TRANSACTIONS of the

NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

and TECHNOLOGY

1994 Volume XVI

Republic of the Philippines National Academy of Science and Technology

T API Building, OOST Complex, Bicutan, Taguig, M.M.

National Academy of Science and Technology Bicutan, Taguig, Metro Manila

Philippines

Copyright 1994 by The National Academy of Science and Technology

All Rights Reserved No part of this book may be reproduced without written permission from the Academy, except for brief excerpts or quotations in connection with the text of a written paper or book.

ISSN 0115-88-48

Printed in THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES

CONTENTS

WELCOME ADDRESS CONRADO S. DA YRIT, President, National Academy of Science and Technology.............................. ..... .. .. ......... .. ... ........ ... ..... ... ..... I

KEYNOTE ADDRESS CIELITO F. HABITO, Director General, National Economic and Development Authority ............................................... .. .... .. .. , 3

PLENARY SESSION 1 Speaker: Academician Emesto O. Domingo, University of the Philippines

"Issues on Population: Nutrition, Children, Public Health and Healthcare Financing" ................... ..... ..... "." .. ......... "... .. .... ... . I3

Panelists : Mr. Antonio C. Abaya Columnist, The Manila Chronicle ,""" 37

Dr. Thelma Navarrete-Clemente, President, Philippine Hospital Association ..................................................................... 41

Dr. Teodulo M. Topacio, Jr., President, Philippine Society of Veterinary Public Health .. ...... .. ... " .. .. ........ .......... ..... ......... .... ..... .. .. 51

Rapporteur: Academician Quintin L. Kintanar ................................ .. ...... 53

PLENARY SESSION II Speaker: Dr. Ponciano S. Intal, Jr., President Philippine Institute for Development Studies

"The Challenge of Economic Restructuring Towards NICdom: Issues for the Economics and Statistics Research Sector" ........................................... .. ........ ....... .. ......... .. .. 55

Rapporteur: Academician Bienvenido O. Juliano ........................... ,........ 82

PLENARY SESSION m Speakers: Academician Ruben L. Villareal, Chancellor UP Los Banos, College, Laguna

"Filipino Plant Scientists' Answer to STAND 2000" ... . .... .. ........... 85

Dr. Cecilio R. Arboleda, Dean CA, UP Los Banos, College, Laguna

"The State of the Art in Animal Science" ............ ..... ..................... 101

Panelists: Mr. Rudy Fernandez, Reporter The Philippine Star................................................. ........................ III

Rapporteur: Academician Salcedo L. Eduardo...... ........... .............. 119

PLENARY SESSION IV Speaker: Mr. Maximo T. Kalaw, Jr., President, Haribon Foundation, Inc.

"Issues in Sustainable Development" ........................................... 121

Panelist: Ms. Jessica Soho, Newscaster, Channel 7

Rapporteur: Academician Filomena F. Campos ....................... .. ..... 145

PLENARY SESSION V Speaker: Dr. Francisco L. Viray President, National Power Corporation

"Energy Needs in Industry" ..................................... :.................... 147

Panelists: Mr. Herman M. Montenegro, President Philippine Chamber of Commerce Prof. Ester A. Garcia Institute of Chemistry, UP Diliman .......... .. ....... .. ........................... 155 Dr. Estrella F. Alabastro, Executive Director, PCIERD ........................................................... 159

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Dr. Alfredo L. Juinio, President UP Engineering R&D Foundation, Inc. ........ ........ .......... ................ 161

Rapporteur: Academician Apolinario D. Nazarea .................. ................ ..

CLOSING REMARKS

WILLIAM G. PADOLINA, Acting Secretary, Department of Science and Technology...... ..... ............................... ........ ....... ....... 165

ABSTRACTS OF POSTERS

MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES

Foundations of Pseudogroup Theory Raoul E. Cawagas ..... .......................... .... .... .... ... .... ... ......... .. .. ... ...... 175

Axioms - An Al gorithm for the Analysis of Finite Algebraic Structures Raoul E. Cawagas and A.Z. Rosal........... .... ..... ..... ............... .......... 175

Piezoelectric Quartz Resonator as a Biosensing Device for Odorant Molecules Fortunato B. Sevilla 11\ .. ...................................................... ........... 176

Development of a New Process for Coconut Oil Extraction Chay B. Pham and N.C.G. Liwag .................................................... 176

Side Chain Liquid Crystal Polymers as Binders in PDLC Films Leonorina G. Cada and L.c. Chien .............. ......................... .......... 177

Lahar and Sand Dunes as Raw Materials in the Manufacture of Structural Clay Products Samuel S. Franco, et al. .................................................................. 177

Design of a Highly Stable Optical pH Sensor for Bio-Reactor Monitoring Nena V. Rodriguez and O. S. Wolfbeis ........................................... 178

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BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

Studies on Some Useful Ferns in Mindanao Victor B. Amoroso .......................... ............ .... ........ ....... ".............. 178

Cloning of the Red Pigment Genes of Xenorhabdus luminiscens HMIo Prima C. Ragudo-Franco and K.H. Nealson ................................ ..

Homozygosity and Field Performance of Spineless Ricinus communis L.

179

Adoracion T. Arai'lez and M.B.!. Bacano ................ .......... . ........... 179

Screening and Characterization of Microorganisms for Coal Biosolubilization Evelyn Batlad-Bernardo, e/ al. .. ..................................................... ISO

Metazoan Parasites from Three Species of Philippine Groupers Nellie C. Lopez ............................................ ......... .. ..... .... .............. ISO

Glycine in Fish Central Nervous System After Exposure to Manganese Glori na N. Pocsidio and E. S. Catap ........................ ............ .. .... .. .... 181

Morpho - Anatomical Studies of In Vitro Cultured Node Explants of Dioscorea alta L. Cecilia B. Amoroso ............................ . ...................... .... ................ 181

Utilization of Polymerase Chain Reaction in Cloning and Sequencing of Genes: Xanthomonas oryzae pv. Oryzicola Asuncion K. Raymundo......... ....... ............... ................... ...... .... .... . 182

HEALTH SCIENCES

Phytochemical Studies on the Pharmacologically-Acth'e Compounds of Vllex negundo, L. Fabian M. Dayrit and 1. G. Lagurin ............ .......... ...... ............ ........ 182

Corneal Endothelial Cell Culture in Wound Healing, Growth and Viability Studies Using Locally Available Chemicals Jose David F. Marin, Jr., e/ al. ........................................... .. .......... 183

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Distribution of Certain Genes Among Filipinos in Laguna C Diabetes mellitus Rita P. Laude, et al............................................ .. .. .... ... ... ........ ....... 184

AGRICUL ruRAL SCIENCES

Impact of Sweet potato - Based Household and School Gardening Project Elizabeth B. Alupias and B. T. Gayao ............................................ 184

Beneficial Arthropods Regulating Population of Major Insect Pests on Cotton Nenita D. Cacayorin, et al. ......................... .................................... 185

Performance and Constraints to Adoption of Cotton Production Technologies Luciana T. Cruz, et al. ....... ............. ... .................... ....... .............. .... 186

Sweetpotato Household Gardening Development Betty T. Gayao, et al. .......................... ........................................... 186

Hormonal Effect of the Jathropha curcas L. Oil on Helicoverpa armigera (HUBN.) Aida D. Solsoloy and B. Morallo-Rejesus ................................ .. ... 187

Comprehensive Rubber Technology Transfer Program (CRTTP) Leonila M. Tolentino, et al. ........ ......... ... ............. ......... .. ............... 188

Growth Performance of Goats Fed with Napier Supplemented with Dermanthus at Two Rates and Feeding Intervals Zosimo M. Batlad and G.M.R. Recta .................... ...... .................... 189

Effects of Calcium and Phosphorus Supplementation on Some Production and Reproduction Parameters in Growing Philippine Indigenous Sheep Rogelio R. Caluya and c.c. Sevilla ......... .. ..... ........ ........................ 189

Calcium and Phosphorus Requirements of Growing Philippine Indigenous Sheep Rogelio R. Caluya and c.c. Sevilla ...................... ... .. ....... .............. 190

Microbial Inoculation for Quality Organic Fertilizers from Farm Wastes Bayani M. Espiritu, et al. ..... ... ... .. ...... .... ..... ......... ... . ......... ...... .. .. ... 191

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Participatory On-Fann Sweet potato Varietal Evaluation Selection in the Philippine Highlands Zenaida N. Ganga, et al. .. .......... ......... ..... ....... .... . ...... .. ...... ..... ....... 191

Performance of Gmelina arborea with VAM Inoculation in Acid Soil Dominador G. Gonzal, et al. ........................................................... 192

Body Temperature, Respiratory Frequency and Heart Rate Patterns under Thermoneutral and Short-Term Thermal Stress in Goats Job M. Matias ........ ..... ....... ....................... ...................... ............... 192

Challenges and Prospects of Sustaining Sugarcane Productivity Teodoro C. Mendoza.... ....... .......................... ............ ........ ............ 193

Maximum Likelihood and Bayesian Estimators for Insect Damage on Rice Mariano B. De Ramos ...... .............. ..................................... ........... 193

Postharvest Loss Assessment in Yam bean and Ginger at Various Handling Points Violeta B. Salda ................ .. ........................... .. ................ .. ... ... .. ..... 194

Agrotechnology Suitability Evaluation System (ASES): Development and Improvements Gina Villegas-Panga, et al. .......................... .. .. .. ....... .. ....... .. ........... 194

Development of Other Uses of Tobacco Reynaldo C. Castro, et al. .............................................................. 195

Stem Borers Attacking Gmelina arborea Ricardo C. Braza ..... ...... .... . ........ .. ...... .. ........ .. ......... ..... ........ ..... ...... 195

Development of Double Endosperm Mutant Varieties in Maize Manuel L. Logrono, et al. ............ ...... .. ............... ...... ...... ....... ........ 1%

In Vitro Propagation of Buho Bamboo (Schizostachyum lumampao) Alfinetta B. Zamora and S. Sm. Gruczo ............. ............................. 1 %

Isolation of Plantlets Freed of Banana Bract Mosaic Virus from Infected Banana CV Senorita Alfinetta B. Zamora, et at.. ......... ................. ........ ...... ......... ............ 197

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Development of Near-Isogenic Lines with Resistance or Tolerance Genes to Tungro Disease in Rice Nonnatus S. Bautista, et at. ....... ...... ... ............. ..... .......... .... .... .. ..... 197

Anatomical Differences Between a New CMS Source ... ~ ,.- u-:'ltainer Line in Rice (Oryza sativa L.) ~_. __ _ . lagpantay, et at. ..... .... .. .. .... ... ......................... .............. 198

Cytogenetic Studies of Irradiated Bittergourd (Momordica charanta L.) and the F l' BC t and Fz Progenies Simeona V. Siar, et al. ... . ...... ...... .......... .. .... ....... ..... ...... .... ......... ..... 198

Preliminary Evaluation of a Promising Papaya (Carica papaya L.) Hybrid Violeta N. Villegas, et at. ...... .... .................. ............. ....... .... ............ 198

Molecular Mapping of 11 Isozymes and 3 Clones Alpha-Amylase Genes in Rice (0. sativa L.) Gerard B. Magpantay, et at. ........................................................... 199

Gene Transfer for Resistance to Brown Planthopper from Oryza minuta and Bacterial Blight from O. brachyantha into Rice (0. sativa L.) Ruth Elloran, et al. ... ............. .... ...... .. .. .... .. ............ ......... ................ 199

Callus Induction and Maintenance in Chinese Cabbage (Brassica pekinensis L.) cv. Corazon Victoria Pc. Lapitan and L.F. Patefia ................................ .. ....... .. .. 200

LiIak, A Banana (Musa spp) Selection from Tissue Culture Lilian F. Patefia, et al. ............................ .... ..... .. ............ ..... ............ 200

Growth of Tissue-Cultured Shallot (Allium cepa V AR Group Aggregatum) and Garlic (Allium sativum L.) Under Greenhouse Condition Lilian F. Patefia, et al. ................................... ....... ..... ........ .. .......... . 200

Cytological Investigation of Endosperm Explant and Long-Term Maintenance of Endosperm-Derived Calli of Calamansi (X Citro fortunelia Mitis J. Ingram and H. Moore) lulita G. Dimaculangan, et al. ... ........ ............... ............ .................. 201'

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Overcoming Incompatibility in a Cross of Oryza sativa (L.) and Porieresia coarctata (Tateoka. Rosb.) Jessica P. Domingo, e/ al. .. .. ......... ....... ...... ........... .. .. ..... ..... ... ........ 201

Production of Seed Tubers of ASN 69.1 from Rooted Stem Cuttings, Microtubers and from Their First Generation Tubers Cynthia N. Paet, e/ al. .............. .... ................................................. . 202

Rice Potential Production in the Philippines Using Crop Group Model Helen Grace S. Centeno, e/ al. .... .......... ............... .......................... 202

Hispathological Events During Rhizoctonia solani Infection in Resistant and Susceptible Com Plants Cecilia B. Pascual, e/ al. ............... ........... ......... ........ .............. ........ 203

Increased Nitrogen Mitigates Growth and Yield Reduction of UPLRi-S Rice Cultivar due to Meloidogyne graminicola Evelyn B. Gergon and J.C. Prat ......................................... ... ........ .

Control of Hirschmanniella oryzae using Sesbania rostrata and Its Residual Effects in a Continuous Rice Cropping

203

Imelda Rizalina S. Soriano, e/ al. .................................................... 204

Detection of Leaf Curl Virus in Pepper by Using Non-Radioactive DNA Probe Lolita M. Dolores and C. Pissawan .............. ............... ....... .. ......... 204

Shoot-Soluble Carbohydrate Content as a Measure of Daily C-Assimilation in Rice Elizabeth A. Conocono, e/ al. ....... ................... ...... ............. ........ ... 205

New Plant Types for Irrigated Rice: Manipulating Panicle Height for Increased Light Interception James A. Egdane, e/ al. .... ........................... .................... ............... 205

Process of Seedling Establishment as Influenced by Organic Matter Application to Flooded Soil Minoru Yamauchi and 1. K. Biswas ...... ................................. ..... .. .. 206

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Chemical Characterization of Two Organic Matter Fractions in Irrigated Lowland Rice Soils Daniel C. Olk, et al. .................. ............ .......... .................. .............. 206

Relationship Between N, P, K Uptake and Yield in Rainfed Lowland Rice Serafin T. Amante, et al. ..................................................... ........... 207

Functional Equilibrium of the Rice Root System Marrianne I. Samson, et al. .............................. .......... .. .... .. ...... ..... . 207

Components of Percolation Losses in Irrigated Puddled Rice Fields Jovita A. Marquez, et al.......... .. ................................................ .. .. . 208

Increasing Rainfed Farmers' Incomes Through an Appropriate Postharvest Technique Maximina A. Lantican, et al. ............................................. ............. 209

Towards an Integrated Linkage Map of Mungbean (Vigna radiata L. Wilczek): Progress and Prospects Desiree Menancio-Hautea, et al. ...... ................ ................ ............. 209

Cytology, Morphology and Pollen Fertility of Interspecific Hybrids Between Oryza sativa and O. officinalis Violeta N. Villegas, et al. ................................................................ 210

Agronomic Enluation of Doubled Haploids Derived from Rice Anther Culture Violeta N. Villegas. et al. .. .. .................................. ................ .. ... ..... 210

Anther Culturability of Some Philippine Traditional Rice Varieties Violeta N. Villegas and M. T. B. Peralta ........ .. ........ ... .... .. ........ .. .. .. 211

Isozymes for Genetic Mapping in Mungbean: Optimization of Conditions for Gel Electrophoresis and Identification of Polymorphisms Amy Emiliana N. Bernardo and D.M. Hautea ........ ...... ................... 211

Kinetic Properties and Activity Levels of Ammonia and Carbon Assimilation Enzymes in Two Vigna Species Roberta N. Garcia, et al. ...... .......... .. .... .. .......... ............................... 212

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Inheritance of Resistance to Rice Tungro Spherical Virus in Rice Leodegario A. Ebron, et at. ........ ....... .... .. ... .... .. ... ......... ... .... ..... ...... 213

Association of p12 Protein of Rice Tungro Bacilliform Virus to Virions Ma. Leonora M. Yambao, eta/.. .. "...... ........................................... 213

Direct Tissue Blotting for Detection of Rice Viruses Gilda J. Miranda and H. Koganezawa ............................................ 214

"Red Strip": A New Rice Disease in the Philippines Janet F. Barroga and T.W. Mew.................................................... 214

Concentrating Genes for Downy Mildew Resistance and Desirable Agronomic Traits in Com Avelino D. Raymundo and B.J. Calilung ........................................ 215

Major Characteristics of Philippine Traditional Upland Rice Varieties Wenelie F. Petalcorin, Socorro Carandang and Michel A. Arraudeau .............................................................. 215

Oryza Glaberrima as an Indicator Plant for Rice Tungro Viruses P.O. Cabauatan, N. Kobayashi, Ryoichi Ikeda and H. Koganezawa ....................... ............. .. ............................. .. .. 216

Optimization of a Sweetpotato-Peanut Cookie Fonnulation Lutgarda S. Palomar l , F.C.F. Galvez, A.v.A. Resurreccion and L.R. Beuchat2 ............ ........................................................................................ 217

Improvement of Yield and Fiber Quality in Luffa Spp. Through Interspecific Hybridization Melquiades Emmanuel C. Reyes· and Efren C. Altoveros ....... ..... 217

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WELCOME ADDRESS

Honored guests, Undersecretary Ancog, honorable national scientists of the land, fellow academicians, Secretary Habito, friends,ladies and gentlemen.

I bid you welcome to the 16th Annual Scientific Meeting of the National Academy of Science & Technology. Today and tomorrow, we shall once more try to envision our visions for Philippines 2000. We have set five plenary sessions to do this: issues on population, challenge of economic restructuring, states-of-the-art in animal and crop sciences, issues on environmental sciences and sustainable development and energy needs of industry. And besides those, we have a profusion of poster sessions, with about 87 papers. I invite you all to also view these papers that are in the other room. As I welcome you today. I would like to solicit your full and enthusiastic participation.

We scientist~ are being challenged. The NICOOM of 2000 is being made to depend on science. This means that science must be made to work in the practical world. The key words now being used are science utilization and operationalization. The scientists, in other words, must learn to go down to the market place and perhaps indulge in product development, marketing, and financing. From our post annual meetings we also have come to realize that there is one other impor­tant obstacle we have to solve, and that is the Filipino idiosyncracies. The Fili­pino is an artist and he seems to be a born politician, so when it comes to art and politics, he is "in" there. But when it comes to science and industry, he lags far behind.

So my friends, let us put our heads together and see how we can solve this problem that appears to be unique to the Filipino. We have the science and we have the scientists. But while other countries have used our scientists and our science and have succeeded in furthering their economic development, we have failed to do so quite miserably. Now Father Nebres has prayed to the Almighty for leaders. Having thus prayed to God on whom everything depends, I suggest that we scientists work now during these two days and in the very near future. Furthermore, let us work as though everything depended on us and as though we are masters of our own destinies.

So welcome to this 16th Annual Scientific Meeting. Thank you.

Conrado S. Dayrit, M.D. President

KEYNOTE SPEECH

Cielito F. Habito Director General

National Economic and Development Authority

Undesecretary Ancog, Pres. Dayrit, Vice-President Ramirez, Fr. Nebres, Dr. Juliano, Dr. Concepcion, Pres. Emil Javier, and Chancellor Ruben Villareal, distinguished academicians, fellow workers for Philippine development, friends, ladies and gentlemen. Magandang umaga po sa inyong lahat. Before I go on, I can't resist commenting on the very personalized introduction that Dr. Ramirez gave for me. Indeed, I suppose you have to be a Summa Cum Laude to get a 1.0 in her course. She was of course, a very important influence. A lot of the things I learned from her in Genetics, that was Biology 50 or Botany 50 during my time, I cite ina lot of my conversations.

Well I'd like to start by greeting you, the National Academy of Science and Technology, on your 16th Annual Scientific Meeting. As you can see, it is a pleasure, in fact, and an honor for me to be here before you this morning. It is a pleasure because I feel right at home. I think half or maybe more than half of this group must be people from UP Los Bailos and so it is really a great pleasure. Maybe we should have held this in Los Banos and have the other guys come to Los Bailbs instead. After all, I came all the way from Los Banos too, that's why I was a little bit late although I know that my kababayans beat me here also. Of course, it is an honor to speak before you this morni ng because I see this audience, this group as a rather strategic audience. I know that in this room today are the most brilliant minds in the country, a real powerhouse group, I should say on whose ideas, knowledge and of course work must hinge to a great extent our capability to achieve and sustain our country's vision of Philippines 2000.

N ow this should be among the last groups I need to explain to about what Philippines 2000 is all about. After all, it was with the Science and Technology community that one of the earliest launchings of Phi lippines 2000 took place, early last year. Nonetheless, I do want to be very sure because even very recently some colleagues in the academe wrote that Philippines 2000 lacks definition. Now, I have thought the time for definitions has well passed, now that Philippines 2000 I think has become a household word.

But as one of the chief architects of Philippines 2000, I will make it my task this morning to first define it to you more clearly, what it is, and indicate what it holds for you as citizens of the country and as members particularly of the Science and Technology community. But more importantly, what you as Filipino citizens and scientists can do to help achieve Philippines 2000.

So what exactly is Philippines 2000? We would like to point out that Philippines 2000 is a vision, strategy and a movement and that we may dwell on

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each of those in turn. As a vision, it is our vision ofa vibrant, dynamic, resilient, and prosperous economy and soc iety by the turn of the century. It has been referred to as a vision of becoming a NIC which we define as newly industrializing country. Note, I say industrializing not industrialized because we don't really entertain the illusion that we would be another Korea or Taiwan by the year 2000. But certainly we would be well on the way surely and firmly on the way to getting there, maybe just in few more years after that. We see it as a vision of an economy where our producers, be it in agriculture, industry or services are able to stand up on their own in competition with others whether in the domestic market or in the global market place or in short where all our producers can be considered world class.

We see also in Philippines 2000 an economy that has highly competitive industries, particularly a manufacturing sector which derives strength from a close linkage with modernized and efficient agricultural and other primary sec­tors and all of them powered by our wealth of productive human resources. We see also an economy adequately supported by a solid infrastructure base where all communities have access to basic services and util ities and all production areas are effectively linked with each other and with the markets. through permanent roads and bridges and a dependable telecommunications system.

Perhaps in more common terms, we see Phi lippines 2000 as a country where brownouts will disappear from our daily vocabulary. There will be access through quality basic education and health services for all. We can walk up to the phone company and not have to wait for years to get a phone line and so on and so forth. I'd also like to add that we would see an economy by then where the taxpayers would clearly appreciate where their money is going. That their taxes do go back to them in terms of public services and therefore they would spend their talent and effort in more productive endeavors rather than in looking for ways to avoid or worst, evade paying taxes.

Well, as a strategy, Philippines 2000 is really embodied in our so-called road map which is the Medium Term Philippine Development Plan for 1993 to 1998 which as you know, we at the NEDA had been primarily responsible for coordinating its formulation. Now the MTPDP, this medium term plan spells out all our goals, our strategies and policies that would bring us to Philippines 2000. It should be well-known by now that the plan rests on the twin strategies of people empowerment and global competitiveness. The empowerment of the people in turn rests on addressing their human development needs but beyond that, by strengthening their role in nation building through decentralization, devolution, deregulation. and democratization. These are the 4 D's that Pres. Ramos now I ikes to speak of. An empowered citizenry in turn leads to productive and efficient enterprises that can stand up to world competition. Now, such global competitiveness in turn ensures the sustainability of our economic growth so that we can get away from the trad itional boom and bust cycle that has marked our economic history due to an inherently weak and inward looking

production structure. Now this global competitiveness with people empowerment strategy rests on four thrusts:

First, our policies must be outward looking. What we have to do in our development strategy, in our development plan is to look for the opportunities out there, rather than be deeply occupied with the threats to our domestic and limited domestic market especially when \\ e look at the happenings around us like the Asean Free Trade Area or the AFTA and the GATT - Gen eralized Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. Too many of us get too preoccupied with what we would lose from this without realizing that perhaps and in fact we are sure we will have a lot more 10 gain in terms of opportunities. It is high time that we spend our efforts in building up our inherent strength in fortifying our economic house rather than still spending our efforts on building walls around a fragile structure. In fact, by building walls around ourselves, we are also keeping technology out. It is in this regard that we have been embarking on policies that have served to open up our economy. Among other things, we have now a foreign investments act which we are trying to liberalize even more which again among other things, helps improve the flow of science and technology into our country through the private sector channels that are among the most effective ways that they do get into our country.

The second thrust is in maximizing or increasing competition in our economy and in our society in general. I think you know that competition is good for the science community and so just as it is good for the science community : it is good for the econom y and society as a whole. Competition . after all . drives people in our enterprises to offer the lowest prices possible while at the same time it drives them to improve quality of their products and services . But I guess most importantly. at least for this group. it drives people to innovate and seek new and better ways of producing goods and services precisely to be able to make possible the lowering of prices and the improvement of quality. Now, some people often argue, again often convincingly, that we should be limiting the playing field to just a few players or worst to even just one player in our economic sectors in the name of "rationalizing the industry". What I often say is that we have to avoid cut-throat competition. What? Say in response that I would rather protect the throats of the multitude of consumers out there, rather than the throats of a few oligopolistic producers in the economy. So it is with this kind of a premise that our thrus t right now is in fact to maximize competition. Some have expressed it as dismantling the monopolies in cartels that are inimical to public interest. Indeed, we began to see the result of that kind of a thrust. Until recently, there was a widely lamented monopoly in the telecommunications sector and policy reforms that were undertaken under this administration have changed that dramatically. As a result of that, in 1993, one of the top items of imports alone was telecommunications equipment in fact, next to power generation equipment. In 1993 alone, we were able to reduce the number of people per

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telephone in our country from 79 persons per telephone to just 58 per tel­ephone. We made dramatic strides in improving our telecommunications sector within one year, because of the dismantling of that monopoly. And it is for that reason that we are moving on to the other strategic sectors which continue to be highly concentrated. Thus, we see this as one of the hallmarks of our economic development strategy right now.

A third thrust, which is very related to that, is the dispersal of economic activities. There are two aspects of this:

One is the geographic dispersal because I think many of us know that up to now one-half of our national output is accounted for by the Nat"ional Capital

Region and neighboring regions alone and certainly this has led to a lot of problems including congestion in Manila and in urban centers. But because of that there is also a tendency for greater unemployment in the countryside. Therefore, our thrust is to disperse the development of industrial and other sectors outside of Metro Manila and into our regions through determined efforts to establish regional growth networks out in the.countryside.

Now the other part of that economic dispersal which is also consistent with peopk empowerment is the promotion of small and medium enterprises. It is in fact the experience in many countries which have been successful in small and medium enterprise development, that these be linked closely with the larger commercial establishments. In Japan for example, I think many of you know that even the large auto-manufacturers depend on small and medium enterprises for the components of those cars. In effect they just act as integrators or assemblers. This is the kind of thrust that we would also like to push for under our development strategy.

Fourth thrust under this global competitiveness with people empowerment strategy is a close complementation between industry and primary industries, especially agriculture. After all we are technologically prepared. It is often said that we are still lagging behind as far as science and technology is concerned, particularly in the non-agriculture related industries and therefore, it may take

time for us to be able to really shape up and stand up to the competition outside. However, we do have UP Los Banos and I have to be biased for my own campus where there is a wealth of that science and technology capability already and of course that goes on to the industries supportive of agriculture, the agro-processing industries as well as the industries that manufacture the inputs to agriculture. These are the kinds of industries where we do have a clear comparative advantage right now precisely because you are there. At least most of you who are in the agricultural sciences are there already available to be tapped. It is for this reason and also for the reason that by linking very closely agricu Iture and industry that we can more directly benefit our countrymen in the countryside. We are pushing this kind of development thrust, rather than that kind of thrust that some of us, some of our critics in fact wou Id rather have us try to pursue which is to concentrate on two or three heavy industries as if

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that would trickle down the benefit to the rest of the economy, especially the countryside. Now we at least at the NEDA have never trusted that trickle down effect. We fear that it is by capitalizing on inherent strength we already have particularly in the science and technology community that we can really maximize the benefits of our development strategy, Now to do all of these obviously \\0'.:.2: require far larger investments in science and technology than '" e are making right now. Now these investments should not only be made from the point of view of the public sector, but equally if not more important, from the private sector as well. In fact, I would like to see that the government's role in science and technology would primarily be:

First, in the need to provide an environment conducive to private sector investment in science and technology is the protection of Intellectual Property Rights or IPR. After all, if you are able to protect Intellectual Property Rights, then we increase the incentive to innovate, at the same time we decrease the urge to merely copy. Many of us deplore the fact that the Philippines has become at least in the past a nation of copy cats .wherein our enterprises are only contented with imitating rather than innovating.

Another aspect is the effective commercialization of our new technologies. Of course we all constantly hear the lament about researches being undertaken for research sake or researches just gathering dust on the shelves. What we would like to do is in fact make research, especially academic research more relevant to the needs of economic development. Now part of that of course is linking the research community or the science and technology community to the private sectors, the producers out there. Among the measures that would help would be the promotion of venture capital arrangements that would allow those people who have the money and who would like to take the risks to actually put their money into the new technologies that you develop. I understand that the Department of Science & Technology in fact is pursuing a program along these lines.

Now, the second major task of the government in science and technology, as I see it, is in addressing the need to provide an environment where not only firms, but this time individuals, would invest their lives in science and technology in the country.

In this regard, the government has to invest more in education, in manpower development. We are of course now trying to strengthen our Math and Science curriculums in our schools both in basic education as well as tertiary education. I think it is clear that the reason why yet another colleague from UP Los Banos, Sec. Gloria was appointed to the Dept. of Education, Culture, and Sports was to highlight the fact that this is a direction that he would like to take - strenghtening Science, Math and Technology in our school curricula. We would like to see more students take in Science and Engineering courses t:specially in college, rather than have a lot of them go llltO Commerce, Political Science, Accounting. I think that this tends to be the easy way to a

8

college diploma but I think the reason they gravitate towards that is because of the weakness of their grounding in science and technology that could be obtained from elementary and secondary education.

Another factor there that would again make a conducive environment for individuals themselves to invest in science and technology development is in the incentive system for the science and technology community. Now I think we already have in place this Science Career System which has done something to improve that incentive system, but I am sure it still leaves something to be desired.

Now another program of course that is important here is to try to attract back the wealth of science and technology Filipino manpower who are abroad. We often hear about Filipinos being the best eye surgeons in some place of the world, being the best in their field and yet why are they out there, and not here? So we have programs now, like the TOKTEN, which is the Transfer of Knowledge and Technol­ogy from Expatriate Nationals, then we have the Return of Knowledge and Tech­nology Program or the International Organization for Migration or RKT. We also have the Balik Scientist Program. All of these are meant to attract back that wealth of science and technology manpower, Filipino manpower who are just not attracted enough at the moment to come back to the country and help and use their skills and talents for our national development. Well of course part of that environment for encouraging individuals to invest their own personal stakes in science and technology development is again to promote investments within the country and therefore promote jobs for all scientists. After all, the reason why all those Filipino scientists are abroad is because they don't feel they have enough of those oppor­tunities here. That is the reason again why our government's drive right now is to promote investment, not only foreign investment, mind you but investment by all, by our local investors as well as the foreign investors because after all it is those investments that would create the 1.1 million jobs average per year that we need to bring down our unemployment rates to a more natural level.

Well, for all of these of course we still have to have the government playa more direct role. In fact it has been widely said that we need to devote more public resources to research and development. First initially, I think only about .2% of our Gross Domestic Product and hopefully up to I % of our Gross Domestic Product to research and development would take some time admittedly because for these we do need the resources, public resources and for these we need things like tax reform.

Now you did not think that I would go to this page without talking about the VAT, did you? We have his assignment. Well, why do we have the VAT? It is precisely for tax reform. I think we should see it less as a means of increasing government revenues, though it does lead to that but it is more of a tax reform. It is a tax reform to simplifY our tax structure. The Value Added Tax, when it

9

was introduced in 1988 was meant precisely to simp Ii£) our lax s~ Slem and therefore make it easier for the government to collect taxes more effect;,el". So when we keep criticizing government for its inability to collect taxes more effec­tively, please keep in mind that it is precisely that, that the expanded Value Added Tax hopes to accomplish because it replaces about 73 or 78 previous percentage taxes which only complicated tax collection and in fact made it more onerous for our consumers to pay those old taxes. Well, I would not say much more except to encourage you before you try to make a judgment about the expanded V AT. So please learn more about it, understand it more clearly and I think you will realize that indeed, it is a tax simplification, a tax reform measure that is superior to what it is replacing and therefore it is for that reason that we in the government are trying our best to promote it and get it in place. So that it will give us more public resources, hopefully in the future. But the other important aspect of it is to make more effective use of public resources, especially the public resources we put into sciens;e and technology development.

Now among other things, what we can do in that direction is more effective linkages among our academic and research institutions especially to avoid unnecessary duplications in research and development work which I personally have been witness to in the past when I had been invited ocassionally by the PCARRD in their review exercises around the country. We witnessed a lot of duplicating, overlapping of researches being done by various regional academ ic and research institutions. Now that certainly is an inefficient way to make use of the already limited public resources we are devoting to science and technology development.

Secondly, we need to attune the academic R&D activities to the actual needs of the private sector as I've already said a while ago. In fact, many are wary of private sector funds going into academic institutions to fund research because of the fear about the loss of academic freedom . But personally I see that as a welcome mechanism for making research and development that takes place in the academic sector more responsive to the actual needs of the marketplace. I also see nothing wrong with consultancies by our professors work ing for private firms. For as long as we don't neglect the importance of ensuring the multiplier effect through instruction or imparting our knowledge in science and technology for our students.

Perhaps in our promotion system, again in the academe, we should not be counting journal articles as much as counting researches that have been suc­cessfully applied, adapted or commercialized. I guess that is the problem many of us, myself included, tend to be driven by that seems to be our goal in the academe because that is the way we are recognized. Hopefully that can be changed somewhat so that the recognition can also come from the actual application and use of what we come up with in our research.

Well, specifically, all I'd like to say here is that we in the scientific com­munity must unite just as a whole nation must unite. I know that the scientific

10

community, especially the academe, tends to be prone to rivalries and jealousies. Now, there must be both competition and complementation in our scientific work. Competition in the scientific community must not be one wherein we try to discredit or even sabotage each others' work. Instead, we must be motivated by a drive to excel but not at the expense of others. I think we all know the so­called "crab mentality" that we all lament. But let me just spend a minute in giving you the fuller story.

Supposedly, a Western tourist visited Asia, and found a crab vendor who had several baskets in front of him. One of the baskets was uncovered but everything else was closed. So the tourist asked why that particular basket of crabs was open. Well the vendor replied: "Oh, I have no problem with those other Asian crabs but that uncovered basket is full of Filipino crabs. I have to close those other baskets because once somebody opens the baskets, they will all try to help each other out; they will push each other out of the basket. There is a problem with that Filipino crab basket, everytime somebody gets up on the side, everybody else will pull him down. That is the crab mentality we lament ourselves as having and I hope this kind of crab mentality will cease to exist in the science community as well.

Let us all help each other out of that basket. Otherwise, the Philippines will truly end up being the basket case, of what is widely expected to be the most dynamic region of the world in the decades to come.

In my speaking engagements like this, I always talk about the need for more nationalism. But when I do, I try to clarify what I mean by nationalism. It is not the nationalism that many define as fear of everything foreign. In fact, I define that more as xenophobia. The nationalism that we lack as a people is that sense of unity or oneness as a nation. That is nationalism and therefore it is really that need for us to unite in solidarity and teamwork in order to achieve our common aspirations as a nation. So let us work together in unity, solidarity and teamwork. Let us not waste time and effort in needless debate but in fact spend our efforts in trying to seek consensus towards our economic strategy, our development strategy in general, so that we will not only join the bandwagon of dynamic Asian economies but in fact be among the drivers of that wagon and resume the' lead that we enjoyed in the 1960's that was squandered in the last 30 years. Let us use science and technology to the fullest to propel us surely towards Philippines 2000.

Mabuhay ang NAST. Mabuhay tayong lahat. Magandang umaga sa inyong lahat.

Plenary Papers

Trans. /lim. Acad. S'd.

Teellllol. 16: 13-35 . /994

ISSUES ON HEALTH: POPULATION, NUTRITION, CHILDREN, PUBLIC HEALTH AND HEALTHCARE FINANCING*

Ernesto O. Domingo··

Introduction

There has been significant improvement in health globally, regionally, and locally. The improvement is reflected by a number of health indicators and statis­tics: life expectancy, burden of disease due to premature mortality and disability, inereases in per capita consumption offood and clean water, and expanded health serv­ices coverage of the population. Much of these gains in health status occurred within the second half of the present century, some in spectacular fashion. For example, small pox has been wiped out with the last case reported in 1977. Within a twelve­year period of intensive vaccination, the mortality Irom this dreaded disease dropped from 1.5 to 2 million per year to nil. Life expectancy at birth in developing countries increased from 40 to 63 years and child mortality fell from 280 to 106 per 1000. This decline in child mortality accelerated within the past 30 years at 2, 3, and 5% per year in the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s, respectively. Even in Sub-Saharan Africa, which posted the lowest inprovement in life expectancy, the increase in life span was faster compared to Europe in the 19th century (World Development Report 1993).

In the Philippines, the Department of Health (DOH) states that the nation is healthier today than it was in the 1960s, citing life expectancy at birth which has risen from 56.9 years in 1960 to 62.6 in 1990, infant mortality rate which declined from 106.4/1000 Iivebirths in 1960 to 58.7 in 1990, increased energy intake of children, and greatly expanded coverage of the immunization program. Concern­ing the last, there is now a real possibility of eradicating poliomyelitis in this coun­try. Despite these gains, the DOH is quick to point out that while health is gener­ally better, it is not good enough (DOH 1993). One probable reason for the residual dissatisfaction is that the Philippines suffers in comparison to the achieve­ments in health by countries in the region, some countries in Latin America and others elsewhere, which have comparable levels of socio-economic development.

"'Paper prepared forthe 16th Annual Scientific Meeting of the National Academy of Science and Technology. Philippine-International Convention Center. Manila on July 13~ 14.1994

*"'University Professor. University of the Philippines Manila

13

14 Transactions National Academy of Science

In the face of this improving health condition in the majority of the countries of the world, issues in health become more sharply focused because the quality, quan­tity, and rate of improvement are uneven and genp.rally fall short of the optimum. Even inthe Philippines, with its comparatively small land area, regional differences in health status are quite evident. There are at least two readily identifiable factors responsible for these differences in the Philippiue situation: the delivery of health services and the fidelity of the estimates of coverage (Herrin 1994a).

There is a general feeling that the same resources. or minimal augmentation of the same, and efforts could have achieved better results had there been major shifts in government policy and priority. The 1993 World Development Report (WDR 1993) mentioned three of these, namely;

I. Fostering an economic environment that enables households to im-prove their own health. Examples: growth policies that ensure income gains for the poor and expanded investment in schooling, particularly for girls.

2. Preferential spending on cost-effective programs that do more to help the poor. Example: spending more for the control and treatment of infectious diseases and malnutrition rather than for specialized cases in tertiary facilities.

3. Promotion of greater diversity and completion in the financing and deliv-ery of health services. Example: limiting government financing to public health and essential clinical services while leaving the coverage of remaining clinical services to private finance .

Therefore government policies in health and financing of health programs are important issues that cut across most other issues including those that will be deaU with in this paper. Happily, these are now the subjects of comprehensive studies being conducted by the DOH and other parties in collaboration with DOH.

There are issues in health which are quite pervasive. They remain intractable even in the face of economic affiuence which is often looked at as the panaceae for most if not all health problems. They are those which do not fall within the tradi­tional areas of concern in health yet, constitute part of many of them. They have ethical overtones if not outright ethical issues. They can be deterministic of outcome apart from the resolution of a particular issue.

ACCESS

Although this issue can be joined with equity, because one can give rise to the other or the absence of one can lead to lack of the other, there arc situations where either is clearly a distinct issue. Access refers to the ability to secure, avail oneself of, utilize and enjoy, in time of need, health and health-related resources, facilities and services. These are its quantitative aspects. The qualitative aspect will not be considered. Access and non-access have consequences on the health status of the

[)omingo, Issues on Health I~

population although it is not always easy to quantify these effects . For example, would there be a difference in the mortality figure and causes of death if all deaths occurred with medical altendancc rather than with only less than half as it now stands in this country? Would and by how much would have the health profile of the 260 doctor less towns differed had they enjoyed the uninterrupted services of physicians?

In a study of the un met need of Filipino couples for contraceptive services in 1986 (Zablan 1994), the expressed urunetneed of couples ranged from 12.1 to 37.1 percent. It was estimated that had the National Family Planning Program fully satis­fied this need it would have led to a contraceptive prevalence rate offrom 57.5% to 82.5%. Based on the assumption adopted, the total fertility rate would have decreased from 4.36 in 1987 to 3.67 in 1993 had the contraceptive prevalence of 45.4% in 1986 increased to 56% by 1993 or 70% in 1998. This is a good example of how failure to access a health service can affect the outcome of a health program.

Food, that is, protein-energy and nutrient consumption, is an established deter­minant of many health outcomes. Unequal access to food, for whatever reason, will have inevitable health consequences on those who have access to less, especially growing children. Food supply among the different economic and geographic groups in the Philippine population are alarmingly unequal despite the adequacy offood supply. The total available food consumption in the country has been steadily increasing since 1973, the starting period selected by one study. Although the per capita increase is not as much as the average yearly increase (population increase effect), still, if food should trickle evenly to the population, the supply would be adequate to salisfy Ihe recommended daily allowance per individual. Even during periods oflow produc­tivity as during extended drought, importation succeeded in ensuring adequate food supply (Salvosa-Loyala and Corpus 1991). Adequate food may not be accessible to many people probably due to a number ofreasons like insufiicient purchasing power but, the basic issue is still lack of access. This uneven access is largely responsible for the poor physical and mental growth and development of close to half of all public primary school children.

EQurry

Equity as a health issue and distinct from access refers to the amount of goods and services returned for a particular amount of contribution (money es­sentially) made. In an equitous system, the contribution to be made for the provi­sion of a health service should be based on capacity to pay. In an inequitous system, those who contribute relatively less consume more. With that framework, inequitous systems can readily be identified in the Philippine health care system. For example, 70% of the budget of the DOH used to be spent on the hospital system which provides. secondary to tertiary specialty services. At any given time, only a very small proportion of the population is served by these hospitals for the simple reason that most people are not sick and the few who are sick are not all in need of hospitalization. Considering that the DOH budget is tax money, contributed

16 Transactions National Academy of Science

by everybody, the services bought by these funds benefit only a small portion of the contributors. Along the same observation, there is absolutely no justification for gov­ernment subsidy of specialty hospitals (health palaces), especially those doing eso­teric procedures like transplants.

Inequity is also characteristic of the health care financing in this country as pointed out by Professor Herrin (Herrin 1993). It is estimated that about half of the total health sector expenditure comes from direct payments by households to providers.' Considering the income structure of the population, it is obvious that the majority of the population cannot avai I themselves of health services. They therefore turn to government-provided health care wherein a marked geographic uneveness is characteristic. For example. Metro Manila residents can avail them­selves of services offered by relatively good public general hospitals. Compara­ble facilities are not available in many regions of the country. Therefore, while everyone shoulders the financial support of the government hospital system through taxes, the services provided by these hospitals to the tax payers favor a particular group.

Another form of inequity is embedded in the health insurance systems both for social insurance (Medicare) and private health insurance like the Health Main­tenance Organization (HMO). For social insurance for example, coverage is for those with jobs. Premium is paid through salary deduction on which is added employers' counterpart contribution. In practice there is no difference in coverage and premium between those receiving very high salaries and those with minimum wages. When the insurance privilege is used, the highly paid get the same benefits as the lowly paid and both get subsidies from the employers. Inequity creeps in when the unemployed or self-employed who are not covered by the system are unable to availlhemselves of similar benefits. They not only do not enjoy insurance coverage but arc deprived of subsidy as well.

Private health insurance, being profit-oriented, tends to discriminate in that prospective clients with probable chronic and expensive diseases are disqualified from insurance. Almost all private insurance also put a cap on coverage of catas­trophic illness which is probably the single most important reason foc getting insured in the first place.

Inequity is present not only in managed health systems but also in systems controlled by the market forces. The latter can have major impacts on health. For example, while food supply may be adequate as pointed by Salvosa-Loyola and Corpus (1991), this does not necessarily insure adequate consumption. This is readily shown by the comparison of rate of increase of available food and the rate of per capita consumption trom 1973 to 1986. While the accompanying increase in the population during this period contributed to the comparatively lower rate of increase in per capita consumption, the ability to buy food as determined by the family income remained the major determinant of per capita consumption. The lack of increased demand for food from the poor was dictated by the low purchasing power of this group. In 1988 the average family spent 50.7% of its income on food. It is no

Domingo, ls:we.y on Health 17

different now. The eITe\:.1 of low protein-energy and nutrient consumption on health has been amply documented elsewhere. The inequitous distribution of food results in the inequitous distribution ofburden of illness. Poverty is the greatest inequity of all!

INEHIICIENCY

A lot of expenditures in health is wasted. Government is not alone in this. The private sector too suffers from this malady . Nor is the Philippines the only country amicted because the problem is global. Some instances of inefficiency are seen locally in hospital bed utilization, procurement of drugs, utilization of teclmol­ogy, high administtative cost, and absence of an essential clinical service package.

The ratio of hospital beds per 1000 population excluding beds in long-term care facilities and nursing homes from 1985 to 1990 is I. 3 (WDR 1993). This is not the highest ratio among South Asian and Pacific island countries, nevertheless utiliza­tion, that is, occupancy of these beds is low in many areas, particularly hospitals with bed capacities of 50 or less. Despite the glut, new hospitals, both private and public, continue to be built . In Lipa City in Batangas, for example, there are now about a dozen private hospitals.

Prior to the implementation of the National Dmg Policy, procurement of drugs by the public sector was extremely inefficient because ineffective or non­essential drugs constitute the bulk of the purchase and the procurement system did not secure the lowest possible cost then available. Before the formulation of the National Drug Formulary, more than 12,000 drugs were registered for sale in the country with about 5,()(X) different active ingredients despite the existence of a Vv1fO list of about 250 basic drugs that can take care of more than 90% of diseases requiring pharmacologic intervention. The prescribing patterns even in the private sector is characterized by inej]jciency because of the extremely high share of ineffective and non-essential drugs exemplitied by anti-cough and vitamin preparations.

High technology equipment continue to be acquired both by public and private hospitals without regard for their cost effectiveness and cost effIcacy. For example, private hospitals in close proximity to each other acquire extremely sophisticated and expensive imaging equipments without regarding the financial viability of the acqui­sition on the basis of patronage. As a consequence, the diagnostic equipment is used despite the absence of a sound medical indication in order to generate the money needed to amortize the equipment. In public hospitals, expensive equipment are ac­quired without making provisions for maintenance The result is that usual break­downs accompanying normal use go unrepaired with the equipment retired prema­turely. Two linear accelt:rators in a government hospital, for example, were hardly utilized because maintenance was very inadequate.

Operations of public hospitals and the social insurance systems are character­ized by high input to administration and personnel services. The largest public gen­eral hospital spends 48% of its budget on personnel salaries and subsidies. While personnel services also go to patient care and therefore can be partly counted as

18 7i'ansaclions Nal;onal Academy of Science

health care service, still, personnel management can be improved to promote efficiency. One of the many ways of doi ng this is by contracting services.

