Equipped with latest scientific aids to maximize their

efforts and minimize the number employed.

4. There should be proper management of personnel involved in

the environmental pollution control. This must ensure that

the chief officer possesses, according to Flintoff, et al

(1969), the following qualities:

i. Mental quality - adaptable, understanding, and mental vigour.

ii. Moreal - responsible, firm, initiative, loyal, tactful, and

dignified.

iii. General education - have the basic education in environmental

science and management.

iv. Special knowledge of local conditions, practices and

authorities.

v. Experience

In addition, the organization should have a recognizable

ladder of promotion. Each person should know what his job is

and to whom he is responsible. There must be only one

channel of command and direct face-to-face responsibility

should be limited.

5. No system of executive administration will provide an

absolute guarantee against the emission of materials to the

environment. On the other hand, a rationale and adequate

effort support in full by the aids which science and

technology have made available, could lead to a very great

improvement in the behaviour of polluting factories. In

order to provide an effective policing of any anti-pollution

legislation, the following steps are recommended:

i. All new industrial plants constructed must be approved from

the standpoint of view of incorporating maximum anti-

pollutant plant.

ii. Only standards that are incapable of variations should be

set.

iii. Automatic monitoring instruments that are regularly checked

by inspectors should be provided. These should keep the

plant management informed and should also be paralleled by

temper-proof instruments installed by the inspectorate, and

the results read from time to time.

6. International legislation that will be binding on states need

to be evolved to ensure enforceability of environmental

protection laws on a global level.

6.0 CONCLUSION

Legislative method with proper and sound application, is a

very potent weapon in controlling environmental pollution.

However, the ultimate solution to our pollution problems is a

totally closed system. Instead of generating enormous quantities

of waste that pollute the air, water and soil, the process that

make our modern life-style possible must be totally efficient.

They must re-cycle and re-use.

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23. UNESCO & WHO (1978): 'Water Quality Surveys', Dorset, Sydenhams Printers, Dorset.

24. US News & World Report (1970): 'Our Poisoned Planet: Can WeSave It?', US News & World Report Inc., Washington.