In private health insurance like the HMOs, inefficiency is inadvertently incorporated into the system. For example, reimbursement is allowed only when hospitalization occurs. This encourages admission to hospitals for what is essen­tially an outpatient problem. Likewise, HMOs fail to provide a clinical service package incorporating services that have been established to be cost-effective and cost beneficial. Too many cost ineffective and low cost benefit services are included in the reimbursement list, resulting in inefficient use of financial re­sources.

INAI'I'ROI'RIA'lE TECHN()f,O(;Y

Developing countries account for about US$5 billion or 7%, of the $71 billion spent each year on medical equipment worldwide. This global estimate includes medical and dental supplies, surgical instruments, electromedical and x­ray equipment, diagnostic tools, and implanted products. The ability of the medi­cal equipment industry to develop new health care technologies has vastly ex­ceeded the capacity of purchasers to evaluate the clinical value and the cost­effectiveness of such innovations. At present, approxi mately 60()() distinct types of medical devices (equipment, supplies and reagents) and more than 750,0()() brands, models, and sizes produced by perhaps 12,000 manufacturers worldwide, are on the market (WDR 19(3).

By definition, health technology refers "to the set of techniques, drugs, equipment, and procedures used by health care professionals in delivering medi­cal care to individuals and the systems within which such care is delivered". Those that have been mentioned in the preceding paragraph therefore are but some of the components included in the definition of health technology.

Health practitioners, managers and policymakers are under pressure di­rectly or indirectly to use these technologies. When they sllccumb, indiscriminate adoption and use of these technologies result in efficacy loss. Funds which can be more productively used for other purposes are diverted instead to acqui ring technologies of dubious if not outright useless value. Physicians are particularly prone to succumb to the lure of unproved technology for reasons given by Grimes (1993):

a) Seduction by authority - short of critical evidence-based assessment, technologies are adopted on the say so of "authorities." Example: blood letting.

b) False idol of technology - worship of gadgetry, the use of which makes it easier for patients to part with their money. Example: electronic felal monitoring.

c) Tendency to let resting dogmas lie - because the technology has been in use for a long time, then it must be appropriate and effective. Example: routine episiotomy.

Domingo, Issues on Health 19

d) Pedantry in medical education - worship of scientific information many of which are useless. Example: use of purging as adjunct to autologous bone marrow transplantation. .

e) Paradigm of clinical practice - practice of medicine based on the last unusual case encountered rather than the data from large well-studied cases. Example: radial keratotomy for refractive error.

Dr. Tessa Tan-Torres' paper on "Challenges of Technology Asst;ssment in Health Care in a Developing Country" pointed out the need to develop and establish in Third World countries the capability and institution for health techno­logy assessment. The evaluation of technology which should precede its adoption should include the perspectives of epidemiology, economics and social sciences. While she skirted the issue of regulation, it is obvious from the paper that behavior modification of technology users may be more susceptible to regulation than per­suasIOn.

fll~AL TH CARE FINANCING

Prof. Herrin (1993) tackled the issue on health care financing in the Philip­pines in a paper he presented in the 15th annual scientific meeting of the Acad­emy last year. He summarized the basic issues under four questions. to wit:

a) What health services are to be fi nanced? b) Who should finance what health care services? c) How should health care services be financed? d) How much financing should the health sector receive relative to the

other sectors of the economy (intersectoral resource allocation)?

The reader is referred to the paper for the discussion on each question. What remains as an issue in financing is the bottomline question, who should provide, what should be provided, how is it to be provided for those who are incapable of spending for their health needs?

The United States of America, the greatest economy on earth, is about to unveil the answer to these questions when it conunits itself to prO\~de for comprehen­sive health care to all its people including the 30 million who have no health insur­ance at all. While the complete program of the US government is not generally known, it is obvious that their government has accepted the responsibility of who should be responsible. In the ca~e of the Philippines, beside the government. no insti­tution is capable of taking responsibility either. In two pending bills, Senate Bill No. 1605 and House Bill No. 6976, the Philippine government through the legislature has assumed the responsibility of providing universal access to health care. However, as it now stands there is a fundamental difference between the two proposed legislations in tenns of coverage. The Senate Bill provides for compulsory coverage of all perma­nent residents of the Philippines while the House Bill is not precise on co\'erage

20 Transact;on,f National Academ.v of Science

except to identify the group covered namely, the formally employed, self-em­ployed and all sectors as may be determined by the commission.

What 'Should be provided is probably the most important issue because in the face of limited financial resources cost-benefit is paramount. Some of the issues associated with developing a cost-beneficial mix of health services are preventive versus curative, hospitals versus health centers, in-patient versus out-patient, "vulner­able group" versus everyone. Concomittant activities therefore should include cost­bcnefit studies of clinical care, public health measures, and technology. Measuring cost-effectiveness of health interventions may require developing new measures of health effects. Data gathering, monitoring and evaluation will become absolutely necessary while policy should be reflective of the verdict of data analysis and interpretation.

How the services will be provided has two components. One refers to the infrastructure facilities and organization that will deal with the actual provision of the services and the other concerns the raising of money to finance the enter­prise. Regarding the provider of services, a mix of public and private providers is inevitable. Private here may include not only the organized professions but also non-profit, non-governmental and even community grassroots organizations. Rais­ing the money to finance the services is currently under study by the experts.

Global spending on health totalled about US $1,700 billion in 1990, or 8% of the global income. Of thiS, government spent more than $100 billion or nearly 60% of the $170 billion spent on health in the developing countries of Africa. Asia and Latin America governments spent half of the total amount - 2% of those regions' GNPs (WDR 1993). Herrin (1993) estimates that the Philippines' expendi­ture in health is around 2% of GNP and that its share of total health sector expen­ditures is about 40%. Developed economiCS generally spend 5% or more of their GNP on health. The persistent clamor in any discussion on health improvement is for more money allocation. In fact, the DOH's goal is from 3% in 1990 to 7% of the budget in 1998.

While higher spending for health (everything else being equal) results in better health, the improvement in certain health parameters are not due to in­creased spending only. China, for example spends less of its GNP on health compared with countries with similar development, but has a much longer addi­tional life expectancy. The same is true for Singapore. Egypt and Gambia get poor health for a lower-than-predicted level of spending while the U.S. is a worse case, getting among the poorest achievements in life expectancy relative to GNP expenditure in health (WDR 1993).

In conclusion, providing everyone access to health services regardless of their ability to pay for such services will not necessarily result in better health, nor will increased spending in health achievc tlus automatically. Equally impol1ant con­siderations in health care financing is the policy and health package that insure maximum efficiency and efficacy in the expenditure of this money. More is not necessarily better.

Domingo, Issues on Health 21

In summary, issues on health can be particularized but there are issues, which because they are so pervasive and deterministic of outcome, are best treated in a generic manner. Among the generic issues are access, equity, effi­ciency and financing . What follow now are specific health issues.

ISSUES ON POPULATION

The world has experienced and is experiencing a population boom. A "bust" cannot be far behind. Here are a few statistics indicative of the magnitude and rapidity of this population increase. In 1965, the world's population stood at 3.281 billion (B). In 1973, this increased to only 3.895 8.ln 1991, there were 5.3518 people living on this planet. The current average annual growth is 1.6% which translates to roughly 90 million more people annually. At this level of gro\\1h, it is predicted that by the year 2030 the figure will be around 8.664 8 representing a doubling of the population in less than half a century, a period well within the lifetime of many (WDR 1993).

Much of this increase in global population occurred in countries belonging to the low and middle economics which are located in Sub-Saharan Africa, Middle East and North Africa, East Asia and the Pacific, South Asia, Latin America, and the Carribean (WDR 1993). The Philippines belongs to these high growth re­gions. The Philippine population was estimated to be 61 million in 1990, a growth of 13 million in just 10 years . While the growth rate was declining from 3% annu­ally in the 1950s to 196Os, 2.7% in the I 970s and 2.4% in the 1980s, the momentum of growth will ensure continued population growth up to the latter half of the 21st century regardless of sustained fertility decline . It is predicted that even if re­placement fertility is reached in 2010, the population will reach zero growth rate only at around 2075 at which year the population is estimated at 127 million (Herrin 1994).

Population increase puts stresses on political and social institutions, natural and created resources, and quality of life as defined by health status, level of education, housing, leisure and mobility, Substantial studies are available defin ing pupulation trend and its effects on these entities and because this paper is about population as an issue in health the subsequent discussion will be confined to the relationship between number of people and health.

Changes in population size, especially an increase, affect the health status of the members of the population in an indirect manner. For example, the average in­come per capita has been known to influence the health status of the population. To maintain the status quo in health therefore, any increase in population mllst be ac­companied by a commensurate increase in income of the household because the increment in the size of the population is distributed among the households com­prising the population. In a country like the Philippines where population growth outpaces economic progress, the average income per capita decreases in real terms as a consequence. An example of the repercussion of such a development is on the life expectancy. A doubling of income per capita from US$1000 in 1990 corre-

22 Transactions (\'ahana' Academy of SCience

sponds to a gain of eleven years in life expectancy! Across countries, more than 75% of the difference in health is associated with income difference.

The decline in average income per capita is particularly harsh on the poor who can not absorb the diminished purchasing power of the household wit hout sacrificing basic needs. Again. in a country like the Philippines where half of the population is officially poor the effect of reduced income is bound to have major consequences as has been shown by studies on the trends in energy and nutrient intake in relation to changing economic conditions. Food consumption as well as energy and nutrient intake were generally improving or at least remained con­stant between 1978 to 1982. But between 1982 to 1987, nlth a worsening of the economic conditions, energy intake dropped from I !lOOk calories to 1750k calo­ries representing a calorie gap of II % to ) 3%. A correspondi ng increase of the proportion of households with per capita intake below the recommended levels to 69% from 67% also followed (Salvosa-Loyola and Corpus 1991).

Energy and nutrient malnutrition raise the risk of death and may reduce physical and mental capacity. In 1990. the combined effects of protein-energy mal nutrition, and iron. iodine and Vitamin A deficiency were estimated to have cost in direct loss 46 million disability adjusted life years (DAL Ys), or 3.4% of the global burden of disease. Child deaths due to malnutrition-related diseases cost 231 million DAL Ys with at least 60 million of the 231 million DAL Ys attributable to malnutrition (WDR 1993).

Population increase also puts additional demands on social institutions Ii ke the school system. Failure to provide and acquire primaJ')' and secondary educa­tion have serious consequences on health. Households with more education en­joy better health for both adults and children. Female literacy especially, has demonstrable salutary effects on health. Better-cducated women start families much later than uneducated women which then contributes to the reduction of risk to child health associated with early, especially teenage pregnancies. Educated women are more able to get and use health information. This is reflected by better domestic hygiene, which reduces the risk of infection, better food and more immunization, both of which reduce susceptibility to infection. and wiser use of medical services. A study of 13 African countries between 1975 and 1985 showed that a 10% increase in female literacy rate reduced child mortality by 10%, whereas changes in male literacy had little influence. A somewhat similar study in 25 devel­oping countries indicated that, all else being equal, even I to 3 years of maternal schooling reduced child mortality by about 15% (WDR 1993).

Ed ucated women also tend to get better paymg jobs. Income in the hands of women in the home produces more health benefits for children than when the father controls the money and spending. This was shown in Brazil and Jamaica which in the latter's case resulted in more spending for nutritious food and child-centered goods. In Guatemala it takes 15 times more spending to achieve a given improvement in child nutrition when income is earned by the father than when it is earned by the mother (WDR 1993).

lJotllmgo, !.'iSlleS on flcalth

Adult health also benefits, from schooling. E\'idence for better health con­sequent to better education is substantial. The underlying theory is that better educated people tend to make choices in life styles and health practices that are beneficial. Health benefits of good education can be rel1ected on I ife expectancy, death rates for specific diseases, new types of health risks, and readiness to change habits for the better. This assertion is supported by studies in the U.S., Cote d' ivoirc, Ghana, Pakistan, Peru, Jamaica, Russia, Brazil, United Kingdom Canada, and Nonvay (WDR 1993).

Indications of over population in the Philippines are many. It is quite evi­dent in the land itself which they inhabit. Forest land has been encroached upon by 8.8 million persons whose growth rate is expected to result in the doubling of their number in 27 years. It is estimated that by 2025, upland population density will be about 339 persons/sq km compared to 96 pcrsons/sq km in 1980. This encroachment on the forest will cause a steep fall of whatever remaining forest is left by unabetted logging to a mere 28% of total land area (Cruz 1994).

The proof that run-away population growth adversely affects health may come in a round about way; via lowering of household income, decline in access to primary and secondary schooling and depletion of natural resources but the relationship is certainly not TENUOUS.

Modulating population increase by putting a cap on fertility should certainly be a major issue if not THE issue in population. There is nothing ill this statement that goes against what Professor Herrm said, quote, "viewed from the larger perspective of human resource development. the population issue encompasses a wi de range of concern beyond population gro\\1h, fertility reduction, and family planning. These concerns incl ude the health, nutrition and education of children; the welfare of national and international migrants, especially women; the viability of social institutions and their responsiveness to changmg conditions; the welfare of specific population groups, including women in various economic settings, ado­lescents. the elderly, and the growing population in the uplands. Whatever action is designed and carried out to deal with these broader concerns, there will always be a need to constantly monitor popul ation and human resource development activities to improve service delivery" (Herrin 1994a).

There is no disagreement that in a problem with multifactorial causes a com­prehensive solution which addresses all the factors is ideal. This applies to the popu-1ation problem as with other complex problems. But under a less than ideal situation, it is necessary to simplify the problem to identify which of the factors is of a funda­mental nature such that its elimination can be expected to ameliorate ifnot elimi­nate the problem even if all the other factors remain unchanged. One or two analogies may add clarity to this statement. One analogy uses the science of cosmology: the origin and future of the universe maybe established and predicted once the nature and behavior of elementary particles is completely understood. This is a reductionist approach to a complex problem which may be applicable in health. A much more appropriate analogy is hepatitis B. In thi s disease we know that spread can be

Tran.\'a,'liolls ,~laliollal Academy of S"ICflce

halted by many interventions among which are preventing crowding (poverty) and improving hygiene in the home, stopping number of behavioral and cultural practices, using disposable needles and syringes, screening blood for transfusion, minimizing or preferably eliminating promiscuity, commercial sex and drug abuse, and of course conducting mass vaccination against the infection. Of these options, mass vaccination is the most cost effective, cost beneficial and implementablc. Its choice therefore does not ignore or minimize the importance of the other pre­ventive measures except that in the real world, vaccination stands the best chance of controlling the disease given all the constraints.

In a similar way, the complex nature of the population problem and its con­trol can be pragmatically narrowed down to fertility reduction as a first option target for implementation. Herrin supports this when he recommends that the government adopt an explicit fertility reduction objective that includes moditying the fertility preferences of couples by endorsing the social goal of a small family (Herrin 1994b). The overriding focus of the program on population should be on achieving a fertility rate as close to replacement ferti Ii ty as possible.

Putting a cap on fertility is defini tely easy. Eugene Linden in an essay on population (1994) said that the reason why the global effort to curb population growth failed is that the underlying assumptions turned out to be questionable at best, referring to "demographic transition" which states that people will have fewer children as their sense of well being increases. The opposite in fact happened as illustrated by a study in Kenya where total fertility rose from 7.4 live births per woman in the mid 1950s to 8.12 in the I 960s and 1970s even as infant mortality dedned and income rose. Conversely in Nigeria, bad economic times in recent years caused young Y oruba families to tum to contraception even though infant mortality was rising. The failure to contain the population explosion globally and phenomena like the examples just cited seriously challenge the strategy recom­mended 20 years ago by the United Nations World Population Conference aimed at halting population explosion: attenuation of poverty. expansion of access to health and improvement of the status of women, all of whose objectives met with varying success in the majority of nations.

A vigorous program to push family planning aimed at reducing fertility to an agreed level is one strategy that may work because it is not dependent on the simultaneous solution of compounding factors as those operating in poverty alle­viation. This strategy, however. is not as unequivocally stated in the current popu­lation policy as can be gleaned from the DOH position on the matter. The DOH's goal pertaining to population growth is a crude birth rate (per 1000 population) of from 28 in 1990 to 2S.T in 1998 and a total feltility rate Irom 3.58 in 1993 to 3.09. In explaining how this will be achieved, the DOH states, "as its contribution to popula­tion management. the DOH shall support the free and informed exercise of the rights of women and men to choose the size of their families and to practice family planning based on their own beliefs, religion' and conscience. The DOH joins all couples, families and communities in respecting the spiritual value of human life as

Domingo, Issue,,, on Health Z5

these are expressed through the individual and social preferences in marriage, family formation and number and spacing of children. In a humane and gender­sensitive way, the DOH will provide all individuals with equal access to informa­tion, services and guidance in planning their families, whether through natural or artificial methods, as a means to attaining their health and well being. In making these provisions, enhancing women's health, ensuring safe motherhood and pro­moting child survival through birth spacing will be priorities" (DOH 1993).

This is a lot of soap for a statement of policy. It subscribes to the same assumptions of the recommended strategy of the UN World Population Confer­ence 20 years ago, which abysmally failed. A policy crafted with the singular purpose of avoiding offending anyone and pleasing all is reduced to a wish statement whose fulfillment is left. to fate. One wonders whether the average poor squatter couple ever engages in high level discussion on the merits, ethics and other profound implications of the choice of birth control techniques.

The policy on fertility control must be an advocacy statement which when implemented seeks to use birth control technology which has been adjudged by experts as effective, safe and easy to follow. Part of the policy implementation is to cOllvince the married couple of the desirability of small families and to enable them to overcome all fears including those foisted by dogmas and creeds. Very recently the Roman Catholic Church's Pontifi.:a! Academy of Science publicly stated that couples should have no more than two children (Time I 994).

ISSUES ON PUBLIC HEALTH

Professor F. Brockington (1968) defined public health as "the application of scientific and medical knowledge to the protection and improvement of the health of the group." Dr. Kerr White (1991) added," public health programs therefore strike against health problems of entire population or population subgroups. Their objective is to prevent disease or injury and to provide information on self-cure and on the importance of seeking care."

The traditional areas of concern or responsibility of public health are: popula­tion-based health services, diet and nutrition, fertility, health education, epidemiol­ogy, sanitation, environment, industrial health and safety, health management and administration, and a few more. The scope can be anticipated to grow as the nature of public health itself changes. There is no doubt that great achievements in health were achieved through public health intervention, mass immunization. mass treatment of para&itic wonn infestation, reduction offertility, improved water supply, health stand­ards in the work place, excellent surveillance and monitoring of diseases and many others but, an issue looms large in public health. The issue is more philosophic than programmatic, and will shortly be addressed.

The requisite expertise of a public health specialist is fonnally acquired in public health schools. In a country like the Philippines, as is true for most devel­oping countries, public health issues dominate the health landscape. These issues

Tronsm,,·lum.'i Nationol Academ" of ,"deuce

include uneven access to and inequity in health services, environmental pollu­tion, inappropl'late application of technology, inefficient health care delivery sys­tems, galloping population, malnutrition, heavy burden of parasitic infestations, high prevalence of sexually transmilled diseases including AIDS, dmg and sub­stance abuse, high accident rate and poor conditions in the work place. II would seem logical that more allention should be given to the training and production of public health professionals. II would also be desirable for brighter and intellectu­ally-gitled students desirmg a career in the health professions to be allrac!ed and shunted to public health. But neither IS taking place.

II is unbelievable that there is only one school or college of Public Health in the entire Philippines. the one in the Universlly of the Philippines Manila. For comparison. there are now about 30 colleges of medicine indud ing putative medI­cal schools and more than 180 nursing schools. There are certainly more than half a dozen dental schools and hundreds of midwifery \Illlls. The lOp students any­where in this country who are planning to have careers as health practitIOners will certainly go to medicine, even to physical therapy rather than public health. Those who go to public health are mostly prepanng, eventually to go to the other health profeSSIOn cou rses. The graduate students who enroll in the School of Public Health are mostly from Departments or Ministries of Health, who are tak­ing the various courses in public health for purposes of professional advance­ment or to get away for a while from their mother institutions. Though there are qualified, bright, intellectually above-average staff in publk health units, the re­cruitment of desirable replacements from among the studentry is not as successful as in the other health profeSSIOns.

In this country, as with 1110st other countries, no meamngful worklllg rela­tionship exists between practicing physiCians and public health professionals. This reflects the same situation between schools of public health and colleges of medi­cine. In fact the product of public health schools are disparagmgly called sanitarians wllich is a big canard betraying a total lack of knowledge abollt what puhlic health is all about. Nevermind if many of the best public health men are also physicians. This fractured relation is sometimes referred to as the "schism" with an obvious religious overtone for in fael the h\"O groups of professionals have created separate priesthoods.

The schism was abelled by the formal entry of the Rockefeller FOlmdation in the support of schools of Public Health in 1946 separate from Schools of Medi­cine. It has. however, its roots toward the end of the 19th century when a cleav­age between individual- and population-based approaches to health and disease de­veloped. spurred by recent discoveries of causes of diseases. especially microbes (White 1991).

The schism was detrimental to both medicine and public health. To medi­cine it meant graduates and practitioners who are unable to conceptual ize the idea of disease beyond the patient. This myopic orientation contributed heavily to the formulation of health policies that are cost-ineffective. inequitous and technol-

Dom;ngo. Issues OfT flealflT 27

ogy dependent by many physicians who eventually become policymakers as they occupy top positions in ministries of health or legislative bodies. Typically, a physician thinks of curative approaches and hospitals in response to a disease problem, like setting up facilities to operate on patients with hepatosplcnic schistosomiasis.

To public health it meant graduates and practitioners bereft of the art of think­ing in terms of single human subjects instead offaceless population groups. They are also not prepared to appreciate nuances of ill health on a persoruti level.

The issue in public health has to be taken as an issue in clinical medici lie. Both can slart by agreeing that a health problem, like an illness, is a continuum from the afflicted person, to his family, TO his communily, to the whole population. The prob­lem can not be successfully solved without breaking at different points in the con­tinuum, as for example in the control of TB. What should be restored in medical teaching is a thorough iamiliarity and appreciation of cpidenllology, evidence-based dl"Cision making and basic c1inicai economics. Physicians should know that the prob­lems in the clinics are susceptible to the methodologies used by the public health people. A clinical procedure requires the same rigor of evide nce-based evaluation before being adopted in tile same way that a public intervention is sUQjcct to the same standard.

Thinking in terms of individuals and population should be incorporated in the medical curriculum. Unhappily, community exposure or immersion is literally just that in almost all colleges of medicine. The exposure is rarely used as an opponunit)' to understand the principles of epidemiology and teach public health principles. Rather il is treated as a curricular and licensure requirement that should be done away with as fast as possible.

To the public health practitioner, a healthy appreciation of the need to apply the rigors of clinical investigation in epidemiologic studies should be ac­cepted. The clinician's requirement for proof of the existence of disease, its se­verity and response to treatment may be viewed as overcautious in population studies but these are essential to the accuracy of results.

In 1982, a global movement to close the gap and bridge: the schism between clinical medicine and public health was begun. Called clinical epidemiology, it created out of practicing cli nicians the capability to conduct epidemiologic studies, to utilize biostatistical methods and to be proficient in design, measurement and evaluation in clinical research. It also gave an option to acquire skills in clinical economics, the abi lity to cost clinical interventions and procedures and compute for cost-benefit and cost-efficiency. A social science perspective was added to the training of clinical epidemiologists to enable them to understand behavior. Funded initially by the Rockefeller Foundation. the movement has become a network of 27 participating units called Clinical Epidemiology Units (CEU) and 5 CI inical Epidemiology Resource and Training Centers (CERTC) in five conti­nents.

The number one issue in public health is how much is it willing to co-opt medical schools with CEUs to achieve a favorable impact on the provision of an

28 Transactions National Academy of Science

effective and efficient system of health care which is appropriate for the health status of the population served by these medical schools, by:

a) educating, within a clinical setting, physicians to use interventions proven to be efficacious;

b) educating, within a clinical setting, physicians to establish arrange-ments for providing effective care efficiently; and

c) encouraging (as a result of a & b) a more rational approach to the allocation of resources for medical care in relation to the health status of the population.

ISSUES ON NUTRITION

Nutrition is the substrate upon which growth and development feed. It is a basic precondition for the maintenance of good health because of its role in the fight against disease. It remains to be a fundamental issue in health.

Apart from overt disease due to or abetted by malnutrition, profound effects on the physical and mental development of growing children, and the work ca­pacity and performance of adults give rise to corollary problems that are difficult to quantify. How for example docs one measure lost opportunity due to mental retardation or decreased productivity in the work place brought about by mar­ginal or borderline nutritional status'?

Multi-sourced data indicate malnutrition to be a major problem in this coun­tl)'. Using weight-for-age as the indicator for the state of nutrition of preschoolers, more than 60% of children surveyed were underweight. Of these, about 20% were moderately to severely lmderweight. The number has remained steady from 1982 to 1987 (Florencio 1994). Based on physical gro\\th measurement. the Food and Nutri­tion Research Institute (FNRI) estimated that there were 17.2% and 17.7% moder­ately to severely undernourished children in 1982 and 1987, respectively. FNRI also estimated that there were 20.6% and 14% preschoolers with below normal height, and 9.5% and 15.7% severely wasted children in 1982 and 1987, respectively. For school children, Florencio (1985) found that 20.6% were moderately to severely un­derweight, 16.4% were underheight and 8.5% severely wasted. DOH estimated that from 1989 to 1990, more than 11% of all children were considered stullted (DOH 1993).

Adolescents and adults are not as well studied as children in terms of nutri­tional status except in relation to qualitative and specific dietary deficiencies. For example, Florencio (1980) and Valenzuela t't aJ. (1979) found that adolescents had the lowest share of available food in proportion to their requirements with the household. The average nutrient intake of rural and urban elderly was estimated by Garcia (1979) and Florencio and Macatangay (1987) to provide only 70 to 80% of the recommended level s.

In terms of specific nutrition, Salvosa-Loyola and Corpus (1991) gave the following statistics: energy intake was maintained at over 1800 kcalories per capita

Domingo, Issues on Health 29

pe r day from 1978 to 1982 but dropped to 1750 kcalories in 1987, thus widening the gap during that period from 11% to 13%, with households consuming below recommended levels increasing from 65% to 69%; protein intake improved sig­nificantly from 1978 to 1982 but dropped in 1987; with the exception of niacin, the average per capita intake of vitamins and minerals have never reached the rec­ommended levels; there is low bioavailability of iron in the Filipino diet; mean energy intake of farmers, female textil e workers and female shoemakers were lower than their mean energy expenditures.

Iron deficiency anemia was estimated to be 37.6% in 1987 with 6- to 12-month-old infants, the elderly, pregnant and lactating females, and boys aged 7 -12 years most affected (Salvosa-Loyola and Corpus 1994). A 1987 estimate placed the prevalence of anemia among pregnant and lactating women at 45.4% to 50.6% (Florencio 1994). Iodine deficiency is endemic in many regions of the country such that the prevalence of goiter among pregnant and lactating mothers is 3.3% to 7.4%. Vitamin A deficiency is also serious as shown by the presence of Vitamin A deficiency eye signs in 3.1 % and low serum retinol levels in 4.1 % of subjects surveyed.

Neverth less, nutrition problems in the country are being addressed. The Philippine Food and Nutrition Program (PFNP) provides the mandate, political support, overall program design, manpower, strategies and mechanisms accord­ing to Florcncio (1994). She said, however, that because of the complexity of the whole operation, inadequate resources, and what appears to be some degree of disjointedness in perception by all the sectors involved in the program, the man­date remains largely un accomplished. The DOH for its part has embarked on specifically-targeted programs like the Vitamin A, iodine and iron supplementa­tion programs. Without disparaging the efforts of these agencies, it is highly un­likely that the nutritional problems of this country will go away without decisive solutiolls to root out problems productive not only of malnutrition but of a whole lot of other problems impacting on health.

Probably the most basic solution to malnutrition is the attainment of food security which will assure adequate supply and universal access to food. Adequate food supply should ensure food availability, which means that food should trickle down to every household in the population. It means sufficient food production and equitable distribution. In a predominantly agricultural country food production may be more than adequate to meet the consumption of the population but if food produce are alternatively used to earn foreign exchange, availability will suffer. This is the sitmi­tion in a number of food products produced by the farm and fishing industries. Ad­equate supply per sc does not equate to adequate consumption. A food supply target of at least 25% above the recommended daily allo\\''lInce for calories is necessary to accomplish the trickle down effect (Salvosa-Loyola and Corpus 1991).

Inextricably linked to food access is the purchasing power of the household. Poverty depresses effective demand for food. FNRI estimated that in 1987 the food threshold was P14.02 per capita per day. The food expenditures of a family

30 Transac tions t\'ational Academy qf .)clence

with 5.8 members would be at least P2,439 per month. Considering that the pov­erty line of around P5,000 per month includes close to one half of all Filipino households and considering further the unabelled population increase occuring more among the poor, access to adequate food remai ns an unachievable objec­tive without any form of subsidy or assistance to the poor. This was shown in 1973 to 1986 during which total available food for consumption rose from 12,564,716 metric tons to 21,516,850 metric tons, representing an average yearly increase of 5.5%. During the same period. the average annual per capita increase of con­sumption was only 1.6%, from 851.4 grams in 1973 to 1049.6 grams in 1986. The reasons given to explain the discrepancy were the population increase for the same period coupled with the static expenditure on food by the average hOllse­hold (Salvosa-Loyola and Corpus 1991).

There arc other factors outside food security which affect the state of nutri­tion of the population even if 10 a lesser degree than poverty and rapid i Ilcrease in population. Among these are education. prevalence of diseases, and geogra­phy.

Lack of specific knowledge due to poor or deficient education Illay magnifY an already existing state of poor nutrition. In specific instances of this nature, nutritional knowledge rather than poverty may be more determinative. Usual examples cited are Vitamm A deficiency which can be corrected by eating Vita­min A-rich food which can be grown easily at low cos!. III Indonesia for example. education of mothers on child feeding has reduced malnutrition at low cos\. In Columbia, comparison of food supplementation as against maternal education showed that the laller has the same effect on children's height and weight as extra food. Breastfeedmg is a classic example of education over mere im:rease in ex­penditure. Breastfeeding improves not only the child's health but also the moth­er's through the resulting beller spaci ng of births. decreased risk of breast or ovarian cancer and less post partum blues. Promotion of breast feeding in certain Philippine hospitals results in 8% savings on the budge!. It is estimated that breast­milk substitutes cost around $15 billion a year for the 120 million infants rei ying on mother's milk (WDR 1993).

Disease and malnutrition is the proverbial chicken and egg sequence. How­ever, it has been established that for some diseases, the effect on nutrillonal status is a major determinant of morbidity. Parasitic worm infestation is one such disease. Of more than one billion people infected with one or more of these parasites, about one hundred million suffer from stunting or wasting. Following deworming. many of the infected children showed rapid spurts in heigh!. While diarrhea has lillie effect on the gro\\1h of adequately-nourished children, those with low en­ergy intake and diarrhea grow less. Malaria is a leading cause of malnutrition and anemia. Successful control of malaria results in the lowering of the prevalence of anemia (WDR 1993).

In an island nation like the Philippines, isolated pockets of population may suffer from t he peculiarities of geography. Due to difficult access to these places.

Domingo. Issues 011 Health 31

food supply may from time to time dip, which results in decrease in consumption. Most of these regions can not also produce the quantity and variety of food needed for adequate nutrition.

Unfortunately for malnutrition, the only specific sol ulion is to provide more food supplying the deficient calories and nutrients. Therefore, food security can not be substituted wilh alternative interventions no maller how effective they may be. On the other hand, for some diseases, infections for example. simpler and more feasible biotechnologic approaches may be substituted to the more difficul1 solulion of alleviating poverty and other inimical socio-environmental factors. Tak­ing poliomyelitis as an example, while sanitation, poverty, and crowding lIla~ con­tribute heavily to the high prevalence of the dIsease, immunization can be substi­Tuted to the more difficult process of ameliorating all these factors. The results are even better. The issue therefore of malnutrition Will remain for sometime the issue of food security. One can not be vaccinated not to go hungr)'.

ISSlJES ON CHILL) HI':ALTH

An overview of the health of the Filipino chi Id by Santos-Ocampo el al. (1991) as part of a comprehensive state of the nation assessment by lhe University of the Philippines during the tenure of President Jose Y. Abueva revealed the following:

a) The crude birth rate in 1988 was 26.7 per 1000 population. The WDR 1993 estimate for 1990 was 29.2.

b) The fetal death rates have declined from 12.7 per [000 live births in 1 ':160 to 6.2 in 1988. Neonatal mortality rates declined from 34.9 per 1000 live births in 1960 to 13 in 1988.

c) The infant mortality rate has improved albeit slowly to 61 per 1000 live births in 1990 and is forecast to be 37.56 by the end of the century. DOH forecasts the rate at 18 by 1988.

d) The under-5 mortality rate of 69 per lOOO live birlhs in i990 repre-sents a 2.3% average annual reduction rate from 19!!0-1990. This figure is not as good as the 20 for Chile, 45 for Tunisia and 22 for Sri Lanka (WDR 1993). These countries' economics are close to the Phili ppines.

e) The age group 10-19 years had the lowest mortality.

[n essence, the Philippines has followed the general global trend. Enor­mous reductions in child mortality occurred globally between I <)(,0 and 1990 in an accelerating fashion. In the 1960s, child mortality fell by approximately 2% a year in about 70 developing countries, and increased to more than 3% in the 1970s and to more than 5% in the 1980s. In 21 countries with a continuous series of accept­able estimates, child mortality fell by an average of 3% a year in the 1960s to 6% a year in the 1980s (WDR 1993). One principal reason for the improved mortality figure is the control of a number of communicable diseases. In the Philippines these would be acute respiratory infections and diarrheal diseases.

32 1'ransactions Nafional Academy of SCience

By most predictions these improvements in child mortality will continue into the future partly as a result of better coverage and expansion of primary immuni­zation, better management of acute respiratory and diarrheal diseases, improved health of pregnant women, better nutrition and improved education, especially of women.

The issues in child health should now focus on the quality of life of children saved from early death with particular attention to their mental and psychosocial development, access to good education. job and career opportunities as they mature, and ultimately the quality of life as adults.

As has been discussed under issues on nutrition. children are among the hardest hit by malnutrition starting al a very early age. The per capita energy intake of children 6 months to 6 years in age was only 63.3% adequate in 1987. Since protein deficiency usually accompanies caloric deficiency. protein malnu­trition can be expected to be high also. Include Vitamin A deficiency, iodine deficiency, iron-deficiency or anemia, and multiple intestinal parasitism and there is a certainty that mental development would have been irreversibly alTected during the most critical years ofhirth to six years. It would be very helpful if some studies could be undertaken to quantify the effects of these adverse conditions on the mental performance say of grade schoolers. Paderanga's (199.t) paper mentioned the dropping scores of grade school children on standardized tests since World War II which had not improved in the 70s and '80s although there was no .specific reason cited for the phenomenon. Cortex and Lara (1974) also concluded that the achievement level of the elementary school-age population fell way below the target performance of7S% wilhout indicating probable reason(s).

The participation rates of children in elementary schools were about 89% in 1970-1971,95% in 1979-1980 and then fluctuating between 86% and 93% within the past 6 years. About 10% of school-age chi Idren were therefore out of school during this period. The average cohort survival rates during the same period (1970-1986), depending on the region, ranged from 48.2% to 87.4%. Drop out rates ranged from I. 9% to 5.6%, while rejection rates decreased to 1.3% by 1985. Graduation rate over a IS-year study period hovered at around 90% (Cortes and Lara 1994). If elementary and secondary educallon is an objective for all chil­dren, the data presented indicate shortcomings either in the provision or availment of this opportunity.

In secondary education there was a decline of those without schooling or with elementary education only or an increase in the percentage of those with secondary education. However, the elTectiveness of secondary education measured in terms of achievement scores in the NCEE did not show a marked improvement over time (Cortes and Lara 1994). The proportion going to college is also increasing (Paderanga 1994).

The psychosocial development of children is just as important as their physi­cal development. There arc now major threats to children's psychosocial make up brought about by social phenomena that are in themselves serious assaults on the

Dom;ngo, I.'i.me.'i on l1ealth 33

integrity of society. Among these are child labor, prevalence of street children and child prostitution, drug and substance abuse and violence from armed con!1ict (Santos-Ocampo et al. 1991).

An estimated 7 million 5- to 14 -year-olds are said to be employed in workplaces characterized by poor environments, long working hours, extremely low compensation and exploitative management. There are about 20,000-86,000 street children in the country, 50,000-70,000 of whom arc in Metro Manila. Most of the estimated 20,000 child prostitutes come from these street children. It has been calculated that 120,000 children are displaced from their homes annually due to armed conflict amounting to about 4.5 million in 1986. Children also constitute a signili.cant part of the casualties of 'W'af.

All these plus the large pool of unemployed, highly-skilled workers, with at least secondary education that can not be absorbed into the work force (Paderanga 1994) constitute issues arising from improved child health and survival. The ques­lion is survival for what?

REFERENCES

A DOH Strategy Paper for Philippines 20()0. 1993. Positioning tbr Performance Towards Health in the Hands of the People. Department l,f Health. pr 1-46.

Brokington, F. Manila 1968. World Health. 2nd Ed. Boston: Liltle, Brown, P 13.

Cortes. J. Lara, A. 1 <)<)4. Evaluation of Elementary and Secondary Educat ion in the Philippines: 1970-1985. In Population, Human Resources and Development. Herrin. A. N. (Ed.). Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press. pp. 569-646.

Cruz, M. 1994 Population, Environment and Development (with Applications to Philippine Forestry). In: Population, Human Resources and Development. Herrin; A.N. (Ed.) Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press, pp. 817-868

DOST FNRA. 1987. Third National Nutrition Survey. Philippines.

Florencio, C.A. 1994, Nutritional Welfare of Filipinos and the Philippine Food and Nutrition Program. In: Population, Human Resources and Development. HelTin, A.N. (Ed). Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press. pp 531-568.

Florencio, C. and M. Aligaen. 1980. Food and Nutrient Distributions in Filipino Urban Households. Nutrition Reports Intel11ationaI2:3. p. 375.

Florcncio, C. Macatangay, L. 1987. Food and Nutrient Intake of Institutionalized and N on-institutionalized Elderly in the Philippines. Journal of Nutrition for the Elderly 6:4. p. 17.

34 Trarrsactiolls NaIlOf/a/ Academy oj Sdence

Garcia. P. 1979. Nutrition alld Health of the Rural Elderly ill the Philippines. Report on a Rt:search Projc.:t. Laguna.

Grimes. I).A. Technology Follies: The Uncritical Acceptance of Medical Innova­tion . .lAMA 9:12-14.

Herrin, A.N. 1993. Trnnslllrtlling the Health Sector: Issues in Health Care Financing

in the Philippines. National Academy of Science and Technology 15th Annual Scientific Meeting, PICC, July 1993

Herrin, A.N. (Ed). 1994. Executive SUlllmary. In: Population. Human Resources and Dt,veloplllent. Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press.

Herrin. A.N 1994. Population, Human Resources and Development: Towards a Con­st:nsus on Population Policy. In: Population. Human Resources and Develop­l1lent. Quezon City: University of the Philippines pp. 1-14.

Lindt:n. E. 1<)94. Pl)pulation: The Awkward Truth. In: Time. June 20. 1994: p. 68.

NSTA, FNRI. 1982. Second Nationwide Nutrition Survey. Philippines.

Paderanga, C. W 1991. The Socioeconomic and [)cmllgraphic Aspects of Elementary Education in the Philippincs Slate of the Nation Assessment Project. October 1991, pp. 1-39.

Salvosa-Loyola, C. and V.A. Corpus. 1991, Nutrition, Work Pc'rformance and Pro­ductivity University of the Philippines State of the Nation Assessment Project October 1991, pp. 1-39.

Santos-Ocampo, PD., L.S Ramiro, .l.S. Tayag, and N.I'. Simbulan. 1991. The Filipino eh.ild: A Health Situationer. State of the Nmion Reseamh Reports. Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press.

Tall-Torres T. 1993. Position Paper on Challenges of Technology Assessment in Health Care in Developing Countries. Manila Clinical Epidemiology Unit, U nivc'r~ity of the Ph ilippines Manila.

Valenzuela R.C. Florencio, and H. Guthale, 1979. Distribution of Nutrients within the Filipino Family. Nutrition Reports International 1<):573.

White, K.L. 1991 Healing the Schism: Epidemiology. Medicine and Public's Health. III: Frontiers of Primary Care Series. Lipkin. M. Jr. (Ed). New York: Springcr­Verlag. pp. 1-27K.

Domingo, Issues on flealth 35

World Development Report. 1'193. Investing in Health. New York: Oxford Univer­sity Press. pp.I-324.

Zablan, Z.e. 1994. The Unmet Need for Contraceptive Services of Filipino Couples in 1986. In: Population. Human Resources and Development. Hen'in A.N (Ed.) Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press, pp. 279-324.

REACTION TO DR ERNESTO O. DOMINGO'S PAPER

Mr. Antonio Abaya Columnist. Philippine Star

Madam Chairwoman, officers of the National Academy of Science and Tech­nology, distinguished guests and participants in this nt~eting, good mornIng and thank you for inviting me to take part here.

This is the third time I am joining the NAST in its annual meeting and I feel comfortable with the people who are involved in science and technology because although I am in the media - my academic background i, in Chemistry, so we speak the same language. And one point of correction Madam Chair, I am no longer with the Manila Chronicle. I am with the Philippine Star.

Prof. Ernesto Domingo is to be congratulated for his very comprehensive paper on the issues on health, population, nutrition, chi Idren, public health and health care financing. This paper is really very comprehensive. It is 23 pages long, 23 typewritten, single-spaced pages. Not being a health professional, a nutritionist, a pediatrician, a public health official, or a health care packager, ! do not feel I am competent enough to react to the bulk of Prof. Domingo' paper and al'ter going through these 23 pages, I honestly wondered why I was invited to react to it in the first place. With your indulgence, I have decided not to try to react to the whole paper as I would have nothing to say for or against the many points raised by Prof. Domingo on issues that I have absolutely no expertise or interest in. Instead I have decided to focus on that part of his paper that dealt with population.

As a columnist, I have taken strong position on this population issue and I am prepared to join the debate. Prof. Domingo tells us that the world's popUlation grew from 3.28 billion in 1965 to 3.89 billion in 1973 to 5.35 billion in 1991. Current growth rate is 1.6% or about 90 million more people every year. At this growth rate, it is predicted that world popUlation will reach 8.66 billion in the year 2030 which means population will have doubled in less than 50 years. Much of this growth occurred in low and middle income countries in Sub-Sahara Africa to Middle East, North Africa, East Asia. the Pacific, South A'sia, Latin America and the Carribeans and that includes the Philippines. Philippine population growth has declined from 3.0% in the 1950's to 2.7% in the 1970's to 2.4% in the 1980's. Presumably with the pro-active population

37

38 Transactions iValronal Academy of Science

program of the Ramos government, that growth rate can be reduced to 2.0% per annum or even lower by the year :1000. But Prof. Domingo warns us that even if fertility rate is (;ut down to replacement level by the year 201 0, population will reach zero growth rate only at around the year 2075 at which time our population will be 127 million. Needless to say. population increases puts stresses on food and water supply, on housing, on education. on energy, on natural resources and consequently the environment plus on leisure. transportation and everything else. In countries like the Philippines, where population growth often outpaces economic growth, the net result is a decline in average income with the harshest effect on the poor. This has the billiard ball effect on the nutrition and health conditions of the population, life expectancy, food supply and ultimately even on their productivity at the workplace. So population really has an effect on econom ic efllciency and therefore on econom ic growth. Prof. Dom ingo correctly sees in better-educated women the key to a bett .. r health environment nnd the way out of the problems caused by overpopulation:

I. Better-educated women start families much later than uneducated women.

2. Better-educated women are better able to get and use health infor­mation resulting in better hygiene and less risk of infection, and better food and more immunization.

3. In 13 African countries between 1975 and 1985, a survey showed that a 10% increase in female literacy reduced child mortality by 10%, whereas an increase in male literacy had little influence on alcohol intake.

4. Better-educated women are also able to get better paying jobs; income in the hands of women at home produces more health benefits for children than when the father is controlling the money (this speaks a lot about the usefulness of men).

5. Better-educated people, tend to make choices in lifestyle and health practices that are beneficial. including a readiness to .hange habits for the better. I suppose this means that better educated people tend to lim it the size of their fam il ies out of their own volition withuut anybody telling them to do so.

Prof. Domingo says that modulation of population increase by pUlling a cap on fertility should be a major issue and I agree with him 100%. But he correctly warns that the population problem is more complex than it is made to appear and that some of the underlying assumptions sometimes turn out to be questionable. For example, he gives us the ferti lity rate in Kenya which rose as standards of living rose from 7.4 live births per woman in the 1950's to 8.12 in the 1960's and the 1970's. Thus. it belied the assumption that families reduce their number of children as their standard of living goes up. Similarly. Prof.

Plenary Session I.Reac(ion of /'I4r. Aba}'a 39

Domingo writes that in Nigeria when the economic condition went sour, fam il ies turned to contraceptives. But these are probably exceptions that prove the rule. In fact, Prof. Domingo admits that the strategies recommended by the U. N. World Popu lation Conference 20 years ago which involved the attenuation of poverty, the expansion of access to health and the improvement in the status of women all met with success in the majority of nations. So some nations succeeded, others did not. Prof. Domingo criticizes the DOH for being equivocal in its population policy. He says that a vigorous program to push family planning aimed at reducing fertility should be pursued. He says that the DOH policy is "a lot of soap" and "a policy crafted with a singular purpose of avoiding offending anyone and pleasing all is reduced to a wish statement whose fulfillment is left to late." I can appreciate Prof. Domingo's impatience with DOli policy because I too am in favor ofa more vigorous campaign to reduce fertility but, on the other hand, the issue has become highly politic ized because of the ohjection of the Philippine Roman Catholic Church. Being a Protestant, Pres. Ramos understandably has to walk a narrow path carefully unless his religion is used against him in which case the modest success that he has achieved or can achieve will be negated as the battle line becomes drawn along religious lines which we do not want to happen. What I mean is that if you take a very strong

position and deliberately antagonize the Roman Catholic hierarchy it may come to pass that even Catholics who are in favor of population control may be drawn to the other side because the debate may become drawn along religious lines which we do not want to happen.

In my opinion, the Ramos position (as articulated by the DOli) of making information available on various methods of family planning and letting couples decide for themselves which methods to use is reasonable and pragmatic given the vocal and bitter opposit ion of the Roman Catholic Church to even this moderate approach. What is probably lacking is the concerted effort to promote:

L The idea ofa small family as the socially accepted norm. The ideal of the better educated woman as the preferred Fi I ipina. A media blitz to sell these to concept in advertising, in movies. on television would condition couples to choose the most effective means of family planning without putting the Ramos government on a collision course with the Roman Catholic church. So I think that the efforts should come from the private groups to sell the idea of a small family and the better educated woman through radio. through T.V., through movies, but hopefully without lIsing Lolit, Ruffa and Nanette, maybe Gretchen Baretto. In the medium and long term, I can sec the Church. the Roman Catholic Church ,'hanging its position on contraceptives as il had changed its position to other moral issues in the past. Perhaps, just perhaps, the next Pope will be morc open on this issue in which case the conservative position of the

40 Transactions National Academy q{ Science

Philippine church will b~ undermined and become irrelevant. In the meantill)e, let us worry about how we are going to feed, clothe, educate and find jobs for 127 million Filipinos by the year 2075. Thank you and good day.

"REACTION TO THE PAPER OF DR. ERNESTO DOMINGO ON ISSUES ON POPULATION, NUTRITION, CHILDREN, PUBLIC HEALTH AND HEALTH CARE FINANCING"*

Dr. Thelma Navarrete-Clemente President. Philippine Hospital Associulion

Good morning friends, distinguished guests, ladies and gentlemen, magandang umaga.

First permit me to congratulate the prestigious National Academy of Science and Technology on its 16th Annual Scientific Meeting:

its organizing committee of the well-planned program of activities; the recipicnts of the various awards: the Outstanding publ ished papers. the Outstanding Publication; the Outstanding Young Scientists; the NAST -TW AS-Science Prize; to the well-known panel of speakers panelists academicians and consultants whose contributions to the growth and development of science and technol­ogy is qu ite evident in our country today to power us to arriving at the Philippines by the year 2000; and foremost to a multi-awarded personality, Dr. Perla Dizon Santos-Ocampo. pediatrician,

on her investiture a~ a new academician this morning, Congratulations to Academician Dr. Ernesto 0, Domingo for his well-pre­

pared comprehensive. timely and relevant paper on the Issues on Population Nutrition. Children, Public Health and Health Care Financing.

Indeed I am thankful for this job. However, I consider it an opportunity to use the mcager resources and capabilities of the Philippine Hospital Association (PHA) to help the government. particularly the DOH, to plan and implement pro­grams that will improve the status of health. Certain facts should be stressed before we start with our reaction.

I shall not say I am sorry if I cannot react to all the issues mentioned in his paper as to do so will mean I have to talk until this evening.

'Reaction paper detivered during the t6th Annuat Scienlific Meeting of the Nationat Academy of Science and Technology, Philippine tnternational Convenlion Center, Manila on

July 13·14. 1994.

4t

Trwuactions National Ar:ad~m)' of .\'crence

Let me concentrate on a very vital health institution as my belief is that this institution can handle all the issues in health, if only given the chance and the needed support.

As you well know, the Philippines is a developing country in Asia border­ing the Pacific ocean composed of 100 islands with big bodies of water separating them. There are also mountain ranges in between towns or provinces and the absence of good roads to the remote rural areas. There are many very small islands with very few or no inhabitants and without a doctor nor a clinic. These make access difficult. Tyranny of geography is the form we apply to those con­straints of the area. No electricity, increased population.

There are 15 geographic regions including the Cordillera Autonomous Re­gion (CAR), the National Capital Region (NCR) and the Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao (ARMM). Our 1990 census showed a population of 61 mi Ilion and an estimated gross density of 203 inhabitants per square kilometer. The popu­lation grew 23% on the average during the past decade due to the failure to reduce fertility. This growth rate is the highest in the Southeast and East Asian region. With this growth rate, the country is expected to have a popu lation of 78 million plus in the year 2000 or an increase of 29% over its present popu lation. Only 1.6 to 2% of our gross national product is allocated for health unlike the U.S. that allocated 13-15% of its GNP yet more than a million Americans do not have any medical insurance.

While there have been significant improvements in health globally , regionally and locally, the Philippines is still quite behind its neighboring coun­tries. This is true not only for health but also for its socio-economic development.

Dr. Domingo questioned the public money being spent for specIality hospi­tals (health palaces) where esoteric procedures like transplants are being done and which benefits only a few people.

The Philippine Hospital Association has more than 1800 member hospitals. both government and private. This includes 50 public hospitals (DOH - -15 only and LGUs - 550) and 209 private hospitals with an authorized bed capacity of about 100,000 or on the average of I to 600 + of the population. The ideal ratio as stated by WHO is I bed to 500 of the population. These are of three categories: the primary of 21 beds or less; the secondary of 25 beds or less than 100; and the tertiary provincial regional medical centers. As stated before, peculiar geographic situation has placed health recipients at a disadvantage. Where health care is not available nor accessible in certain areas there is, however, a superconcentration of health manpower and technology in the NCR and other cities.

We believe that the hospital sector has much to do nith all of these current Issues.

For us in the hospital ind ustry, if you want to call it that way, there is a nagging question. Are hospitals needed in our health care system? The 1986 constitution has mandated that the DOH have a vital role in health care and its vision should be the recognition of health as a basic human right. As a right,

Plenary Session I, Reaction of Dr. ( '/emente 43

people may have demand for it and services should be available to all people at affordable costs,

With the implementation of the Local Government Code more than two years ago, the lawmakers certainly wanted a pro-people law - people empowerment. Local Government Unit officials are not health oriented, thus this led to the deterio­ration of health care, poor quality service, limited supply of medicine and the demor­alization of the health care workers,

The A's requirements of good health care systems are:

Available, Accessible, Affordahle, Ade(luate

We in the private sector are fully cooperative with the DOH's efforts to attain its mission and vision yet most of the time we feel we arc being pushed against the wall by some oppressive laws from Congress, such as:

I. NO DEPOSIT LA W - How can we exist without money? We worked hard to define at Congress emergency situations that are life threaten­ing and certainly no deposit is required for such cases,

2, MOTHER & BABY FRIENDLY HOSPITAL LAW - requires hospi­tals to provide rooming ill and breastfeeding services for mothers, If we calUlot do this up the end of 1995, then we may not be given our I icense for 1996.

3. El'vIERGENCY SERVICES - for free 4. ILLEGAL DETENTION - Penal Code penalizes hospitals guilty of

this. This pertains to the rights of patients to enter the hospital, choose the doctor, give his consent to any proposed procedures and leave even without settling his bills.

5. SENIOR CITIZENS LA W - While this was meant for public govern­ment hospitals, yet the demand for such is usually at the private sector.

6. VAT ON MEDICINES - for the last 5 years, we have been request­ing in Congress for the removal of this. We can never lower the cost of health care when prices of medicine are increased every quarter.

7. LGU'S mayors permit, business tax - 3/4 of 1% on the gross, not even considering that hospitals are not profi t centers and that we have a lot of PNs and bad debts.

8. 35% straight 011 income tax as against the 10% of income tax for pri­vate education etc.

In short, there is no protection for private hospitals, and maybe the govern­ment does not appreciate or need the services of the private hospitals to carry out the health care of OUf people.

I. The most important point to consider is the present rQle of modem hospitals, that is, the provision of:

a.

b. c. d.

Trausactions Nalimwl Academy of Science

preventive, promotive, diagnostic, curative, and rehabilitative services; leaching, training of health manpower; researc h; and community sen'ices.

In our first role, we have been not only O:l!ntl!rs of l!Xl"dll!nl'I!, but centl!rs of wdlness as well. We have cooperated with the follow­ing programs of the DOH: Expanded Program Immunization (EPI) of the six immunizable diseases; as "patak" centers against polio: AIDS aW:lreness campaign; establ ishcd volunteer blood donors directory; "sagip mata" movement; cancer screening: "alay puso." etc.

2. All clinical departments in tertiary medical centers have teaching and training programs accredited with the corresponding speciality socie­ties. Private hospitals do this inspite of its high cost and the institutions' limited or scanty resources. The worst part of the game is the intrigue shown by a group or association of doctors who declared that resi­dents, even in teaching training hospital s should have employer-em­ployee relations and be subjected to minimum wages eight hours work. extra time, overtime, security of tenure and all other fri nge benefits. The idea of these godfather associations is that training hospitals arc exploiting the residents and that they should be allowed to unionize.

3. Rl!search is very li mited in the Philippines especially so in the private setting but we have made the preparation of scientific papers as part of our requirements before the assignment to the next higher grade or graduation from their Post Graduate Intern (PGI).

Incidentally. through the years. we have acquired certain pro­prietary data which may be very useful for the CMC at least.

4. Our fourth and biggest role is in our community projects. Gone are the days when hospitals are the white elephants or the ivory towers that people just look up 10. We have adopted a concepl of hospitals without walls so WI.' can reach out to our community. Philippine hospitals have been requested to "adopt a barangay or barangays" so they can relate with the community.

STEPS TO IlE TAKEN TO ADDRESS THE ISSUES

L At present, we have about 44,000 barangays with their own chairmen and kagawads. These can make the hospital the core of the primary health care system and be a part of our massive and continuing Infor­mation, Education and Communication (IE C) c<unpaign.

As far as the community is concerned. the massive media infor­mation, education and communication campaign has emphasized Pub­lic Health Issucs. Aside from this we train and teach them about;

Plenary Session I. Reactioll of J)r. Clemente

Hygiene (personal) and Sanitation (environmental); Health Education; Deworming, responsible parenthood, fami Iy planning, maternal and child care; Potable water system; Proper waste disposal: No smoking campaign; Tree Planting, etc. Proper Nutrition (diets), cooking, menu planning, therapeutic diets, etc. In some countries we have even meals 0 n wheels for most disabled senior citizens who cannot move around. Hospi­tals have also participated in giving hot meals once or twice a week with the volunteers like some church groups. Track gardening (backyard fishing) to augment the family's food supply!income; Revival of Filipino values, and Pamilyang uliran "Towards a National Culture of Excellence". The PHA has organized on-going seminars. workshops on hos-

pital administration for the 14 regions so by improving their financIal viability the hospitals may be able to render cost-effective, quality patient care without suffering from financial distress or from bank­ruptcy.

2. Primary Health Care Concept of Alma Ata - 1978 "Health Care for All by the Year 2000" was adopted by the govern­

ment. This is not new in the health care vocahulary. As early as 19n, our government subscribed to the Alma Ata concept of Health.

1 Medicare Program a. Medicare Phase I (Hospital oriented) - This pertains to the first

phase of the PMCC plan through the Medicare under Republic Act 61 I I as amended for compulsory coverage of all the em­ployed sector and is admin isterc~ by the GSIS for 5 million governmellt members and dependents and about 23 million pri­vate sector members and dependents. Ideally, PMCC desired a 70% support value but with in1lation, etc., the present support value is about 30-35% only The self-employed. like jeepncy drivers, store owners can be members.

b. Equal SSS-GSIS Benefits - Due to financial constraints, 70-75% of the population is considered medically indigent; hence, gov­ernment must provide for this. Four years ago, the government appropriated P3UO to 600 million from the savings of other de­partments of government to equalize the benefits being given to the government employees and to those employed in the pri-

Plenary ~\'ess ;on / , Reaction of Dr Clemente 47

We are studying alternative health care financing schemes From Korea which may be more suitable for our country

Government financing institutions, such as DBP, SSS, Land Bank, PNB are giving soft loans payable in 20 years or more at low (15%) interest rates unlike private banks which have interest rates of 20-2~% payable in :) to 5 years.

1. Multilateral and bilateral agreements such as USAID, and Japan Inter­national Cooperative Agency (J ICA) have provided additional inputs in developing the health care system through loans, aid grants and technical support. Foreign assistance conting from Germany, Canada. Australia, Sweden, United Kingdom and other countnes have helped in the above work.

~. Proper mix of preventive and curative services. Efficiency in heal th utilization is achieved when individuals with real health needs seek care and are able to obtain the needed care from the appropriate health care facilities. Since prevention is less expensive than cure, then government should allocate a bigger portion of its budget for these services.

5. Efficiency and equity in the private sector. The notion that the private sector may be more efficient although it may not be more equitable than the public sector rests on the assumption that the private sector operates under the conditions of "perfectly competitive markets."

48 Transaction,'! ;Valional Academy of Science

A PUULIC HNANCE APPROACH TO G( )VERNMENT ACTlVfflES IN HEALTH

(Category n Public Health Activities

Belongs to the government as public health activities do not generate any income, then the private sector does not have any motivationlincentive for the private sector

Epidemiological data collection Health system planning, Health education

Regulation, Licensing, Environmental health Prevention of communicable diseases

Decreasing cost of utilities (water. sanitation)

(Category 2)

Mixed Pub lid Private Activities

Public & Private cooperate with each other. Sharing of expertise and technology linkages, Trisectoral Referral System These are activities done by both the private and the public sector

Ta rgeted Health Problems such as *Family Planning

*Maternal/Child health *lnfant nutrition *lmmuni7.3tion

Treatment of Communicable Diseases

(CatL~ory ~~)

('rivate Activities

Trends in Health Care Marketing of Health Services in Hospitals. Hospitals as Centers of Wellness not only of Excellence -Preventive, Ambulatory Care, Total Quality Management in Health Care. Re-enginccring of Systems. Cost Containment. Cost effectiveness. Services almost exclusively done by the private sector. The people who are truly indigent should be treated in government hospitals in the most cost effective way to spend the people's money.

..

Acute care *inpatient *oulpallent

Laboratory services Hospital hotel services

Plenary Se.viion I. Reaction qf Dr. Clemfntt'

CONCLUSJ()N

Let me quote from Paine and Siem Tjam in the book- Hospitals and the Health Care Revolution:

"An understanding of the principal health problems of individuals, and hence of communities, should be the basis of all health care. Analysis of these problems, of what can be done about them with the knowledge and resources available enables decisions to be made about priorities and programs."

An essential precondition to successful primary health care is a supportive political climate in which health is viewed as part of total human development and the right of every individual, specially the children.

Over the past 20 years, many people have begun to question the relevance and effectiveness of national health systems in both developing and industrialized countries. In particular, there is a growing awareness that health workers other than physicians are able to provide care, that hospitals employing sophisticated technology are not the only places where care can be delivered, and that the medical model is not the only possible foundation for a national health system. Exploration of alternative approaches to health care has led to a revolutionar)' process of change aimed at the protection and promotion of health and formalized in WHOs Global Strategy of Health for All by the year 2000. This strategy empha­sizes the principles of primary health care as the foundation for a new approach in which medical technology and hospitals, rather than serving a minority of sick people, accept a new responsibility, that of participating in the development of a total health system capable of meeting the needs of the whole population. The resulting radical and sometimes unsettling changes are now affecting hospitals all over the world.

The dictionary tells us that a revolution is a great upheaval or a complete change in, for example, outlook. social habits or circumstances. The health care revolution, as we understand it, is a great change of the more gradual kind. At its simplest, the health care revolution, as we implied in the previous paragraph, is an attempt to integrate hospitals into a new style of health care system centered on primary health care.

More expansively, it could be described as an international crusade founded on the principle that health is a basic human entitlement, to which all should have equal access and an equal right, irrespective of nationality, residence, wealth or social position; for the achievement and maintenance of which all should take some responsibility, in relation to themselves and to others; and in the pursuit of which everyone must be concerned - with doctors and other professional health workers playing a major and essential role, but not necessarily the predominant one.

Manuning Salamat po Mahuhay Tayong l.ahat!

Reference: Monograph No. 1 Hospitals and the Health Care Revolution by Paine and Siem 7]alll

ISSUES ON POPULATION, NUTRITION, PUBLIC HEALTH AND HEALTH CARE FINANCING VETERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH

Dr. Teodulo M. '('opacio. Jr. President, Philippine Socie(y of Veterinary Public flealth

I am a veterinarian by profession and perhaps you might be wondering what I am doing here giving remarks on public health. But I would like to inform you that the veterinary profession is very much involved in public health. By and large the public, and even other professions, do not realize that the veterinarian, although he/she deals with animal health and production, is also involved in protecting the health of the public. For your information. there are, as of the latest count, 176 diseases of animals transmissible and common to man. To cite a few examples: rabies, anthrax. leprospirosis , brucellosis, salmonollosis. collbacillosis. swine erysipelas. tuherculosis, and internal parasites like. tapeworms. roundworms and !lukes. So important are these diseases to human health that a German physician hy the name of Dr. Rudolf Virchow gave the name =oot/ose.\· to this gwup. However, zoonoses is only one aspect of the veterinary profession that is geared to the protection of human health. There are other areas of veterinary medicine wherein the responsibility of the veterinarian is to complement the role of the physician in the pmtection of the health of individuals .

This role of the veterinarian has become so important that it created a new speciality in the practice of veterinary medicine called: "veterinary public health". This specialty was the creation of veterinary experts of the World Health Organiza­tion (WHO) and the Food and Agriculture OrganizmionlFAO) of the United Nations. They defined veterinary public health as: "a component of public health activities devoted to the application of pro Ie ssiona I veterinary skills, knowledge and resoun:es to the protection and improvement of human health." The term veterinary public health was first officially used in 1946 during the meeting which gave charter to the World Health Organization.

As previously mentioned and dclined. loonoses is only one aspect of veteri­nary puhlic health where the veterinarian is involved. ZOOlHlses is probably the most visible function of the veterinarian in protecting human health. There are other areas of veterinary puhlic health which is just as equally important. Food protection is an area of this specialty wherem the veterinarian carries a

*Reaction pnper de livered during tilt: 16th Annu;iI SClentilk ~1eCltng of thl: National

Aca demy of Scienc e and Te Chnology, Ph ilipp ine Intern at ional Conven tion ('c l11 cr, :\ianil a 011 .J uly 13 - 14. I ()94 .

51

S2 Tram'actions National Academy of Sciem:e

heavy responsibility. All of you are aware that food animals are the important sources of protein that a person must partake in order to maintain good health. The meat of these animals must be safe for human consumption. I t must come from healthy and not diseased animals which may harbor zoonotic diseases. Veterinarians, by virtue of their professional training, can recognize these dis­eased animals i neluding t he meat through ante-mortem and post-mortem inspec­tion and thereby condemn them as unfit for human consumption. Some of these diseases like anthrax, TB or sahnonellsis can be deadly to llIan. The maintenance of the sanitary conditions wherein the animals are slaughtered, i.e .. abbatoirs, the meat processing plants are likewise the responsibility of the veterinarian. Com­parative medicine, as the term implies, is the use oflaboratory animals in studying the effects of drugs and harmful microorganisms and then applying these reac­tions in humans, the objective uf which is to find a cure lor human diseases. For this purpose, the production _of laboratory animals, e.g. rabbits, guinea pigs, mice, rats, dogs, cats, etc., is an important responsibility of the veterinarian in public health. The upsurge in the occurrence of mental diseases and related neurologi­cal disturbances in llIan have been alleviated by the usc of animals as companions or pets that even assist the blind as "seeing eye dogs". Protection of the environ­ment from farm wastes and poisonous chemicals, e.g., pesticides, is in the domain of the veterinarian. Our country is noted for disasters, natural and mall-made (trees, floods, typhoons, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions). During these occur­rences, the veteri narian must see to It that the food animals are fit for human consumption.

These are. in brief, the responsibilities of the veterinarian in protecting and maintaing public health.

(J(enal): Se s.'I;on I. Summary 53

Rapporteur's Report

PLENARY SESSION I

"Issues on Health: Population, Nutrition, Children, Public Health and Healthcare Financing"

Speaker Panelists

Dr. Ernesto O. Domingo Mr. AntonioC. Abaya

Moderator :

Dr. Thelma Navarrete-Clemente Dr. Teodulo M. Topacio, .fr. Academician Gelia T. Castillo Academician Quintin L. Kintanar Rapporteur :

SUMMARY

There has been significant improvement in health regionally and globally.

Major Issues Discussed:

I. Access Failure of everyone to avail themselves of health services, resources

and facilities despite adequacy of the same, for example • non-access to food and contraceptives

2. Equity Failure to return to contributors goods commensurate with their contri­

bution. Examples:

3.

4.

5.

6.

• 70% of the budget of DOH is spent on the hospital system but

• more of the population's need is services outside the hospital Private and Public insurance arc inequitous and cover only hos­pital services.

Inefliciency • e.g. underutil ization of hospital beds and procurement of ines­

sential drugs

Inappropriate technology: adoption of technology of unproved ettl­cacy and low-cost benefit • many standard healthcare services are not necessary and are useless

Healthcare Financing • more health spending does not necessarily result in better health

Population • population increase puts stresses on political and social institu­

tions, natural and created resources and quality of life • • •

strategy to putting a cap on population explosion has not been slIccessful but has met with varying success equi valent of vaccines for infections is contraceptives for popu­lation control advocacy is needed to limiting fertility by contraceptives

54

7.

8.

9.

rran.vacrions Naooflal Academ)' of Science

Nutrition i.e., adequate supply and universal access is the solutIOn to malnutrition. Children's Health - The issues are nutrition, mental and psychosocial development, access to education and quality of life as adults; Public Health

The issue is the schism between the public health and clinical medicine. The solution is to bring back public health philosophy into clinical medicine and for public health to be enriched by clin ical medi-cine.

Clinical epidemiology is the bridge to heal the schism.

PANELIST: Dr. Thelma Navarette-Clemente

• •

• • •

Only 1.5 - 2% of GNP is spent for health services There are 603 public hospitals and 1,200 private hospitals with 100,000 beds. The WHO standard is one bed per 500 population Local government code and devolution has led to deterioration of healthcare Hospitals will find it difficult to meet the requirements of the Mother and Baby Friendly Hospital Law She stressed the problems of private hospitals to cope with taxes, labor laws, etc.

ADDITIONAL INFORMA nON

Three categories of Health Care Systems:

I. Public Health activities - belong to government 2. Targeted health problem - government and private sharing 3. Acute care for in-patient and out-patient - private mainly

Dr. Topacio cited the example of rabies as a disease of animals transmissible to man falling under Veterinary Public Health.

RECOMMENDA TIONS

I. Forty-four (44) thousand barangays can make the hospital the core of the health care system especially through lEC

2. Community outreach activities 3. Improve financial status of the hospitals 4. Medicare Phase 1& II Implementation on

5 million - government mem bers 23 million - SSS members

28 million

Trans Na,. Acad. SCI. 7ee/mo/. /6 55-8/./994

THE CHALLENGE OF ECONOMIC RESTRUCTlJRING TOWARD SlJSTAINED ECONOl\UC GROWTII*

Ponciano S. Inial, Jr. **

I. INTRouucnON: SETrIN(; "NICHOOU" STRAIGHT

To most Filipinos nowadays, Philippines :WOO is nearly synonymous with the government's drive toward "NICHood." There is confusion about what NIC means. however. The clearest definition is that of a "newly industrialized country" which is generally characterized by the predominance ora dynamic industnal sector in the economy, a very low share of agriculture to gross domestic product, and probably a per capita income of about US$7,500 per year or more at current prices. Viewed in this light. Philippines 2000 as the drive to NIChood is totally unrealistic. Unfortunately, some high government officials get carried away and tend to communicate to the public the vision of "NIChood" in Philippines 2000 in terms of a "newly industrialized country."

The government's economic managers have always referred to "NIC' as "newly industrializing country," characterized by a predominance of manufac­tures in total exports, a one-fourth share or so of manufacturing to gross domestic product. and a per capital income of about US$ 1.500-US$2,OOO per year at current prices. This is defi nitely a far more modest and realistic goal for the Philippines by the year 2000 than the previously discussed definition of Nrc.

"N1C: defined as "newly industrializing country." connotes a process rather than a state. Considering that the Philippines meets the usual critena of NIChood except for the per capital criterion as yet, the Philippines at present can be said to be in the process of industrializing. albeit in a spotty way and very slowly. Moreo­ver, there is nothing magical about a US$I,500-US$2,OOO per capita income. Many Latin American countries (i.e., Venezuela, Argentina, Mexico, Brazil, Chile, Panama) had per capita incomes greater than US$I ,500 by the latter 1970s, yet

*Paper presented lit the 16th Annual Scienti!k Meeting of the National Academy of Sc ll!nct' and Technology. PICC, Manila on 13-14 July 1994.

• ... Prt~sid~nt. Philippine Inslitutc for DeveJopment Studies (PiDS). Th~ views e.xpl"ess~d her\~ln are thm'C' of the author and do dot nece.~artJy reflel .. t thuse of the fnstilule. 'Ille author wants to thank Ms. Odette Salcedo for editorial assistance and Ms. Jane Alcantara for secretarial assi."unce.

55

Transac(ions National Academy of Science

they experienced major economic setbacks during much of the 1980s like the Philippines.

What the government's economic managers seem to really encapsulate in the phrase "newly industrializing country" or NIC is for the Philippines to takeoff to sustained economic growth. This means that the "boom and bust" cycle that plagued the Philippine economy during the post WW 11 period should not recur. It also means that the macroeconomic parameters, e.g., the investment and savings rates, inflation rate, debt service ratio - should be robust and should significantly improve. In effect, what the government is really aiming for in Philippines 2000 is, using the currently popular business parlance, "economic tigerhood" like the rest of East Asia; that is, an economy that "roars" and" leaps" rather than sputters ever so often. In terms of acronyms, it is not NIC or "newly industrializing country" that matters but RIC or "rapidly industriali7ing country."

In order for the country to attain the vision of economic "tigerhood" under Philippines 2000, this paper advances that the country and government under­stand and situate the parameters of Philippine development in the context of the Asian region, rethink Philippine agricultural development, strengthen Philippine industry and tradable services, and invest in people, institutions, technology and the environment. The paper concludes with some remarks on impl ications on the social science and information research community.

n. TBE "EAST ASIAN MmACI~E" ANn THE PHILlPI'INES

The Philippine economic performance in the 1980s was certainly lackluster compared to the performance of the rest of East Asia (and even compared to South Asia) such that the Philippines has come to be regarded as "the sick man of Asia," which has become a reflection of the Filipinos' reduced self-confidence. The Philippine economic performance was particularly discouraging when com­pared to the country's apparently more favorable ranking in the region during the 1950s and early 1960s (See Table I).

It should be emphasized, however, that the economic ranking of the Philip­pines in the region during the 1950s was artificially inflated by a heavily overval­ued peso, considering that one US dollar then should have been worth about four pesos instead of two pesos if purchasing power parity principles had been followed. (The adjusted per capita income of the Philippines would have been below South Korea and only marginally higher than Thailand.) The overvaluation of the peso and the policy regime that propped up the peso overvaluation during the 1950s is at the root of the tortuous process of economic development toward "tigerhood" of the Philippines during the past three decades.

Singapore

Malaysia

Philippi nes

South Korea

Thailand

Infal, Economic Restrucfurlng

Table 1 Per Capita Income, Selected Co un trios

(in US dullars at current prices)

1960 1977 ..

492 2,880

282 930 -

256 450

+ 154 820 --

96 420

Soun..:CS (If tiara: World Bo"k Develupment Report J97<;. }r;::,'2, lWJ.

57

! 1991 -- -

14,210

I 2,520 ---- --

730 - --

6,330 I-- ----

1.570

The' Philippines pursued heavy industria I protection, peso overvaluati on, and inward-oriented industrial development too long such that scarce capital re­sources were allocated inefficiently and indiscriminately toward import substitu­tion and the domestic market. The country erroneously pursued heavy industrial protection for too long because the real problems were masked to a substantial extent by the unsustainable "mining" and depletion of the country's resources (especially forestry) which generated substantial foreign exchange reserves dur­i ng the latter 1960s and the early 1970s.

In s11arp contrast, the successful East Asian economies pursued import sub­stitution and an inward-onented development strategy only brieOy (e.g., Taiwan) or barely at all (e.g., Singapore. Hongkong) and moved strongly toward export orientation. In these countries. the more difficult second stage of import substitu­tion of intermediate goods was pursued only after they had become firmly estab­lished as exporters (Chen 1(89). In the Philippines, and especially in Latin America, the second stage of import substitution was pursued immediately after the initial process of easy import substitution of primarily consumer imports. As a result. the Philippines and many Latin American countries had to undertake difficult and prolonged industrial restructuring in order to move toward greater efficiency and outwa rd orientation during the 1980s.

A comparative study of the economic performance of developing countries from the 1960s until the mid-1980s shows that outward economies had higher income and export gro\\1h rates, made use of scarce capital resources more effi­ciently, and generated much greater industrial employment than inward looking economics (see Table 2; World Bank 1987, Chapter 5). This precept is best exem­plified by the successful East Asian Economics.

58 Tran.'iUcNo"s National Academy of Science

The success stories of East Asia's "dragons" or "tigers" has led to a growing literature which try to understand and explain the factors of such spectacular economic performance. Of particular emphasis is the still raging debate on the role of the state vis-a-vis the market. The latest and probably most influential publication on this is the World Bank's voltune on the "East Asian Miracle" (1993). At one level, the results of the analysis arc probably not very surprising: there is no single golden route to economic prosperity. R..1ther, each East dragon fash­ioned its own mix of government intervention, extent of reliance on markets and nature of governance according to what best fits its political economy, economic and technological circumstances, and culture.

Tahle2 Comparative Performance of Countries hy Trade Regime

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)

Rt~<11 GNP Growth per

Capita (%/year)

1973-85

Strongly outward-oriented 1>.9 5.'!

Moderlely outward-oriented 5.03 I.Sa

M~,cJcrately inward-

ori~nted '~ . I)a 1.Qil

Strongly outward-oriented 1.6 -0.1

Growth of Manufacture,",

Exports (%/year)

14.H 14.2

16.1 14.5

1O .. l

5.7 3.7

Incremental Capital

(lutput Ratio

(annual ratio)

1963-73 1973-85

25

2.5 5.0

301 6.2

5.2 8.7

Growth of Real Manufacturing Valuo Added (%/ycar)

Share of I.abor Force ill Industry

(Al Strongly outward-

oriented (B) Moderately outward­

oriented (C) Moderately inward­

oriented (D) Strongly outward­

oriented

(IApproximate

I 963-n

15

25

33

52

Source: 1987 World Development Report pp. 84-87

1963-73 1973-85

45 17.5 30.0

5.0 12.7 21.7

6.2 15.2 23.0

8.7 12.1 12.6

At a more fundamental level, however, the experience of successful East Asian economies suggests that the basis of successful economic governance is simple despite the usual florid or high sounding rhetoric. The message is this: follow the intuition of basic economics. Specifically, four conditions should be highlighted:

Intal, Economic Restructuring 59

The first is economic outwardness. As expected, outward orientation and export push allows for a great play of one of the basic tenets of economics, i.e., the law·of comparative advantage which facilitates the allocation of a country's resources consistent with the country's evolving international competitiveness. Economic outwardness includes openness to foreign investment and/or technol­ogy in order to raise the country's investment rate and accelerate the technologi­cal upgrading of the country's productive capacity.

The second is macroeconomic and price stability to minimize uncertainty and transactions cost ofintertemporal decisions especially savings and investment (both physical and human). This encourages higher saving and investment rates, as well as financial deepening in the countryside.

The third is general Oexibility of the domestic market factors, both capital and labor, in order to maximize the economy's Oexibility in adjusting to market shocks and shifts in international competitiveness and comparative advantage. General Oexibility of the labor market entails the congruence of wage adjustments and labor productivity changes.

Thejourth is that the agricultural sector should not be overly-taxed and the industrial sector not overly-subsidized to prevent greater inequity across social and income classes. At the same time, the distribution of the returns from agricul­ture should be more equitable.

The four conditions encourage efficient allocation of resources, greater focus on productivity, and acceleration of technological adaptation and up grad­i ng. In addition to the four conditions, the successful East Asian governments propagated the "principle of shared growth" (Page 1994, p.S) wherein they imple­mented major equity-oriented programs (e.g., housing in Hongkong and Singa­pore; bias for bumiputras in Malaysia; land reform in South Korea and Taiwan; and cooperatives in most of them) to show the people that the governments en­sure that economic growth benefits everybody.

The approach to attaining the above four conditions can be direct and non­interventionist as in Hongkong or through a convoluted set of government inter­ventions as in South Korea. The principle of shared growth and strong govern­ment-private sector linkages in policy decision-making helped ensure the soci­ety's sense of "ownership" of the government's economic programs.

The conditions are simple and clear. However, as the experiences of many developing countries indicate, attaining them and staying there can be very diffi­cult indeed. A recent comparative study by John Williamson of the Institute for International Economics indicates that committed leadership and support of the legislature are important factors for successful macroeconomic adjustment and structural reforms because of: (1) the police power of the State to impose burden sharing (and benefit sharing) as well as penalties for shirking among the popu­lace; (2) the political role of the state in harmonizing various interest groups; and (3) the collective nature of macroeconomic adjustment and, hence, the potential externality benefits from a smoother adjustment process. Thus, as in the East

60 TransaCTions NaNonal Academy of Science

Asian cases, the society's sense of "ownership" of the economic reform program is important for the success of the program. While many adjustment programs in developing countries agreed upon with the International Monetary Fund/World Bank have largely failed, those which succeeded had forged an intemal COT/seT/­sus on the economic program .first before finalizing with the IMF (e.g., Mexico during the late I 980s) or instituted their own programs without a formallMF pro­gram (e.g., Indonesia, Israel and China during the early to mid-I 980s). As a result, the package of policies and programs was more credible to the constituencies in these countries.

The four conditions discussed earlier were not present in the Philippines during much of its post WWII history. Nevertheless, the efforts of reforms that went in earnest during the Aquino administration and the current Ramos adminis­tration are geared essentially toward attaining the four conditions - economic outwardness and competitiveness, macroeconomic stability, elimination of unwanted distortionary taxation of agriculture, and greater flexibility and liberalization in the factor and input markets.

Among the major policy reforms designed to redirect the overall incentive structure in the country that have been initiated in the last few years are the following : .first, the continuing reduction and rationalization of the country's tariff structure. This is a critical policy reform shift from inward-oriented industrial de­velopment toward economic outwardness and openness. SecoT/d, liberalization of the policy regime for foreign investment. This, together with the liberalization of the foreign exchange and financial markets, helps ease substantially the perva­sive capital and foreign exchange constraints facing the country. Third, tax re­forms which together with the external debt restructuring and the enactment of the build-operate-transfer (BOT) law, help ease the budget constraint. Neverthe­less, the fiscal situation remains fragile requiring significant improvement in tax administration and streamlining of the bureaucracy in order to minimize the budget gap. And fourth, the promotion of competition as exemplified by the liberalization of teleconununications, banking and to some extent, interisland shipping sectors.

While much has been done to make the policy environment more condu­cive to economic recovery and growth, the challenge of economic restructuring toward robust and sustainable economic growth remains. In steering the Philip­pi ne economy toward full recovery and sustained growth, the Ramos government faces a number of major tasks, among them: to transform a sluggish and compara­tively inefficient industrial sector into a vigorous and comparatively efficient and competitive one; to undertake structural adjustments and encourage diversifica­tion in the agricultural sector; to streamline the government bureaucracy and improve the provision of government services; to redefine the country's indus­trial relations environment; to accelerate technology transfer from abroad and improve the country's capacity for technological adaptation and mastery; and to maintain macroeconomic stability conducive to export, growth.

Imal. Ec:onomh.~ Re,'ilrucwring 61

III. THE CHALLENC;E OF ECONOMIC RESTRUCTURIN(; TOWARD "TIGERHOOJ)"

There are three fundamental reasons for the need to restructure the coun­try's economy. The first and foremost is the continlling high incidence (If poverty in the country. As of 1991, official estimates show that two-fifths of all Filipinos are poor and one-fifth are subsistence poor. Most of the poor families are in the rural areas (see Intal 1994 for details). Clearly, a development strategy and economic structure that have endangered a persistently high incidence of poverty over several decades need major overhauls. The second important reason is the fail­lire of tlte II/anllfaclllring .~eClOr ((I increase its share of total employment (about 12%) during the past three decades, in sharp contrast to the experience of other East Asian countries. The third and final reason is the deterioration in intenw­tional competitiveness and the concomililntlackillster performance (iftfle f'llilippine economy during the 1980s compared to the rest of East Asia. This setback arose. to a large extent, from major slippages in the country's labor productivity. real ex­change rate, investment rate and infrastructure vis-a-vis the rest of East Asia.

Sitllating tlte f'llilippines in l:'(/5t Asia's economic arena. While the Philippines was enmeshed in its economic and political crises and reforms in the 1980s, the international economic environment changed dramatically. A major capital move­ment from Northeast Asia to Southeast Asia and coastal China occurred during the latter 1980s, ushering a major industrial restructuring in East Asia. In addition. the world's more populous countries opened up (China) or restructured toward ex­port competitiveness (Indonesia, India. Vietnam), thereby releasing seemmgly inexhaustible supplies of very low-cost labor for export production. Thus. by the early 1990s the Philippines appears to have become "boxed in" and therefore less competitive in low skill-intensive exports (because of its comparatively higher labor cost than Indonesia. China, etc.) as well as in mid-scale products (because of the newer capital equipment, better infrastructure. and increased competitiveness of countries like Thailand and Malaysia).

The industrial restructuring in East Asia has been popularly described as the "flying geese" with Japan leading the pack. followed by the four Asian NIEs (Hongkong, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan) and then apparently by China and the ASEAN4 countries (Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia. and the Philippines). Close on the heels of the Philippines arc the awakening populous countries of Vietnam and India. Rising labor costs and the appreciation of the Japanese yen, South Korean won and New Taiwan dollar in the mid I 980s, forced Japan and the Asian NIEs to move to more skill- and technology-intensive industries and to shift pro­duction of unskilled labor-intensive industries offshore to China and Southeast Asia. The resulting large capital inflows and technology transfer to Southeast Asia and Southern China led to the sharp acceleration in exports and consequently, economic growth in these countries. With a sharp increase in the demand for labor, real wage rates have started to rise in these countries.

Transactions {,iaflonal Academy of Science

Since the countries in the region have been reducing their tariff and nontarifT barriers to trade and liberalizing their foreign exchange and capital markets, then capital flows, technology transfer and trade integration would con­tinue. The result would be the acceleration of the process of factor price adjust­ments, shifts in comparative advantage and commodity specialization among the various .countries in the region.

Domestic political crises, policy failures and budgetary constraints contrib­uted substantially to the failure of the Philippines to respond readily to the chang­ing international economic environment of the 19&Os. Indonesia and China suc­cessfully devalued their currencies substantially relative to the Philippines. In addition, China and other Southeast Asian countries experienced dramatic im­provements in industrial labor productivity. I n contrast, the Philippines has nur­tured an overvalued peso, and labor productivity in manufacturing barely i n­creased between 1975-1990 because of the sharp decline in Ihe investment rate, economic slowdown and deterioration of the infrastructure facilities. As a result, China and the other Southeast Asian countries increased the price competilive­ness - in efficiency terms - of their exports and labor, and improved their attrac­tiveness for foreign investments in labor-intensive exports. The growth, mean­while, of Philippine-manufactured exports during the 1980s was lackluster com­pared to the export surges and rising world export market shares of its ASEAN neighbors and China (Bertrand et al. \992).

Similarly, the Philippines performed less satisfactorily in agricult ure in the 1980s compared to other countries in the region. Per capita food production declined by 11% during 1981 to 1991, compared to an increase of 22% in Vietnam, 27% in Indonesia, 35% in China (including Taiwan), 18% in India, and 10% in Pakistan. Indeed, the Philippines was the worst performer in Southeast Asia and South Asia considering that Myanmar and Bangladesh did even better (sec Table 3).

Figure 1 illustrates the shifts in comparative advantage in the region, as indicated by the changes in the values of the revealed comparative advanlage (RCA) indices of selected industries in South Korea, Taiwan, Indonesia and the Philippines between 1980 and 1990. In Figure I, a country has revealed compara­tive advantage (or disadvantage) in an industry if its RCA value is greater (or less) than unity; if RCA is less than 0.3, then we consider the counlry to be very uncompetitive in that industry. Figure 1 shows that South Korea and Taiwan expe­rienced declining competitiveness in labor-intensive industries (e.g., textiles. cloth­ing, footwear) while Indonesia had rising revealed competitiveness in such industries.

Imal. felmolmc Re.'i,rIl Cf llrlllg (,3

Figure I. Changes in Revealed Comparative Advantage

I"JuSfrit.',\' Ttl;H't'" South I(ore~, Indonesra Fh,lIpP:l1es

Veg<1ohle Oils VL'C N.h. C . •• C • Ruhher liC. " I'.A. C., lit'. , Runner Mfrs. C.~ e.. I 'C. t VUe. • Cork and \\'00..1 Uc, • N.!\' . C, .. Cllit' . .. ,

Wood Mfrs. e.. vuc. t c., c, • Cl'al VlIC N.A. C. ~ \ .\ ·C

I ron Ilnd Steel C ...... C, • l. ' \'I tC. ~ Metal mfrs. C. t C . , . VIIC, , VUe. • ,\jon~ir(ltl Metals VIIC . , vue .• C. ~ e. • ~onm<lili Products I IC, • c.~ C.f (' • r~:\!iles c.. e, • c. • L'C,

, • Clothing c'1I C I ,. c. ~f c f Lea th cr C, t liC,

, UC . • VlIC, t •

FOOl\\'ear C, .. e.. c., c.. furniture:: c. .. Ue. , CH C. t Paper c .. VUC,. lie. , vue Res i nil' I i.I S!;C s C, • VUe. ~ vue vile. t Machinery C- • lIe • , 0 0 I

Electricl Fleet ronic C.H c.. VlIC, , l . .. Precision Machinery C.~ Uc. • VIIC, • VIIC. t Other Mfr • . c.. Cj, lie. • c. ;,

c -~ competitive; UC uncoOlpclilive (Le ., I > RCA > .J)

VI;C .. very uneompetitive (i .e .. RCA < .3)

.. declining

.. improving

Source: PDFI and others (I ~(14)

64 Transactions l\'ational Academy of Science -Table 3

Indices of Total and Per Capita .Food Production; Selected Countries

Total Food Production Per Capita Food Production

1981 1985 1988 1991 1981 1985 1988 1991

Banglades ICXl III 113 127 98 97 92 97 China" 102 128 141 160 101 119 125 136 India 107 124 139 154 104 III lI8 123 Indonesia 107 128 147 166 105 115 125 m Myanmar 108 139 132 127 105 126 112 1m Pakistan 105 120 141 159 102 102 108 112 Philippines 103 99 108 ll8 101 87 89 'Xl Thailand 106 122 126 125 104 ll2 III 105 Vietnam 104 119 139 158 102 107 117 124

alncludes Taiwan. Source: FAD, Food Outlook Statistical Supplement 1992, pp. 10-11.

Notice the mixed performance of the Philippines compared to Indonesia, with the former showing many cases of declining RCAs. This echoes the poor overall economic performance of the Philippines vis-a-vis Indonesia during the 1980s. 1 t also reflects the difficult challenges of economic restructuring and policy change because reform entails both macroeconomic-level efforts and sector-spe­cific interventions for structural change.

The challenge o/generating macroeconomic stabilily and export growth. There is no doubt that there cannot be sustained economic gro\\th without a stable macroeconomic environment. The contrasting experiences of the successful East Asian economies and those of Latin America during the 1970s and much of the 1980s prove this. More importantly, significant macroeconomic distortions are at the heart of major structural problems that have plagued much of the developing world for decades.

In order to maintain macroeconomic stability conducive to export and eco­nomic growth, the challenge is to maintain financial and price stability without significant currency overvaluation and trade restrictions. (A country can maintain stable prices for so long without generating much growth because of heavy cur­rency overvaluation and trade restriction e .g., I ndia during the 1960s through the '1980. This calls for an incentive structure that encourages high saving rates, prag­matic exchange rate management that prevents significant currency overvaluation, and conservative monetary and fiscal management.

1I1Ial. Economic R-estructur;ng

The Philippines was the only Asian country in the "club" of 20 severely externally-indebted middle income developing countries. As a result of the world debt crisis, the Philippines experienced a balanced of payments and debt crisis in the early 1980s. Consequently, the country had to undertake a wrenching macroeconomic adjustment and economic stabilization took primacy over eco­nomic growth. Over the past decade, a number of policy reforms have been undertaken albeit in fits and starts. The current improved macroeconomic envi­ronment rests on fragile foundations and there remains the danger of unraveling in the future unless further macroeconomic reform efforts are undertaken.

As discussed earlier in the paper, Philippine exports and the country's at­tractiveness to export-oriented foreign investments in labor-intensive industries have been dampened in part by the real appreciation of the peso vis-a-vis the Indonesian rupiah and the Chinese yuan during the I 980s. This suggests that one policy challenge facing the government's macroeconomic managers is how to encourage some real depreciation of the peso in order to reduce the price ad­va ntage of Indonesia and China and to improve the country's price advantage vis-a-vis Thailand and Malaysia.

However, the peso appreciated in real terms by about II. 8% during 1991-1993 (Cororaton 1994). There is a danger that the peso will appreciate further in real terms. With the virtual freeing up of the foreign exchange market, an unnec­essarily tight monetary policy results in a widening difference between domestic and foreign interest rates, thereby encouraging inflow of portfolio capital which leads to increased pressures for further appreciation of the peso. The recent experiences of Mexico, Spain and Chile show that surges of capital inflows can make tight monetary policy ineffective and an instrument of a vicious cycle that contributes to further currency appreciation (Schadler 1994).

It is clear that as the country opens up to surges of foreign capital inflows, the appreciation of the peso can only be prevented by easing up the tight lIIon­etary policy stance but combined with a(iscal surplus (as in the case of Thailand) or at least where the government does not resort to domestic borrowing to fi­nance its budget deficit (as in the case of I ndonesia). This requires substantial improvements in the country's monetary management and tax administration. It also means tigh ter expenditure programming by the government. Such policy choices are difficult from a political economy perspective as the current contro­versy with the expanded value added tax (V A T) and recent problems with budget cutbacks show.

The wrenching macroeconomic adjustments that the Philippines undertook during the past decade enabled the Philippines to improve substantially its exter­nal debt profile. Indeed, Indonesia had a worse external debt service ratio than the Philippines by 1990 (Intal 1992). However, the improvement of the country's external debt profile was accompanied by a sharp deterioration of its internal debt profile. Because of the large debt overchange, poor monetary policy has a mag­nified adverse effect on the government budget and, through the effect of both, on the real exchange rate. on exports and economic growth.

66 Transactions Nutional Acadcm.v ~f Science

In short, the fundamentals underpinning the apparently favorable macroeconomic environment at present arc not robust enough and the danger of future unraveling remains . Improved tax effort and monetary management are central to a robust, stable macroeconomic environment that is conducive to export and economic growth. Failing that in the meantime, the government may have to institute a moratorium on Det domestic borrowing and, like Indonesia, rely instead on long-term foreign borrowing to finance the budget deficit. The least satisfac­tory but most expedient policy response to surges in capital inflows is a tax on foreign portfolio investments as a way of dampening the pressure of peso appre­ciation.

The challenge oj improving agricultural productivity andjood p rodlfCl ion. Im­proving agricultural productivity and food production is a critical component of economic restructuring for sustainable economic growth in the Philippines.

Among the ASEAN-4 countries, the Philippines has the least favorable land­to-man ratio. This means that other things being equal, the Philippines needs to improve agricultural productivity more than Malaysia, Thailand or Indonesia in order to (at least) maintain mternational competitiveness in agriculture-based prod­ucts and to improve per capita food production. As a major provider of wage goods (mainly food), the historical experience of Japan, Taiwan and South Korea show that a robust growth in agricultural productivity (see Table 4) helps mailltain food prices, dampens pressure for wage inflation, and helps maintain compara­tively low inflation rates during the period of labor-intensive export expansion and industrialization.

The Philippines lagged behind in the agricultural development race among the ASEAN-4 countries during the 198005 (see Table 3). Behind this poor perform­ance are: (I) the low and declining investment in agricultural research in the Philippines compared to its ASEAN neighbors and even India and Bangladesh; (2) drastic reduction in irrigation expenditures compared to Thailand and Indone­sia; and (3) slowdown in fertilizer usage (David, Ponce and Intal 1993).

For any sustained major improvement in agricultural production and pro­ductivity in the years to come, there is therefore a great need to raise dramatically the government's expenditures in productivity-enhancing intel'ientions like agr!­cultural research, irrigation, fertilizer usage and widespread adoption of inte­grated pest management. Moreover, in order to get more "bang for the R&D buck," the government may need to streamline significantly its agricultural re­search extension system (David, Ponce and Intal 1993).

The coconut ind nstry should be of particular policy concern to the govern­ment because more than one-fifth of all agricultural land is coconut land, the incidence of poverty among coconut farmers is higher than among rice farmers. There is a need to improve the low and stagnant coconut farm productivity in the face of substantial productivity improvements in the major competing products (i.e., palm and soybean) in order to stem the decline in the international competi­tiveness of coconut, and there is a need to redress the historical neglect of the coconut farming sector by the government.

Japan 1950-1953 1953-1968 1%8-1980

Taiwan 1951-1962 1%2-1966 1966-1975 1975-1981

Sowlr Korea I 954-19(i() I 9W-1 965 1965-1971 1971-1978

baal, Economic ReMructuring

Tahle 4 Average Annual (;rowth Kate nfLabnr and Land

l'roductivities in Agriculture: Japan, Taiwan, South Korea (in percent)

Labor Producti vity

Land Producti "ity

5.2 6.7 4.1

3.4 7.5 4.2 8.2

-2.7 5.2 5.2 10.4

3.6 3.9 1.0

4.1 6.4 3.1 3.8

1.9 3.8 2.2 7.3

Source. Sanchez and Intal, 1993

67

One policy direction for the coconut industry is replanting of senescent trees with new and better varieties. Unfortunately, the government's replanting program appears to be in the doldrums. In the meantime, cutting of coconut trees continues apparently without replanting. thereby resulting in disinvestment from the coconut industry. The other policy direction is intercropping in coconut lands to increase as well as reduce the variability of fa mIers' incomes despite the sub­stantial fluctuations in coconut prices. Intercropping in coconut lands couId be the dominant mode of agricultural diversification in the country. Major bottlenecks remain, however, which include poor rural infTastructure in a number of key coconut areas and uncertain land tenure issues. How well these bottlenecks are solved coupled with the attainment and maintenance of a realistic exchange rate will detennine the extent of agricultural diversification in the country.

The government may also have to rethink its agTicultural development framework. Specifically, the expressed policy bias for foodgrain self -sufficiency that has underpinned much of Philippine agricultural development strategies dur­ing the past few decades should be reviewed. Foodgrains, especially rice, are water-intensive and ideally planted in the lowlands. The Philippines, however, is hilly, archipelagic and smack right in the typhoon belt. Because it is comprised of

68 Transactions National Academy of Science

many islands, extensive tree cover is needed to retain water, maintain the ground water level and prevent salt intrusion. Si milarly, an extensive tree cover is needed to prevent soil erosion and massive floodings during typhoons and heavy rains. (Soil erosion has substantial offsite effects especially on the fishery industry [delos Angeles and Peskin 19941.) Considering that the Philippines has been experienc­ing major floods and soil erosion in many parts of the country, it is apparent that there is a need to increase and widen the current tree cover in the country.

There are five implications of this. First, production of foodgrains in the lowlands should be increased significantly thereby allowing for possible conver­sion of upland corn lands to tree crop farming or agroforestry. Thus, the impor­tance of significant increases in government expenditures on R&D, irrigation, and extension.

Second. government support for remunerative upland treecrop fanning sys­tems and agroforestry should be strengthened. Historically. the government neg-' lected the R&D needs of its major treecrop, coconut, so much so that it is now losing its competitiveness vis-a-vis palm. Since incomes from coconut farming are not enough to pull a farmer's family out of poverty, increased government sup­port in terms of R&D and extension services for various remunerative coco­based farming systems and agroforestry is needed.

7hird. tree crops are long gestating. Hence, for poor farmers. investments in tree crop planting or replanting can hardly be undertaken unless perhaps there is access (0 long-term credit. The current credit facilities, however, arc largely short-term, if the farmer has access to such credit facilities at all.

FOI/rtfi. land titles and/or more secure land tenure are needed by upland farmers in order to improve their access to formal credit sources and encourage them to invest in more environmentally sustainable and more profitable tree crop­ping or agro-forestry systems.

The JUII! and last implication is that the Philippines may need to adjust its goal of grain self-sufficiency, following Malaysia's example. If, say, 90% grain self-sufficiency is the more realistic and socially cost-effective goal rather than 100% then there is a need to change the current government policies in interna­tional grains trade. Specifically, it means allowing international trade of grains by the private sector under transparent tariff protection . As such, the operations of the National Food Authority would have to be radically redesigned.

The challenge o(generalillgf'llral induslrializaliOlwnd raisillg rural incomes. I Rural incomes can be increased not only by improving agricultural productivity but also by generating nonfarm sources of income. As in other East Asian and Southeast Asian countries, farmers can take nonfarm work as secondary occupa­tion especially during the off season in farming. Landless rural workers or unpaid family workers can also get full -time or part-time jobs in one or more mral nonfarm activities.

IThis section draws heavily from SanChl!l and Inti:II (1993).

Intal. Ecollomic Restructuring

A major means of g.enerating or raising nonfarm incomes of llIral house­holds is increased relocation of indust!)· and service a,=tivities in the countryside or subcontracting of nonfarm jobs to rural households. cooperatives and other rural institutions. The case of Taiwan is the familiar example where deccntralized agro-industrialization makes firms and farms coexist in the rural areas. However. Taiwan, in contrast to the Philippines, has very good roads, and communications and other infrastructure facilities. It is also a more compact island than the archipelagic Philippines.

Although Taiwan's case indicates the formidable challenge facing the Phil­ippines in generating rural industrialization because of its poor infra structural facilities. the Taiwan case nevertheless points to a possible strategy for rural industrialization that can be adopted by the Philippines despite its current infra­stmcture bottlenecks. In particular. a number of island groupings in the country can be considered as "mini-Taiwans" (or for tourism. resource-endowed islands like Palawan, "mini-Guams"). For example, Mindanao can be developed as if it were Taiwan, thereby strengt hening linkages ill/em ail\' within Mindanao and to the outside world (including the rest of the Philippines) rather than as an append­age to Manila. (Because of Mindanao's poor transport linkages internally and with Manila. we hear the familiar refrain that it is cheaper to import corn from Bangkok than from General Santos City.) Similarly, Luzon, the Visayas and Pal~wan can be considered different island economies with their comparative advantages, product niches, and linkages with the outside world and among them (via im­proved inter-island shipping and domestic air transport).

This approach would lead to a more rational , industry-focused and area­integrated infrastructural program and development strategy that will allow com­pact distances to efiectively and efficiently locate industries in the rural areas. This approach is a logical extension of the current regional strategy of develop­ing selected growth corridors (e.g., CALABARZON) and growth zones (e.g., Subic) as a way of optimizing the benefits from infrastructural investments.

Decentralized agro-industrialization a La Taiwan implies a more liberal trade regime that will allow the various "mini-Taiwans" or "mini-Guams" to trade among themselves and with the rest of the world according to their comparative advan­tages. Rural industrialization did not take root in the Philippines during the 1960s and the 1970s primarily because the imp0rl-substitution industrial development strategy that was pursued encouraged capital-intensive and import-dependent manufactures as well as a centralization of industries around Metro Manila with its international seaport and airport facilities. The Philippines thus hccame relatively unique in East Asia for a so-called "missing middle." Philippine industrial output has been produced by the numerous very small firms and the relatively few big firms; the medium scale firms have been conspicuously unimportant.

Medium scale fi nus provide the bridge between the large and the very small firms in terms of organizational capability, technical expertise and cost ad­vantage. They can provide a stronger anchor for sub.:cntracting because the

70 Transactions Na tional Academy of Science

large firms can reduce their supervision/coordination costs as well as increase supply reliability and product quality by subcontracting to medium scale firms. It is probably not surprising that subcontracting is common in countrics with a "promi­nent middle," e.g., Japan.

A 'recent study on the impact of the trade liberalization program of the Philippines on the manufacturing sector during the lattcr 1980s (Tccson 1993) suggests that the trade liberalization program encouraged the affected industrics to increase their reliance on subcontracting, thereby inching toward more deccn­tralized countryside agro-industrialization.

1he challenge of strengthening industry and services sectors development. The primary policy challenge facing the government with regard to the industrial and service sectors is to provide a policy environment conducive to productivity increases in various sectors through better allocation of resources and productiv­ity increases across industries. To a large extent, this calls for a policy regime that is geared for a bctter positioning of the Philippines in the world market, taking full advantage of the country's currcnt comparative advantagc and, at the same time, building the foundations for future areas of comparative advantage.

The secular changes in the composition of exports of the Philippines ac­cording to factor intensity provide an indication of the shifts in comparative ad­vantage of the Philippines in the world economy. Bascd on the changes in values ofrevealed comparative advantage (RCA) indices, Table 5 shows that the RCA in agriculture- and forestry-based industries deteriorated substantially from 1975 to 1990. In contrast, the RCA in unskilled labor-intensive industries improved signifi­cantly during the period. In addition, the country is starting to develop intcrna­tional competitiveness in a few human capital-intensive or skilled labor-intensive industries.

The decline in international competitivencss in agriculture- and forcstry­based industries rcsulted from domestic supply constraints, world demand shifts and growing competitiveness of other exporting countries. For example, the de­cline in competitiveness ofthe Philippine coconut industry resulted from sluggish productivity of Philippine coconut farms compared to the significant productivity increases in palm and soybean, and from the shift in demand away from coconut oil in dcveloped country markets becausc of hcalth concerns. Similarly, the dra­matic drop in forestry-based exports rcflcct the serious deforestation in the coun­try and at the same time, the failure of the wood processing industry to restructure itself into an export competitive industry.

The Philippines has revealed comparative advantage in a number of un­skilled labor-intensive industries at present. Nevertheless, its competitiveness ap­pears to be declining vis-a-vis lower labor cost countries like China and Indone­sia in those industries where the country failed to move up in product design and processes (e.g., footwear and toys). It was in industries that succeeded in institut­ing product improvements and design innovations (i.e., furniture, apparel and clothing, travel goods and pottery) where the country held on or slightly im­proved its RCA despite comparatively higher labor cost (PDFI and others 1994).

Intal, Economic Restructuring 71

Table 5. Revealed Comparative Advantage by Factor Intensity

Factor Group SrrCCode J975 J980 1OR5 1988 }99()

I. Agriculture mid Forestt"'j.lntetlSive

cork & wood 24 9.0466 4.1982 5.0521 2.2828 0.3986 animal & "'"getable oils.

fats & waxes 4 133968 15.2445 10.4929 11.4853 10_'i452

cork & wood mfg. (<xci. furn.) 63 5.4133 6.6635 5.5425 4.<xm 3.9334

TotalExpot1.s 3.4092 2.6143 2.2353 1.7244 15642

II. Mintl'LZJ~/ntensilJe

metallif \!rous ores &. crude minerals 28 6JJ632 10.7011 3.6666 4.1377 3.7750

nOI'l~ferrous metals 68 0.6830 0.8335 2.4651 1.7040 1.5956

Total Exports 0.5446 0.6616 0.5157 0.8373 0.6438

I r [. Unskilled {..ahor·lntensive textilef; 65 0.2751 0.4159 0.2675 0.2849 0.3194

apparel & clothing 84 2.0962 4.0387 5.0932 5.52U5 5.9390

pottery 666 0.1492 1.0827 0.6489 1.1546 2.0831

furnilurc 82 4.4637 2.1868 2.7790 2.9314 2.3712

footwear R5 0.2326 2.0228 1.5388 0.7432 1.4371

toys, .purting goods 894 0.0000 1.2475 0.6955 0.6459 1.0509

Total &'porlS 1.0052 1.3791 1.9044 2.1507 2.1438

IV. [{unum Capital~/nte"si\ie teicconull. & sound recordjng 76 0.0000 U.l577 0.0730 0.2900 0.8208

elec trical mat.:hinery & apparatlls Tl8 0.9350 12.0435 17.1202 9.5862 11.5002

jewelry 897 U.7467 0.6775 0.7279 0.6048 0.9110

TaUlJ Expurts ().I021 0.5705 0.7295 0.5380 0 .7063

V. Tee IwoloK].1 nretlS ive inaganic chemicals 52 0.0000 0.9990 0.7171 0.5132 0.8502

ellpmt. for electricity dis In. m 0.0069 0.1263 O.!JOlI 1.9440 2.7976

Total Exports 0.0915 0.1906 0.2465 0 .2738 0.2877

72 Tran:;aClions l\'ational Academy of Science

Among the human capital-intensive or skilled labor-intensive industries, the Philippines has strong RCA in semicond uctors. In addition, the country is well on the way to have RCA in two other human capital-intensive industries, namely, jewelry and telecommunications equipment and sound recording equipment.

In the service sector, the Philippines has RCA in labor services and in tourism services (Kohsaka 1994), although the performance of the tourism indus­try has been mixed during the 1980s and early 1990s because of economic and political upheavals and natural disasters. The country's strong RCA in export labor services reflects the domestic economic difficulties during the 1980s and early 1990s and the saleability abroad of Filipino human capital.

The changing composition of Philippine exports indicates the growing im­portance of Filipino brawn and skills complemented by physical capital formation and technology acquisition and upgrading of Philippine industries. Thus, the need for significant increases in the country's investment rate is not only to improve the country's infrastructure but also to upgrade and expand the economy's industrial production capacity. In addition, investment to rebuild and strengthen the skill endowment ofthe Filipino labor force is needed in order to deepen the country's international competiti veness in labor-intensive industries.

With limited domestic saving and given the criticalness of raising signifi­cantly the investment rate, foreign investment inflow looms large in strengthening the country's industrial and exportable services sectors. Compared with other ASEAN countries in terms of attractiveness to foreign investors, the Philippines ranks high in the availability and quality of production labor and manageriaU technical personnel, its geographic proximity to important markets in the Asia­Pacific region, and access to exports through the Generalized System of Prefer­ences (GSP). The Philippines ranks low in quality of infrastructure, political stability and policy predictability, level and growth of the domestic economy, law and order, and allowable foreign equity participation (Foreign Chambers of Com­merce 1990).

Cognizant of the need to improve the policy environment for foreign in­vestment in order to attract more foreign investors, the Philippine government has been addressing during the past few years the area where the country was comparatively deficient, e.g., political stability, peace and order, infrastructure investments (through BOT and liberalized rules) especially in power and telecommunications, and liberalization of foreign equity participation. With the much improved policy climate fo r foreign and domestic investments and with the improving macrocconomy, the Philippines is currently experiencing an upsurge in foreign investor interest and inflow not only in infrastructure but also in export production and tourism.

The challenge now is to deepen the current resurgence in foreign and domestic investors' interest and commitment to foresee an eventual take off to sustained economic growth. In this regard, the following three issues are important:

Infal. Economic Re.tfrUcluring 73

First. the problem of the socially in~Uicielit intemlediate goods-mam!faclllring sector should be addressed. Studies (e.g., Tccson 1993) point out that while efficient import substitution occurred in many consumer goods industries, this did not hap­pen in much of the intermediate goods-manufacturing sector. The relatively high protection of the intermediate goods industries puts the end-using industries at a di sadvantage and prevents them from being export competitive except through such means as duty drawback and export zones, e.g., textiles vis-a-vis garments (PDF I and others 1994).

Improving the efficiency of the intermediate goods sector necessitates the infusion of new capital and technology (many firms use old machines). However, the encouragement of new investments in the sector would have to be in the contex1 of a programmed reduction, not ill crease, in tariff and non tariff protection of the sector in order that the end-using industries - where the country appears 10 have greater potentials for comparative advantage at the moment - will not be unnecessarily penalized. In lieu of higher protection, it is better to use explicit fiscal incentives to encourage investments and industrial restructuring in the sec­tor. This has implications on the Board of Investments (BOI). Apart from encour­aging exports (which at present would mean primarily labor-intensive exports), I his fiscal support for industrial restructuring for trade liberalization should be the raison d'etre for the provision of fiscal incentives by the BOL The industry listing of the Investment Priorities Plan of the BOI would have to be drastically reduced further.

Second, inasmuch as the Philippines has to rely increasingly on labor-inten­sive industries and exportable services, and given the tight world competition for labor-intensive goods and therefore among laborers across countries, the current wage adjustment mechollism would have to be substantially improved and the potentials of the workplace as a means of iUlman capital formation strengthened.

As discussed earlier, one of the major reasons for the export and economic successes of the East Asian dragons is the strong linkage between wage adjust­ments and labor productivity improvements. The institutional mechanism is the performance-based bonus system on top of a base wage, rather than the method of official adjustment of the minimum wage a~ practiced in the Philippines. Be­cause wage determination in the East Asian dragons is hewed closely to the workings of the demand for a supply of labor, the labor markets proyide the appropriation price signals for the efficient allocation of labor resources as well as for investments in human capital formation given the countries' evolving compara­tive advantages (PDF I et al. 1994). The East Asian experience indicates that the Phil ippine government should invest more in strengthening labor and manage­ment relations, steering it toward greater partnership for productivity i mprove­

. ment, human capital formation in the workplace, and productivity-linked wage adjustments.

The third issue is related to the second: for the country to accelerate the skills development of the Filipino workers, who would be the basis for the

74 Transactions National Academy of Science

country's export competitiveness in the region. Improving the formal education system is one means of improving Filipino skills. Formal education is primarily geared for general education and providing the Filipino workers the capacity to adopt and learn new technical skills specific to his/her work. What may also be urgent during the rest of the 1990s is the acceleration and/or expansion of the scope and depth of technical training of the Filipino workers.

A significant increase in investments for the purchase of more and newer plants is the best way for Filipinos to improve their technical experience. Improv­ing the training facilities and teaching approaches of government training insti­tutes and programs is another. Finally, we can use the overseas factory jobs of our overseas contract workers especially in South Korea, Taiwan and Japan as part of the country's "aggressive" skills development program. What is needed is a well-designed program rather than the current ad hoc approach. In South Ko­rea, for example, many Filipino workers work and are the preferred foreign workers as electronics technicians, cutlery makers and other semi-skilled occupa­tion holders (Cunanan 1994). These are the industries that the Philippines would likely have a complete competitive niche in the near future. The government can consciously support tie-ups with South Korean (or for that matter Taiwanese and Japanese) firms in a modified form of "dual-tech training" (where the training is abroad). This can be a part of the South Korean, Taiwanese or Japanese official development assistance program for the Philippines.

With the training of the Filipino workers abroad in the semi-skilled labor­intensive industries, the Philippine government can also emphasize/gear its for­eign investment promotion program in such industries. J n this way, the foreign training of the Filipino workers becomes part and parcel of the country's foreign investment promotion program in that the Filipino workers' training together willl the Filipino workers' lower salary in the Philippines would convince the foreign firms to' relocate their existing plants or locate their expansion plants in the Philip­pines.

The challenge of investing in people. As the country pushes for economic take off and transformation, the Philippines would have to invest more in its peo­ple, strengthen its institutions, and improve its capacity for technology adaptation and mastery.

The "East Asian miracle" emphasizes that one of the foundations of sus­tained economic success is a high investment rate in human capital formation in an outward-oriented economy, As discussed, the Philippines would have to rely increasingly on the Filipino worker and his skills to propel the country to its export push and sustained economic growth. The Philippines has historically in­"($ted more heavily on human capital formation than most of the Asian develop­ing countries during the 1950s until the 1970s. Such investments, however, coin­cided with a largely inward-looking development strategy and therefore did not become a basis for the country's export drive. The economic difficulties during the 1980s and early 1990s have slowed down substantially the country's invest-

Intal, Economic Restructuring 75

ments in human capital formation, in contrast to the sharp increases in the other ASEAN countries. Although enrolment rates did not decline much during the 1980s (Tan 1994), the quality of primary and secondary education suffered major setbacks. Now that the economic policy direction has shifted squarely toward outward orientation relying on labor-intensive industries, the country would have to stop "mining" its stock of human capital and instead move more aggressively to strengthen and improve the quality of primary and secondary education. There is also a need to reduce the wide regional disparity in enrolment and completion rates as well as stock of human capital across regions in the country (Tan 1994).

The challenges are greater for the higher education system because it is primarily the bridge between the world of education and the world of work2 The fundamental issue is whether there is a need for a major rethinking of the higher education system in order to meet the challenge of export-led agro-industrializa­tion in the next two to three decades.

In contrast to the elitism of universities in Europe and the European-inHn­enccd educational systems in Asia, the Ph ilippine educational system has been influenced by -the American middle-class ethos of widespread public education and wide access to hi gher education. Because the Philippines is poor and has limited budgetary resource, wide access to higher education found implementa­tion through the provision by private sectarian and nonsectarian schools of higher education that are relatively cheap and unfortunately oflow quality.

There are indications that the price of higher education in real terms dropped in the 1970s and 1980s. This does not mean, however, that the higher education system became more internally efficient by producing college graduates more cheaply in the 1980s at the same quality as during the early 1970s. Instead, the higher education system cut costs through a reduction of teachers' salaries in real terms, more intensive use and inadequate improvement of school facilities, and overall reduction in the quality of teaching.

'The predomi nantly private character of the higher education system, to­gether with its low cost and low quality, suggests that the colleges have hewed their offerings closely to the demands ofthe free market. That is, there is flexibil­ity in course offerings such that courses are expanded or trimmed down depend­ing upon student demands and developments in the labor market. It can even be argued that the deterioration in the quality of higher education reflects in part the adjustment of the educational sector to the quality demands of the labor market. Given the characteristics of the Philippine economy in the 1970s and the 1980s, the labor market demanded largely easily-trainable college graduates who could be provided with the technical training, if needed, in the companies. In effect, college graduates were recruited primarily for their general education rather than for. their technical expertise.

2'lhc rest of the section is taken from lntal (1989).

Transactions ,VationDt ACtldemy of Science

Is the current higher education system sufficient for the demands of the export-led agro-industrialization envisioned in the next two or so decades? Most likely, the system needs improvement. Successful agro-industrialization necessi­tates a stronger and specialized technical education because of the demand for ski ll-i ntensive production.

Wi II the preponderantly private-provided higher education system respond to the challenge? As long as there are no ceilings on school fees. it is possible that a better pay scheme and queuing premium for high quality technical education in the workplace would encourage colleges to upgrade the quality of their course offenngs. However, the cost of attracting and keeping qualified and well-trained faculty members and of establishing laboratories and technical research centers is very high. Passing on the cost as increase in school fees may discourage college students. Thus, the government and the business sector should contnbute ill terms of faculty development grants and co-Ci nancing in the establishment of technical a nd research centers according to a prioritized list of programs. The government should also institute a mandatory accreditation program for all course offerings in order to maintain a minimum standard or, better still. improve the quality of tertiary education in the country.

711e challenge of investing in inSlillltions. Perhaps the most important institu­tion that the government would have to improve further is the government bureaucracy itself. Improving the bureaucracy is improving the government's overall administrative capability to manage the socioeconomic development of the country and its responsiveness to public needs. The Philippines is now considered as havi ng one of the weakest bureaucracies in Southeast Asia.

Strengthening the bureaucracy requires higher compensation of the public servant, greater emphasis on a merit-based selection and promotion system, clearer definition of the role of government intervention vis-a-I'is those of the private sector and nongovernment organizations, and a more transparent delineation of functions and relationships between the national and local government units.

Central to the strengthening of the Philippine bureaucracy is the increase in the salaries of government personnel, especi ally at the middle and upper IC';'eis where the gap in pay between the private sector and the government is largest, compared with those in the fast growing Asian economies (The World Bank 1993), The large gap between government and private sector salaries has made it difficult for the government to retain many promising technical and management personnel. Indeed, a lowly paid, inefficient bureaucracy exacts substantial trans­actions costs to the private sector.

Given the fiscal constraint facing the government, a substantial increase in government salaries would necessitate a leaner and streamlined government. Ra­tionalizing and streamlining the government involves " . .. preserving (where ap­propriate), reducing (where necessary), and enhancing (where desirable) the capabilities of government agencies (or units) to do the right things at the right time in the right way in response to public expectations and policy decisions. A

IIII!!I. f:conom;c Restructuring 77

fundamental considerallon in government streamlining is the determination of the optimal rate of government intervention. In areas where the private sector and the nongovernment organizations can perform effectively, the govel'11ment's role is in establishing and maintaining the environment of policies. rules and regula­lions necessary for their conti nued operation. fn areas where public financing is necessary to achieve public goals, the government's role is in administering pub­lic funds \vithout necessarily undertaking the desired activities. In areas where il. is necessary and desirable for government to directly produce goods and sen'­ice, consideration should be given to a greater role by local governments in performing this task .. ' (Taguiwalo 1993).

The clwllenl:e of investing in technology and the environment. Rapid gro\vth in the process of industrialization initially involves the "rapid adaptation of products and techniques" and later on, "rapid transfomlation of industries and technology" (Chen 1989). This engenders the need for high investment rates in phYsical capi­tal and human capital Capital goods embody advances in production techmques or technology, hence, technological upgrading of the country in the process of "tigerhood" can be done substantially by importing ~apltal goods. Nevertheless, the effective use and even modification of such capital goods and, later on. the development of new techniques and goods necessitate that the country improve its capacity for technologiCIII adapwtion and mastery. This means building the sup­ply of high level scientists and engineers, dramatically strengthening and deepen­ing the country's science and engineering education, and providing the appropri­ate incentives for industry and government partnerships in research and devel­opmeI1l, including reverse engineenng. It also means granting IIlcentives lfinan­cial and nonfinancial) to top and promising Filipino scientists and engineers for them to stay in the country and not cnugrate to other countries in search of better pay, better facilities and greater professional respect.

The Philippines has the highest number of latent scientific and technical personnel in the ASEAN region. Thus, the country has a good science and tech­nology potential. However, the potential has not been tapped to benefit the S&T sector. The research and development (R&D) effort has been very lukewarm: R&D expenditures as a ratio of GNP declined from 0.26% in 1980 to 0.11 % in 1990 (Tan and Intal 1992). There are also indications that the number of personnel engaged in R&D declined during the 1980s. R&D efforts in the country have largely been government R&D; as such, it has been hamstrung by budgetary constraints as well as bureaucratic rules and practices. Private R&D efforts need to be encouraged.

Despite well-publicized and well-meaning efforts of the government as exemplified by the STCC and STAND 2000, there appears to be a lack of consen­sus, and possibly even of articulation, of the country's policy and strategy on technology import, adaptation and mastery in various fields. The lack of signifi­cant success stories of Philippine R&D endeavors together with the "hot and cold" attitude toward R&D support by the legislature seems to suggest that the

78 Transactions National Academy of Science

current practices of and institutional support for S&T in the country arc wanting and that much remains to be done before the S&T sector becomes a critical feature of the ~ountry's development strategy and policy, and in the nation's conSCIOusness.

With respect to the environment. environmental issues have become promi­nent in recent years in the country. This has arisen from the obvious negative effects of the serious natural resource and environmental degradation in the country on the people's welfare and even on the economy. Thus. the govern­ment formulated the Philippine Strategy for Sustainable Development (PSSD).

Intal et al. (1994) show that other things being equal, trade liberalization in the country can 'have adverse effects on the environment. This is because many of the sectors that will benefit from trade liberalization (with a concomitant peso depreciation) are poliutivc (e.g., food industries) or have I arge adverse ofi'sitc efiects (e.g., forestry, mining, agriculture). Thus, it is imperative to combine good economic policy (e.g .• economic openness, macroeconomic stability) with good environmental poli9 (e.g., full cost pricing, tenurial improvements).

The Intal er al. 61udy indicates Ihat the cost of pollution control to most industrial firms (especially large finns) is small and manageable. The large costs of pollution control or prevention of olTsite effects are found in the household and government sectors (e.g .. seWCl age), and the livestock and agricultural crops sectors (e.g., terracing to prevent soil erosion). What the study brings out is the need for the government to be strict with respect to the implementation of indus­trial pollution control measures, to invest substantially in sewerage infrastructures, and to encourage cropping patterns and agroforcstry that arc less soil erosive. The Inial et al. study, drawing from the del os Angeles er al. (1993) study, suggests lhat the issue of industrial pollution is less of an issue compared to domestic wastes and soil erosion. Thus, at least for industrial pollution control measures, the prob­lem of implementation is fundamentally a problem of political \\;11.

IV, CONCLUDING REMARKS: IMPLICATIONS FOR nm SOCIAL ANI> STATISTICAL SCmNCES RESEARCn COMMUNITY

The paper points out that much remains to be done to ensure that the country attains economic tigerhood and ultimately, In the foreseeable Iilture, a newly industrialized country status. It is also apparent that governance is a con­tinuing process of reforms in order for the government to significantly influence the economy's responses to _""nges in the domestic and world environments and therefore the pace and pattern of socieconomic development.

The social science and statistical science research communities have a use­ful role in the country's drive toward "tigerhood" and ultimately toward a high income economy. To attain the fondest dreams of Philippines 2000 in the 21st century requires almost a social and economic transformation of the Philippine

Intal. Economic Restructuring 79

economy and society. The paper implies, for example, that the road to NIChood calls for a change in the world view of Filipinos and the Philippine government about the Philippines vis-a-vis the rest of the world. This is already happening to a large extent as indicated by the shift in perspective on the role of foreign investors in the Philippine economy. The paper also suggests that we need to change our perspective about unions, the workplace and industrial relations. Spe­cifically, in economic policymaking, there is a need to look at the workplace as a social institution and a complex set of relationships working together for a defined set of individual and collective goals now and in the !ulure. This perspective differs from the view of the workplace as primarily a source of employment and income, and Ure union as primarily a bargaining uml. The paper also calis fOT a change in our perspective about the Philippine agricultural sector such as, for example, a deemphasis on grain self -sufiiciency and an emphasIs on less erosive agroforcstryand increased treecrop farming systems. Finally. the social and eco-· nomic transformation attendant to the agro-industrialization and sustamed growth implies changes in socia! and economic structures and interactions with the corol­lary differential positive and negative impacts on various groups in Phjlippine society.

Precisely because of the many challenges and opportunities facing the coun­tTy as it: restructures itself, responds to changing international environments, and propels itself to sustained economic growth, the social science and statistIcs re­search community can help the government and the country III mapping out the changing development scenario as well as enlighten them on alternative courses of action. "The contribution of social science research IS not so much in propos­ing specific solutions to already well-defined problems, but rather in defining the problems and providing an array of methods with which to analyze them" (Glover 1994) Nevertheless, the insights from social science research and the generation of adequate data and information will also be of help to lhe government in its efforts to refine its tools of intervention on more specifIc issues of governance.

In sum. the social science and statistics community are logical partners of the government in the country's dnve toward sustained economic growth and social transfonllation. In this light, the interactions between the government and the social science and statistics research community need to be strengthened further as the Philippines gears itself for sustained economic growth toward the year 2000 and beyond.

80 Transactions National Academ:v of Science

REFERENCES

Bertrand, T.; e. Bourne; P. Intal et al. 1992. "Foreign Exchange Liberalization in the Philippines." Report submitted to USAID, Manila.

Chen, Edward. 1989. "The Changing Role of the Asian NICs in the Asian-Pacific Region Toward the Year 2000." In M. Sinohara and F. Lo (eds.) Global Adjustment tlnll the F,lIure I.~f Asian-Pac(lic Economy. Tokyo: IDE and Kuala Lumpur: APDe.

Cororaton, Caesar. 199 ... "Deterioration in the External Account Balances." Mimeographed. Philippine Institute for Development Studies.

Cunanan, Belinda. 199 ... "Overseas Workers Shouldn't Go Back to TJabuyan." Political Tidhits - IJailr If/quirer, June 12, 199 ...

David, Cristina, Eliseo Ponce. and Ponciano Intal. 1993. "Organizing for Results: The Philippine Agricultural Sector." In E. de Dios and Associates Poverty, Growth and the Fiscal Crisis. Manila: PIDS and IDRe.

delos Angeles, Marian and H. Peskin. I 99"."Environment and Natural Resources Accounting Project Phase II: Main Report." Paper presented at the Inter­national Workshop on the Contribution to Policy of Environmental and Natural Resource Accounting. Tagaytay, Philippines, 16-21 January 1994.

Foreign Chambers of Commerce. 1990. "A Posit.ion Paper Regarding the Review of Investment Laws in the Philippines." February 20, 1990.

Glover, David. 1994. "Policy Researchers and Policymakers: Never the Twain Shall Meet?" Mimeographed. Singapore: International Development Re­search Center.

Intal, Ponciano. 1989. "The National Economy at the Turn of the 21st Century: Implications for Higher Education." Paper presented at the National Con­sultative Confercnce on Higher Education, Aklan Agricultural College, Banga, Aklan. July 25. 1989 .

. 1992. "External Debt in Developing Asia: Evolution, Macroeconomics, and Implications for Debt Management." Paper presented at the 2 nd ADB Seminar on International Finance, Jakarta, Indonesia, Au­gust 26, 1992.

In tal, Economic: Restructuring 81

1994. "Poverty, Income Distribution and Government Policies and Programs in the Philippines: An Overview." Mimeographed. Manila: NEDA­DPRP.

et al. 1994. "Trade and Environmental Linkages: The Case of the Philippines." Report submitted to UNCT AD, Geneva.

Kohsaka, Akira et al. 1993. "Changing Patterns of Trade in Goods and Services in the Pacific Region." Paper presented at the Pacific Economic Outlook Specialists" Meeting, Osaka, Japan, 27-28 September 1993.

Page, John. 1994. "The East Asian Miracle: Building a Basis for Growth." Finance and Development (March 1994): pp. 2-5.

Policy Development Foundation, Inc. and others. 1994. "A Framework for Agro­industrial Restructuring for Competitiveness in t he Phi Iippines." Final Re­port submitted to the National Economic and Development Authority.

Sanchez, Teresa and Ponciano IntaL 1993. "Rural Labor Market in the 1980s and 1990s: Adjustment and the Challenge of Agricultural and Rurallndustriali­zation in Structural Adjustment for Employment." Paper presented at the Technical Workshop 011 Structural Adjustment and Labor Market Policies, Hyatt Regency Hotel, Manila, October 1993.

Schadler, Susan. 1994 "Surges in Capital Inflows: Boon or Bane?" Finance and Development (March 1994): pp. 20-23.

Taguiwalo. Mario. 1993. "PlDS-DBM Government Streamlining Project: Summary ofRecommendalions "MImeographed. Philippine Institute for Development Studies.

Tan, Edita. 1994 "The Stale of Human CapitaL" Philippine HI/man Developmem Rl!port .1994. Manila· United Nations Development Programme.

Tan, J. A and P. IntaL 1992. "A Preliminal)" Study on Japanese Technolob'Y Trans­fer to the Philippines." Paper presented at the International Conference on "Japan's Role in the Transfer of Technology in Asean Countries," Bang­kok, Thailand, 26-27 June 1992.

The World Bank. 1987 World Development Report 1987. London: Oxford Univer­sity Press.

___ . 1993. The East Asian Miracle. London: Oxford University Press.

82 Transactions National Academy 0/ Science

Rapporteur's Report

PLENARYSESSrON II

"The Challenge of Economic Restructuring Towards NICdom: Issues for the Economics and Statistics Research Sector"

Speaker Moderator Rapporteur

Dr. Ponciano S. I ntal, .Ir. Academician Jose Encarnacion, Jr. Academician Bienvenido O. Juliano

SUMMARY

The paper clarifies the definition of NIC as newly industrializing country, where manufactures predominate in total exports. National goals all geared to­ward a greater than 25% share of manufacturing in GNP, and a per capita income ofUS$I,500-2,000. A better term than NIC is rapidly il1dustrializing country or take off to sustained economic growth or economic "tigerhood".

The econom ic ranking of the Philippines during the J 950s was artificially intlated by an overvalued peso. The country pursued heavy industrial protec­tion, peso overvaluation and inward-oriented industrial development too long (to the 1980s).

By contrast, successful East Asian economies (Singapore, South Korea, Hongkong, Taiwan, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Thailand) followed the intuition of basic economics: economic outwardness, macroeconomic and price stability, general flexibility of the domestic factor (capital and labor) markets. and an agticultural sector which is not overly taxed and an industrial sector which is not overly subsidized. In addition, the principle of "shared growth" was propagated wherein major equity-oriented programs were implemented.

Successful countries had forged an internal consensus on the economic program (esulting in greater credibility with the constituencies in the country.

Three reasons for the need to restructure the country's economy are"

(I) the continuing incidence of poverty; (2) fai lure of the sector to increase its share of total employment; (3) deterioration in international competitiveness; and (4) the concomitant lackluster performance of the Philippine economy

during the 1980s.

Plenary Session 11. Summary 113

RECOMMENDATIONS

In order for the country to attain the vision of economic "tigerhood" under Philippines 2000. The paper advances that the country and government should:

(I) understand and situate the parameters of Philippine development in the context of the Asian Region;

(2) rethink Philippine agricultural development; (3) strengthen Philippine industry and tradable services; (4) invest in people institutions (government bureaucracy), technology

and the environment; and (5) encourage the science and statistics communities to be logical

partners of the government in the country's drive toward sustained economic growth and social transformation.

DISCUSSION

Dr. Guerrero remarked that statistical data should be timely. reliable and accurate. There is need for subnational and quarterly and monthly surveys to capture growth spurts. On the possible contribution to economic growth of Filipino values, such as lack of discipline . Dr. Intal replied that credible leadership is more important than discipline. Innovativeness was also discussed as a factor for competiliveness.

Trans. Nat. Acad. Sci. Technol. 16: 85-1 (}(}.1994

Filipino Plant Scientists' Answer to STAND 2000*

Ruben L. Villareal**

Introduction

Participants at a planning conference held in 1988 at the UPLB College of Agricul ture characterized Philippine agriculture at the end of this century in the following statement (Villareal 1988): "The trend wiil be toward smaller, more di­versified, and intensively cultivated farms, and Philippine society will rely less on the agricultural sector than on industry and the service sectors for its gross na­tional product .... Unless better policies protect farmers, agriculture will continue its present practice of exporting a lot of raw materials instead of finished products."

Two years later, on Jan. 27, 1990, a similar group participating in another workshop added the followin~ features \Kasco el al. 1990) ... "Susi~lInatiility of production capacity, and a commercial rather than a subsistence orientation. It is also expected that these farms will be producing sufficient quantities of the basic commodities such as staple foods for the farmers' use, and will be producing a substantial surplus of all products where they have a comparative advantage. Exportable surplus will be shipped in completely processed form to achieve the value added advantage."

Thus, it is generally hoped that small-scale farmers of the future will have more compact farms which will also be more productive, since they will be more diversified and more intensively cultivated than those of today. Farm products will be processed domestically to achieve the value added advantage. This will be accompanied by a change in orientation from subsistence farming to commercial or market-oriented agriculture.

With the aforementioned scenario of Philippine agriculture, what should be the goal, objectives and strategy of Filipino plant scientists?

"'Paper presented at the 16th Annual Scientific Meeting of the National Academy of Science and Technology PICC. Manila, July 13-14. 1994

**Chancellor and Professor of Horticulture. V.P. Los Banos. College. Laguna 4031. The author gratefully acknowledges the assistance of the Federation of Crop Science Societies of the Philippines in the preparation of this paper.

85

86 Transaction.ii National Academy of Science

The Goal

Improved economic and social status of present and future generations of Filipino farmers and consumers, particularly those with low incomes.

The Objective

To generate ?nd disseminate plant-related knowledge and technology of short- and long-term environmental, social, and economic benefits and to help enhance a national research system-for various plant species.

The Strate).,>Y

To increase production efficiency and sustain ability in all growing environ­ments through appropriate science and technology.

SIGNIFICANT ACHIEVEMENTS

Crop Varieties

Rice. In 1992, two rainfed lowland rice varietics (PSB Rc-12 and PSB Rc-14) were released in collaboration with the Philippine Rice Research I nstitute. These varieties are adapted to rainfed droughtprone areas. PSB Rc 14 is· very popular in areas where rice tungro virus is not serious even under irrigated lowland conditions. Further, PSB Rc 14 has good eating quality. Other rice varieties like UPL Ri 5 and UPL Ri-7, both high-yielding upland varieties, have been released through the Philippine Seed Board and are now commercially grown by farmers in the country.

Corn. One significant breakthrough has been the successful containment of the downy mildew disease which has caused losses of about P I billion annually. Development of downy mildew-resistant varieties through genetic means and a breakthrough in chemical seed treatment with metalaxyl have resulted in savings for the com industry of about PI 00 million annually.

High-yielding open-pollinated varieties (OPY's) like IPB Var I (Ginintuan), IPB Var 2 (Tanco White), IPB Var 4, IPB Var 5, andIPB Var 7 have been grown by farmers on thousands of hectares. In 1993 (GPEP), at least 15,000 hectares were planted to IPB OPY's. In some farms, actual yields of 4 to 5 tfba under appropriate farm management were obtained. One advantage of the use ofOPY's is that farmers can save seeds from their previous crop and maintain the desired level of productivity.

A very recent significant breakthrough is the development of high-yielding and pest-resistant hybrids. In 1992, IPB released IPB 913, its first yellow com hybrid,

Vii/areal, Filipino Plant Scienllsts 87

which gavc an average yield of 6.6 tJha across 18 locations over 2 scasons of trials by the Philippine Seed Board (PSB). IPB 913 is also resistant to downy mildew and moderately tolerant to corn borer and stalk rot. Three more hybrids were released in 1993, namely, IPB 919, IPB 921, and IPB 929. IPB 929 was the first IPB hybrid that broke the 7-ton barrier giving an average grain yield of 7.01 tfha.

Recognizing the supetior performance of the four aforementioned hybrids, DA has included them in the GPEP with an initial order of 25,000 bags (good for 15,000 hectares) of certified seeds in 1993. This year, DA procured an additional 35,000 bags for the GPEP. A total of 50,000 hectares is expected to be planted to IPB hybrids for 1994. The release of superior hybrids has also spurred the development of local seed growers who act as the backbone of the seed production and distribution system. These activities have generated jobs in the counuyside as hybrid seed production is a labor intensive endeavor.

Horticultllral CTOpS. Several horticultural crop varieties, developed by the Institute of Plant Breeding and Department of Horticulture. were released to the public by the Philippine Seed Board. Among these crops are:

Crop Variety Name Trait Tomato Marikit bacterial wilt resistant

Marilag bacterial " ·ilt resistant Ma)'umi bacterial wilt resistant

Eggplant Tilandoy bacterial wilt resistant Tagumpay bacterial wilt resistant

Sweet pepper Sinagtala bacterial wilt resistant Hot pep pre Matikas resistant to virus and bacterial wilt Pickling cucumber Pilmaria resistant to downy miIdew Slicing cucumber UPLB-Cu-2 downy mildew resistant Chinese cabbage Esperanza head forming under warm

temperature Pole sitao Sandigan and high yielding pole sitao varieties

Maagap with good pod characteristics Bush sitao Sumilang high yielding, light green

pods and good resistance to fusarium wilt.

Cowpea Mabunyi high yielding. long podded and good resistance to fusarium wilt

Abaca Pacol x CBS H2 resistant to mosaic Cacao EET376/UF667

ICS 44/LEET376 Medicinal plants Lagundi

Tsaang gubat Sambong Niyog-niyogan Yerba Buena

88 Transacliol1~' ,,,"'a/lOnal Academy of .(jcience

One non-breeding activity which has started to revolutionize the tomato process­ing industry in the Philippines is the introduction of a growing wilt-susceptible to­mato variety following a paddy rice. This practice has a Bowed wilt-susceptible but processable varieties from California and the A VRDC to be raised in the paddy lowland of Pangasinan and 1I0cos Norte. In the past, bacterial wilt precluded the successful production of processing tomatoes.

Orchid hybrids. Kagawara Yuthayong Beauty (a trigeneric cross of the or­chid Renanthera. Vanda and Ascocenda). has been successfully propagated by tissue culture of buds. By the usual process of propagating plants, it would take 10 to 20 years to produce 50,000 plants from the original clone. By tissue culture it would take only about six years to produce the same number including the years it would take to make a selection from which the tissue would be taken.

Mussaenda hybrids. The development of multi-colored mussaendas by the late Dr. Dioscoro L. Umali has been another outstanding Philippine contribution to the world's ornamental horticulture. The cultivated mussaendas, named after the First Ladies of the Philippines and given the Spanish address Doiia, have become part of the Philippine and Asian landscapes. The mussaendas have gained great popularity among ornamental growers and gardeners in Hawaii, Puerto Rico, the rest of Central America and in some parts of Europe. To date there are II fully-characterized cultivars of mussacnda.

Mllngbean and pe,mlll. New varieties of mung bean (Pag-asa series) and pea­nut (UPL Pn2 and UPL Pn4) of improved plant structure, high yields and high resistance to diseases have been grown commercially in the countryside. The mung bean varieties have spread in production areas in Southeast Asia.

Wheat . Wheat varieties developed to adapt to our tropical environment are Trigo I, Trigo 2, and Trigo 3. Pilot production in 1I0cos Norte conducted at the Mariano Marcos State University and the Philippine Tobacco Research and Train­ing Center has shown yields up to 2.7 tlha, averaged from 7 ha. At a yield of 1.5 tlha, wheat growing in the Philippines can be economically competitive.

Improved germplasms developed in UPLB continue to prove their worth not only in the Philippines but also in other parts of the world. For example, seeds of Trigo I which showed good adaptation in Sri Lanka were multiplied and used in the national wheat production program. Pagasa I of mungbean showed consist­ent good performance in other Asian countries and was officially released in Taiwan and South Korea. The corn variety Philippine DMR Composite 2 was officially released in Indonesia under the name "Bromo" and in Nepal as "Sarlahi Seto ." The UPL-SY2 or "Tiwala" of soybean was reported by the University of Cantho in Vietnam to have performed well in the Mekong Delta. In addition, several of the improved germplasms of tomato have been used in Taiwan's AVRDC's tomato breeding program. To date, many of AVRDC's newly-derived tomato lines are commercially grown in several developing countries and are being used in tomato breeding programs in 40 other countries where poor fruit set due to heat and susceptibility to bacterial wilt are serious problems.

Villareal, Filipino Plant Scielltist,.. 89

Production Technologies and Methods

Mango flower inducer. The discovery of a flower-i nduci ng technique in mangoes through foliar spray with potassium nitrate has been adopted all over the country and has resulted in P476 million added value to the mango industry. (The industry worth P2.633 billion in 1984 increased to P4.79 billion in 1991).

Embryo clIltltre of makapuno. The successful culture of makapuno embryos by the late Dr. Emerita V. de Guzman led to the production of trees which yield 100% makapuno. A study on the genetics of makapuno provided the basis for Umali's theory that 100% bearing makapuno trees could be produced through embryo culture. The benefits that can be derived from the technology is shown in Table I . Substantial income can be realized starting on the 10th year'Which would be tremendously increasing up to the 20th year.

Table 1. Estimated cost and henetit in establishing a I-ha makapuno plantation

Year

1-5 10 15 20

Expenses·

P83,360.90 6,621

12,956 17,798

100% Makapuno

P 28,600 54,752

232,932 297,086

SaleslY earb

80% Makapuno

P 23,372 44,744

189.702 242,11 4

1\ Ex.penses include those for management following recommended practices but exclude co~t of the J. ha land.

h Makapuno nut costs PIO a piece; one seedling costs PSOO. Yield is ve.ry conservatively estimated al 20 nut.v'treeJyear during the first 5 years to 100 nuts/tree/year starting on the 10th year.

90 TransactIons National Academy of Science

Tissue culture a/various crops.

Technology/Commodity

Agencies involvedfFunding source

I. Micropropagation

a) white potato

IPB-HADPIDA

IPB-McDonald's

IPB-SAPPRAD

b) bamboo

IPB-IORC

Highlights

Being adapted at limited scale to produce 6,000 micro tubers per season as breeder seeds for further propagation to produce certified seeds (Rasco et aI., 1992): now being used commer­cially.

Ti ssue culture stem cutting techniques for rapid propagation of planting material have been developed/opti mized: each plantlet can be used to produce 60,000 plantlets in 6 months in the highlands and 12,000 in the low­lands (3 -5).

Tissue culture (shoot culture and in vitro tuberization) tech­niques optimized and applied to support the breeding program for lowland potato development and disseminate breeder's mate­rials to other agencies in the Phil­ippines and other Southeast Asian countries.

In vitro propagation using embryogenic calli in Dendro­calamus strictl/s and field estab­lishment (6), Callus cstablislunent and occasional plantlet regen­eration in D. /alijlorus cv Machliku (7), used as reforesta­tion material.

Villareal, Filipino Plant Sciemisls 91

IPB-DOST

c) banana

IPB-IDRC

d) garlic and shallot

IPB-A VRDC-ADB-PCARRD

h) rattan

IPB-DOST-DA

Optimization of embryo-de­rived callus system for Schizoslachyum lumampao and D. latiflorus. Callus establishment and occasional plantlet regene­rating in Bambusa blwlleana.

By shoot proliferation tech­nique (9-11), 200,000 plantlets can be obtai ned from one sucker of Saba; technique de­veloped for several varieties; used commercially.

Multiple shoot production technique from mature bulb ()f shallot has been developed and is being tested (13); techniques of multiple shoot formation from garlic cloves and subsequent bulblet formation have been de­veloped for garlic for basic seed production.

Shoot proliferation from seed; technique used on three species Calamus manilensis. Palasan or C. merilli and Limuran or C. ornatus (18-19). Seedlings from tissue culture are available by order.

92 Transactions National Academy of Science

Mycorrhiw. MYCOOROE, a mycorrhizal tablet, is a biological fertilizer which is effective for growing pines and Eucalyptus in nurseries and in the field. It replaces 50%-80% of the chemical fertilizer requirement of tree species. MYCOGROE is marketed and exported by the Los Banos Biotechnology Corpo­ration and registered with the Fertilizer and Pesticide Authority.

Biological control of the rool-knot nematooes and oilier species. A biological control method using a fungus (paecilomyces lilacinus) against the root knot nema­tode and other species was discovered and proven effective and adaptable by the farmers. This method, which is adapted to farmers' field conditions, could greatly reduce their expenses and increase their income. A private company, Asiatic Technologies, Inc., has been given by UPLB the right to produce and market the technology under the trade name BIOCON.

Biological control of lepidopterous pests. Five species of Trichogramma para­sites were successfully mass-produced to control a number of lepidopterous pests. Two of the species were discovered to be abundant in Negros Occidental. Field tests showed that 98%. 90% and 83% control of cotton bollworm, corn earworn, and legume leaffolder, respectively, were obtained when 50,000 of the Trichogramma parasites were rclcased per hectare. The cost of producing 50,000 parasites was less than 5% of the cost of one insecticide application per hectare.

Furthermore, a bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis, was also recovered locally and is being mass-produced against lepidopterous crop pests. In addition, a nu­clear polyhedral virus has been developed against Spodop/era lit ura, the common cutworm. Both can kill up to 90% oflepidopterous pests.

Technology for unfavorable environment. Research on appropriate technolo­gies for stress environments has also achieved signficant breakthroughs. With the country's approximately one million hectares of acidic soils having a pH value of less than 5.5, the impact on yield depression can be enormous. To correct this problem would require application of 2 to 7 tons of agricultural lime per hectare which is an expensive process. UPLB scientists have identified certain varieties of mungbean, peanut, corn, and sweet potato from the germ plasm collection which can tolerate high acidity (low pH) and attendant toxicity due to aluminum. These have been utilized in the breeding program for the development of acceptable varieties for acid soils.

Products and Processes

Food processing and product utilization technologies have been developed which can be adopted by large- and small-scale industries.

Quality fruit wines. Various fruits like tamarind (Tamarind us indica L.), guayabano (Annona tnuricata L.), mango (Mangifera indica L.), passion fruit (Passiflora edulis Sims), ailS (Annona squamosa L.), pomelo (Citrus paradisi Macf.). ladu (Citrus paratagerina Hort. ex Tan.), orange (Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck),

Villareal. Filipino Plant Scientists 93

pineapple (Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.), cheny (Pnmus avium L.), bignay (Antidesma bunius (L.) Spreng.), and different varieties of banana have been found to be suitcd for wine production. Except for atis, fruits are profitable raw materials.

Niyogurl. UPLB has developed this low-fat yogurt made from coconut milk, skimmilk powder or non-fat dricd milk (NFDM), sugar, pineapple tidbits, and culture starters S. thermophilus and lActobacillus bulgricus. One cup niyogurt provides 4% protein, 1% total ash, 2% fat, and 24% total solids. Since it has only 2% fat, thc product is excellcnt for those conscious of their fat intake.

Niyogurt has a very high consumer acccptability. This demonstrates the suitability of fresh coconut milk as a less expensive fat carricr to substitutc for butterfat in the manufacture offermented filled milk products.

Postharvest handling techniques for fruits and vegetables. In fruits and veg­etables, postharvest losses amount to as much as 30% for fruits and almost 50% for vegetables. The Postharvest Horticulture Training and Research Centcr (PHTRC) undertakcs postharvcst research on quality improvement of fruits and vegetables for local and foreign markets. The Center has so far achieved the following objectives:

Corn

a. cnhanced the export quality of mango to Japan and other countries through research in postharvest disease control, development of ap­propriate maturity using titratable acidity and specific gravity stand­ards, and development of efficient quality control measures before export shipment;

b. demonstrated the feasibility of non-refrigerated inter-island shipment of banana from Davao to Manila, and long distance export to the Mid­dle East and Europe (involving more than 2 weeks of transport) using ethy lene scrubbers (adsorbent) with carriers fabricated from clay and rice hull, in conjunction with vacuum packing;

c. developed or improved village-level postharvest tcchnology; and d. promoted the cut flower trade.

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT PRIORITY Aru.:AS

Despite the abovementioned achievements in research, growth of Philippine agriculture has remained low compared to our Asian neighbors. Let us take com as an example. Our country is capable of producing all the com that we need and even produce more to cater to the export market. However, it is sad to note that the Philippines has one of the lowest production per unit area in the world and has been a net importer for the past several years. It is, therefore, imperative to identify research and development areas that will alleviate our production problems and pro­mote corn as an export winner.

94 Transactions National Academy of Science

L Priority Research Areas

I. Development of high-yielding pest-resistant and stress-tolerant varieties of crops

a. Hybrid Corn Research. It is perceived that the best and fastest way for our country to dramatically increase corn production is through the use of hybrid cultivars. The advantages of using hybrids have al­ready been proven in other countries that usc them. Countries with very high yield levels (6-7 tlha) have almost all their corn area planted to hybrids.

Our average yield is very low at 1.5 tlha. Nevertheless, hybrids in the Philippines are currently planted to about 7% of the total area, ac­counting for more than 20% of the total production.

Devoting just 30% of our corn area to hybrids by the year 2000 may result in the·following: a) assuming an average yield of 4 t/ha/ season, our country will realize a total production of 8.4 million metric tons a year, not to mention the production of the non-hybrid areas, which is more than enough to supply the total demand (estimated de­mand by 2000 is 7.7 M mt); b) cost of production will be greatly re­duced, thus enabling us to be competitive in the export market; and c) substantial area can be shifted to other high value crops that are more suited to the area. This is basically the concept behind the Key Pro­duction Area approach of the Department of Agriculture.

Table 2 shows the total area, average yield, and % hybrid utili­zation of selected Asian countries.

Table 2. Estimated corn area, average yield, and hybrid utilization in selected Asian Countries (1992)

Country

China India Thailand Indonesia Philippines

Total Area Planted

(million ha)

21 6 1.4 3.6 3.4

Average Yield (+/ha)

4.5 1.6 2.6 2.2 1.3

Source: De Leon & Paroda, RAPA 1993 Ansaldo 1993

Percent Hybrid

Area

73 20 25 2 7

% Hybrid Area Needed for Self­

Sufficiency by year 2003

100 32

100 32 35

Villareal, Filipino Plant Scientists 95

b. Development of Special Types of Crlleivars. Sweet corn and baby corn are potential export winners. Since production of these corn types are highly labor intensive, our fairly cheap labor supply will be a real advantage in the long run.

Thailand is now the leading exporter of baby corn "ith a total export value of$33 million in 1992 (APAARI 1994). However, their increasing labor cost would make them uncompetitive.

The Philippines should be ready to exploit this opportunity and promote baby corn as a, high value crop, There is, however, a need to develop varieties that can produce exportable (high quality) young cobs. The same requirement can be said ' of sweet corn, the eating quality and uniformity of which are the prime considerations for the export market .

c. Application of Biotechnology, Recent advances in crop improvement tndicate that hiotechnology provides the competitive markets which can greatly facilitate the mapping and transfer of desirable genes into adopted cultivars, The transfer of be gene in corn for example will have a very dramatic impact on our production considering that corn borer is now the number one pest in the Philippines. Another exciting use of biotechnology is in the breeding for resistance to diseases and for tolerance to abiotic stresses such as drought, acid and saline soils. DN A fingerprinting of cultivars will also aid the researchers in vari­etal identification and quality control aspects in seed production.

Developing countries, including the Philippines, are faced with increasing populations for which food production must be doubled in the next 25 years. Because of constraints in prices of agrichemicals and energy sources, in general, environmental considerations (dwin­dling good agricultural lands, ecological concerns) and production plateaus, applications of biotechnology are sought to further improve crop production through primarily the development of crop varieties with novel characteristics. Thus, a strong plant breeding program is required for successful applications of biotechnology to crop produc­tion.

Applications of biotechnology tools cover the range of plant breeding activities, from genebanking through the breeding proper, to testing and distribution, The techniques that can be used range from microprogagation, disease elimination, generation of variability by somaclonal variation, in vitro selection, genetic engineering, gene mapping, moleclar diagnostics disease indexing/monitoring, etc,

96 7runsactions Nutional Academy 0/ Science

2. Development of cost-effective production and post-production technolo­gIes

High cost of production in the Philippines has been attributed to a number of factors such as high cost of inputs and post production losses. Research activities that arc geared toward the reduction or substitution of inorganic ferttlizer by indigenous organic sources and promotion of inte­grated pest management technology would be very rewarding. Postharvest handling should be geared toward minimizing damage due to stored grain pests such as weevils and Asperge/ills jlal'lIs. Processing technologies for green corn and baby corn should be further studied.

3. Improvement of Cropping Systems

One of the potential sources of increased corn production is the plant­ing of corn after rice. For example, vast areas in Central LULon lay idle during a good part of the dry planting season because of moisture con­straints. Corn-after-rice cropping system has been demonstrated to work in these areas given proper technologies. However. concerns such as land preparation and water management need to be further studied.

n. The Priority Ilevelopment Concerns include:

I. Technology Transfer and Marketing Strategies

Transfering and marketing of new technologies always pose a serious challenge to researchers and extension workers. In our experience, the participation of the private sector is the key to the immediate adoption of new corn technologies. For example, new varieties are immediately tested in major corn areas by the seed growers themselves who conduct strip or demonstration tests in their respective areas. The best variety would then be determined and produced by the seed grower based on the response of the farmers in the locality. In this system, the seed grower has a very strong financial motivation to conduct the strip tests and to produce/distribute the seeds in his area. Public-private partnership is very crucial in technology transfer and should be enhanced, not criticized.

2. Infrastructure System

Substantial losses in corn production could be attributed to inadequate postharvest facilities such as driers and storage and bulk handling facilities. Distribution and marketing of grains are further affected by terrible road conditions and lack of transport facilities. A report by a DA-USAID (J 99 J)

J'iJ/areal, Filipino Plant Scientists 97

study indicated that the cost of marketing and distributing corn in the Philip­pines is 70% higher than in Thailand. It is also cheaper to ship corn from Thailand to Manila than from Mindanao to Manila. That is why there is an urgent need to invest in infrastructure and market development if we want to be competitive in relation to other countries.

3. Grades and Standards

As far as seeds are concerned, there are existing quality control mecha­nisms already put up by the DA and research agencies. However, strict monitoring is still needed to check unscrupulous seed growers. For com­mercial grains trading, however, uniform quality control is still lacking and many farmers and grains traders have little regard for quality traits such as mpisture, presence of impurities, incidence of pests, etc. If we want to ex­port corn grains, our farmers and traders should be taught how to achieve and maintain quality.

4. Linkages

At the national level, there is an urgent need for a collaboration among corn research centers. In view of the limited government resources, it is imperative to focus on the strength of a particular research institution. For example, upstream or basic studies e.g. biotechnology, could be primarily given to UPLB while midstream and downstream research (extension) could be assigned to regional centers which are more in a position to transfer new technologies in the rural areas. As we see it, there is really no serious coordination among government research institutions as far as varietal de­velopment is concerned. That is why there are clamors to create one re­search institution for corn just like PHILRlCE.

Linkages with private institutions and peoples organizations arc also vigorously proposed. Private entities have the financial capabilities but they may lack the technical manpower to do specific research. Mutual coopera­tion is, therefore, needed to achieve common goals. Finally, linkages with international research centers should be established and strenghthened. Building of national capabilities such as manpower training and sharing of germplasm and other resources should be given priority.

Today, there are only two countries producing Carabao mangoes in com­mercial quantities; the Philippines and Mexico. Many exporting countries were initially exposed to the taste of India and Florida-type mangoes, as cultivars of these types last longer and are less susceptible to handling injury. However,

98 Transac rions Narional Academy of Science

there is growing interest in the milder-tas;;ng lnuo-Chinese types to which the Carabao mango belongs. A good example of 'h.e supuior flavor of the Carabao or 'Manila Super' mango is the fact that this cultivar constitutes about 99% of the current mango importation of Japan, which in the seventies, used to import only Mexican mangoes of the Florida type.

The market for Carabao mango is growing. The mainland Chinese market is rapidly expanding, with the upscale markets paying better prices than Hong Kong consumers. Importers in Hong Kong indicated that well over 50'% of the exports to the colony is re-exported to China. Korea is another potential market. The competitive advantage of the Philippines in mango export is its proximity to these big markets. including Japan.

Other nearby countries like Indonesia and Thailand have shown keen in­terest in growing the 'Carabao' mango, as there are suitable areas for producing this cultivar in commercial quantities.

The current situation in the banana industry, where Indonesia, Malaysia, and other countries have taken over significant shares of the banana market of the Philippines, might also develop in the case of mango.

The only strategy by which the Philippines can retain its position in the world market for mangoes is by producing adequate and reliable volumes of good quality mangoes at competitive prices. This means that greater effort will have to be put into both expanded production and good postharvest handling techniques. Supportive policies will have to be put into place, although recent developments in world trade (eg., GATT and AFTA) point to the application of appropriate technologies as a key instrument in the strategy.

The expansion 0 f the export market for Philippine mango will reqnire the development of appropriate technologies to extend shelf-life. Fortunately, unlike other cultivars, postharvest diseases in the 'Carabao' mango can be fashioned. This means that no pesticide needs to be used after harvest to control rots. Fur­ther extension of shelf-lile requires the application of appropriate controlled at­mosphere technology which awaits development for the mango.

The prospects are bright for the 'Carabao' mango, with a total world trade of 15 million MT (1989), which is growing. With many countries expressing inter­est in Carabao mangoes (for example, over 80 countries have been attending the International Mango Symposia), we have to move with a sense of urgency. Furtunately, many Filipinos are heedmg the call for expanded production. Sup­port services in terms of cultural management, marketing and postharvest han­dling will have to be extended to this sector.

OTHER CONCERNS

The move toward greater regional and multilateral trade cooperation will undoubtedly impact on the development of the agricultural sector. With the freer flows of goods and commodities there will be keener competition among produc­ing nations.

Villareal, Filipino Plant Scientists 99

But our decision-makers have deemed it that the benefits of freer trade among countries outweigh its cost. Thus, at the regional level, we havejoined the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFT A) agreement. More than 15 commodities, includ­ing some agricultural products will be liberalized (meaning accelerated tariff re­duction) in order to foster greater trade among ASEAN nations.

Because of a similar agreement in the North American continent, the sign­ing of the North American Free Trade Area among the US, Canada and Mexico, it is expected that some of our agricultural products will lose out to our competi­tors, particularly, Mexico.

The advent of Gatt (The General Agreement on Tariff and Trade) puts a check on the formation of the restrictive regional trading blocs. As a signatory to it, we are dirtbound to shift from quantitative restrictions to tariffs or duties and in tum, to gradually lower these duties within a JO-year time-frame.

Although the initial higher tariffs that we will impose to imported agricultural goods will protect our local produce, these will, however, be lowered. It is, there­fore, imperative that we introduce changes in our production pattern that will increase our productivity in order to have a chance of surviving the ensuing cut­throat competition. The key to this is basically science and technology and their successful application.

The efforts of the University are indeed geared toward this. However, it must be stressed that with or without GATT, the University will continue to pro­duce appropriate S & T that will increase and improve the yield of our farmers because this is what the country needs.

CONCLlJSlON

Philippine agriculture at the end of this century will be generally character­ized by small-scale, more compact, more diversified and more intensively-culti­vated farms . Fann products will be processed domestically to achieve the value added advantage. There will be a change in orientation from subsistence farming to commercial or market-oriented agriculture.

With the aforementioned scenario of Philippine agriculture, Filipino plant scientists, thus, will playa key role in identifjing, generating and disseminating appropriate science and technology and development concerns that will alleviate our production problems and promote exportable products in processed form to achIeve· the value added advantage.

IUU rransactt'ons National Academy of Science

REFERENCES

Mendoza, E. M. T. 1994. The Cellular and Molecular Plant Biology Program of the UPLB-Institute of Plant Breeding. U.P. Los Banos, College, Laguna.

Rasco, E.T., N.G. Mamicpic,B.R. Sumayao, F.F. Penalba, and AJ. Quimio. 1990. Synthesis of the UPLBCA Planning Workshop. University of the Philip­pines Los Banos, College of Agriculture, College, Laguna. (mimeograph).

Villareal, R.L. 1988. The College of Agriculture of U.P. Los Banos for the 1990's. Alwnni Bulletin 1(4): 2-3,9-10.

Villareal, R.L. 1988. The College of Agriculture 1970-1987: Significant Achieve­ments in Resarch and Extension. The Philippine Agriculturist (Special Is­sue). U.P. Los Banos, College, Laguna.

Villareal, R.L. 1992. Farm Size and Agricultural Development II. Philippines. FFTC Extension Bulletin No. 346. FFTC-ASPAC, Taipei City, Taiwan, R.O.C.

Trans tVilt. Acad. .ric ;. Techno!. 16: /o1 - 1I0. /~f).f

STATE OF THE ART IN ANIMAL SCIENCE*

Cecilio R. Arboleda**

Intruductiun

[n the July 6, 1994 issue of the Philippine Star, Department of Health Secre­tary Juan Flavier wrote about the "Parable of Animal Growing". In the article he took note of scarcity of meat and other animal protein foods available for the Filipinos. He noted that while every Filipino needs 59 kg of meat per year, only 14 kg are available. He further observed that the average Filipino takes only Il7th (If his requirement of eggs in the diet.

Our intake of milk is even much less than we ought to be drinking. I was told that in a recent Philippine Dairy Conference held in Mindanao, Secretary Flavier announced his intention to propose to the President to declare milk as the official drink for the Filipinos. He may have said this in a lighter vein but it underscores his concern about the importance of raising animals 1Il0re to alleviate malnutrition in the country than to earn foreign exchange from its export.

In the past, we have depended on the availability of cheap fish from the sea. Indiscriminate exploitation of our ocean resources in the late few decades has made fish scarcer and even more expensive than broilers and pork. Today, more and more of our animal protein foods arc coming from pOl.ltry and live­stock.

To raise animals for food and agriculture requires investment in stock, feeds, housing, labor, medicines and other inputs. Where animal production is under­taken in large commercial farming operations the additional concern of waste disposal and environmental pollution has to be addressed more seriously.

With the impending deliberation on the General Agreement on TarilTs and Trade in the Senate, many issues will be raised that will impact on policies about animal production in the Philippines. To more intelligently address these issues it

*Papcr presl.'nted allhe 16th Annual ScieIlLifh.: MeeLing of the Na(ionnl A,.;ademy of Sl.:ie"l1ce and

Technology PICC, Manila, .lilly 1J-14. 1994 ·"2r>e.m and Profes,'i:or of Animal Science. Colk:ge of Agril.:ulturc, Hni v<.'rsity of the Philippines

Los Banos College. Lagun<t

tOt

102 Transactions National Academy of Sdence

would help to re-examine the state of the art of the world's animal production technology vis-a-vis the state of animal production in the Philippines.

In the context of the dawning realities of international trade, on the one hand, and the increasing need for protein foods of our people and their concern for the environment, on the other, we need to re-examine the state of the art in animal science and technology worldwide vis-a-vis the state of animal production in our country. From this exercise we hope that we could gain insights that will help formulate rational policies that will promote sustainable development in our country.

Animal Science and Technology Today

State of the Art in Animal Agriculture

Every other day an integrated broiler operation somewhere in the United States starts more than a million day-old broiler chicks in its farm and raises them to about 50 days. Within this period, the chicks would have grown from an aver­age of38 gm to about 2.5 kg each on only about 4.75 kg offeed with a mortality of less than 3%. At this stage they are crated and brought to a poultry processing plant where they are killed, plucked of their feathers, eviscerated, cut up and packaged at the rate of almost 1000 birds per hour per processing line.

Somewhere in California an egg farm places half a million month-old White Leghorn pullets in cages of 4 to 5 birds to a cage where they are fed for about II to 12 months. Within this period, these birds will be laying at an average rate of 70% or 350,000 eggs daily, consuming feed at the rate of only about 100 gm of feed per bird per day.

In Denmark, a typical pig fanner houses some 10,000 one-month-old weanling pigs into fattening stalls. In a little less than five months these pigs would have grown from only about 8 kg to 95 kg each. Over this period, they would have consumed only 2.4 kg of feed per every kg gain of live body weight with a mortality rate ofless than 3 %.

In Australia or Holland, a farmer raises about a thousand cows in feed lots. Each morning these cows automatically enter a barn where they are fitted into a milking machine. With a lactation period of about 300 days, these cows produce an average of 3 5 liters of milk per day on a daily feed consumption of only 8 kg of concentrates and 6 kg of roughage. The bulk of the milk collected is then brought to a milk plant for processing and packaging.

In many temperate and semi-temperate countries around the world these visions of very highly efI'icient livestock farms are already realities common to many of its farmers. These farmers are applying state-of-the-art production sys­tems that have been developed from results of continuing scientific research in all aspects of animal science and related fields . Findings from researches in animal

Arboleda, State 0/ the Art in Animal Science 103

breeding and genetics, reproductive physiology, nutrition, behavioral science, veterinary science, processing, and other related fields of study have been put together into technologies that promote not only higher production but more efficient feed utilization , better quality products, and more improved health and viability.

Animal Breeding and Reproductive Physiology

Ani mal breeding and genetics research in the last four decades have provided livestock industries with the scientific basis for the development of improved breeds and strains of Iivestocks. Hybrid poultry and pigs, for example, are the standard stock currently used by commercial producers of eggs, poultry mcat and pork because of their inherently high production performance. Mating hybrids by themselves. how­ever, results in inferior progeny. Because of this, private breeding companies have been able to develop proprietary genetic lines that confer virtual control of the pro­duction and distribution of superior genetic stock simply by controlling the distribu­tion of purelincs and marketing only the hybrid progeny. In poultry and swine, where generation intervals are much shorter and the rate of multiplication is much faster, the technology of hybridization is the state of the art in more advanced poultry and swi ne industries.

With large ruminant species like cattle, where the generation interval is much longer and reproduction rate is slow, recent advances in selection theory and the rapid development of electronic computers, have enabled breeders to develop a more accurate system of identifying genetically-superior bulls and cows for breeding purposes.

Coupled with the advances in reproductive physiology, cattle breeders to­day are able to increase the genetic transmission of genes of their superior ani­mals to their progeny by making possible the storage of bull semen for almost indefinite lengths of time and increasing the reproduction rates of cows by multi­ple ovulation and embryo transfer (MOET) technique. While the traditional sys­tem would allow bulls to mate only a few hundred cows a year over a lifetime of 10 years, today a superior bull could sire over a million calves even if he has already been dead for a long time.

Traditional breeding practices allow a cow to produce only about one calf evel), two ycars. This means that even if she is a genetically superior one. she would only be able to transmit her genes to one progeny every two years . To­day, with MOET, it is possible for such a cow to genetically reproduce and trans­mit her genes to as much as 30 calves each year or 60 times more than she would under n.atural breeding conditions. "1 his technological advancement has enabled dairy industries in the developed countries to more than double their national milk production output withi n the last few decades even as the number of their dairy cows have continuously declined. Unfortunately, while this technology has been successfully demonstrated for some years now and has been known world-

104 Transactions National Academy of SCIence

wide, the high cost of equipment and trained manpower required have limi ted its commercial application to only the advanced countries of North America and. Western Europe.

Animal Nutrition

As breeding techniques have raised the genetic potential for performance of livestock, the quality and quantity of nutrients required to realize this potential have also changed. Obviously, genetically-superior animals would require more and better quality nutrients to realize their potential for gro\\th, reproduction and maintenance, and other desirable characteristics at various stages of develop­ment. To fully realize the optimum potential ofthese new genotypes, animal nutri­tionists determine the optimum amount and combination of the nutrients that need to be taken in by these improved genotypes at certain specific stages of their development. Indeed, advances in animal nutrition and feeding research have enabled animal nutritionists to specify more precisely the optimum nutrient re­quirements of animals at various stages of their development and levels of pro­ductivity. By using specialized computer programs and with the knowledge of the specific nutrient requirements of the animals, nutritional content and prices of various feed requirements of the animals, animal nutritionists today could very easily formulate rations that would satisfy all the nutritional requirements at the least cost. By increasing the accuracy and precision of feed formulation, optimum performance is attained while eliminating wastage in feeding.

Management and Production Systems

Knowledge of the biology and behavior of farm animals has also enabled animal scientists to develop production and management systems that do not only increase the productivity of the animals but also the labor efficiency of the farmer. For example, in a typical state-of-the-art ch icken house today it is possible for a single farmer to keep 100,000 broiler chicks on only one hectare of floor space and feed them instantaneously at the push of a button without wasting a bucket of feed. By developing a controlled environment system of housing, livestock rais­ers today have been able to maintain peak productivity regardless of the climate or season of the year. Ambient house temperature, venti lation, humidity. lighting, and sound are maintained at levels that have been found to stimulate maximum productivity.

Electronically-controlled automatieally-operated machines have drastically reduced the number of farm workers who would have spent endless hours of their time in feeding, milling, egg collection, cleaning and waste disposal.

Even knowledge of the aesthetic sense of farm animals have been consid­.ered in providing state-of-the-art animal production systems. II is not uncommon for egg farmers and dairy farmers, for example, to provide piped-in music in their

Arbolel/a, Slate vf the Art in Animal Sci~nce IU5

laying houses and milking barns. Experiments have shown that when classical music such as the ones by Bach and Mozart is played, egg production is significantly in­creased while cholesterol level is decreased. Hard rock music, on the other hand, have been found to significantly reduce egg and milk production.

Processing

In the past, such products as eggs, milk, poultry, and meat were produced by individual farms in small volumes. Products could easily be marketed or consumed without further processing and storage. Today, as singk farms produce bigger vol­umes of these highly perishable products, there is a need for processing and storage technology not only to prolong their sheUlife but also to add value. Reduction of human labor by intensive mechanization. improvement of product quality, strict sani­tation and prolonged shelflife have been the important contribution of research and development in animal products processing. State-of-the-art processing plants are well-equipped to enable them to process velY high volumes of processed products that are sanitary, and attractive at very short processing time and a minimum of human labor. It has also increased shelflife of certain proccessed products.

Animal Production Technology in the Philippines

Like many of the countries located within the tropical region bounded by the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, the climatic conditions of the Philip­pines is typically warm and humid - conditions that are highly conducive for growth of bacteria and other microorganisms but less favorable for growth and reproduction of farm animals. In the tropics, the biological efficiency of animals are significantly lower than those raised in the temperate countries. Poultry and other livestock spe­cies are most comfortable in temperatures between 15 to 20" C. To attain this tem­perature range in the tropics would require animals to be kept in air-conditioned houses for most of the year - a housing system that is adopted only in the Middle East countries where energy is quite abundant and very cheap.

Production of forage crops and of other crops that are used for animal feeding are also poorer in the tropics than in temperate countries. In temperate countries where daylength reaches to as much as 20 hours, photosynthetic activities of plants are much longer and therefore conversion of solar energy to plant food energy is much more.

Because livestock fanners in the tropics are handicapped by the adverse effects of unfavorable climatic conditions, scientists and technologists should re-examine not only the socio-economic implications of i1dopting state-of-the-art animal produc­tion technologies practiced in the temperate and more advanced countries but also whether adopting such practices is sustainable in the Philippines.

106 Transactions National Academy of Science

Poultry Production

Poultry meat and eggs are produced from a variety of production systems rang­ing from the village subsistence level to the fully mechanized state-of-the-art inten­sive production system. Expert!'. estimate that today, 70% of the chickens in the country are raised in small backyard flocks . The rest are kept in large commercial flocks.

In the advent of multinational breeding companies, Philippine agribusiness companies have obtained franchise of the high-producing hybrid stock and now have access to the most modern sophisticated technologies for poultry produc­tion. Thus, it is safe to say that the state of the art of egg and broiler production practiced by some of the multi-million poultry agribusiness companies like San Miguel Corporation could be comparable to those in Europe and the United States. In filct, notwithstanding the hot and humid conditions in the Philippines, the level of production efficiency attained by the better and more modern Filipino poultry farms may just be sl ightly poorer than those attained by American and European farmers.

Official figures indicate that in 1990 the poultry meat and eggs produced by the Philippine poultry industry was sufficient to provide an average of only 4 .5 kg of poultry meat and 22 eggs per year per capita. Even if this amount is still far lower than in American and European countries, with the present state of the art in poultry production, the Philippines has the capability to double its production output within three years given that there is an effective demand for the products. In fact, San Miguel Corporation is already poised to market broilers' to some of the ASEAN countries. In the meantime, whil~ the country has not yel succeeded in any significant export of poultry products, the count!)' has been self-sufficient and has not had any substantial importation of poultry meat and eggs in the last decade.

The most serious constraint to the gro\\1h of the Philippine poultry industry is the cost of the inputs for production. With !he imported genetic stock and feed ingre­dients comprising about half of the cost of production. the comparative advantage of poultry meat and egg production of the Philippines would be much poorer than other neighboring countries where these inputs are cheaper and more abundantly produced and the support facilities are more effectively and economically placed. Even if labor is cheaper in the Philippines, in a state-of-the-art production system. availability of low-cost local labor \\<ould not significantly contribute to the comparative advantage of poultry production.

Swine Prnduction

Pork is the major source of animal protein food for the Filipino. The avail­ability of pork is 4 times more than poultry meat and 9 time!'. more than beef.

Arboleda, Slate qf the Art in An;mal Science 107

Like poultry, the system of production of pigs in the Philippines varies from the primitive subsistence level to the state-of-the-art intensive commercial fallening system, It is estimated that roughly 85% of the pigs produced in the country today come from backyard production systems while the rest come from intensive com­mercial systems,

While swine raisers have increasingly imported hogs for breeding in re­cent years, the degree of dependence of the snine industry on imported stock is much lower than in poultry, Even as a few local swine producers have already obtained franchise arrangements with certain multinational swine breeding com­panies for the regular supply of breeding stock for production of commercial swine hybrids, most of the hogs produced commercially are products of single­and triple-crosses involving purebreds that are regularly maintained by local swine breeders,

As in poultry, the state of the art in swine production in I he Philippines are capable of producing all the pork that the country needs and enough surplus for export. Still, there are problems that prevent the Philippine swine industrv from attaining even self-sufticiency, Government statistics (or example. indicated that in 1988 to 1990 alone, the Philippines imported a total of 7,765 MTof pork.

The most critical problems and constraints to the growth of the swine indus­try, however, are in the high cost of inputs and the pollutants 10 the environment that intensive swine farms generate, The inability of the country to eradicate fool and moUth di sease in swine has also been a major reason why pork can not be exported to neighboring countries like Singapore and Japan,

Cattle and Carabao l'roduction

Filipino farmers raise cattle mainly for beef, milk and, in some cases, for draft. Carabaos, on the other hand, are raised mainly for draft power, meat and, to some extent, for milk, Current estimates put the cattle population at 1.6 million heads of which 83% are raised in backyards and 17% in commercial farms, Carabao population is estimated at 2,7 million heads of which 99,8% arc kept by small­holder farmers,

With the increasing Filipino population accompanied by higher sophistica­tion in consumption patterns, demand for beef and milk in the country has steadtly increased in recent years, In the meantime, the rate of slaughter of cattle and carabaos have more than exceeded the reproduction rate, As a result, cattle and carabao populations have declined steadily over the last 10 years, To meet the demand for beef and dairy products, the country has regularly imported Ihese products, In 1988 to 1990 alone, government statistics revealed that a tolal of 19,069 MT of beef, 55,335 heads offeeder cattle, and 4,398,270 MT of milk were imported, Over this three-year period alone, the cost of importation of beef and milk was around US$ 600 million, Notwithstanding these importations, the average per capita yearly consumption of beef (cattle and carabao) in 1990 was only 2,16 kg, and of milk. only 27.5 kg,

108 Transactiom Nutional Academy of Science

Cattle and carabaos in the Philippines are mostly raised by tethering or grazing on whatever patches of grasses are avai Ible in and around the farm. Feeding of rice straw and corn stover is generally practiced whenever these materials are avai lable. Because of the high cost of improved breeds of feeder or breeding stock, most cattle raisers can only afford native or grade animals. Even if reputedly superior exotic breeds were available, they usually suffer from diseases and malnutrition under the prevailing conditions in the farm. Planting and maintaining of improved pasture grasses, and establishment of cattle barns and milking parlors require large capital invesments and high operating costs. This is probably why less than a handful of commercial cattle farms in the Philippines practice· state-of-the-art beef or dairy production systems similar to the ones found in the temperate countries.

Small Ruminant Animal Production

Among the small ruminant species, only goats and sheep may be considered economically important in the Philippines. Between these two species. however, goat is undoubtedly much more important. In 1992, the estimated poulation of goats in the Philippines was 22.4 million. While there are no official statistics avail­able for sheep, FAO estimates puts the sheep population at only 30,000 heads.

While goats may be raised for meat and milk, goats in the Philippines are raised almost entirely for their meat. Goat meat or chevon contributes signifcantly to the GY A to agriculture Its contribution to GYA to agriculture is higher than that of dairy.

Goats are raised almost entirely by small-holder back-yard production sys­tems with an average herd size of 3-5 heads. Native goats are generally used although upgrades and purebreds may be found scattered throughout the coun­try. Goats are usually tethered or allowed to graze freely in indigenous pastures. A growing number of commercial and semi-commercial goat raisers keep their goats in intensive full confinement systems where they are fed concentrates and supple­mented with freshly harvested leaves of ipil-ipil and other shrubs.

With the present goat production system practiced by Filipino farmers, ma­ture goats weigh from 15 to 30 kg. Each female breeder(doe) produces an aver­age of about 2-3 kids per year with an average milk production of 0.3 liters/day for a 120-day lactation period. Even with this relatively low technology produc­tion system, goat production has contributed significantly to Ihe agricultural economy of the country. From 1980 to 1990, the population of goats increased at an average of 3.1 % per year. In 1992 alone the estimated production of chevon was 59,670 MTwhich was three times more than the production of milk in the country. Practi­cally all of the inputs used for the production of this meat were from indigenous sources.

I n some European and other more advanced countries where goats are mainly raised for milk, state-of· the-art production technology similar to dairy cattle is

Arboleda. State of the Art in Animal Science 109

applied. Herds of purebred Saanen. Toggenburg, or Anglo-Nubian which have been developed through precise selective breeding are kept in environmentally­controlled housing facilities and fed well-balanced concentrate rations. With this system, dOt!s weighing about 30 to 50 kg would produce more than 3 kids per year, anti produce 2 liters of milk per day oVer a lactation period of200 days.

In most countries, sheep are produced mainly for their wool, meat and milk. Like the goat, research and development activities in sheep are not as intense as in poultry, pigs, and cattle. Sheep production technology has not dramatically changed over the centuries. Nonetheless, many of the research Gndings in breed­ing and genetics, physiology, and nutrition somehow may be applied to sheep and goats.

SUST AINAHLE ANIMAL PRODUCTION SYSn:MS

In recent years, the effects of agricultural production activities on the envi­ronment have been raised. Clearing of forests for agricultural production con­stricts our watersheds and exposes the lowlands to /looding. High levels of insec­ticide application leave excessive residues in the air and water that endanger not only animals but humans as well. Fertilizers and deep plowing contribute to soil acidity and erosion. Intensive animal grazing contributes to desertification and soil erosion. Animal waste in intensive animal production systems foul the air and water.

As trade becomes more and more free, some countries will specialize in areas where they have stronger competitive advantage and abandon industries which are socially and environmentally undesirable and economically weak. For reason of environmental protection, some more advanced countries are now re­stricting and even abandoning animal agriculture. In Singapore, for instance. pig production has already been banned and poultry production and other animal production enterprises are being discouraged. Japan has, for some time now, been content with importing most of its requirement for eggs, milk. meal, and other animal products in exchange for its export of cars and electronic products.

As Japan, Hong Kong. South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore and possibly Ma­laysia, become more and more industrialized, these countries wi II abandon animal production al most completely and instead look up to the Philippines, Thailand, Indonesia. Vietnam and China for import of animal products. Does our country have the state of the art to compete in animal production with our neighboring countries without having to jeopardize the quality of our environment? Assuming that we are competitive in the world market, to what extent should we commit our resources to the production of animal products for export?

In the recycling of animal waste, Maya Farms, a Philippine ah'l"i-business com­pany, has demonstrated that waste from a highly intensive pig farm could be con­verted economically into electrical power and fertilizer. If this could be done with

110 Tram.actions National Acudemy of Science

pig farms why not also for chicken farms? Even if we could recycle waste into fuel energy and fertilizer, the carbon and methane gas emission from animal respiration can significantly contribute to air pollut;on where intensive animal agri­culture is practiced.

Livestock, no matter how it is expertly bred, are physiologically inferior than crops in the conversion of solar energy. Intuitively. a desirable animal agriculture is one where wastes and other by-products of crop production arc eilcctively and eco­nomically converted into animal feeds and into high quality protein foods, fiber or draft power. Where valuable land resources have to be invested into production of crops mainly for animal feeding this puts animals in competition with humans in the production of food. In a country where there are already about six Filipinos for every hectare of arable land, this agricultural production system does seem to be a sustain­able one.

In recent years, about half of our corn harvest in the country has already been utilized for animal feeding, particularly poultry and swine. We have, for some time now, invested in research to produce soybean locally mainly in response to the fact that almost 100% of our soybean meal used for animal feeding is imported. (Today our local production is only I ton per hectare compared to 4 tons per hectare in the United States). Still, most of the rice straw from our rice fields are being burned. Our countrysides and even our city lands are covered by nuisance and unsightly grasses that we cut and bum or just simply leave 10 seed and grow some more.

Up until now, our research and development efforts in animal science have been almost entirely directed toward purely economic considerations without regard to its impact on the environment. Only since the publication of Rachel Carson's Silent Spring in the 1960s and The World Commission on Environment and Develop­ment in 1987 did we begin to understand that developing state-of-the-art technologies only for the sake of increased productivity is Ilot enough for the survival of our planet and its peoples.

As we deliberate on the GAIT treaty in the coming days, we will be addressing the question of how much tariff to impose on imports of livestock. animal feedstuffs, and animal products. We will also look at intellectual property rights \\;th respect to breeds and other technologies. We hope that our senators deliberate on these issues not only in the context of economics but in the SUSlainability of our national develop­ment. The bases tor these deliberations may still be generally intuitive with little quantitative facts. But it is important that we have a nght perspective.

REACTION TO THE PAPER OF ACI>. RUBEN L. VILLAREAL

Rudy Fernandez The Philippine SIal'

Going through the paper of Chancellor Villareal. one cannot help but project a scenario of extremes.

First, a broad-brush picture of the Philippines by the Year 2000 shows a nation critically short of agricultural land and other natural resources. On the other hand, there is no choice but to make farms more compact and more produc­tive and commercialized through scientific, intensive cultivation in view of the diminishing farmlands vis-a-vis population explosion.

Ii has been projected that by the Year 2000, the total land area allocation per Filipino would be about only one-third of a hectare. But since all this cannot be utilized for agricultural productivity, it is estimated that at most only .15 hectare or 1,500 square meters of agricultural land will be supporting each Filipino in the Year 2000.

NEDA also projected a decade ago that the country's population would grow to 61.5 million by 1990, rise to 68.5 million by 1995, and reach 75 million by the turn of the century. There are now more than 65 million Filipinos.

With the exploding population set against the backdrop of vanishing farm­lands, the situation in the Year 2000 looks grim indeed.

But Chancellor Villareal, typically a scientist who always looks at the brighter side of things, is optimistic about the next century, which is only five and a half years away.

With science and technology, humankind, the Philippines included, will weather the harsh exigencies of the times.

Dr. Villareal points to the significant scientific headways in food production, particularly in such prime commodities as well as rice and corn, as high-yielding horticultural and fruit crops.

Because of the breakthroughs achieved in research in food production, processing, and utilization including such scientific tools as bioteclmology and tissue culture, and other things, earlier projections that the Philippines would suffer grave shortages in prime commodiies were averted.

But with the country's population growth still high, one wonders how long food production can keep pace with the rapid increase of people to feed.

As it is, the gap between what is chalked up in experimental farms and the actual farmers' fields has remained a big concern.

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And herein lies a problem that has long been saddling the agriculture re­search system: Can the transfer of new technologies from the science community to the farmlands be "fast-tracked" so that our farming villages can benefit from the boon of science and technology?

The movement of technology from the research sector to the farmlands has rather been slow because of a number of factors.

For one, an internationally known UPLB rural sociologist, Dr. Gelia T. Castillo, Filipino farmers have been stereotyped as traditional and resistant to change. Many technologies have also turned out not to be suited to the realities on the farm.

But a significant factor is the lack of an aggressive program to promote technologies. Ironically, for instance, some Filipino-generated technologies are more widely used abroad than in our own country.

Another question that a non-technical man like me asks is: Cannot technol­ogy transfer be incorporated as an integral part of an institution's research sys­tem? What I mean is that the research institution that develops a technology should not stop after generating the technology but should p lay a key role in its adoption by the target clientele.

The experience of the Visayas State College of Agriculture or ViSCA in Leyte bears this out. In the development of its so-called "miracle sweet potato," codenamed VSP, ViSCA has seen to it that it would be actively involved in the transfer of the high-yielding sweet potato technology and not leave the work to the government extension system alone.

UPLB has also notched head ways in this regard. In fact, private enterprises are now commercializing viable technologies generated by the university, par­ticularly those developed by the National Institutes of Biotechnology and Applied Microbiology or BIOTECH.

But other research institutions are not as keen in working for the adoption of the technologies they generate.

I, therefore, agree when Chancellor Villareal says that "Public-private part­nership is very crucial in technology transfer and should be enhanced, not criti­cized."

By the way, this is the essence of the science and technology parks now bei ng established in campuses of UP with the support of DOST.

More than ever, too, there is a strong need to muster a strong political will to solve our agricultural problems.

For instance, we have for years been hearing the sad refrain, as also cited today by Chancellor Villareal, that "it is cheaper to ship corn from Thailand to Manila than from Mindanao to Manila."

Filipinos who love Filipino farmers aver that by trying to save public funds by importing corn from Thailand, the government is subsidizing Thai farmers instead of Filipino farmers.

Plenary' SessIOn /11. ReactIOn of Afr. Fernandez 113

Moreover, to this day, nothing much has been done to facilitate the move­ment of com produced in Mindanao to Manila,

As Chancellor Villareal asserted: "Our country is capable of producing all the com tha t we need and even produce more to cater to the export market."

Ofcourse, many of us know the so-called "Golden Triangle" in Mindanao. The area is not an "opium triangle" as a place elsewhere we know_ The Mindanao "Golden Triangle" is a corn-producing area bounded by Banisilan in Cotabato, Maramag in Bukidnon, and Wao in Lanao del Sur. It is the corn belt that yields as much as seven million bags, according to authorities.

But the sad thing is that, notwithstanding the area's being a corn bowl, it has remained neglected. Meanwhile. we continue to import corn.

Summing up, the paper of Chancellor Villareal projects the genius of the Filipino agricultural scientists and researchers. They are doing their role in SOCI­

ety well . Proof is we have among the best agricultural technologies on this planet. To cite just one, the mango flower induction technology developed by

UPLB scientists has spread far and wide. reaching even the Caribbean in Central America. Through the technology, one can induce a mallgo tree to flower anytime of the year. It has been written about in International publications, including the Reader's Digest.

But other technologies are not as well disseminated, transferred, or adopted. This should be a cause of concern for everyone, particularly since so much

time, effort, and resources were poured into the generation of these technolo­gies.

Indeed, research should not be done just for research's sake. As a former official of lORe of Canada once stated: "Research is one of the

mainsprings of agricultural gro\\1h. But research without communication to farm­ers is as barren as research without results."

11111nk you.

REACTION TO THE PAPER OF CEClLIO R. ARBOLEDA

Rudy Fernandez The Philippine Star

Dean Cecilio Arboleda has presented an interesting and informative paper, which projects into a broad perspective, the country's animal industry. And one is tempted to say it reads like a professorial chair lecture in animal science.

Dr. Arboleda's paper ushers us into the interesting world of animals. I remember that about two decades ago, I stumbled upon a research done

by the UP College of Veterinary Medicine which noted that poultry owners would do well to construct their poultry farms "far from the maddening crowd." Reason is, classical music cajols hens to lay more eggs. J wrote about it and, yes, it merited a front page in the newspaper J was then writing for.

Dr. Arboleda mentioned this fact in his paper today. He went farther by suggesting that a poultry owner should play the masterpieces of musical giants like Bach and Mozart to induce better egg production. On the other hand, hard rock music, and this perhaps includes the noise created by some of our di sco joint singers, reduce egg and milk production.

Owners of poultry farms near Clark Air Base in Pampanga can attest to this, too. When the Americans still occupied the base, the noise created by low-flying aircraft affected the production level of poultry fimns. A Iso as reported by bean Arboleda, a superior bull could sire more than a million calves even if it has been dead for a long time. The technique he calls "Multiple Ovulation and Embryo Transfer" .

On a broader perspective, these examples typify the many facets of, and or head ways achieved by the animal industry here and abroad.

As enunciated by Dr. Arboleda, the problems of the Philippine animal in­dustry are well-identified. The potentials are also recognized.

On the brighter side, we get the good news that the Philippines is self­sufficient in poultry products.

In swine production, according to Dr. Arboleda, we have the capability to produce all the pork we need but an array of problems, notably high cost of inputs, is preventing us from achieving self-sufficiency.

The picture in cattle and carabao production is not rosy either. The popula­tion of these animals continues to decline because demand for beef (both cattle and carabao) has steadily outpaced reproduction rate.

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Regarding milk, we import 99,66% of our demand, as stated by one report The potentials of small ruminant animal production are also bri ght consider­

ing the vast tracts of land where goats, and even sheep, can be raised. But we are nowhere near self -sufficiency.

There have been many success stories about the production of these small farm animals. For instance, only three weeks ago, I had a long talk with a success­ful goat raiser in Lupao, Nueva Ecija. In one year alone, in 1992, he had sold P56,ORO worth of goats. Last June 8, a buck or male goat and a doc or female goat raked in for him P5,900 and P2,ROO, respectively.

The experience of successful sheep raisers have also been written about and published in newspapers and maga7jnes. But estimates, as presented by our speaker, have it that there are only about 25,000 heads of sheep in the country today.

What puzzles non-agriculturalists like us is that efforts to solve the problem besetting the animal industry have not been wanting. As a journalist who has been in the ringside of agricultural events in the country for more than two decades, we have taken hold of grand government programs that aimed to bring about self­sufficiency in as many animal products. But these programs have fai led. Why?

As a result, animal production continues to be outstripped by population growth. And fears have been expressed that the decline in animal population might reach an alanning level, if nothing is done - and fast - to arrest the downtrend.

Often cited is the carabao industry. There was a time, accordi ng to some reports, that the carabao population in the country was as high as four million heads. Now, according to Dean Arboleda's report, there are only about 2.7 mil­lion heads.

A disturbing report published in the newspapers recently was that no less than 15% of the carabaos slaughtered at the Food Terminal, Inc. abattoirs alone are female. We can just imagine the big loss to the carabao industry considering that, as reported recently by UP Los Banos, at FTI alone, about J 50 carabaos are slaughtered every week. Meanwhile, the reproduction rate of this animal is much lower than the rate of slaughter.

Of course, we recognize such efforts to improve the carabao industry through, among other things, the creation of the Philippine Carabao Center . But headways achieved by the Center can easily be negated by what is unfavorably taking place in the industry.

As an overview, by presenti ng the advances achieved by developed coun­tries in animal production, Dr. Arboleda indicates to us how much more we have yet to do to commercialize further and modernize the local animal industry.

One bit of information that can revitalize efforts to improve the industry is the fact that Asia's dragon economies - Japan, Hongkong, South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, and even possibly Malaysia - are likely to abandon animal production almost competely as they become more and more industrialized. Within this sce­nario, the Philippines, Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam, and China will be looked up to as sources of animal products for industrialized Asian neighbors.

Plenary Session fll, Reaction of Mr. Fernandez 1 17

Dr. Arboleda then posed the following questions: * Does our country have the state-of-the-art to compete in animal produc­

tion with our neighboring countries without having to jeopardize the quality of our environment?

* Assuming that we are competitive in the world market, to what extent should we commit our resources In the production of animal products for export?

These are relevant issues that should not be left unanswered since it con­cerns us, whether we are in the government or in the private sector, particularly in the animal industry.

We have no choice but to address them. We cannot afford to produce enough food when at the same time we make enemies with our environment. We have to reconcile food productivity and environment protection.

Thank you.

Speakers

Panelist Moderator Rapporteur:

Rapporteur's Report

PLENARY SESSION m

"State of the Art in Animal and Crop Science"

Dr. Ruben L. Villareal Dr. Cecilio R. Arboleda Mr. Rudy Fernandez Academician Rafael D. Guerrero m Academician Salcedo L. Eduardo

SUMMARY

In this session, two papers were presented in the order as follows:

1. Filipino Plant Scientists' "Answer to STAND 2000" - by Dr. Ruben L. Villareal, Academician, Professor and Chancellor, University of the Philippines Los Banos.

2 State of the An in Animal Science by Dr. Cecilio R. Arboleda, Profes-sor and Dean, College of Agriculture, University of the Philippines Los Banos.

The first paper presented significant achievements in agriculture from high­yielding crop varieties like rice, corn and other crops, production technologies such a mango flower inducer, embryo culture of macapuno, etc. and methods to process fruits into products like quality fruit wines.

Priority areas of research were also discussed which include development of high-yielding pest-resistant and stress-tolerant varieties of crops, development of cost -effective products and postharvest technology, and improvement of crop­ping systems. Priority development concerns put forward include technology transfer and marketing strategies, infrastructure systems, scales and standards, and linkages. Each of these were discussed with specific examples.

The paper concluded that "Philippine agriculture at the end of this century will generally be characterized by small-scale, more compact, more diversified and more intensively-cultivated farms. Farm products will be processed domesti­cally to achieve the value added advantage. There will be a change in orientation from subsistence farming to commercial or market-oriented agriculture."

The second paper discussed first the state-of-the-art in animal science in more advanced countries like the United States and Australia in the areas of animal breeding and reproductive physiology, animal nutrition, management and production system and processing.

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This was followed by a discussion about animal production technology in the Philippines in the areas of poultry, swine, cattle, and carabao, The state-of-the-art in poultry and swine production in the Philippines is capable of providing poultry and pork that the country needs and enough surplus for export However, there are still problems like high cost of inputs and some diseases like foot and mouth disease in swine, the latter being a major reason why the country cannot export pork to neighboring ASEAN countries,

Mr, Fernandez stressed that while there are several agricultural achieve­ments, as mentioned in Dr, Villareal's paper, there seems to be a lack of aggres­sive programs to transfer technologies to the farm level and therefore there is a need to fast tract the transfer.

He also pointed out with those breakthroughs mentioned, one still wonders how long food production can keep pace with the rapid increase in human popu­lation in the country.

One important issue emerged in relation to animal production and that is environment Dr. Arboleda posed the question "Does our country have the state­of-the-art to compete in animal production with our neighboring countries without having to jeopardize the quality of our environment?"

Regarding the issue on Foot and Mouth disease, Dr, Teodulo M. Topacio, representing the Bureau of Animal Industry, informed the body that to eradicate Foot and Mouth disease in the whole Philippines is difficult but an island-by-island scheme can work giving the example of Palawan and Mindanao as islands now declared free of Foot and Mouth disease. Pork from those islands can therefore be exported to other countries.

The two papers have indeed provided enough and important information in their respective subjects. Unfortunately, lack of time prevented sufficient discus­siCln with the audience.

During the short open forum, the issue of land usc was raised and in this connection, someone suggested that the CARP law should be repealed as a con­sequence of the need for more land area for animal production. Copra meal as a major source of animal feed was suggested but the animal feed millers cannot get enough of this from crop producers.

In addition to agricultural and animal resources, someone pointed out the importance offish and coastal resources.

Trails. Nal. Acad. Sci. Techllol. 16: 111-IU./~9.f

Issues in Sustainable Development*

Maximo T. Kalaw, Jr. **

Since 1960, the United Nations General Assembly has proclaimed four suc­cessive development decades with different development approaches to focus international action on policies and programs aimed at achieving progress particu­larly in developing countries.

On a parallel tract, the Philippines has experi men ted with a whole spectrum of development strategies under the same ruling economic paradigm from import substitution, to decontrol, to complete control and crony capitalism under martial law, to global competitiveness within the current Philippines 2000 strategy of the present administration.

The largest gathering of heads of state of the Earth Summit in Rio last June 1992 was a testimony to both the deficiences of those past development approaches in eliminating poverty and protecting the environment. and the imperatives of newly recognized limits and parameters for ecological and social sustainability both as a framework and objective of development.

The climate, biodiversity, and forestry framework Conventions and Agenda 21 programs which the UNCED produced embody the normative insights of the global community as "'"ell as the resource limitations, and scientific and technologi­cal, as well as political difficulties of operationalizing the concept of sustainable development.

Concurrent with the ending of the Cold War and the preparations for the Earth Summit, the Green Forum network of nongovernment and peoples' organi­zations, and church-based groups have spearheaded advocacy for sustainable development as an alternative development paradigm. They have expanded the Brundtland Commissions' definition of sustainability in their founding framework document to include the values of social equity, cultural integrity and democracy; the need to internalize sustainability in terms of personal decisions on consump­tion and lifestyles; issues that are now the main concerns of preparations for yet another summit on Social Development to be held in March 1995 in Copenhagen.

·Paper pres<nted at the 16th Annllal Scientific Meeting of the National Academy of Science and Technology, rlCC, Manila on July 13-14, 1994 .

.. President Haribon foundation, Inc.

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The issue of sustainable development encompasses issues in economics, ecology and social sciences. They interface along two emerging notions. First is the notion that sustainability includes the reality oflimits of natural resources and the carrying capacity of our closed biospheric life-support system, the need for social equity and gender balance, the need for cultural diversity and ecological as well as spiritual solidarity as necessary for co-creation and evol ution, the need for the preservation of the integrity of cultural units, and the need to foster social cohesion. The second is the notion of development as different from growth­much like cancerous growth is not considered development; that development is not something that government or NGOs can give to people but is a process which they undergo themselves and which therefore needs to be participatory, self-determined and geared toward self-reliance.

What follows is a summary of the nature of what the writer believes arc the current critical issues and initiatives in the major interrelated areas of economics, ecology, and the social aspects of sustainable development.

ECONOMICS

The dominant economic paradigm that underpins the current Philippines 2000 Medium Term Development Plan is the neo-classicallaissez-faire economics which in the past has failed to address three critical issues in its reliance on market mechanisms.

One is the issue of internalizing the full costs of a product of service such as the cost of loss of soil- and water-holding capacity, not to mention landslides caused by the logging industry so we do not get the right "price" for our natural resources. Much less is the cost 'of what is called "threshold scarcity" or systems collapse, meaning the cost of a non-renewable resource that is about to be depleated reflected in this system. Efforts like the Environment and Natural Resources Accounting Project of the DENR with the Assistance of US AID through the International Resources Group, is meant to address this deficiency.

The other is the issue of scale. As articulated by an increasing number of advocates of what is called Ecological Economics, there is a limit to the scale of economic activity that the closed biospheric system can sustain in terms of natural resources including primary energy from the sun, and as sink for the absorption of our waste and pollution.

The thitd is the issue of social inequity and social disintegration. As the trend toward the globalization of markets, capital and technology which the Phil­ippines 2000 strategy for export priority and global competitiveness addresses

(Acknowledgment is given to the assistance of Haribon Foundation. Professor William L. Fernandez of the Philippine Society o(Microbiologists and the Environment Management Bureau of the Depart: ment of Environment and Natural Resources/EMB-DENR. The writer however, takes full responsibility for the contents of this paper.)

Kalaw. Issues in Sustainable Development 123

itself unfolds, an effect is the marginalization and exclusion of communities and social groups that are not market players in this process.

ECOLOGY

Ecosystem management is the foundation of sustain ability especially in frag­ile island ecosystems like the Philippines. We have not yet learned to make ecosystem security and development as concurrent goals of our economic plans. The issue of "carrying capacity" is still in the infant stage in terms ofthe search for measurements and indicators. The input of Haribon Foundation in the current Philippine Human Development Index report (UNDP 1994 Annex I) on status indica­tors for our different ecosystems is one of the efforts in this regard

Bio-resource management, on the other hand, is the major source of devel­opment for countries like the Philippines. It provides basic food, medicine and energy, and life information for future development. Without sufficient capital and technol­ogy, the information about our rich forest and marine ecosystem biodiversity is the only "futureable" resmrn:e besides our human capital that we can count on. This is not a meager resource if we consider information and knowledge to be the main resources of the future.

Natural Resource Management

The issue in natural resource management is one of a planning mono-vision and a time horizon tied to short-term profit maximization and political cycles. This views forests, for instance, merely as warehouses for timber, and coral reefs, as places for maximizing short-term fish catch. Foreign-assisted programs like the USAID-NRl'v1P program are more in aid of open markets and trade than re­sources conservation and ecological security.

The issues in biodiversity, while recently articulated in the dialogues and debates around the drafting of the Biodiversity Convention, are still sidelined in mainstream development planning and are onen relegated to the environment sector.

The issue of conservation of biodiversity in the Philippines is tied up with the establishment of a National Integrated Protected Area System (NIP AS) as legislated by Republic Act 7586 and the issue of the rights of indigenous people to their ancestral domain, as has been affirmed by our constitution. On the devel­opment side is the issue of lack of local research and training infrastructure for both the inventory and utilization aspects of this resource and the critical absence of trained technologists in the various disciplines necessary.

There is a lot of foreign interest in biodiversity research in the Philippines expecially since we have been identified as one of the ten "hot spots" in the world, which possesses significant wealth in biodiversity and is in the most danger of losing it.

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Financially, the Philippines stands to benefit from two financial mechanisms: the establishment of the Fund for Philippine Environment (FPE) of $25 million; through a US Congress appropriation and the recent $20 million grant by the Global Environment Fund (GEF) to the Philippines for the establishment of 10 priority sites for protection research in biodiversity.

A recent "NGO-PO Working Conference on Biological Conservation in the Philippines" (11-12 Feb. 1994 Ateneo de Manila) sponsored by the NGO counterpart of the Philippine Council for Sustainable Development (PCSD) iden­tified the following needs: I. knowing what we have; to have inventories by Filipino institutions, local museums as collection centers and mediums for educa­tion, fellowship/training for future taxonomists, para taxonomists, biodiversity tech­nologists; 2. setting and enforcing the policies to safeguard the rights of indig­enous peoples, local communities and national patrimony with regards to products of biodiversity site research and development; 3. instituting a protocol for research and equitable and sustainable commercialization of biological resources; and 4. defining the ethical and spiritual dimensions of biotechnology.

The reduction of tropical forests and the decline and depletion of fisheries and wildlife are two significant environmental concerns in our country. Aside from the economic benefits that can be derived from these resources, both forests and marine areas arc well-known for the vital ecological roles they play, like for stabilizing watersheds, effectively storing water, and maintaining acceptable lev­els of the atmosphere's oxygen. In addition, our forest ecosystem harbors most of the animal and plant species existing in the country.

In recent years, species diveristy has decreased almost as rapidly as the growth of human population. Never before in the history of life have so many species been threatened with extinction in so short a period of time. This situation has been brought about by independent factors such as acid rain. logging and overhunting. Combined together, the impact is disastrous.

People arc realizing that what is bad for biological diversity will al most certainly be bad for the human population since humans arc dependent on the natural environment for raw materials, food, medicines, water, and other goods and services. Conservation efforts are being undertaken to save what is left of most of our natural habitats and resources. The immediate and effective imple­mentation of NIP AS in the country is one concrete initiative in this area.

A new, multi-disciplinary science has to be applied to deal with the crisis confronting biological diversity, which will help develop and align conservation priorities and human needs. Existing disciplines such as agriculture, forestry. wild­life management and fisheries have been primarily concerned with developing methods to manage a small range of species for the market economy. These disciplines generally have not addressed the protection of the full range of spe­cies found in biological communities or have regarded it as a secondary issue. A synthesis of many basic sciences that provide principles and new approaches for the applied fields of resource management is a challenge for today's educators.

Kalaw. Issues in Sustainable Dev('/opment 125

Also, it is hoped that the experience gained in the field, in turn, will influence the direction of the basic sciences.

The New Biology is fast becoming the new scientific frontier. More specifi­cally, this includes biotechnologies that use novel biological methods such as recombitant deoxyribonucleic cell fusion especially for monoclonal antibodies, and new bioprocesses for commercializaition. It is often referrred to as a histori­cal development akin to the Industrial Revolution. It certainly promises to impact on plant breeding, agricultural services and the structure of agricultural itself. These, and the more radical goals of the Human Genome project, are raising deep issues of ethics and morality while rich countries like Japan have declared it a strategic indus try and a national priority by funding research in the four areas of biotechnology: gene-splicing, large-scale cultivation of cells, bio-reactors or microbes that change one chemical into another; and bioelectronics. Our own STAND does not mention biotechnology at all.

Cropland Ecosystt!m Management

An ecological perspective is essential in planning for sustainable productiv­ity of our agricultural areas. Current pressure for converting prime agricultural lands to industrial and residential sites, the effects of a chemical-based agriculture, and the damage brought about by increasing effects of deforestation such as drought, flood, and soil erosion are taking their toll.

For the past decade, the Philippines has experienced agricultural "progress" at the price of substantial increases in the use of fertilizers and pesticides. greater dependence on engineered plant and animal varieties, more intensive use of land by multiple cropping and a shift toward monoculture. Food production has in­creased but future natural carrying capacity has decreased. Initiatives such as those of the NGO/PO coalition for Sustainable Agriculture and farmers' initiatives such as the MASIPAG cooperative are at the forefront of the advocacy against haz­ardous pesticides; and for I ntegrated Pest Management (IPM), and recovery of i ndig­enous rice varieties not needing chemical fertilizt;rs. The financial viability of their eITorts are beginnning to look promising.

Agricultural lands which are vital to food security and other regional devel­opments for the rural populace have been increasingly threatened by the grow­ing demand of major cities for water supply and energy. Even less concern is given to mai ntaining gene pools and ecological processes such as in watershed areas and wildlife habitats as the decline of natural lands in rural areas continues.

Urhan Ecosystt!m Managt!ment

The mining of natural resources and siphoning of savings from the country­side has caused the increasing migration of the poor to urban areas following the concentration of wealth. It is the same process that draws Filipinos to seek em-

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ployment in foreign countries where there is greater concentration of wealth. The inevitable trend is toward a demographic shift to greater population in urban areas by the year 2000 and the proportionate increase in squatter population.

The basic issues are the inadequate environmental and service infrastruc­tures for health, sanitation, and housing. It goes beyond the planning for more housing and resettlement units. While proper human settlements planning and implementation requires huge investments in existing urban centers, it is the price that has to be paid. For at the core of the problem is the spatial concentration of social inequity as we concentrate wealth and development in urban centers. Spe­cific issues to be addressed are housing for the poor, water and power services, waste management, air pollution control, traffic management, and mass transport and communication services.

Concrete initiatives responding to these problems have been carried out by both government and the private sectors.

For instance, the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), through its Industrial Environmental Management Program (IEMP), has waged a successful waste minimization campaign in indust.!)· with the introduction of Pollution Management Appraisal (PMA) services for industries. Several suc­cessful cases of waste minimization have been documented.

LUDESCO, a desiccated coconut-producing facility which had generated wastes such as coconut shells, parings, sprouts, rejected coconut meat, spilled desiccated coconut, boiler furnace ash, coconut water and a large volume of wastewater, was able to generate P4 million worth of savings in raw materials and energy use by minimizing waste. It succeeded in doing this by recovering more raw materials from spillage of coconut and desiccated coconut sweepings, install­ing a pressure-reducing valve in their dryers, and by producing in-house soap from coconut oil by-products.

POLYTECH, a family-owned and managed corporation producing kerosene­cooking stoves and ironing boards, has saved P3,000 monthly from the installation of a spray booth ventilation system, a proposal made as a result of the PMA conducted on its systems. In addition, pollution load and waste was minimized after the establish­ment of a more systematic workflow at its electroplating plant. This resulted in a PlO,OOO monthly savings in chemicals and considerable reduction in pollution load.

The Central Azucarera de Don Pedro (CADP) reduced its water use and wastewater generation after a PMA was conducted on its mill and it adopted low cost/no cost waste minimization options such as waste segregation to dry handling of fly ash; recycling bagasse to absorb grease and oil spills; recycling clarified water from ash setting pond and condensate tank overflow for cleaning purposes; good house­keeping practices such as monitoring oil spills, repairing leaking pumps; removing debris from canals; or simply closing faucets immediately after use.

Kalow. Issues in Slistainable Drvelopment 127

The Puyat-National Pig Development Company (PNPDC) reduced feed spoil­age by setting up single space feeders for hogs recommended by the IEl'vIP after a PMA was conducted on the company's operations. Feed spills were also reduced with the introduction of such units. PNPDC has also made a conscious effort to minimize water consumption and reduce wastewater generation.

The government and the private sectors are currently working together in waging a massive information-dissemination campaign to further promote waste minimi7.ation and recycling as an alternative to traditional solid-waste management methods such as landfills and incineration.

An Inter-Agency 011 Toxic Wastes, wherein NGOs have been given a single seat, has also been established to deal with the implementation of the Basel Convention on Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Waste (to which the Philippines is a signato!)'). A major breakthrough by this inter-agency body is the very recent establishment of interim guidelines for a ban on toxic wastes. These guidelines, which establish qualifiers for the ban, are quite important, as they pave the way for the phase-out period toward a complete ban in 1997.

The Basel Convention, which met last March in Geneva, had agreed on the following points:

a. the conduct of an assessment of all rec)'cling industries and facilities in the Philippines;

b. the recommendation of a Code of Recycling for consideration in the Implementing Rules and Regulations of the Toxic Subtances and Haz­ardous and Nuclear Waste Control Act or RA 6969; and

c. the development of clean and indigenous production technologies.

Atmospheric and Climate Changes

As a result of the growing trends in globali7.ation, policymakers, scientists, and technologists, as well as the public, have come to be aware of "global envi­ronmental concerns" such as ozone depletion, background air pollution, and rain­fall acidity. Primary causes of such phenomena are the release of industrial pollut­ants and greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and bromine (DOST 1990).

Moreover, with the accumulation of greenhouse gases, chlorofluorocarbons and other trace gases in the atmosphere and the oceans, a shift in climate zones has been noted and viewed with apprehension worldwide. In the Philippines alone, a three-degree rise in daytime temperature had been noted in the 1980s.

The popularization of issues in climate change have been undertaken by a Philippine Core Group on Climate Change composed of the Haribon Foundation, Green Forum Philippines, Miriam-PEACE and the Green Coalition, which was established in October 1991. An offshoot of the Jakarta meeting of South East Asian NGOs, the Core Group has succeeded in bringing the issue to the public's consciousness through the publication of materials, organization of lectures, and

. . vanous campaigns.

128 Transact;ons National Academy of Sc:ienct'

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Agenda 21 's program on science and sustainable development, as embod­ied in Chapter 35 and the Philippine program (see Annex) focuses on four areas: a) strengthening scientific basis for management; b) enhancing scientific understanding; c) improving long term scientific assessment; and d) building up scientific capacity and capability.

In this light, the Envi ronment Management Bureau of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (EMB-DENR) has identified key areas of compliance by the Philippines.

In strenghthening the scientific basis for sustainable management, the Phil­ippines has undertaken the following activities:

a. Prepared an inventory of the country's natural and social data avail­ability relevant to the promotion of sustainable development.

b. Formulated a methodology for research needs and priorities in the context of national priorities.

c. Strengthened and revitalized the Environmental Research and De­velopment Committee of the Department of Science and Technology.

d. Developed, applied, and instituted the necessary tools for sustainable development.

e. Conducted case studies to determine quality of life indicators (i.e. health. education. social welfare, state of the environment, economy).

f Conducted policy research on new and improved i ncen tive struc­lures for better resource management.

g. Formulated policies on risk management and environmentally-sound technology assessment.

h. Supported the Sustainable Development Network. i Incorporated sustainable development principles in human resource

development programs.

In the endeavor to enhance scientific understanding, the Philippines has:

a. Established an Ad-Interim Committee on Ozone Depleting Substances (initiated by Likha and DENR) which monitors the status of proposals on Ozone Depleting Substances.

b. Established ozone layer monitoring programs (PAG-ASA). c. Improved natural resources management and environmental monitor­

ing. In particular, the use of European Space Authority (ESA) ERS-I capabilities in ASEAN Countries (PAG-ASA, UP, NAMRIA).

d Participated in the Philippine-Australia Remote Sensing Project (PAGASA, UP, NAMRIA).

c. Produced bio-gas from wastes.

by:

I\.alaur, /ss"e.'i in S'Ultlillahle Development 129

( Developed biodegradable products. g. Promoted waste reduction and recycling. h. Developed Anti-Pollution Control Technologies for Urban and Rural

Areas through UNDP.

The Philippines has attempted to build up scientific capacity and capability

a. Developing hazardous waste management technology in research and educational institutions.

b. Establishing the Engineering Science and Educational Programme (ESEP).

c. Providing technological information services c/o Science and Tech­nology libraries within the Department of Science and Technology.

In general, the complexity and intensity of current environmental issues and concerns besetting mankind definitely call for the development of a new science that is multi-disciplinary, integrative and innovative in looking at the envi, ronment.

In view of these particular issues, certai n concerns with regard to capabi 1-ity-building for environmental science and management have also been pinpointed by the Environment Management Bureau of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (EMB-DENR 1992). These are: the need to institutionalize or strengthen degree programs on environmental science and management on the basis of projected demand for such degree courses; the provision of adequate scholarships/fellowships on environmental science and management; and the need to upgrade the technical skills of environmental science specialists through training, research and more field exposure to gain firsthand experience in environmental conservation and management-related work.

The Philippines' Science and Technology Master Plan (STMP) defines its goal as NIChood by the year 2000 through three major strategies: modernization of production sectors through massive technology transfer from local and foreign sources; upgrading of research and development capability; and development of Science and Technology infrastructure and culture.

The strategy sounds more like an expression of desperate need than a doable strategy. The management of technological change is a complex political, economic, and social process. It requires multi-stakeholder partnership that can identify key science and technology "missions" related to solving key development problems and opening up new development options. It is not a question of massive transfer of technologies that is the issue, but the strengthening, across the whole of society, the capacity to manage technological change.

The updated focus of the STMP or the Science and Technology Agenda for National Development (STAND) focuses priority on seven key products and services it calls "export winners". It lacks the creation of objectives and strategies

130 Transactiuns National Academy of Sdence

for application of science and technology to specific development challenges which would be the basis of decisions on allocation of national resources and negotiation with external partners. The issue is not about products alone but about development processes - about well-defined technology development mis­sions. Missions that define the linkages bctween policymaking, central and local administration, education, and investment decision-making. If the priority is rais­ing the income and outputs, of the poor in rural areas then the educational system must produce graduates able to disseminate more productive technologies in de­velopment of bio-resources and insuring ecological security. A multi-discipli­nary mission-oriented versus a product-oriented approach will constitute a pow­erful tool for changing patterns of science and technology efforts. A process of national dialogue identifying and prioritizing a list of missions in major areas of development would bring clarity and purpose to the national development agenda.

SOCIAL

As effects of environmental degradation became more evident and dra­matic, the victims have become environmentalists. We see their protcst in the barri­cading of logging roads in Bukidnon, in the "Dyandi" blood pact of the Lumands against the geothermal project in Mt. Apo, in the demonstrations of communities in Masinloc and Batangas against the construction of coal-powered plants, and in the objections of some communities in Baguio against the Taiwanese project in Camp John Hay. This has made the issues of "social acceptability" of projects and the creation of ecological refugees as critical problems of the Philippines 2000 program. All these contribute to the imperative for consultations and criteria for "social ac­ceptability" of traditional development projects. On an international level, we sec the same concern in the issue of social integration as a theme of the coming Social Development Summit. The UN Commission for this Summit defines Social Develop­ment as "an approach which aims to enhance people's capacity to lead secure and productive lives and provide them the necessary conditions for full participation in society."

These developments are of vital importance especially considering the failed socialist experiment of Eastern Europe and the shift to market economies. The ideals of social justice, equity and solidarity are still aspirations of many people. Therefore, social development and social cohesion must be considered as the primary objectives of development projects and not as problems to be hurdled or as hindrances to development. The definition and articulation of a state social policy is essential for sustainable development.

A relevant state social policy should go beyond social welfare programs or "safety nets" to cushion one's fall into destitution. It should be the basis of social acceptability for development projects. Such a policy should be based on the protection of basic human rights including the rights to development and a healthy environment and rights of future generations, all of which are the subjects of

t..:alaw. h.wes ;n Sustainahle Development 131

international agreements and covenants. It should provide for informed participation of affected communities, just compensation prior to project implementation, the un­dertaking of studies of alternatives by the proponent or appropriate government agency, and assistance to disadvantaged and marginalized groups.

Values, Norms and Civil Society

The requirements for a sustainable society depend more and more on the normative integration of values in economics, ecology, and social sciences. The personal decisions of individual citizens on what they will consume and waste, as well as the lifestyles they will pursue, is the bottom line of sustainable develop­ment. In responding to this situation, we are seeing the re-Iegitimization of civil society through voluntary organizations like NGOs that are self-organizing and self-mandating, focusing on personal behavior and public interest. They are pro­viding the normative articulation and alternative building to the power-crafting of political society and the wealth-crafting of the economic society.

Institutionally, a pioneering initiative in partnership or counterparting between the state and civil society is taking place in the Philippines through the creation of the Phil ippine Council for Sustainable Development through Execu­tive Order 15 signed by President Ramos, as a result of NGO and PO advocacy after the Earth Summit at Rio. Its mandate is to insure compliance with the Philip­pine government's commitment to the Conventions and Agenda 21, as well as with the operationalization of sustainable development into government and NGO poli­cies and programs.

The Politics of Sustainahle Development

The biggest obstacle to the shift to sustainable development is what people normally refer to as a "lack of political will". Actually there is strong political will in favor of vested interest of people in power and possessing wealth. Whether it is the vested interest of congressmen in continuing logging of our forests or the interest of OECD countries in global environmental issues that affect them but not in poverty and development or social equity issues in global commons, people who are currently benefitting from the state of affairs are the main obstacles to change. It is a state of affairs where the main medium by values is money and power, with science and technology as its surrogate.

It is, however, the stage of our evolving consciousness where we are aware that personal behavior in what we consume and what we waste. what we throw away affects our whole community and is therefore public interest. Where what is personal is political. A reclaiming of our exiled self, our psycho-cultural identity from which we can tap our inner resources from our inner ecologies. From where we can tap our rich cultural and spiritual resources; the nature base wisdom of our indigenous peoples, the Buddhist mastery of the functioning of the mind, the

132 T,.on.WCliol1.\' National Acade'"y of Science

Hindu knowledge of our psychic states, our Christian and Islamic traditions of Covenants for a sacred community whether we call it the Mystical Body or the Ohuma. Resources we need to transform ourselves and our work into meaning making livelihood and our politics into a politics of meaning.

Last June 5, the Green Forum together with Channel 5, convened the lead­ers of our political blocs representing the entire spectrum from left to right in a two-hour TV Town Hall Meeting with a challenge to make a common commilment to the ecological security of the Philippines. They all signed a covenant to do so. Only time will tell if our leaders ha\'e the vision of the welfare of "scvcn genera­tions" when they make their politic;11 decisions or sec just the opportunity to develop voter constituency for the next election.

In conclusion, all the above argue for the construction of a Science of Development that can provide normative and functional integration of Economics, Ecology and the Social Sciences and the development of management technolo­gies that look at ecosystems, cultures, ethnicities, community and evolution as units of analysis and management It suggests the view that sustainable develop­ment should be the next revolutionary praxis for a sustainable society for the year 2000 ,md beyond.

REFERENCES

Agenda 21, Chapter 35.

Busch Lawrence, et al. "Plans. Power and Profit."

Department of Science and Technology. "Science and Teclillolog\' Alaster "Ian. "

Department of Science and Technology. "Science and 'fec/lllolo,!;,)' AgendafiJr Na­tional IJeveloplllent."

Department of Science and Technology. "5 Year Em··imnlllental Nesearcll ant.ll>e­\'elol'lIIent Plall. "

Haribon Foundation. "St{/te of tile En\'irolllllent. Cllapter 4."

Green FOnlm-Philippines. "Creating Ol/r COllllllon FIIII/re. "

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. "Managing tecllno­I()gical Cllange in uS.I'-AiI\'(/Ilceil De\'eloping COl/ntrie.~. "

PCS, HARIBON, FPE. "NCO-PO Conferellce WorksllOp on Conserving and Mallag­ing Pllilippine lJioili\'er.lil\"for Siwaina/Jle /)e\,eloplIIl',lI."

Kalaw, Issues in Sustainable De'velopment 133

Celdran, A. 'Toxic Waste Trade in the Philippines. "

Fernandez, W.L. "Microbes and the Environment."

Industrial Environmental Management Project (lEMP). "Success Swries. "

Environment Management Bureau-Department of Environment and Natural Re­sources (EMB-DENR). "Industry Environe"l's."

134 Transactions National Academy of SCience

Tabl" 1 Forest. UpltlDds, Mountain Ecosystem

Function S~rvice Status Indicators: Impact on People

L Providing a habitat for , sustenance througR , remaining primary forests , fO~8one potential for various species and nutrient cycle , inventory of indicator health, food and olber

maintaining divcmty of life , geneb.ok species proOJcts (hubitalComplexity) , life cycle link: , Dumber of species , displacement of

indigenous conununities , loss of subsistence or

livelihood

2 Maintai.ning productivity , materials for food. , levdsofsupply , rcdoced potential for of the forests c!oOling. and sbelter, , forest area by type health, food and other

medicine. fuel. and , iDvenlay of timbl!r- and producls other products other forest resources , redu~d supply and

, raw materials for , rate of decline of species higher price;, for

indusuial uses, e.g. stock products timber. gums, resilU, , seedling rurvival

oils. poIes,~. , area reforested pep!r, pulpwood, dyes

--1. Soil Stability , prevention of or , soil erosion rate , los$of lIoductioo lands

minimiz.aDoo of soil , understory regl!neration , landslides

erosion , threati b life and , main&.:nance d soil property

fertility , control IX run-off . .

4. Water conservation , adequate and clean , water quality , scarcity of poCAhle

water for drinking. , stream flow and ground water, Changing water

irrigation. washing. water level classification

recreation and others , humidity , fk'lOds and drought , wlitenhed

5. Atmospheric integrity , carboo-dKuide , air pollution indicatas , pulmollary disea!l.!s

absorpti.on , climate change , chan~e in sea-level , oxygen p-odudion , dl!.'Iertification , clean air , templ'Tatur(' change , climate regulation

FuncOon

l. Habitat complexity ,

2. Water distributioD ,

,

Function

Ka/all', l'lSues in Sustainable Developmem

Service

Table 1 Freshwater ecosystem

Status IDdicators

flSberies aDd food , fish supply lewl and biodi veDity reproduction

, biological displaoemeDt. change in specie.. 'I:

composition or ~D ofmiglation

water supply: irrigation. , salt-water intrusion

JXlwer generation , water building conveyaDce , water availability or

volume , water quality

Table 3 Cropland. Ecosystem

Service StahJS Indicators

13 5

Impact OD People

, pollution~related

diseases , noom"!l

, reloca1ioo of individuals

and families , reduced watersupply , drought , power outages , fi<h blls , poor swe «'public

health and safety

Impact 00 People

- - --- - ---------- - ----- - -------1 I. Soil feniJity

2 Habitat complexity

nutrient recycling

crop production

biological pest cODtrol providing sustenance aod livelihood

level of crop JXOd.uction biomagnification

Dumber of strains and species resistant to pesticides

price levels and fluctuations low incomes

pesticide-related diseMes infestation

136 Transactions Naliandi Academ}' (~r SCience

Table 4 Marine and Coast.1 Et:osystems

(Wetlands. mangroves, seoagrass. suweeds. coral seeds. soft bottom)

Function Service- Status Indicators Impact on People

l. Coastline stability , sedimentation trap , mangrove forest cover , tbr!!alS to life and , wind- and wave-breaker , seagrass areas property in coastaJ , f ud wood SUW1y , coral area communities

2 Marine productivity , indigenous and , fish yield , low ['COOuctivilY and commercial uscs incomes

, poorc-rhealth and nutritioD among conunullities

3. Atmospheric integrity , CNbon sink , marine pollution levels , diseases and poiSODlDg

(e.g. red tide) , fish kills

4. Habitat provision and , sustenance and , lower yields , lower productivity and biological diversity . liveWxxJd , sl~cies diversity incomes

, gene bank , poorer health and , life-L-yc1e sink , reduced pt.1k'ntiaJ for

pharmaceulicai, f .. x)d.

and other coosmptioo or industrial products

VNCED I'rogramme Areas

A. Strellgl'lfll;fJg the scitllliJic basis for sluta;1Iable mallagtfme1lt

VNCED Activities

a) Prepare an inventory of their natural and social science data

holdings relevant to the promotion of sustainable development

h) Identify their research needs and priorities

in the context of international research effons

c) Strengthen and design apprupriate institutional nll:!chanisms at the highest appropriate local. national. subregional and regional levels and within the l.1nited

Nations system for devt!loping a stronger scientific basis for the improvement of environmental am.! development

policy fonnulation consistent with long-tenn goals of sustainable development

d) Develop, apply and institute the neces."iary tools for sustainahle development with regard to:

i) Quality-of -life ind icators covering.

for example. health. education. social welfare. state of the environment. and thl;"

economy:

i) Economic approaches to environmentally­sound developnte'nt and new and improvcd incentive structures for better

resource management: formulation. risk management and

envirunnlentally-sound technology assessment

I'hilippine Activities

Prepare an invcntory of the country's natural and social data

l"elevant to thl! promotion of sustainable development

Formulate a methodology for research

and priorities in the context of national priorities

SQ"cngthening and revitalizing of the Environmental Research and Development Committee of the Department of Science and Technology

D..:velop, apply and institute necessary tools ftll' sustainable development

Conduct case studit',s to determine

quality of life indicators (i.e .. h~alth. education. social welfare. state of the enviroo:nent. economy):

Conduct policy research on new and improved incentive structurt'-s for better resource management Formulate policies related 10 risk managt'ml.'nt and t!nvironm..:ontally-sound technology asst!s.~ment

UNCED Programme Areas

8. En/lancing SciemUic Ullders(ofldi1lg

UNCED Activities

e) Collect. analyze and integrate data on the linkages between state of ecosystems and the heallh of humans

in order to improve knowkdge of the cost and benefit of different development policies and strategies in relation to health and the environment, particularly in developing countries

f) Conduct scientific studies of national

and regional pathways for sustainable development. using comparable and complementary methodologies

g) Improve capabilities for determining scientific research priorities at the national. regional. and global levels to meet the needs of sustainabk dc,velopment

h) Develop methods to link the findings of the established sciences with the indigenous knowkdge of different cultures

aJ Support development of ilJl "xponded monitoring network to describe cycles (i,e., global. biochemical and hydrological

cycles) and te" by hypotheses regarding their behavior and improve research into the interaction among the various global cycles and the consequences at nalion<:Jl,

subregional. regional and globallcvels as guides to tolerance and vulnerability

Philippine Activities

Conduct research

Support Sustainable Development Network

Incorporate in Human Resource Development programs. sustainable development

Technology Transfer

Ad-Interim Commiltee on Ozone­Depleting Substances (initiated by Likha and DENR) whose function is to monitor

proposals on Ozone Depleting Substance~

.... 00

VNCED Programme Areas UNCED Acthities

h) SUppOI1 national, subregional and in ter­

national ohs~r\'ation and research pro~rams in global atmospheric chemistry the sources and sites of greenhOllse gases' accessible

and understandabl~ forms

c) Support national. subregional. regional and international ohservation and

r~search program .. on marine and terrestrial systems, strengthen global terrestrial dabahasl.!s nr their components,

expand com~sponding systen15 for

monitoring their changing states and enhance predictive modelling of Ille

Earth system i.lnd its subsystent~. including modelling of the functioning of

these systems assuming ditTere-nt intensities of human impact

d) Encourage coordination of satellite missions, the networks. systems and procedure.~ forpmcessing and disseminating their data and d~velop th~ interface with the res~arch users of Earth observation data with the LIN EARTHWATCII system

ej Develop the capacity for predicting the responses llf terrestrial. fresh water. coast~l. and marine ecosystems and biodiversity to short- and long-term pertubations ut the ~ nvironment. and develop (urther r~storjJtion ecology

Philippine Activities

07.one layer monitoring program (c/o PAGASA)

- 1m provement of Natural Resources Management and Environmental monitoring. particularly. the use of European Space Authority (ESAJERS-I capabilities in ASEAN countries (PAGASA.

[JP. NAMRIA)

~.

UNCED Programme Areas UNCED Activities

o Study the rol~ of biodiversity and the loss of speci~s in the functioning of ecosystems and the global lif e·support systems

g) Initiate a global ohserving system of

parameters for the rational management of coastal and mountain lones. and significantly expand freshwater quantity/quality monitoring systems particularly in developing countries

h) In order to understand the Earth as a system. develup Earth ohscrv<ltion systems from space which will provide integrated continuous and long.tenn measurements of th~ interactions of the atmosphere. hydrosphere and lithosphere, and develop a distrihution system for data which will

facilitate the utilization of data obtained through obsl!rvation

i) Develop and apply systems and t~(hnology that automatically collect. record. and transmit data and information to duta and analysis cl!ntres. in order to monitor marine. tl!lTestrial and atmosphC'ril: processes to provide advance warning of

natural resources

Philippine Activities ... =

UNCED Programme Areas UNCED Acti\'ities

J) Enhance the contrihuti(ln of engine~ring sciences to multidlscliplinary research programs on the Earth systems. in particular. with regard to incr~asing emergency preparedness and r~dllcing the negative effects of mljur natural

disasters

k) Intensify research to integrate the physical. economic and social sciences to better umJerstand the impacts of economic and social behavioTon the environment and of en" ironmental degradation on local a.nd glohal

I!conomaes and in panicular:

"'Develop research on human attitudes and behavior as driving forces central to an understanding lIf the causes and

consequences of environmental change resource use

·PromOh! research on human, economic

and social rl·spon~s to glohal change

I) Support dl!'v~lopm\!nt of nl!'w.fri~ndly

technologil!'s and s~'stl!'ms that facilitab:' Lhe integratilm of muhidisclp­lin'lf)'. physical. ~hC'mical. biologi~ill and social human procl!'ss~s which. in turn. pro\'id~ information and knllwl~dg~ foc d~cision maker." and the g~neral puhlic

Philippine Activities

- Philippine-Australia Remote Sensing Project (PAGASA. UP. IIOAMRlA)

Rioga..1; production from wa.'it~s

De,,~lopmenl of b iodegradabl~ products

R~action of wast~ plastics with oLh~r mat~rial.1; for r~cYI..·ling

t!~J)f) l)c\l!lopm\!nt of Anti-Pollution

Corllrol T ~chnologi~s for Urhan and Rural Ar~as ..

UNCED Programme Areas

C bnpr01'iflS l.~m.c:- Term Sciefll(flc As.\'essmeflt

D. Rudcii1l!] Up Scil'lIIijk Capacity

Qlld CapabiliTies

UNCED Activities

a) Coordinate existing data and statistics. gathering systems relevant to develupm~ntal and environmental issues so as to supJX'rt rr~raration of long-term scientific assessment (e,g., data on resource depletion. import/export flows, energy use, health impacts. demographic trends. etc.). apply the data ohtained through the activities id..:ntified in programme area B (environment/development assessments at global, regional and local levels): and promote the wide di:.;tribution oflhe assessments in form that is rl!sponsible to public needs and can be widely unden;tood

h) Develop a methodology to carr~ out national and rt!gional audits and a five.year global audit on an integrat('d basis

a) Promote Ihe education and rraining of scientists not only in their disciplines but also in their ability to identify. manage and incorporate environmental considerations into res ('arch and d~velorment projects; ensure that a sound base in natural systems. ecology and fl!Source management i.~ provided; and develop specialists capable of working in inter·disciplinary program.~ related to environment and development, including the field of applied s()(:ial sciences

Philippine Activities

Hazardous waste management of research and educational institutions' wastes

Engineeling Science and l:ducation Program (Wfl)

UNCED Programme Areas UNCED Acli\'ilies

h) Strengthen lhl! SI.:il!nllfic strucllIre in

schoo!..;;, lInivcrsitil's and rest"arch

institlitioIL~. Jlilnicularly those in dev\'''loping

countries prO\iding adequate!' scie ntific equipment and access to Clirrent scientific litcretlUre. for the ptlrpose of achieving and slistaining a criticCtlm<l'is of highly. qualified scientisl ... in these countries

c) Devdop and expanLl national scientific

and ll!rh nological databases. processing data in unified fOrnlalS and syslel1\~. and

alloy,ing full anL! open accL'~'i 10 the

dC'posilOry IihrCtries of rl!'gional scienlific and technological networks; ,md promote

sllbll1i.~sion of scientific and technological

information and datahases to global or rcgionetl dala centers nnd network systems

d) Develop and expand re-gional ,md glohal

scientific and technological informettilJn

network. .. which are based un and linked

to net tiona I sci..:ntitic and I~chnological

dettethasl!s; c()lI~ct. procr.:ss di.,semineth.'

infunnation fnUll regional and gluhal

.~cicntific programs: and expand

activities to r~dun.· in formation

harriers du~ to letnguag\!: differem:('s

Philippine Aclh'ilies

Engineering Sdencl! and Educallonal

Program (ESEP) Institutional Building,

Supply Sci~lHific Equipn"k:nI etnd Libntry

- Techno information services c/o S11L

(n..:tworkill,!; of Scil!nce and Technology libraril!s within the- l>erartm~nl of Science etnd Technology)

.. ...

lINCED Programme Areas lINCED Acth'ities

eo) Develop, strengthen and forge new pannerships among national. regional and glaha! capa~itie.1j 10 promo(e the full

and open eXhange of scientific and

h!chnoiogicai data anli information, and to

facilitate technical a.'i ."i~lance relaced to

en\'inmmenrally,stlllnd and sustainable

development

f) Improve and develop new links between

exi .... ting networks of natura! and lOocial scienti.'R<;; and universities at the international level in order 1O stren~then

national capahilities in the- formulation of policy opcions in thl! fidd of en\'ironmt'nl and development

g) Compile. analyze and publiSh

information on indIgenous environmental and developmental knowledge. and assist the communities thai possess such knowledge to hendil from (hem

Philippine Acth'ities .. ..

Rapporteur's Report

"L<;sues on Environmental Science and Sustainable Development l ..

Speaker Panelists Moderator: Rapporteur:

Mr. Maximo T. Kalaw, Jr. Ms . .I essica Soho Academician tAl).:ardo D. Gomez Academician Iiilomena Ii. Campos

SUMMARY

The paper presented delved on the issue of sustainable development dis­cussed from the economic, ecological and socio-cultural perspectives. Two no­tions that are closely intertwined are the limits of the natural resources: the carry­ing capacity of the closed biospheric life-support system and the need for social equity, gender balance, and cultural diversity. The underpinnings for cultural diversity and evolution and the preservation of the integrity of cultural units to foster social unity were presented.

The other notion is that development is not growth and that it is a process which all those involved should undergo; hence it should be participatory, self­determined and geared toward self-reliance. Several case studies and real life situations have been expounded to bring out the message that there is an urgent need to formulate a state social policy geared toward the reduction of poverty and the promotion of gainful employment.

PANEL REACTIONS:

A DR. BAGADlON, DENR

I. DENR does not consider sustainable development as just an alterna-tive paradigm but rather that it is the key to survival.

2. He concurs with the speaker's point of view that in order to truly realize sustainable development, it should be grounded on the economic, socio­cultural and spiritual basis. In order to concretize this effort. the government should urgently formulate a state social policy.

1.0eli\'ered during lh!! 16th Annual Scientific Meeting of the National Academy of Science and Technology. July 14. 1994. PICe. Manila. Philippine..

14~

146 Transactions National Academy of Science

3. DENR has not been remiss in its mandate to protect the forest ecosys-tems and the effort is amplified through institutionalizing community-based forest management systems coupled with vigilant monitoring and "policing" activities.

4. DENR is thankful for the involvement of the NGO's as partners in saving the terrestrial, forest and marine ecosystems and the many national, re­gional and international agencies which have extended financial assistance in support of research and related activities. He cautioned however that develop­ment should not just be a displacement or dislocation of a large sector of society from a purely environmental perspective.

5; There is a need to develop appropriate indigenous technologies which are attuned to the socio-economic background of the beneficiaries which will eventually lead to easier transfer and adoption of technology.

B. MS. JESSICA SOHO, Newscaster, Channel 7

I. The paper of the speaker was written in a rather technical manner which if presented to the common mass would not be comprehended and will not elicit any positive reaction or acceptance.

2. Suggestion was offered that environmental messages should be writ-ten in "gut-lingo" and the use of catchy colloquial vocabulary should be consid­ered.

3. Wholistic approach to environmental concerns rather than in a "patchy" manner. Sincerity and full commitment should be inculcated through value system, through formal or nonformal education, and/or through massive media services.

4. Need to develop practical, low-cost solutions for the sustenance of environmental resources.

5. Need to improve on a truly, effective political will to address primarily the issue on poverty and· social inequity.

ENERGY NEEDS IN INDUSTRY·

Francisco L. Viray"

Introduction

We view energy as the starting point of all industrial activities. The reliable supply of energy is an indispensable factor if we are to move the engines of our economy. The availability of electric power sets the wheels of business and indus­tries in greater motion, and in the process, stimulates economic growth and assures the public a better qual ity of life.

With a steady source of energy, local and foreign businessmen alike can set up shop, invest and expand, and provide employment and other opportunities to the people.

The energy sector is crucial to the Philippines' aggressive economic program which aims to realize the country's vision of becom ing a Newly Industrialized Country (NIC) in Asia by the tum of the century.

In support of this national development thrust, the National Power Corpora­tion (N PC) aspires to achieve energy security so as to encourage econom ic productivity while enhancing the general well-being of the population. Energy security shall be achieved by enhancing the country's reliance on indigenous. environment-friendly and cost-effective sources of energy.

S & T Status in Energy

The National Power Corporation (NPC) stands at the forefront of power generation and development in the Philippines. Created on November 3, 1936 under Commonwealth Act No. 120, NPC was authorized to use all streams. lakes and springs in the Phil ippines where power may be developed.

As the country geared up for accelerated industrialization, NPC harnessed other indigenous sources to meet the projected increase in the demand for energy. More power-generating projects were constructed to fuel the Ilourishing economy.

To date, NI'C's total installed capacity is about 8,077 megawatts. Capacity­wise, oil-based plants account for 52%, geothermal plants contribute 21%, hydro plants share 19% and coal plants add 8% .

.. Paper pn:scnted at the 16th Annual Scientific Meeting of the National Academy of SCIOIIC< "lid Techllolog)" I'lce. Manila, July 13-14, 1994.

··PresidcnL National j·ower Corporation.

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148 Tram;aClion ... l\'Ulional Academy (4 Science

Largely through the efforts of NPC, the Philippines has made its mark in the energy field by being the second largest producer of geothermal energy in the world. It is even predicted that at the rate geothermal activities are going, the Philippines might make it to the top - surpassing the United States in geothermal energy capacity before the century is over.

i'rt:Sent Situation

The development of indigenous sources of energy remains the main thrust of NPC's Power Development Program (PDP). The PDP embodies the total plan of NPC in meeting future loans through the coordinated addition of required generation and transmission facilities.

Recognizing that the dismantling of the Ministry of Energy was one of the main factors that brought about the power crisis in 1992 and 1993, President Ramos signed Republic Act 7638 on December 9, 1993 recreating the Department of Energy (DOE) to provide a central coordinating machinery and Cabinet-level advocacy for the implementation of energy policies and programs. Subsequently, NPC's energy program implementation was placed under the supenision of DOE.

Although NPC leads the power sector in supplying quality and reliable electricity, private sector participation in energy generation has become signifi­cant.

Soon after the EDSA Revolution in 1986, the Philippine government and NPC saw the need to rationalize the power development program of the country in light of the foreseen high growth in power demand and the financial resource limitations of the government. It was realized that power generation is not a natu­ral monopoly and can be undertaken by the private sector or the independent power producers.

Recognizing the distinct advantages the government gets from private sec­tor participation, Executive Order No. 215 was passed, effectively removing the legal barriers which preven ted the pri vate sector from building, owning, and operating power generating plants in the Philippines. EO 215, however, reaffirms NCP's central role in the strategic development of the country's power grids through the setting up of transmission lines and the construction of associated facilities.

As of today, a total of 1,172 megawatts independent power producers' ca­pacity is operating under contract with NPC.

Parallel with the installation of additional capacity, NPC effectively utilizes existi ng resources through increased efficiency and reliabili ty of its power plan ts, and through the 7.ealous implementation of a demand-side management program.

NPC embarks on a corporate energy efficiency program aimed at improv­ing the heat rates of fossil-fired power plants. The activities currently being un­dertaken to improve the energy efficiency in the plants arc: (I) implementation of a preventive maintenance program; (2) regular monitoring of key operating pa­rameters; and (3) conduct of periodic plant performance tests .

Viray, Energy Needs in Industry 149

Demand side management - the promotion of energy conservation and efficiency - has been demonstrated as a viable path for meeting economic development A reduction in the demand elasticity, through a more efficient use of energy by consumers, translates to a substantial savings in deferred capital investments.

I'otential Contributions to Development

The current Medium-Term Philippines Development Plan has set the development vision of the economy which is to improve the quality of life of every Filipino through a broad-based development strategy anchored on total human development and international competitiveness.

Energy is an essential factor to attain this goal. Without power, economic prosperity would never be attained. For the economy to grow, we need an ad­equate and stable supply of electricity. We cannot expect economic activities such as industrial expansion, tourism and agricultural modernization to flourish without first ensuring the availability of power.

Aside from providing every community with electricity, NPC also assists in the economic development of provinces, cities, and municipalities hosting its power facilities.

As of April 1994, NPC has granted a total of P554.5 million to provinces, municipalities, andbarangays where its power plants and projects arc locatcd.

NPC's community development projects include barangay electrification, reforestration, skills training programs, no interest loans to farmers' and fisher­men's cooperatives, and donation of ambulances, bancas, and service trucks de­pending on the most-felt needs of the community.

Infrastructure projects, on the other hand, take the form of road concret­ing, construction of multi-purpose halls, schools, and potable water systems.

NPC also grants priority employment to qualified persons residing near its power projects.

Future Prospectsll'rojectioll~

It is expected that by the year 2000, the Philippines would be well equipped with sufficient and reliable power supply. Even as early as 1996, adequacy of power supply would already be assured when the baseload plants and major transmission line reinforcements are already in place.

Construction of the 700-megawatt Pagbilao and 300-megawatt Calaca II coal plants began last year, while construction of the 600-megawatt Masinloc and 1,000-megawatt Sual coal plants, and the 440-megawatt Tongonan geothermal power plant is about to start.

Average yearly increase in power demand from 1993 to 1998 is pro-jected at 487 megawatts in Luzon, 85 megawatts in the Visayas and 165 megawatts in Mindanao, or a total yearly increase of735 megawatts for the whole country.

150 Transactions National Academy of Science

From 1999 to 2005, the annual increase in power demand for all the grids will more than double with: 1,000 megawatts in Luzon, 165 megawatts in the Visayas and 395 megawatts in Mindanao, or an equivalent countryside yearly increase of 1,700 megawatts.

Energy use generally increases with higher economic and population growth. To meet the projected demand for electricity until the year 2000 and to realize the projected 9.3% GDP growth rate in 1998 and 7.0% in the year 2005, NPC, through its PDP, has programmed a total capacity addition of 20,698 mega­watts from 1993 to 2005. Capacity-wise, coal plants will contribute 2.800 megawatts (14%) to the grid, hydro at 1,872 megawatts (9%), geothermal at 1,673 (8%), oil­based capacity in the form of diesel, gas turbine, combine-cycle units at 4,753 megawatts (23%), and other baseload plants, which are still to be identified, at 9,600 megawatts (46%).

It is also expected that the country will then be well equipped with developed and/or adapted technologies which would efficiently convert indig­enous raw materials into useful forms of energy.

Hand in hand with technology development, it is also expected that the country would have an increase in energy experts and scientists working in fully­equipped energy R&D facilities.

Recommendations

To achieve the desired economic growth for the Philippines to attain NIC status, the Philippine Energy Plan for 1993-2000 identifies the following strategies:

(I) Sustain momentum in exploration and development of indigenous sources.

Full development of the recent oil finds and exploration of frontier areas shall be pursued. Likewise, development of other indigenous resources, such as coal, hydro, geothermal and natural gas which are still marginally exploi ted. shall be intensified.

(2) Diversify sources and tylM's of energy imports while ensuring hal-ance hetween cost and stahility.

Until the country attains total energy self-sufficiency, energy security shall be enhanced by reducing vulnerability to oil supply dismptions, Coal, being more geographically distributed and less prone to price fluctuations, shall increas­ingly replace oil imports. Sourcing of both oil and coal shall also be geared to­ward more politically stable and nearer ASEAN countries.

(3) Promote fuel suhstitution and diversification in puwer generation. In order to reduce reliance on gas turbines which are expensive to oper­

ate, and thereby bring down the cost of electricity, more non-oil fired baseload generating plants shall be constmcted.

(4) Formulate and strictly implement comprehensive operation and J .aintenance and rehahilitation programs for existing power plants.

Viray, Fnergy Needs in Industry 151

With the commissioning of new baseload power plants into the generation system, NPC should be able to pursue the rehabilitation and/or retirement of its old and unreliable plants.

(5) Enhance private sector participation in energy projects. Policies for private power generation shall be further improved to

enhance the private sector. Likewise, passage of legislative measures to enhance incentives for private sector investments in other ventures, particularly oil and gas and geothermal development, must be pursued.

(6) Extend rural electrification coverage to commercially-viahle areas.

In line with National Electrification Administration's reorientation of its thrust toward being an interested lender to the electric cooperatives, preferential bias for energization shall be toward areas which will require no or minimal subsidy.

(7) Move toward downstream oil industry deregulation. R.A. 7638 requires the DOE to submit a program for oil industry deregula­

tion by I ?96. Toward this end, an inter-agency task force on oil industry regula­tion is currently drawing up an implementation scheme including measures to prepare the environment for this policy shift.

(8) Promote energy research and development and commercialization of proven technologies.

Various government agencies engaged in energy R&D are pooling efforts to maximize significant results of studies. Technical and financial assistance programs such as the REPP with GFls shall be pursued to promote large-scale utilization of renewable energy.

(9) Intensify promotion of energy conservation and energy-efncient technologies.

Massive dissemination and enforcement of energy efficiency standards shall be pursued to maximize potential energy savings from energy conservation and usc of energy-efficient technologies. Utilities shall be encouraged to under­take demand-side management programs to reduce generation capacity require­ment.

(10) Restructure electricity tarilTs to encourage etlicient use of electric-ity.

Electricity tariffs shall be restructured to encourage efficiency of electric­ity use and optimize generation capacity expansion.

(II) Promote greater market-hased orientation of domestic petroleum product prices.

Greater automaticity of price adjustments shall be pursued by establishi ng benchmarks such as Oil and Petroleum Stabilization Fund (OPSF) minimum and maximum balance levels. Likewise, cross-subsidization across petroleum products shall be rationalized.

(12) Integrate environmental concerns in the planning and i mplementa­tion of energy programs and projects.

152 Transactions National Academy of Science

Environmental concerns shall be increasingly addressed at the planning stage to avoid undue delay in project implementation. Greater emphasis on demand side management and non conventional energy shall also reduce overall greenhouse gas emissions.

(13) Enhance assessment of and planning for the energy needs of coun­tryside development.

Rural energy planning and alternative energy development for electrifica­tion of isolated areas shall be pursued to hasten development and improve living standards in the countryside.

(4) Rationalize operation of energy institutions to promote efficiency and competition.

Upon demonstration of their feasibility and advantage to national interest, privatization of energy-related government agencies shall be pursued. Likewise, consolidation of private electric distribution utilities shall be encouraged.

Sli MMARY OFCOMMENTSTO DR. VIR A Y'S PAPER

Dean Alfredo l. Junio President

UP Engineering R&D Foundation, Inc.

The paper read by Dr. Francisco L Viray presents a fairly accurate picture of the power situation in the Philippines today by identifying the basic deficiencies in the system and describing current programs and plans in order to normalize the state as soon as possible.

The programs appear "doable" and the targets attainable, but there will probably be delays in the implementation of power generation projects if con­cerns about the environment, particularly the noticeably increasing number of coal-firing plants, are not intensely attended to. The power crisis in recent years can be attributed largely to undue delays and/or even abortion of some projects due to problems with the environment - like the Chico River Hydro-power Project, the Bataan Nuclear Power Project, the Mt. Apo Geothermal Project. and the Calaca II coal-fired projects. There appears general agreement on the urgency to protect the environment from further damage and to add its cost to total project cost. Howe\'er. the questions of availability and affordability of appropriate tech­nology still begs solutions. Compounding the problem is the detennination of who should payor share in paying for the extra to audit how the environment has rared after environmental clearances have been issued and the projects imple­mented. It appears necessary to study and implement remedial measures where da mage to the environment have been clearly established so that the massive resistances to development projects may be minimized .

. JI'

I~l

156 Transactions NallOllt.11 Academy of SCfel1Ce

20 times less sulfur and three times less ash than coal. and the net contribution of CO2 to the atmosphere is zero. However, we cannot expect a very big contribu­tion to bascload generation from this source. Except for the industries mentioned, waste biomass is too widely-scattered to be efficiently collected by po\\'er plants.

Hydro power is a highly utilized source in the country. It now accounts for 19% of NPC's installed capacity or 1535 MW. NAPOCOR hopes to add I H72 MW from 1993 to 2005. In 1991, the hydro power potential of the country was estimated at 8,667 MW, including already installed capacity. It must be noted, ho\\'ever, that while hydro power does not contribute to the greenhouse effect, there an: other major environmental and socio-cultural concerns that have to he addressed. This includes the inundation of large tracts of land, including ancestral lands of cultural communities. and possible dam failure. The decreasing useful lifetimes of the hydro power projects is also a concern because of the unabated denudation of our forests. My guess is that it \\'ould be very difficult to expand beyond what has been planned unless we embark on a massive reforestation project now.

Geothermal po\\'er is another indigenous source that has a great potential for further development. The initial assessment shows a potential capacity of up to 4035 MW of which only 1696 MW is being utilized and 1673 MW is planned up to 2005. Geothermal power has some advantages over other sources of power. It is the second cheapest source of electricity indigenous to the country. Ho\\'ever, there are problems that have to be tackled including hydrogen sulfide emissions, very highly saline and corrosive geothermal fluids, subsidence. and thermal pol­lution. The problem of subsidence and corrosive fluids can be minimized by reinjection. The thermal pollution is due to the low operating range of geothermal plants which leads to low thermal efficiencies compared to fossil fuel plants. This problem is localized. however. and does not lead to global warming as clai med by certain groups. The biggest problem is the noxious hydrogen sulfide which is difficult to remove. There are also socio-cultural concerns that have to be ad­dressed especially in relation to the cultural communities residing in the area.

Nuclear power is considered to be a rclath'Cly environmentally benign option. However, it has been a highly emotionally charged issue in the Philip­pines and I doubt that it will be politically wise to consider it in the near future. Nuclear power does not contribute to the greenhouse effect. However, the is­sues of reactor safety and waste storage facilities continue to deter even the more advanced countries to add to their existing nuclear power plants. The issue of safety is even more crucial in our country because of our lack of discipline and our "bahala na" attitude.

The other option is natural gas which, compared to coal, generates 70% more energy per unit of CO2 produced and contains less sulfur. The problem with natural gas, if not available in the Philippines, is the cost of piping it into the country. Our best hope of course are the very promising on-going explorations and developments within the country for natural gas.

Plenary Sessions V, ReuClirms of Dr. Garcia 1~7

It is quite obvious from the above discussions that if we close the nuclear option, we have no choice but to use fossil fuels which of course will bring us back to the problems of S02' NO, and global warming. Technologies already exist for reducing S02' NO, to acceptable levels. However, there are no cheap technologies for reducing CO2. One can think of sequestering CO2 via reforesta­tion, chemical absorption, or even piping it deep into the ocean. All of these options are very expensive. The cheapest is reforestation and yet a 500 MW plant requires 1000 square miles of forest to absorb the CO2 emission.

There is no such thing as "clean energy." The challenge for us, therefore. is to implement the best energy mix possible for our industrial and other needs while minimizing environmental risks and in a manner that is politically accept­able. A broad consensus building is necessary such that the people who will be most affected by whatever decision is taken will understand better the basis of such a decision. The assistance ·of developed countries for the transfer of cleaner technologies should be sought especially since some of the environmental con­cerns such as S02' NOx and CO2 do not respect national boundaries. Besides their contribution to these pollution loads is disproportionately large compared to their population and we should not be left with the burden of higher costs of maintaining the environmental risks at acceptable levels.

REACTION TO THE PAPER OF DR. FRANCISCO VI RAY

Estrella F. Alabastro Executive Director

Philippine Council for Industry and Energy Research & Development

I am aware that in the Philippine Energy Plan: 1993-2000, energy supply and demand projections were drawn up for three different scenarios which have been tagged as "expected", "aggressive" and "ambitious" . The first scenario assumes the continuation of existing policies and implementation of strategies, while the last two scenarios project positive impacts of policy and program enhancements. The correspond ing energy mix for each of these scenarios gives estimates of the energy to be supplied by indigenous and imported energy sources. While oil and gas, coal, hydro, geothermal, bagasse, and agriwaste are explicitly mentioned in this energy mix, nuclear energy does not appear. Is there no plan to harness nuclear energy for power in the future?

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Speaker Panelists

Moderator: Rappurteur:

Rapporteur's Report

PLENARY SESSION V

"ENERGY NEEDS IN INDUSTRY"

Dr. Francisco L. Viray Dean Alfredo L. Juinio Or. Estrella F. Alahastro Dr. Ester A. Garcia Academician Bienvenido F. Nehres, S . .J. Academician Apolinario D. Nazarea

SUMMARY

The report of Dr. Frnncisco L. Viray, President of the National Power Corpora­tion (NPC) discussed the relevant parameters of the growing energy needs of Philip­pine industry and how the Department of Energy, the NPC in particular, is trying to meet these needs. This process has been facilitated by the 1993 emergency powers granted by the President of the Philippines - which effectively allowed the reorgani­zation of the NPC, the waiver of the public bidding requirements for power projects, the remittance of 10"10 ofPAGCOR's total earnings to the NPC, the authority to raise the NPC's rate base and the streamlining of the process of obtaining environmental clearances for power projects.

All these have contributed positively to the current level of installed capacity of the NPC which is currently about 8000 megawatts, of which capacity 52% is accounted for by oil burning plants, 21 % is accounted for by geothermal plants, 19% is accounted for by hydroelectric plants. and 8% by coal burning plants. Thus, at present, fossil-fuel-burning plants account for 60% of NPC's total installed capacity.

RECOMMENDATIONS AN]) IMPLICATIONS

(I) Short-term projections indicate that for 1993 to 1998, average annual increment in power demand will be at 487 megawatts in Luzon, 85 megawatts in the Visayas and 165 megawatts in Mindanao or a total annual incremental growth of735 megawatts for the whole country.

Budgetary support is recommended for the continuance of the-construction of the Pagbilao (700 megawatt), and Calaca II (300 megawatt) thermal plants, which were begun in 1993, and the soon to be started Masinloc (600 megawatt) and Sual (1000 megawatt) thermal plants; as well as the Tongonan geothermal plant. These plants are all projected to assist in meeting the annual incremental power over the last decade of this century.

t61

162 Transactions National Academy of Science

It is noteworthy that the Philippines, even now the second largest producer of geothermal energy in the world, is poised to surpass the United States by becoming the world's leader in terms of geothermal energy capacity before the turn of the century.

(2) Longer-term projections further show that: For 1999 to 2005 the an-nual increase in power demand for all the power grids will be more than double: 1,000 megawatts in Luzon, 165 megawatts in Visayas and 395 megawatts in Mindanao, or an equivalent countrywide yearly increase of 1,700 megawatts. To meet the projected demand for electricity until the year 2000 and to realize the projected 9.3% GOP growth rate in 1998 and 7.0% in the year 2005, NPC recommends a programmed total capacity build-up of 20,698 megawatts from 1993 to 2(}()5. Capacity-wise, coal plants will contribute 2,800 megawatts (14%) to the grid, hydro - 1,872 megawatts (9%), geothermal- 1,673 (8%), oil-based capacity in the form of diesel, gas turbine, combined-cycle units - 4,753 megawatts (25%), and otller baseload plants which are still 10 be identified - 9,600 megawatts (46%).

The "still to be identified" base load plants and their chosen technologies are of course only vaguely cited in the report, but those of us who are worried about environmental degradation wish to see consciously embodied in NPC's planning program, a greater role given to three environmentally-friendly tech­nologies: in particular, photo voltaic (e.g. the newest thin-film amorphous silicon technology), biomass (8M) conversion [direct 8M combustion, thermo-chemical 8M conversion (such as gaseous pyrolysis and gasification, hydrolysis, anaerobic digestionJpermentation to liquid fuels like ethanol and methanol) and windpower conversion technologies - to decrease the present dominant role in the Philippines offossil-fuel-burning generating plants.

In particular, the technology for producing low-cost tllin film amorphous silicon flexible panels with capture (conversion) efficiency of 10.2% is now a practical reality, in the form that it has most recently been developed through the joint efforts of United Solar Systems, Canon Corporation of Japan and Energy Conversion Devices Corporation, three of the leading companies at the forefront of applied research in this area of energy conversion.

Although large photovoltaic facilities will still not be competitive at present in comparison with fossil fuel burning plants in areas where electrical transmission lines are already set-up. in other. more isolated areas of the country where such transmission lines would be prohibitively expensive to build (and such areas from a sizable fraction of the total landmass of the Philippines) the national govern­ment, through the NPC, should be encouraged to apply third wave (and there­fore less environmentally degrading) energy conversion technologies.

The implications of conservation have been pointed out more than once: Who is the sensible person who would leave a household heating system on during the hottest days of summer? - or, who is the sensible person who would keep his car running while parked in his garage?

Plenary Session J', Summary 163

Yet, although there has been really no global conspiracy to vandal ize the earth during the better part of the last two centuries, industry for centuries (since the beginning of the industrial revolution) has been getting the power it needs from the fuel it burns, and in the process has been allowing roughly 50% of the energy to "go up in smoke" - to merely escape.

"In economic terms alone, it is not sensible; in terms of wastage, it is alarm­ing. In terms of global environmental damage, it is nothing less than frightening."

CLOSING REMARKS

William G. Padolina Acting Secretary

Department afScience and Technology

Dr. Dayrit. the president of the National Academy of Science and Technology. Dr. Juliano. Dr. Ramirez. distinguished men and women of science, guests. fellow workers of the science and technology community and the government, members of the academe, ladies and gentlemen.

I must thank Dr. Ramirez for her generous introduction. Many of these are accomplishments which I cannot claim as solely my own because I see many faces here who in one way or another I have had the privilege to work with. And without their cooperation, I don't think we would have accomplished any ofthe tasks that Dr. Ramirez read.

When I was informed that the President had made the announcement during a Cabinet meeting to make me an Acting Secretary, it came really as a pleasant surprise because I was home at that time, one of the few occasions when I was able to go home early. That was because I was not feeling well the day before, and I planned to just finish signing papers the following day and leave before lunch. But as usual, things got extended and I did not get to leave for home until 3 :00 o'clock in the afternoon. So I just thought I would rest until I got a phone call from Dra. F ellizar, the wife of Science Asst. Secretary Jun Fellizar, who said that President Ramos had announced changes in the Cabinet, and that I had been named Acting SecrctalY of the Department of Science and Technology CDOST). It was of course a pleasant surprise, although there was already an indication that there would be some changes in the Cabinet. But we were not sure then when it would come and who would take the respective places in the Cabinet. This appointment makes me the third Los Banos member of the Cabinet, and I am a bit apprehensive about that because I think Los Banos might be blamed if there is anything that would go wrong since we hold some key positions in the government. Ciel Habito holds NEDA, Dr. Gloria is now holding DECS, and will influence the establishment of the Commission on Higher Education. And I hold a low profile, a relatively anonymous department called the Department of Science and Technology.

I hope that with these changes in the leadership of the different departtnents, as well as a positive confluence of events which I do not think we wi II ever have again in the history of the Phi lip pines - Fr. Ben Nebres as the President of the Ateneo University, a mathematician; President Javier of the University of the Philippines who is a well-known scientist and science administrator; and B ro. Andrew Gonzalez who is now at the helm of De La Salle University and one of the furemost promoters of science and technology, and which during his previous term in De La Salle, was able to introduce an art of progress into their science and engineering programs. I think with these developments, we should have enough will, political and otherwise, to be able to move the Philippines into a stage of world competitiveness.

165

166

I must extend my regrets for not being able to join you yesterday in the award­ing of your young scientists. I had to make a choice I must confess, in either coming here or attending an affair with the First Lady at DOST. I think you would not hesitate to make the same decision as I did, given the choice. I find myself really trying to make discards of decisions in my position now. But I was told that all your sessions had gone very well, and that listening to part of the reports in the different concerns covering environment, health, economics and statistics, agriculture and en­ergy, I find that there is again a list of things which we will have to attend to in the very near future.

There is one observation though that I would like to share with you as I listened to some parts of the reports. And number one was the lack of element of competitiveness, the lack of that will to fight in this global economy which is fast encroaching and reaching our source. I hope that as we now translate this recom­mendation into something doable at all fronts not only in the academy but also within the science community, we shall have that will to be competitive to excel because it will eventually bring us to national well-being, and sustain w hat now appears to be a turnaround in our efforts to move toward national progress.

It is I think in this context that I would like to share with this group and some of you who may have already listened to me about this, the seven-point program which I hope will become a framework within which the science community could move, and with in which the science establishments could lead in bringing us toward the goal of global competitiveness and people empowerment. I must state here that as a whole, this should bring us toward a higher level of national well-being. And while there is very clear participation of the scientists and engineers. and the inventors, talking about national well-being would always bring into the future the necessity of those who study human behavior and the human being itself. When we talk about well-being, we talk about people. we talk about environment, we talk about· their activities and how they are able to transform nature and unlock the secrets of nature toward their own advantage.

Let me now share with you the seven-point S & T action agenda which I hope will start discussions. I am sure that there are many other views that you could input to refine these. I am also sure there will be other ways of bringing us toward that level of competitiveness which we all want be in. But I would like to offer this as starting point:

The first point, if I may suggest, is for us to refine the vision that we have articulated in the Science and Technology Master Plan (STMP) and Science and Tcchnology Agenda for National Development or STAND Philippines 2000, into some­thing clear and coherent with emphasis on identifying the next generation technologi­cal advances critical to Philippine competitiveness. We now have to start scanning technological advances in the global science and technology enterp rise. The ques­tions we should start to ask now is after biotechnology, what? After microelcctronics, what? After all these advances in material science, what's next? There are now indications of an emerging wave of advances which if we do not get prepared will again push us back in our efforts.

Related to this vision which should be clear and coherent is the need to start using superior technologies. May I emphasize the word superior. This docs not neces­sarily mean high-tech but technology that is more efficient than the one being used at present. In jest I always tell the food industry that it is no longer adequate that they test their products by smelling and tasting, "paamoy-amoyat patikim-tikim. Hindi tayo mananalo niyan, hindi na pupuwede iyan". We have to use modern methods of analysis, modern methods of monitoring whether we are reaching the standards be­cause that is the name of the game, and that is the only way we will survive in the world market.

I hope you now feci that there are these developments coming" and if we do not prepare for them, we will fmd ourselves at the losing end. *AF1)\ will be with liS . ..

This is a massive reorganization of the region. GAIT (the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs), when it starts to be in effect as early as 1995 (because we expect Japan and the Unik:d States to ratify the agreements fast), offers new opportunities but it also offers threats. And I hope that we will try to understand this development within our own circles because in the end. it will be a matter of national survival. Even now if you go to supermarkets, you will find so many products coming from our neighboring ASEAN countries - simple things like cookies, candies - attaining cer­tain levels of quality and at a velY affordable price. This is an indication of how AFT A will look when it is fully implemented when tariff barriers are lowered and when there is now a borderless economy among the six, or potentially seven, eight or nine countries in the ASEAN region. That is why we need to really sit down and further refine our vision, make it clear and coherent, orient it to the future technolo­gies that will come by our way. And for those which are already available, use them or make an effort to use them.

That brings me to the second point, which is to design a strategic research plan focused on these critical advances in knowledge, tools and technologies which will lead to fulfill the vision. We need to be focused on clearly identified problems and concerns. This is an exercise where we are relatively weak, because we have bleed­ing hearts and we have soft hearts . And wh-:never we try to prioritize, we end up with a longer list than what we had started wit~ .. I am afraid this kind of exercise will get us nowhere. And the earlier we focus on dearly identified development plans we must apply advances and participate in the generation 01 more knowledge III relevant areas. We can not just be transferring knowledge from other countries all the time. They become absolete very fast. And by the time we get to usc them, their value added may have already diminished considerably. We can only correct that if our own internal capacity to generate ntw knowledge is very strong.

In this strategic research plan, I propose that we undertake science and technol­ogy-based bottle-necking activities which are in effect problems in the establishment and operation of very vital industries such as agriculture, steel, petrochemicals, pack~ aging industry, etc. What I am in effect saying here is that we must try now to marshal our resources and invest in big ticket items. We can not wait for the time when we shall have enough ofthls wealth to invest in these bottle-necking activities because surely, this delay will bring us to a point where we can no longer catch up.

168

Third, I suggest that w e deliberately and try very hard to organize cross-disci­plinary teams of scientists and engineers, that we adopt a team approach to bring together the best and the brightest regardless of institutional affiliation. We should bring together the scientists and the engineers, the scientists and the inventors, the engineers and the inventors. These creative forces will have to bond together if we are to achieve a critical mass to be able to address and solve the problems that we would like to. I always liken this task to something like addressing a mission tai­lored-fit for a battalion with just a platoon. With my two years experience at DOST, disturbing realities have emerged like the fact that our technical manpower pool is very thin and narrow. We have an $85 million World Bank-OECF project where for five years we should be recruiting faculty members to be given scholarships foc a masteral degree or a doctoral degree. And I am sorry to say that even after the second year of implementation, we have started to run out of -qualified people. Isn't that disturbmg? Because these are the people who will take charge of the next battlefront. And even now, we already see that there are not enough of them.

So that brings me to the fourth point, which is to really campaign for an educa­tional program involving significant numbers of graduate and undergraduate students with research teams focused on technological systems with exposure to industrial views. This should consist of a refinement of our manpower development program. We can no longer content ourselves with just growth figures of how many engineers would you want, how many electrical engineers would we need in the future. Other­wise, we will always find people following the path of least resistance, and you find an imbalance of manpower in ccrtain areas. This is, I think demonstrated very clearly by one institution that we are helping in Batangas.

Sitting in the middle of chemical industries - Shell, Caltex, Cocochemicals, -with a college of engineering but which docs not offer any chemical or engineer­ing degree, you will see how junk this system is. There are also schools which are starting to phase out programs, especially the expensive ones like chemistry pro­grams and chemical engineering programs. And if we do not stem that tide, I am afraid again, the capacity to train will be severely affected. We have to address that, and we have to address that soon, because we have a Science and Technol­ogy Scholarship Act which would provide for the training of 3,500 students in undergraduate degrees in science and engineering every year. That is a law passed by congress which mandates the Department of Science and Technology now to undertake this program - two scholars per municipality roughly, and you can just imagine the pressure it will put on our academic institutions. If we do not plan that out, again I said the path of least resistance will follow and we will find some distortions into this program. On top of that, we should retain, expand and retool our brainpower. Whatever we have installed now in the country, we should try our best to retain through a package of compensation, benefits, coupled with a good research environment.

In addition to that, we should expand this brainpower pool, improve the through­put of institutions of higher learning in the field of science and technology. If your

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throughput is only 10% and you graduate, on the whole, 30 chem ist per year in the whole Philippines, I do not know how you can be globally competitive with that. But yet, you have a large enrolment in this program. The throughput is very poor, it's either we are making it too difficult for them to finish, or our facilities are so inad­equate that it is going to take them snail's pace to go through the mill. I think this is a challenge for these institutions which process this brainpower. Because if we do not improve the internal efficiency of these institutions, we can not encourage more students to take up science and engineering. They would think that even if the cur­riculum was tailor-made for a four-year course, it is going to take them seven years because subjects are not available, the laboratories are not that well-equipped, or the curriculum is just so crowded you have to take 200 units to finish the course, an undergraduate degree. Every time a new professor comes in, we institute a 'new sub­ject and have it required for everybody. Before you know it, you already have 250 units for an undergraduate degree.

We should bring home expatriate scientists. We have revived the Balik-Scien­tist Program. Two weeks ago the first Balik-Scientist under the Ramos administra­tion returned. We hope to process six more or even ten more within this year. But let me just give you the figures of the past Balik-Scientist Program within ten years. From 1975-1986, we brought home 250 people. Only 150 stayed and out of that 150, 10 left after sometime. Again, I do not think with 150 expatriate scientists here, we can be globally competitive. The magnitude of this kind of intervention is just so limited that we now have to look out for a package, a milieu of interventions that we hope will put one and one together, complement each other, and bring the quantity and quality we need to address our problems.

We do have TOKTEN. This is a Transfer of Knowledge to Expatriate Nation­als but that does not bring us the numbers too. You probably get 5 or 6 a year. That will not make you globally competitive. And we now have the INTERNET in nine different nodes all over the Philippines which I think has opened up in an unprecedented way, access to information to three million computers abroad, involv­ing 18 million users. If you want more information about that, I advise that you touch­base with PHILNET which is in the DOST.

And there are bilateral agreements which you also can use in our DAAD, Fullbright, etc. And we now intend at DOST to put all of those together, paint a coherent picture, use to our advantage what can best be offered under these programs. But I'd like to emphasize that we need the numbers, now.

Lastly on this brainpower, we must make an effort to retool. Those who are with us now should make an effort to lcam new techniques, the emerging technolo­gies through post doctorals, through industry fellowships, through retraining programs, and even through the INTERNET, because you can download a lot of information through the INTERNET.

Retooling is a very important component of this program. And you should gi ve opportunities for our professors and our researchers to learn new tech­niques and to learn a science that would generate more precise information.

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Because again, that will be the only way to bring us to a level of global competitive­ness.

Fifth, I suggest that we involve the private sector in planning research and even in educational programs, to focus on short-term and long-term needs of industry, while at the same time involving the transfer of knowledge and techno­logical advances to industry and other users. I would like to emphasize here that the earlier you make the private sector participate in Ihis process, the better for all of us. Institutions which have entertained barriers to this participation or who have in a sense been quite conservative, must now open up and bend a little bit to accommodate private sector participation in many of their programs. This way, we will be able to assist in the identification of the needs ofinduslry, many of which are not aware that they have problems because a lot of them have really reflected their efficiencies by manipulating their books and not their production floors.

Sixth, we need now to establish major and specialized, experimental capa­bilities supported by large-scale contemporary instrumentation and laboratory in­frastructure. Our laboratories need to be modernized, to achieve world class status. This is a big ticket item. We need to establish analytical and testing service laboratories especially for food and health products. The trading system has be­come very sophisticated that a lot of non-tariff barriers have been set up. And they are improved at critical times and are working to the detriment of many developing countries, simply because they do not have the capability to provide information that will counter the claims of the importing countries. I think I do not need to brief you any further about this and just state the problem about aflatoxin in coconut which I am told has now been removed because American peanut mills could not meet the standards. So what is the game that we are really playing. My position is that, unless you get the kind of information that can counter that kind of a move, I think you will be in a losing position all the time.

Seventh, let us improve our research management system to optimize the use of financial, physical and human resources. We pledge to improve the inter­nal efficiency of the science establishment which is represented here by the DOST, and the science community especially in the allocation of human, physical and financial resources. Our conservative estimates are that, just for the General Appropriations Act alone, government research institutions, DOST, state colleges and universities probably handle around P800 M worth ofR & D money. When the public returns to you and asks you, what have you done with your P800 M, it is a little difficult to give an answer that will satisfy them. So, we have to improve these internal efficiencies so that we can work and solve the problems with the existing human, physical and financial resources. We have to improve procedures to reduce bureaucratic paralysis. The phenomenon of bureaucratic paralysis has occurred to me no more vividly than in the two years I have been at DOST. There is just a lot of this around,· and you have to learn every new trick everyday to navigate these waters, including the skill of anticipation and forecasting so that you can prepare these papers way ahead and navigate your way through all these procedures before you get to it. It

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may take sometime before we get the regulatOlY bodies of government to be develop­ment-oriented They will of course need a cultural change. And [ supposed that at this time, in order to cope with it, we just have to use all our scientific and technological skills to navigate through these bureaucratic waters.

In this regard, therefore, within the framework of the seven points, we would like to explore the following vanguard projects:

First, expand the use of the metals industry. There is no doubt that a mark of an industrializing and progressing country is its ability to harness, use, transform and produce metals, even single things like farm implements, processing equip­ment and machineries. We will try to campaign for an expanded use of these in even the smallest communities in our land. Which means that we have to train more design engineers, technicians who can weld, cut and even operate.

Second, it is about time that we put our efforts together to rehabilitate or start the rehabilitation of Laguna de Bay. Laguna de Bay continues to be a strate­gic source of water for Metro Manila and CALABARZON. And I think when our energy crisis would have been solved, it is the water crisis that will come in. And this is I think more difficult, less easy to bear than living without lights eight hours a day. This strategic source will need the combined undertaking of not only scientists and engineers but the communities around it as well.

We are lucky that Dr. Gloria is in DECS, and there are millions of school­children that he can marshal and mobilize through a memorandum that will be made available to this effect.

Third, we suggest also as soon as possible, the coconut industry to be revi­talized. We keep on saying that this is a very important part of our economy, affecting 1/3 of our population and to which we have devoted 20% of our arable land, and yet we are not doing anything about it. The replanting program which was designed in 1975 has been implemented in trickles, in magnitudes dispropor­tionate to the problems. You know that we need to replant 100 million trees. And you can not be replanting at the rate of 10,000 trees a year because by the time you finish replantjng 100 million trees, you are back to square one. And this effort will have to be addressed because this is precisely the reason of coconut oil. In addition to this. coconut parts will have to be utilized fully. Research and develop­ment leading to high value products using coconut parts will have to be supported.

Fourth and the last, promolion of computer literacy. There is no doubt that the computer is going to be a very important part of our lives. Friends I know have become so helpless without it. And to the extent that it will not only assist in our daily domestic activities, whether it be in the office or in the home, but also provide an avenue by which learning experiences could be expanded and access to informa­tion could be facilitated, we would like computer literacy to be promoted as widely as possible.

The coming ofthe electronic classroom, [think is inevitable. Although it is hard to imagine how we could put this into a barangay high school, but we are in fact trying this in Catanduanes. We provided about 35 barangay high schools with televi-

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sion sets. And with the receiving satellite disc, courtesy of Congressman Verceles, Jr., they are now accessing PTV-4 selected programs which they can use in their learning schemes.

There is indeed still much to be done. And this is just the starting point. My concern is to address the doables, get started and let the perfect plan, which we so religiously want, evolve through the process. Our problem is that we do not want to start unless everybody's satisfied with such a super perfect plan. And by the time we are ready to implement it, it becomes outdated. I think that lesson has to be learned.

And the nations which are movi ng faster than us are not going to wait, neither will you be able to request them to wait no matter how much goodwill you have. Neighbors are growing at faster rates than us. That is beginning to be a problem, not only in terms of our access to resources which are near us. As an example, the problem of accessing the 200 million hectare waters that we have around us. Water area that is available for us is 200 M hectares, which is seven times that of our land area, but which we can not exploit or which we are beaten to the draw because if you have a fishing boat with satellite discs that can tell you where the schools of fish are, that IS no match to a poor fisherman's banca powered by a paddle which can go only so far. These are the kinds of events that are taking place. And as I said, we probably will have to get out of our complacent attitudes and do something about it. And we must put that element of competitiveness into our programs, not in the negative way. We do not compete to undermine it, but we compete successfully because we excel, because we are better, we can generate and use the information in a much better way.

Let me conclude by expressing my faith in the role of the National Acad­emy of Science and Technology in helping this country attain global competitive­ness, creating its own niches, and getting into heights of excellence.

Let us continue to make more aggressive efforts in sharing our knowledge and resources, to harness the full potential of our scientific and technological advances.

Thank you and good afternoon.

Abstracts of Posters

175

MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES

FOUNDA TlONS OF PSElJOOGROUP THEORY

RAOUL E. CA W AGAS, SCITECH R&D CENTER, Polytechnic University of the Philippines, Sta. Mesa, Manila

A pseudogroup < S: Ii» is a set S of finite order n together with a non­associative binary operation ro, satisfying the following postulates:

P I. The operation ® is closed on S. P2. The set S has a unique identity element with respect to al).

P3. Every element of S has a unique inverse in S. P4. For every a, b is S there exists unique x, y in S such that a® x =

band y® a = b.

Pseudogroups are interesting algebraic structures more general than groups. Very little is known about them but they are involved in the theory of non-associative real algebras, division rings, as well as in theoretical physics. They satisfy all group postulates except the associative property and are therefore helpful in understanding group properties that are not consequences of the associative property.

This paper introduces some of the fundamental properties of pseudogroups and attempts to indicate a program for the development of F'seudogroup Theory. In particular, it shall establish the existence of pseudogroups of all orders n ? 5, present basic theorems on their structure, introduce methods and algorithms for constructing and analyzing them, and show some of their applications in both pure and applied mathematics.

AXIOMS - AN ALGORITHM FOR THE ANALYSIS OF FINITE ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES

RAOUL E. CAWAGAS and A.Z. ROSAL. SCITECH R&D CENTER, Polytech­nic University of the Philippines, Sta. Mesa, Manila

The abstract structure of any tinite algebraic system < G; ®> of order n is completely defined by its mUltiplication table which can be represented by an nxn matrix S(G) = (gil) called its structure matrix. where g~ = gj \lIl gj and gj' gj !:

G. AXIOMS is a software based on the properties of S{G). It is a computer version of Characteristic Paltern Analysis (CPA) - an algorithm for the analysis of finite structures. Given the matrix S(G) of < G; >, AXIOMS can determine if it is a groupoid, a pseudogroup, or a group, derive important matrices from S(G) and decompose them into their components for study.

176

PIEZOELECTRIC QUARTZ RESONA TOR AS A BIOSENSlNG DEVICE FOR ODORANT MOLECULES

FORTUNATO B. SEVILLA Ill. Research Center for the Natural Sciences, Uni­versity of Santo Tomas, Espana, Manila

Piezoelectric quartz crystals have long been used as frequency and time standards with accuracy down to one part per trillion (109). These stable elements have been exploited for chemical biochemical sensing by depositing an adsorbent film or membrane on the crystal surface. The coating on the quartz crystals interacts with the substance being analyzed. and the interaction leads to an increase in the mass of the crystal and a consequent decrease in its oscillation frequency. This sensing principle was applied to the detection of odorant chemi­cals. Cast films and Langmuir - Blodgett membranes of lipids and compounds displayed distinct behavioral patterns that indicate the feasibility of identifica­tion through a multivariate analysis of the data. The odor-sensing device based on this system would be very useful in the food, beverage and perfume industries, as well as in environmental and health monitoring.

DEVELOPMENT OF NEW PROCESS FOR COCONUT OIL EXTRACTION

CHAY B. PHAM and N.C.G. LlWAG I., BIOTECH, UP Los BaJios, Laguna

Quantity of coconut oil and copra residue export has been consistently decreasing due to the decrease of the quality of the coconut oil and copra meal which was contaminated by aflatoxin. This study aimed to develop a new process using the Gamanase enzyme for the extraction of coconut oil directly from fresh coconut meat in order to have a good quality oil.

The effect of temperature, pH and enzyme concentration was optimized in a batch process using a randomized fractional factorial design. The optimization of process conditions were analyzed by three dimension structures aided by a computer.

The effects of pH and temperature were found to be parabolic, while the effect of the enzyme concentration was I inear. The highest coconut oil recovered was 89-92% at pH 4.5, process temperature of 50°C and 0.75 ml gamanase/lOO g fresh coconut meat. Oil extracted was colorless and had a flavor of fresh coconut meat. Besides this, protein and coconut residue of high quality were also obtained.

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SIDE CHAIN LIQUID CR YSTAL POLYMERS AS BINDERS IN PDLC FILMS

LEONORINA G. CADA and L.C. CHIEN. Institute of Chemistry, UP Diliman, Quezon City

With the prime interest being in formulating better indices binders for polymer-dispersed liquid crystal (PDLC) films, we have synthesized a series of side chain liquid crystal epoxy-based polymers from the condensation of an epon resin, cthyleneglycol diglycidyl ether and mesogenic amincs, 4-(m -aminoalkoxy) - 4' -cyanobiphenyl. The amines with alkyl group ranging from five to nine methylene units were found to exhibit an enantiotropic nematic phase. The obtained epoxy-based materials were oligomeric and exhibited low glass and melting temperatures. Some adjustments in transition temperatures were achieved by structural modifications such as crosslin king, copolymerization, capping and changing the backbone constitution. Phase separation study was conducted using polarized microscopy.

LAHAR AND SAND DUNES AS RAW MATERIALS IN THE MANUFACTURE OF STRUCTURAL CLAY PRODUCTS

SAMUEL S. FRANCO; R.V. DEJETO; and D.C. PONDOC. Department of Mate­rials Science & Engineering. Mariano Marcos State University, Batac, 2906, 1I0cos Norte

Lahar, sand dunes and ordinary clay were used as raw materials for the making of structural clay products. Different mixtures were formulated with the use of the tri-ax ial diagram.

The objective of the study was to determine the optimum com bination of lahar, sand dunes and clay for the manufacture of structural clay products. Sample test bars were made and different physical testing were undertaken .

Air-dried test bars are porous compared to high clay formulations. How­ever, after air and oven drying, they were found to have minimal shrinkage. For the slaking test, the lest blocks took less than 5 minutes .

The test bars were fired at 859°C, 950°C and 1050°C. All the clay formula­tions were able to withstand up to 950°C. However, at this temperature they started to change phase. At 1050oC, all the test bars fused and became shiny.

The findings indicate that lahar and sand dunes can be used as materials for structural clay products and can even be used for glazing.

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DESIGN OF A HIGHLY STABLE OPTICAL pH SENSOR FOR BIO-REACTOR MONITORING

NENA V. RODRIGUEZ and O.S. WOLFBEIS. Research Center for the Natural Sciences, Sensors Divisions, University of Santo Tomas, Espana, Manila

A pH sensor was designed in which a commercially available dye (Merck N-9) was covalently immobilized on a 10- 11m layer of cellulose coating on a 70-170 11m transparent polyester planar support. The sensor changed color from yellow (in acidic solulion) to blue (in alkaline solution). The calibration curve or the sensor exhibited sensitivity at pH 5 to 9 with a pKa (pseudo) at 7.24. Steady­state response times were obtained in less than 60 sec. The sensor also showed high reproducibility and long-time stability. It was tested for more than 12 hours of continuous use and was given LS.d. values of only 1% and less. Such char­acteristics make th.: sensor highly suitable for use in a homemade opto-electronic device for the measurement of pH in bioreactors [I].

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

STUDIES ON SOME USEFUL FERNS IN MINDANAO

VICTOR B. AMOROSO, Central Mindanao UniversilY, University Town, Musuan, Bukidnon

Field survey and collections of ferns conducted in various places in Mindanao revealed 70 species of economic importance. Of this number, 18 species are utilized as human food, 9 species for handicran manufacture, 46 are medicinal, 34 species are ornamental plants and many species have other specific uses. These useful ferns can be managed to contribute to the socio-economic progress of the country especially in the rural areas of Mindanao.

Nutritive chemical analysis on some edible fern fronds showed the presence of P, Ca, Fe and Mg. Likewise, histochemical tests from fresh medicinal plants also revealed the active principles local ized in various tissues and organs of the plant body. The active principles such as alkaloids, glycosides. tannins, saponins, and organic acids were observed from detectable to very abundant depending on the species of ferns .

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CLONING 01' THE RED PIGMENT GENES OF XENORHABDUS LUMINISCENS HMlo

PRIMA C. RAGUDO-FRANCO and K.H. NEALSON. College of Arts and Sci­ences, Mariano Marcos State University, Batac, 2906, 1I0cos Norte

Xenorhahdus luminiscens is symbiotic with the enthromopogenic nema­tode Heterorhabditis bacteriophora (Poinar et al. 1980; Poinar and Thomas 1966; Akhurst 1983). The symbiotic pair together act as parasites of insects (Poinar and Thomas 1967). Once an infective nematode· harboring Xenorhabdus luminiscens reaches the hemolymph of an insect, it releases its bacterial symbionts. The bacteria multiply and presumably participate in some way to the demise of the insect (Gaugler 1988). The nematode completes its life cycle and gives rise to infective juveniles which soon emerge from the insect carcass in search of new prey (Poinar 1983).

Xenorhabdus luminiscens can exist as two forms referred to as primary and secondary, the latter arising as a variant of the former after a long period of static incubation (Bleakley and Nealson 1988). Observed primary characteristics which are lacking and diminished in the secondary are: (1) red pigmentation (Richardson, et al. 1988, Beakley and Nealson 1988); (2) bioluminescence (Akhurst 1980; Poinar, et aI., 1980); (3) antibiotic activity (Akhurst 1982; Paul, et al. 1981); (4) lipase activity (Akhurst 1983); (5) neutral dye uptake (Akhurst and Boemare 1988); (6) intracellular porte in crystals (Bowen and Ensign 1987, 1988; Couche et al. 1987); and extracellular protease production (Schmidt, et al. 1988).

This paper involves studies about the genes responsible for one of these features: pigment formation. The pigment genes were cloned and expressed in E. coli, the recombinant plasmid named pCGLS 100, was screened and isolated. ·aml a partial restriction map oftne 8.1 kb insert was constructed. The fragment was nick translated, labelled with 32P, and subsequently used as a probe for other X enorhabdus species. The probe hybridized with the Southern blots of the Eco RI cut genomic DNAs of the X luminiscens Hm primary; X. luminiscells Hm secondary, X. luminiscens NC 19 primary, X. luminiscens NCI9 secondary with pigment. X. luminiscens NC 19 secondary without pigment and X. luminiscens Fla primary.

HOMOZYGOSITY AND FIELD PERFORMANCE OF SPINELESS RICINUS COMMUNIS L.

ADORACION T. ARANEZ and M.B.1. BACANO. Institute of Biology, College of Science, UP Diliman, Quezon City

Seed5 from self-pollinated Indonesian-Bangkok cross (TBC), Bangkok brown spotted (BBS) and Indonesian (IND) were planted, first in plastic cups

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and later transplanted to the field, one plant per hill at a distance of one meter between and within rows following a completely randomized block design, grown to maturity and observed. regularly. The study showed that the spineless IBC was early-maturing and high-yielding as compared with the parents, BBS and IND. Survival percentage was highest in IBC followed by IND. BBS had the lowest survival percentage. Oil content and seed weight of I BC was between that of BBS and IND. Seed protein profiles showed that of the 19 bands of IBC, only one was not observed in BBS and two, in IND, with all the other bands in the three strains being homologous. Similarity index between IBC and BBS was 95%, between IBC and IND, 89% and between BBS and IND, 84%. Seed protein profiles in all IBC plants studies were similar, confirming that the F71BC was already homozygous as also revealed by their morphological characteristics.

SCREENING AND CHARACTERIZATION OF MICROORGANISMS FOR COAL BIOSOLUBILIZA TlON

EVELYN BATTAD-BERNARDO; S. NEG ORO and I. URABE. Natural Science Research Institute, UP Diliman, Quezon City

Biological conversion of coal has received considerable scientific attentioll during the past ten years as an economically viable alternative to the conventional liquefaction and gasification of coal. Most of the works were focused on the screening, isolation and identification of microorganisms capable of solubilizing coal. In this study, a number ofmicrorganisms were examined for their ability to biosolubilize untreated coals in two screening tests. Newly isolated microorganisms screened by their growth in coal extract medium were found to biosolubilize the coal particles. Out of the numerous isolated strains, two prom ising strains, white mold C3M2628 and actinomycete S43637, were further characterized based on a number of parameters and their metabolic response in the presence of either coal extract, or coal particles. The liquified medium yalloun coal extract culture supernate of strain S43637 were both found to contain water-soluble, alkaline, polar to moderate or highly non-polar, heterogeneous, low to high molecular weight compounds.

METAZOAN PARASITES FROM THREE SPECIES OF PHILIPPINE GROUPERS

NELLIE C. LOPEZ, Institute of Biology, College of Science, UP Diliman, Quezon City

Epinephelus macrospilos (Bleeker) and Epinephellls bleekeri (Vailant and Bocourt) from Manila Bay, and Epinephelus jiJscoguttatus (Forsakal) from Lucena, Quezon were obtained from wet markets in Metro Manila for parasitic examination. The parasites recovered from the gills and internal organs were frematodes, a larval cestodes nematodes, copepods. and a larval isopod.

I R I

DepleClanum sp. (Monogenea: Diplectanidae), from the gills, was the most prevalent parasite recovered from E. macrospilo,v (65%) and E. bleekeri (43%). In E.jllscogullaills, the most common parasite was Prosorhynchus sp. (Digenea: Bucephalidae) (14%). Four parasite species (ProsorhYl1chus sp., the nematodes, SIJlrocamallalllls sp. and Goezia sp., and a larva of a gnathiid isopod) were found in all three fish hosts. Helicometra sp. (Digenea: Opecoelidae). Erileplurus sp., (Digenea: Hemiuridae), a larval cestode (Cestoda: Trypanorhyncha), and Hatschekia sp. (Copepoda: Hatschekiidae) occured in two hosts. Caligue sp. (Crustacea: Copepoda) was recovered only from E. /ilscogullatlls, while Podocolyloides sp. (Digenea: Opecoelidae) only from E. bleekeri.

GLYCINE IN FISH CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM AFTER EXPOSURES TO MANGANESE

GLORINA N. POCSIDIO and E.S. CA TAP. Institute of Biology, College of Sci(:nce, UP Diliman, Quezon City

In experimental rats, chronic exposures to manganese induced both behavioral effects and pronounced alterations in neurotransm iller levels and metabolism. The dopaminergic system appeared markedly affected. Previous to this study, however, the glycinergic system had not been investigated. The results of the present study in Oreochromis mossambicus have shown that a high dose of manganese significantly increased levels of glycine, a pheno­menon which could account for the marked inactivity of fish even for feeding. Acute treatment significantly increased glycine in the cerebrum. diencephalon and optic lobes. Prolonged or chronic exposure resulted in high glycine levels in all major regions of the CNS including the spinal cord.

MORPHO-ANATOMICAL STUDIES OF IN VITRO CULTURED NODE EX PLANTS OF DIOSCOREA ALATA L.

CECILIA B. AMOROSO. Department of Biology, College of Arts and Sciences, Central Mindanao University, Musuan, Bukidnon

Node explants of Dioscorea alata L. var. kinampay were cultured in vitro in revised Murashige and Skoog basal medium supplemented with varying con­centrations of N6-benzyladenine and napthalene acetic acid to assess their de­velopment through histological studies. The explants in all treatments devel­oped small compact calli after 15 days. Anatomically, the calli were character­ized by the presence of small cells with densely stained nuclei and cytoplasm. These cells gave rise to shoot bud primordia and root structures. Plantlet for­mation was observed in treatments I (MS only), 2 (MS + 0.5 mg BA), 3 (MS + 1.0 mg BA + 0.5 mg NAA) and 6 (MS + 1.0 mg BA + 5.0 mg NAA).

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UTILIZATION OF POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION IN CLONING & SEQUENCING OF GENES: XANTHOMONAS ORYZAE PV. ORYZICOLA

ASUNCION K. RAYMUNDO. Institute of Biological Sciences, UP Los Banos, Laguna

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) allows the amplification of a discrete piece of DNA a million fold. With the use of the right primers, any gene of interest can be amplified, cloned and sequenced. In Xal1lhomonas OITzae pv. oryzicola, the causal organism of the bacterial streak of rice, primers of the upstream region of the hypersensitivity (hrp) gene were synthesized based on the published sequence of the hrp gene of a closely related species, Xanlhomonas oryzae pv oryzae, the causal organism of the bacterial blight of rice. PCR was done using these primers and the following parameters: 95°C for 10 minutes, 30 cycles of 95°C for 2 minutes, 56°C for 2 minutes. followed by 27°C for 10 minutes to complete the extension. A 189 basepair PCR product resulted. This was cloned in plasmid pBluescript digested with Pstl and 8g111 restriction enzymes. The resulting clone was sequenced by dideoxy sequencing procedure. Direct sequencing of the PCR products from other strains was done to confirm sequence of that region of the hrp gene through a modified procedure. Other genes can be cloned and sequenced in the same manner.

HEALTH SCIENCES

PHYTOCHEMICAL STUDIES ON THE PHARMACOLOGICALLY-ACTIVE COMPOUNDS OF VITEX NEG UNDO, L.

FABIAN M. DAYRIT and L.G. LAGURIN. i\teneo de Manila University, School of Arts and Sciences, Department of Chemistry, Loyola Heights, Quezon City

Vilex negundo, L. ("Iagundi"), is a shrub which is widely distributed in the tropics from the Philippines to India. Both the leaves and seeds are utilized for their medicinal properties. Aqueous decoctions of the leaves arc used tradi­tionally as an antipyretic, anti-asthma, and antitussive (Quisumbing 1978).

This study is part of the results of the efTorts of the National Integrated Program on Medicinal Plants (NIRPROMP) and the PCHRD to investigate the scientific basis for the pharmacological action of traditional medicinal plants such as v: negundo. The pharmacological efficacy of the use of v: negundo for cough treatment has been demonstrated in clinical trials and no adverse effects have been noted (Maramba et at. 1989). Detailed bioassay studies showed that the ethyl acetate and methanol extracts relaxed cat's trachea (Estrada, research reports 1986). From these active fractions we isolated and identified II compounds: live flavonoids (casticin, chrysosplenol D, lutcotin, lutcotin -7-0-

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glucoside, and isoorientin), two common aromatic acids (p-hydroxybenzoic acid and protocatechuic acid), and four iridoids (agnuside, 2'-p-hydroxybenzoyl mussaenosidic acid, 6'-p-hydroxybcnzoyl mossacnosidic acid, and lagundinin) (Dayrit et al. 1987; 1989; 1993a; 1993 b).

A large number of flavonoids are known to be active as anti-inflammatory compounds by virtue of their antioxidant properties. Three of the flavonoids from the active fraction of lagundi - chrysosplenol D, luteolin, and isoorientin -- were known to inhibit the release of histamine from rat mast cells. Isoorientin inhibited the enzyme 3-lipoxygenase (Sankawa 1987).

In this paper, we describe the isolation and identification of these com­pounds and discuss their possible roles as pharmacologically-active constituents of lagundi.

CORNEAL ENDOTHELIAL CELL CULTURE IN WOUND HEALING, GROWTH AND VIABILITY STUDIES USING LOCALLY AVAILABLE CHEMICALS

JOSE DAVID F. MARIN, JR.; E. A. ABENDANIO; R. L. ALEJO-RAMIREZ and S.R. SALCEDA. Institute of Opthalmology, UP Manila, UP-PGH Compound, Taft Avenue, Manila

The corneal endothelium, which has the following characteristics: (I) acts as a barrier to ions; (2) site for active transport; and (3) has a lim ited abil ity for cell division or regeneration, is an important factor in the maintenance of corneal transparency. The Institute has therefore been interested in characterizing human normal and pathologic endothelial cells by clinical specular microscopy in vitro to observe, quantify and correlate morphological changes in these corneas. The Institute, however, realizes that tissue culture of mammal ian (rabbit or human) endothelial cells is a necessary step toward studying and understanding the factors that may increase its cell growth and viability and eventually its capacity to regenerate and increase its functional property of active transport via increasing its active pump sites in these cells. The Institute has demonstrated using locally available chemicals of pharmaceutical grade that endothelial cell culture is possible as veri fled by contrast-phase microscopy contrary to popu lar belief that only pure and tissue grade chemicals are useful in its culture. The ability to culture endothelial cells in vitro has enormous applications in drug hormone, chemical, and natural substance promoters and enhancers, which may totally change present concepts of endothelial wound healing, viabil ity and growth.

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PERFORMANCE AND CONSTRAINTS TO ADOPTION OF COTTON PRODUC­TION TECHNOLOGIES

LUCIANA T. CRUZ; F. P. JULIAN; EI. V. SANTIAGO and G.A. ROSARIO. Cotton Research and Development Institute. Batac, IIocos Norte

The adoption of the recommended cotton production technology, garlic­cotton intercropping and minimum tillage technologies were evaluated in selected cotton growing municipalities in Ilocos Norte, 1I0cos Sur, Pangasinan, Tarlac, Isabela and Cagayan from July 1991-July 1992.

Farmers activity monitoring forms and interview schedules were used to gather production-related, economic and demographic data. Analyses used were Cobb-Douglas production function, multiple regression, financial and some descriptive statistics.

The recommended cotton production technologies were generally modified as a result of the interplay of climate, general attitudes of farmers to the technol­ogy components, and the services attached to the financing and technical services for cotton production provided by private financiers.

Adoption of a package of technology is a timction of farmer's experiences in cotton growing, frequency of extension visit, farmer's organizational affiliation and age.

Acceptability of garlic-cotton intercropping were affected by the lack of financing for garlic. The selectivity of areas suited for minimum tillage was a factor that slowed rate of adoption. Pest control concentrated on chemical use with higher dosage application for low dosage recommendation and vice versa. Economic viability of garlic-cotton and minimum tillage technologies was noted. Farmers' cotton production practices were productive and high but lower in econom ic returns.

SWEETPOTATO HOUSEHOLD GARDENING DEVELOPMENT

BETTY T. GAYAO; E.B. ALUPIAS; J.M. SIM; H.L QUINDARA: I.C. GONZALES, and E.O. BADOL. Northern Philippines Root Crops, Research and Training Center, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Ben·guet

Household gardening is increasingly becoming an important supplementary source of food and income as more and more families are faced with rapidly increasing food prices, poverty, pollution and other health hazards. Hence, gardening development is encouraged. Sweetpotato is among the versatile homegarden crops in the Philippines especially in the Cordilleras, and as such, this report summarizes the experiences learned from the first year of a participatory research where seminar-workshops were conducted in a series to: (I) promote sweet potato-based homegardening among households and school

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children; and (2) encourage partnership in developing a user-friendly sweetpotato-based gardening technology.

Among the promising technologies introduced for homegardeners were sweetpotato varieties for evaluation by the households. A fter one cropping, most of the cooperators plan to replant again all their stocks including their chosen varieties. This means that the selection process for a desired sweetpotato variety w ill take more than one cropping. So far, good taste described as sweet or neither sweet nor b land, and with a dry or mealy texture surpassed other criteria in the choice of a variety. Further, organic fertilization and double digging which are components of the bio-intensive gardening techniques were not completely adopted. To some extent, the traditional way of organic fertilization and sweetpotato management prevailed. These only show that research and extension efforts must always incorporate the traditional practices taking into account the existing situation as springboard for any development activity.

HORMONAL EFFECT OF THE JATROPHA CURCAS L. OIL ON HELICOVERPA ARMIGERA (HUBN.)

AIDA D. SOLSOLOY and B. MORALLO-REJESUS. Cotton Research and Devel­opment Institute, Batac, llocos Norte

The insecticidal principle from the physic nut, Jatropha curcas seed kernel or chloroform was studied. The crude chloroform-extrncted leaf oil incorporated in the diet of second instar 'Helicoverpa armigera larvae did not inhibit feeding and as­sim ilation. However, the conversion of the treated diet to biomass was negatively affected, thus, a reduced growth rate. Larval development was inhibited resulting in a delay in molting.

The crude oils caused production of larval-pupal intermediates and ab­normal adults, indicating an Insect Growth Regulatory (IGR) effect. Based on ID 50, the crude petroleum ether-extracted seed kernel and leaf oils were the most effective. Also, the oils had a partial chemosterilizing effect on the moths, indicating action as ajuvenile hormone (JH) mimic.

Histopathological changes were noted on the tissues of the trated insects. The larva reared on oil-treated diet or the pupa from this larva had few hemocytes and the epidermal cells were cuboidal and disarranged instead of being columnar and intact as in the normal insects. Oocytes from ovarioles of females that emerged from the treated larvae had disintegrated follicular epithelium or were atrophied. Males from the treated larvae had few spermatozoa.

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COMPREHENSIVE RUBBER TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER PROGRAM (CRTTP)

LEONILA TOLENTINO; E.A. ALCALA; A.G. BAUTISTA; R.S. CALLANO; R.O. SARMIENTO; A.C. BANDOY and E.z. LIM. PICRI. University of South em Mindanao, Kabacan, Cotabato

To dramatize the massive cultivation of rubber especially for the smallholders, a program on rubher techno-transfer was implemented in the province of Cotabato. This was done by conducting a series of pilot demonstration farms in potential expansion areas for rubber showcasing the following updated and recommended technologies: rubber nursery techniques and management, tapping system and yield stimulation and rubber processing. Effective and efficient technology transfer activities and/or series of trainings on the above technologies were conducted. Likewise, pamphlets were distributed to the training participants.

Rubber nursery techniques and management were piloted in Linao, Matalam; Malapag, Carmen; Avas, Pres. Roxas and Alamada. One polybag and ground rubber nursery was establ ished in each location. Likewise, bud wood nurseries were established which served as sources of buds tick and budwood during the budding operation. A total of 7,276 two-leaf storey polybag budded rubber seedlings ready for market were produced.

Tapping system and yield stimulation were piloted in Magpet, Antipas and Pres. Roxas. Prior to project implementation, the tapping panel had numerous bumpy scars due to wounding of the cambium. The angle of slope was undulating and bark consumption was too fast due to thick bark shavings. A II these were corrected such that the tapping panel was laid 150 em from the ground. The angle of slope of tapping was adjusted to 30° and bark consumption was controlled to 2.5 cm per month. Moreover, monthly application of yield stimulant (2.5% ethrel) was done except during the wintering and defoliation period of the trees (March-April). An average yield increase of I I .28% was obtained following the improved tapping techniques.

Four units each of rubber sheeters and agro-waste dryers were fabricated. One sheeter and dryer was installed in Magpet, Antipas and Pres. Roxas. One unit was installed at USMARC which served as demo to the academe, students, visiting farmers and other interested groups.

A total of seven (7) trainings on the following technologies: intercropping and covercropping, nursery establishment, tapping management and yield stimu­lation and rubber processing were conducted for 202 small rubber farmers of Avas, Pres. Roxas; Antipas; Magpet; Linao; Matalam; Greenfield, Arakan; Malapag, Carmen and Alamada.

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Standardized training materials (pamphlets) on the above technologies were distributed to the training participants.

GROWTH PERFORMANCE OF GOATS FED WITH NAPIER SUPPLEMENTED WITH DESMA NTH US AT TWO RATES AND FEEDING INTERVALS

ZOSIMO M. BATTAD; and G.M.R. RECTA. Mariano Marcos State University, Batac, Ilocos Norte

U sing a 2 x 2 fuctorial arrangement in a Randomized Complete Block Ueslgn, the growth performance of 16 growing female goats were evaluated, in­volving two rates (0.3 and 0.6% bodyweight-BW) of Desmallthus supplementation levels and two intervals (daily and every 2 days) of supplement feeding. The animals were fed grass ad libitum daily. The feeding trial lasted for a period of 100 days.

The total, final and daily gain in weight, and feed efficiency of the experi­mental animals were not significantly affected by the trealment diets. Numerically, however, slightly higher daily gain was observed with daily supplement feeding and with higher levels of supplementation. Likewise, goats fed Desmanthus at 0.3% BW were more efficient feed converters. Total voluntary feed intake (VFI), while not significantly affected by rate of supplementation and the interaction of rate and intervals of feeding, significantly increased from daily to every-2-days supplement feeding. Grass intake remain unchanged as affected by the two factors while Desmanthus intake significantly varied showing greater intake with every two days feeding and higher supplementation rate. Increasing levels of supplement feeding every two days slightly increased grass intake by 0.1 unit.

Lower cost per gain was observed with every two days Desmanthus feeding with 0.3% BW supplementation level. The results of the study suggest that Desmanthus as a supplement to goat rations need not be fed daily to the animals to obtain comparable growth performance. In large-scale goat farming. this could significantly reduce labor cost due to a less-frequent harvesting and feeding of Desmanthus as a supplement.

EFFECTS OF CALCIUM AND PHOSPHORUS SUPPLEMENTATION ON SOME PRODUCTION AND REPRODUCTION PARAMETERS IN GROWING PHILIPPINE INDIGENOUS SHEEP

ROGELIO R. CALUY A and C.c. SEVILLA. Mariano Marcos State University, Batac, llocos Norte

A l6-week fceding trial in a 3x2 factorial experiment involving three levels of Ca and P in the ration (A-2.6g Ca and 1.17 g P/kg DM, 8-3.85 g Ca and 1.76 g PI

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kg OM and C-5.06 g Ca and 2.3 g P/kg OM) and two sexes (male and female) in a Randomized Complete Block Oesign was conducted to determine the effect of Ca and P supplementation on the growth, wool production, slaughter characteristics and on some reproductive parameters.

Lambs fed ration B had significantly higher OMI and liveweight gain. Wool growth was significantly faster in lambs fed ration B. Mean measurements of some slaughter, male and female reproductive parameters did not differ among rations but animals fed ration B tended to have higher values.

Histological examination of the seminiferous tubules showed the presence of more layers of cells in the germinal epithelium of animals fed ration B.

Based on these results, it appears that growing Philippine indigenous sheep performed better in all parameters studied with a ration (B) containing 3.85 g Ca (0.36% of ration) and 1.76g P (0.16% of ration) per kg OM.

CALCIUM AND PHOSPHORUS REQUIREMENTS OF GROWING PHILIPPINE INDIGENOUS SHEEP

ROGELIO R. CALUY A and c.c. SEVILLA. Mariano Marcos State University, Batac, [locos Norte

A 16-week feeding trial in a 3 x 2 factorial experiment involving three levels of Ca and P in the ration (A-2.6 g Ca and 1.17 g P/kg OM, 8-3.85 g Ca and 1.76 g P/kg OM and C-5.06 g Ca and 2.3 g P/kg OM) and two sexes (male and female) in a Randomized Complete Block Design was conducted to determine the require­ment for Ca and P, the effect of supplementation on the Ca and P status and metabolism.

Lambs fed ration B significantly consumed more Ca and had significantly higher DM[ and I iveweight gain. Serum Ca in the males signficantly decreased while it increased in the females with time of collection. The mean serum P concentration was increased by the increased level of P in the diet and intake but decreased with time in the lambs fed ration A. Calcium and phosphorus were mainly excreted through the feces and only minimal in the urine. Fecal Ca and P, apparent absorption and retenlion of Ca and P were highly positively correlated to P intake. Calcium and P balance were negative in the lambs fed ration A while those fed rations Band C were in positive balance except for a slightly negative Ca balance among ewe lambs fed ration B.

The pH of the digest a of each compartment of the gastrointestinal tract were not significantly different and were within normal levels. Calcium concen­tration in the rumen-reticulum, omasum and cecum, and P concentration in the omasum were significantly higher in animals fed rations 8 and C.

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Based on these results, it appears that a 15-kg growing male Ph ilippine indigenous sheep should consume 131 mg Ca and 57 mg P/kg LW /day of ration B while the females should consume 167.6 mg Ca and 82.8 mg P/kg LW/day of ration C.

MICROBIAL INOCULATION FOR QUALITY ORGANIC FERTILIZERS FROM FARM WASTES

BA Y AN M. ESPIRITU; J.E. REMOQUI LLO; L.B. WILLAUER; and C. COROZA. BIOTECH, UP Los Banos, Laguna

Experiments were conducted to evaluate the effects of microbial inocula­tion on the composting of rice straw-chicken manure and mushroom wastes, and the effects of the resulting composts on test crops. Composting of rice straw-chicken manure with combined inoculation of Trichoderma sp. SS 33 and Azohbacter sp. lBF 4b yielded composts with high values for total sugars (0.72%), total N (1.61 %), and counts of nitrogen-fixing bacteria (13.9 x 10 cells/g). Uninoculated controls and those treated with \0% urea gave significantly lower values. In tests in wetland rice for two growing seasons, inoculated composts gave signficant average yield increase of 21 % over the control comparable to the yield levels of those treated with chemical fertilizer alone (60-30-30). Combined inoculation of mushroom wastes with Trichoderma sp. BCF 36 and Azotobacter sp. BCB 42 gave composts with high levels of substrate decomposition (23%), popul ation of nitrogen-fixing bacteria (3.9 x 10 cells/g), acetylene-reduction activity (20.32 nmol C2H4/hr/g) and total nitrogen (0.63%). These values were signficantly higher than those of the un inoculated controls. When tested in pechay, composts with combined inoculation produced significantly higher dry matter yield (8.13 g/pot) than the un inoculated control (2.22 g/pot) or those treated with 2% urea (4.58 g/pot). The results demonstrated the beneficial effects of microbial inoculation in composts increasing crop yields.

PARTICIPATORY ON-FARM SWEETPOTATO VARIETAL EVALUATION SELECTION IN THE PHILIPPINE HIGHLANDS

ZENAIDA N. GANGA; E.O. BADOL; B.A. ANSELMO; M.C.T. POSA and C.C. SAGUDAN. Northern Philippine Root Crops Research and Training Center, Benguet State University, La Trinidad Benguet

In the Philippine highlands, sweetpotato farmers and consumers have var­ied varietal preferences depending on location, cultural management practices and utilization. During Phase I of the project, preliminary and general yield trials were conducted in the experimental station confining evaluation and selection to the breeders' and researchers' points of view. Varietal evaluation

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under Ihis scheme limils performance of a given clone and Ihe chance Ihal il will be selecled by farmers. Involvemenl of farmers during inilial seleclion saves lime and resources and ensures wider adoplion of Ihe cullivar.

The paper presents results of the "participatory approach" followed as an alternative strategy in varietal evaluation and selection under farmer's field condi­tion during Phase II of the project.

PERFORMANCE OF GMEllNA ARBORF.A WITI-I V AM INOCULATION IN ACID SOIL

DOMINADOR G. GONZAL; L.U. DELA CRUZ and D.P. GARRiTY. Department of Forestry, Visayas State College of Agriculture, Baybay, Leyte

A field experiment to determine the effects of V AM inoculation on the growth and survival of Gmelina in acid soil was conducted in Villa, Baybay, Leyte from November 1992 to June 1993. A Randomized Complete Block Design with six replications per treatment was used. The treatments were Gmelina seedlings with and without V AM inoculation.

Survival rates of both the control and V AM treatments were 100 percent. V AM inoculaled seedl ings were significanlly laller Ihan Ihe un inoculaled Irees. Gmelina inoculaled wilh V AM was significanlly bigger and produced higher biomass compared 10 Ihe conlrol.

BODY TEMPERATURE, RESPIRATORY FREQUENCY AND HEART RATE PATTERNS UNDER THERMONEUTRAL AND SHORT-TERM THERMAL STRESS IN GOATS

JOB M. MATIAS. Dairy Training and Research Inslilule, College of Agricullure, UP Los Banos, Laguna

In order 10 gain furlher insighls inlo Ihe mechanisms of Ihermal polypnea in ruminanls during condilions of high ambienllemperature, Ihe changes in the pallerns of Ihermoregulalory funclions Ihal were affecled by exposing goals to shorl-lerm severe heal slress were invesligaled.

In a Ihermoneulral condilion (ambienllemperature = 20oC; relalive humid­ily =50 - 60%), mean body lemperature (Tbo)' respiralory frequency (f) and hear! rale (HR) were found 10 be higher in lighl Ihan dark period. This largely reflecls aClivilY and feeding during Ihe day and rest during nighllime. Fluclualions were observed wilhin a 24-hour period. wilh Tbo showing a mean daily varialion of 0.964°C. A biphasic pallern was observed for Tbo and HR pallerns wilh IWO disiinci peaks after Ihe feeding periods.

When ambient lemperature was raised 10 40°C, mean Tbo and/were sig­nificanlly higher Ihan before healing, wilh Ihe increase in / of aboul 7.3 limes.

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This suggests that peripheral simulation of up to 40°C was enough to induce polynea in goats. Tbo pattern showed a transient decrease at the onset of heat before increasing as response to the continuing heat load. There was no apparent effect in the mean H R before and during the heat period.

CHALLENGES AND PROSPECTS OF SUSTAINING SUGARCANE PRODUCTIVITY

TEODORO C. MENDOZA. Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, UP Los Banos, Laguna

While sugarcane production costs are increasing due to the increase in the cost of imported fertilizers, machineries/spare parts, oil, high labor costs and interest charges, sugarcane yields are declining (Mendoza 1991). In recent years, the sucrose content (PS/TC) of the sugarcane crop has been decreasing. This decrease in psrrc occurs despite the use of modern agricultural practices consisting of high yielding variety (HYV) fertilizers, cultivation and irrigation (Alva e/ al. 1990).

Historical yield data from 1933 to 1993 were obtained (source: sugar Regu­latory Administration), and yield trends were analyzed. The yield trend analysis indicated the following:

a) the improvement in yields in the 60s were mainly achieved by increasing tonnage;

b) the 70s onward was characterized by declining PS/TC from a high of 1.77 in 1933.{j3, an average of 1.58 in 1977-83, to as low as 1.36 in 1987-93.

MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD AND BAYESIAN ESTIMATORS FOR INSECT DAMAGE ON RICE

MARIANO B. DE RAMOS. Division of Statistics & Statistical Laboratory, In­stitute of Mathematical Sciences and Physics, UP Los Banos, Laguna

From a previous study, it has been found that under natural field condi­tions and low level of damage on rice caused by insects, the distribution of the number of damaged tillers per hill fitted the Poisson distribution model very well. Given the situation that the data follows a Poisson distribution with parameter (mean number of damaged tillers per hill), there is a need to find a more efficient and precise method for estimating. Thus this paper derived a procedure for estimating using the maximum likelihood method and the Bayesian procedure using a gamma distribution prior for "", Two measures of relative efficiency (RE) were derived, one as the ratio of the variance of estimates and the other as the ratio of mean squared errors. By applying the results to actual data on infestation on rice caused by insects, the relative efficiency of the Bayesian

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procedure over that of the maximum likelihood method were computed, graphically presented, and interpreted.

POSTHARVEST LOSS ASSESSMENTIN Y AMBEAN AND GINGER AT VARI­OUS HANDLING POINTS

VIOLETA B. SALDA. Northern Philippines Root Crops Research and Training Center, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet

Loss assessment at various handling points was conducted to quantify and identify causes of losses in yambean and ginger. This study was done in Mangaldan, Pangasinan and Dupax del Sur, Nueva Vizcaya. These were transported to La Trinidad, Benguet for further assessment.

In yambean, harvest losses were mainly due to mechanical injuries, very small-sized tubers and slight to moderate skinning observed during bulk trans­port. In retailing, weight loss ranged from 3% to 6% for 7 to 14 days holding in the local market.

The loss assessment in ginger indicated immediate need of integrati ng appropriate production, crop protection, and postproduction management sys­tems. Postharvest losses were high ranging from 5% to 100%. At harvest, the highest losses were primarily due to disease infection and differed from one farm to another. Mechanical injuries and bruises were moderate and attributed to poor harvesting, transporting techniques and poor roads. Washing slightly contributed to mechanical breakage of rhizomes but improved appearance. Losses during retailing was not recognized much for the reason that retailers have ways of including the undesirable root during packing in plastic containers. Percentage decay in storage was high (100%) in the selected roots obtained from infected farms; the lowest was 2 %. Other causes of strong losses included weight loss, shriveling, and sprouting.

AGROTECHNOLOGY SUITABILITY EV ALUA TION SYSTEM (ASES): DEVELOPMENT AND IMPROVEMENTS

GINA VILLEGAS-PANGA; A.1. ALCANTARA; C. BASILIO; D.D. MANALO and C. MEJORADA. FSSRI, UP Los Banos, Laguna

The Farming Systems and Soil Resources Institute (FSSRI) developed expert systems which could easily provide accessible and understandable agricultural information. One of these is the Agrotechnology Suitability Evaluation System (ASES) wherein queries on crop suitability and required farming systems technology for a given area could be answered immediately. The required inputs and management needed to overcome the limiting land characteristics are easily identified.

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ASES consists of location, soil, climate, crop requirements and fertilizer recommendation files. Prolog version 2.2 is used to develop a storage and re­trieval system of agro-environmental information and crop requirements. Fertility capability interpretation for upland crops and lowland rice are adopted to com­plement the crop suitability. Recommendations could be established based on suitability ratings after considering the predicted performance, constraints and input requirements of the agrotechnology to be transferred to the farmers' fields.

ASES used provinces of Laguna and Batangas as initial pilot areas. The characterictics of each soil mapping unit or the soil of each land management unit are obtained from the recent soil surveyor the land resource evaluation report of the province, respectively. It is user-friendly specifically to provide extension workers with a well-functioning, accessible and understandable information system. It can now be used in farming system resource management in different agro-ecosystems and agricultural planning projects of the towns of the provinces.

DEVELOPMENT OF OTHER USES OF TOBACCO

REYNALDO C. CASTRO, S.c. AGRUPIS; l.R. GARCIA; l.L. LORENZO; and M.L.M. PALADA. Products Development and Waste Utilization Division, Na­tional Tobacco Administration, Batac, Ilocos Norte

With the inevitability of a "smoke-free" world, new and beneficial uses of tobacco must be developed to save the tobacco industry. The poster will show­case the new products from tobacco and the technologies to produce them developed by the Products Development and Waste Utilization Division of NT A. These products include food, feeds and oil from the seeds; paper, particleboard and handicraft from the stalks and midribs; and antimicrobial and pesticidal extracts from the leaves. Comparisons of these products to commerically available ones will also be presented.

STEM BORERS ATTACKING GMELINA ARBOREA

RICARDO C. BRAZA. Paper Industries Corporation of the Philippines (PICOP), Tabon, Bislig, Surigao del Sur

This paper presents three new destructive stem-boring insect pests of yemane, {Jmelina arborea Roxb. The stem borers, detected during a series of surveys conducted from January to March 1994 in 12 yemane stands in an industrial plantation in Surigao del Sur, incl ude two moth species - Xyleutes sp. (Lepidoptera: Cossidae) and Cossus sp. (Lepidoptera: Cossidae) - and a species of long-horn beetle, Acalolepta rusticator Fabr. (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae). The distinguishing characteristics, nature of damage, and other hosts of the pests are given. The information will aid reforestation workers,

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agroforestry technicians and farmers, as well as researchers in prompt detection and identification of the borers. G. arborea constitutes one of the principal species in the National Forestation Program, a major tree crop in agrofrestry farm development, and a commonly used cover crop for soil and water conservation projects in the country.

DEVELOPMENT OF DOUBLE ENDOSPERM MUTANT VARIETIES IN MAIZE

MANUEL L. LOGRONO; A.B. BURGONIO; F.M. RODRIGUEZ and E.P. GIBAS. I nstitute of Plant Breeding, UP Los Bailos, Laguna

Endosperm mutant genes affecting sugar, starch and amino acid concen­trations were combined in a common genotypic background in order to improve green corn kernel eating and nutritional quality. A double mutant involving shrunken and waxy genes was formed by crossing ASUKAR and LB Lagkitan followed by a series ofselfing, testcrossing, and recombinations. Another com­bination involving brittle and opague genes was formed by crossing HS #9 and HICli. The two new varieties were named DL Umali Pearl Sweet (DLU PS) and N utrisweet, respectively.

Yield trials revealed that the marketable ear yields of DLU PS and Nutrisweet were comparable to the check varieties. Sensory and biochemical evaluations showed a significant improvement in eating and nutritional quality of the two varieties. Both of them had elevated total free sugar content giving them the supersweet taste. DLU PS exhibited an increased amylopectin content resulting in the glutinous consistency of the endosperm. Nutrisweet gave a dramatic improvement in the concentrations of two essential amino acids, tryptophan and lysin, showing an increase of two times more than the nonnal endosperm. Kernel tenderness was rated excellent for both varieties.

IN VITRO PROPAGATION OF BUHO BAMBOO (SCHIZOSTACHYUM LUMAPAOJ

ALFINETTA B. ZAMORA and S. Sm. GRUEZO. Institute of Plant Breeding, ColI~ie of Agriculture, UP Los Bailos, Laguna

Buho (SchizostachYllm Illmampao) was propagatedy in vitro culture tech-o niqfues. Ex'cised embryos which were expanded on Murashige and Skoog medium

+ I ppm BAP + I ppm 2,4 - D formed loose-type calli which when transferred to various culture media, yielded yellowish compact calli on MS + 2 ppm 2, 4-D + 2% sucrose. Rates of multiplication of the embryogenic calli differred for the four (4) compact callus lines. The compact-type embryogenic calli regenerated plant lets after subculture to MS medium devoid of2, 4-D. Plant lets were potted out, and transplanted to the field.

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ISOLATION OF PLANTLETS FREED OF BANANA BRACT MOSAIC VIRUS FROM INFECTED BANANA CV SENORITA

ALFINETTA B. ZAMORA; C.S. RAMOS and T.M. ESPINO. Institute of Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture, and National Institute of Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, UP Los Banos, Laguna

The recovery of virus-freed plants from banana bract mosaic-infected ba­nana cv Seilorita, was studied. Several protocols for recovering virus-freed plants were tried and plantlets were indexed during the in vitro rooting stage, potting out, and during nursery care. Virus-freed plants were obtained in meristern culture, heat Ireatment and combinations of heat treatment-meristcm culture. The results for bract mosaic virus elimination are discussed in light of elimination procedures for banana mosaic and bunchy top virus and rapid multiplication tech­niques used for bananas at present.

DEVELOPMENT OF NEAR-ISOGENIC LINES WITH RESISTANCE OR TOLER­ANCE GENES TO TUNGRO DISEASE IN RICE

NONNATUS S. BAUTISTAI; RR. YUMOLI; RE. TABIEN2; R IKEDA3 and T. IMBEI IInternational Rice Research Institute, Los Banos, Laguna,2Philippine Rice Research Institute, Mufloz, Nueva Ecija,3 National Agriculture Research Center, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan

Isogenic lines are useful for identifying races or strains of tungro virus, for studying the mechanism for resistance and for tagging resistance genes with restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) markers. The development of near­isogenic lines was initiated to establish a basis for research on resistance or toler­ance to tungro. The genes for resistance from different donors are being trans­ferred on the genetic background of highly susceptible varieties such as Taichung Native I (TN I) and IR22. The procedure mainly involves an alternate backcross and selection phases. To date, the most advanced generation is BCgFI. The homo­geneity for tungro resistance or tolerance of these lines will be tested subsequently in BCgF I' BCgF3, and BCgF'4 generations. Parallel to this, selected resistant or tolerant plants from the other backcross generations were used for progeny lest of homogeneity for tungro resistance or tolerance. Thus, Ihe developed near-isogenic can be used in monitoring the distribution of races and biotypes, as testers for genetic analysis and as donors in breeding programs for resistance to pests.

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ANA TOMICAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN A NEW CMS SOURCE AND ITS MAINTAINER LINE IN RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L.)

GERARD B. MAGPANTAy 1; N.S. BAUTISTAI; JR BONGON2; S.V. SIAR2, JM. VlLLAREAL2 and T.L. ROSARI02. Ilnternational Rice Research Institute, Los Banos, Laguna and 2U.P. Los Bailos, Laguna

To understand the mechanism causing pollen abortion in rice, a new CMS source derived from a wild relative of rice (Oryza perennis) and its maintainer line were comparatively investigated in terms of vasculature of the stamen and development of the characters related to anther dehiscence. Comprehensive studies were conducted using advanced microtechniques such as semi-thin sectioning, Safranin-Fast Green staining combination and light microscopy.

The CMS lines have undifferential vascular tissues. degenerated tapetum, disorganizing vascular cylinder, flattened pollen sacs, underdeveloped endothecium and absence of the anther dehiscent cavity (ADC).

The observed anatomical abnormalities in the CMS line can be used as an index in the screening and continuous development of CMS lines of rice with variable genetic and cytoplasmic background.

CYTOGENETIC STUDIES OF IRRADIATED BITTERGOURD (Momordica charanla L.) AND THE FI, BC I and F2 PROGENIES

SIMEONA V. SIARI; JR. BONGONI; N.S. BAUTfSTA2; J.M. VlllAREALI; G.B. MAGPANTAy2 and T.L. ROSARlOI I UP Los Bailos, Laguna and 21ntemational Rice Research Institute, Los Banos, Laguna

F I' BC I and F2 populations from mutants (with suppressed shoot growth) generated from irradiation of seeds and pollen of M. charanta together with their parentals were studied cytogenetically.

Meiotic analysis showed II bivalents to diakinensis in all populations studied. Abnormalities in the meiotic behaviour such as laggards and differential disjunction in early stages did not affect telophase II. Consequently, there was a large percent of pollen fertility. The results observed suggest that the suppressed shoot growth was caused by genic mutation rather than gross chromosomal changes.

PRELIMINARY EVALUATION OF A PROMISING PAPAY A (Carica papaya L.)HYBRID

VIOLETA N. VILEGAS; F.B. AURIGUE and R.B. PIMENTEL. Institute of Plant Breeding, UP Los Banos, Laguna

Inbred lines, developed through our breeding project that were rated as moderately tolerant to the papaya rings pot virus (PRS V), were intercrossed. Preliminary evaluation of the F I hybrids revealed that cross 5648 x 4172 is a

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promising combination in terms of fruit quality and tolerance to PRSV. Fruits of this hybrid are medium sized ( 1.5 kg), very sweet (J 1-12°B), have thick and deep yellow orange flesh, and have excellent fruit flavor. The hybrid is semi-dwarf and moderately tolerant to PRSV. It is intermediate between the two parents (a yellow solo variety and a big-fruited local collection) in most attributes but is superior in terms of fruit flavor and sweetness.

MOLECULAR MAPPING OF I I ISOZYMES AND 3 CLONED ALPHA-AMYLASE GENES IN RICE (0. SATIVA L.)

GERARD B. MAGPANTAY; B. DE LOS REYES; D.S. BRAR and N. HUANG. International Rice Research Institute, Los Bafios, Laguna

A total of II isozyme markers and 3 cloned alpha-amylase genes were localized via linkage with RFLP markers in order to map and integrate these genes in the existing molecular map. The mapping populations consist of 135 double-haploid I ines from a cross between IR64 and Azucena, and backcross population from an interspecific cross between O. saliva cv. BS 125 and O. /ongislaminala (WL02) wherein an RFLP map covering the 12 chromosomes was available. The three cloned alpha-amylase genes were mapped using non-radioactive labelling and detection procedures. The technique includes the use of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for incorporation of digoxigenin-lldUTP in DNA molecule and the use of a chemiluminescent compound (AMPPD) for signal detection. The use of non­radioactive procedure provides sensitive and convenient alternative to 32p-based systems due to the cost, health hazard and instability of radio-labelled probes.

GENE TRANSFER FOR RESISTANCE TO BROWN PLANTHOPPER FROM ORYZ4 MINUTA AND BACTERIAL BLIGHT FROM 0. BRACHYANTHA INTO RICE (0. SATIVA L.)

RUTH ELLORAN; R. DALMACIO; 1. FLORES; M. LANUANG; D.S. BRAR AND G.S. 101USH. International Rice Research Institute, Los Banos, Laguna

Among various biotic stresses, reducing rice productivity, bacterial blight (BB) and brown planthopper (BPH) are the most important. Wild species of rice are an important source of resistance to BPH and BB. Following embryo rescue, we have produced hybrids between elite breeding lines of rice and several wild species representing BBCC, CC, CCDD, EE, FF and species with unknown genomes. Backcrossing with the recurrent parents and embryo rescue have been used to derive fertile disomic progenies (2n = 24) from various cross-combinations. From a cross ofIR31917-45-3-2, an elite breeding line of rice (susceptible to BPH biotype I) and 0. minllla (BBCC 2n = 48) Acc 101141 (resistant to BPH), several progenies have been derived. Of the 168 BC4F3 progenies, 2 segregated for resistance to biotype I. In addition, 784 BC3F3 progenies derived from the cross of IR56 x 0. brachyanlha (FF 2n = 24) Ace' 101232 were screened for resistance to different BB races. Progenies resistant to BB have been identified. Monosomic alien addition line and RFLP analyses are being carried out to characterize introgression of BPH and BB resistance into rice from 0. m in ilia and 0. brachyanlha respectively.

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CALLUS INDUCTION AND MAINTENANCE IN CHINESE CABBAGE (BRASSICA PEKINENSISL.) CV. CORAZON

VICTORIA PC . LAPITAN and L.F. PATENA. Institute of Plant Breeding, UP Los Banos, Laguna

Two base media, MS (Murashige and Skoog 1962) and SH (Schenk and Hildebrandt 1972) and combinations of auxin (2, 4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid) and cytokinins (6-benzylaminopurine and kinetin) were tested for callus induction maintenance in Chinese cabbage (Brassicapekinensis L. cv. Corazon) using different ex plants (embryo, leaf, root and hypocotyl).

Best callus induction was observed using leaf explant inoculated onto SH medium containing 0.1 mg/L BA P and 1.0 mg/L 2,4-D. Calli induced were profuse and friable.

Callus cultures were established and maintained by consistent monthly transfer onto fresh medium. Rapid proliferation of calli was observed when the initial materials came from root explant.

LILAK, A BANANA (MUSA SPP) SELECTION FROM TISSUE CULTURE

LILIAN F. PATENA; R.C. SOTTO; R.A. AVENIDO; J.G. DIMACULANGAN and R.C. BARBA. Institute of Plant Breeding, UP Los Banos, Laguna

Lilak, is a new banana introduction from tissue culture. This selection may be a potential export banana. It has excellent eating quality with flavor and aroma compared to that of "Lakatan". The fruit is oblong, cylindrical with blunt tips and weighs from 102-207 g. The skin is smooth, dark yellow, thick and firm similar to "Lakatan". The flesh is light yellow orange with total soluble solids ranging from 19-27°Brix. The fruit stalk (pedicel) attachment is remarkably strong which is a desirable characteristic when fruits are to be transported locally or overseas. Under greenhouse conditions, the yield is high. The number or hands per bunch ranges from 6-8 while the number of fingers per hand ranges from 14-16. In terms of overall quality, size and appearance, it may be superior to "Lakatan".

Suckers from greenhouse-grown plants have now been planted in the field for further evaluation. The origin of the initial material and ex plants used in the establishment of in vitro cultures is also being traced. The plant has been in vitro propagated using the method developed at [PB.

GROWTH OF TISSUE-CULTURED SHALLOT (ALLIUM CEPA V AR GROUP AGGREGATUM) AND GARLIC (ALLIUM SATIVUML.) UNDERGREENHOUSE CONDITION

LILIAN F. PATENA; M.E. BELTRAN-MIRANDA and V.PC. LAPITAN. Institute of Plant Breeding, UP Los Banos, Laguna

Tissue-cultured bulblets of 6 and 13 accessions of shallot and garlic, respectively, were transplanted to soil and grown under greenhouse condition at the Bureau of Plant Industry, Baguio City. Growth was good two weeks after

20t

transplant. However, marked difference on survival and growth of plants of shallot and garlic was observed 4 and 8 weeks after transplanting. Shallot survived better than garlic with survival percentage of 96.67% and 78.61 %, respectively, on the 4th week and 81.32% and 33.27%, respectively, on the 8th week. These initial results indicate that the requirements for transplant of garlic differ from those of shallot and that modification of the protocol is needed to suit the requirements of garlic.

CYTOLOGICAL INVESTIGA nON OF ENDOSPERM EXPLANT AND LONG­TERM MAINTENANCE OF ENDOSPERM-DERIVED CALLI OF CALAMANSI (X CITRO FORTUNELLA MITIS 1. INGRAM AND H. MOORE)

JULITAG. DIMACULANGAN: RA. AVENIOO;L.F. PATENA and RC. BARBA. Institute of Plant Breeding, UP Los Banos, Laguna

Endosperm explants excised from calamansi fruits harvested 58-65 days after pollination were studied cytologically and their triploidy (3n = 27) was confirmed. Calli were successfully induced from these triploid endosperm explants. Cytological investigation of these endosperm-derived calli is in progress.

Endosperm-derived calli which were initiated in November 1991 were main­tained in vilro for two years and two months. This long-term maintenance of calli (which we refer to as ageing) was necessary for shoot regeneration. Shoot regeneration was observed earlier from calli induced from mixed nucelli­endosperm explants. However. when the calli were derived solely from the endosperm, the expected response was not observed. The study on shoot regeneration is in progress. Ultimately, the project aims to produce triploid plants bearing seedless fruits.

OVERCOMING INCOMPABILITY IN A CROSS OF ORYZA SATIVA (L.) AND P()RTERESIA COARCTATA (Tateoka. Roxb.)

JESSICA P. DOMINGO; A.A. BARRION; R. ELLORAN; D.S. BRAR and G.S. KHUSH. International Rice Research Institute, Los Banos, Laguna

Reciprocal crosses were made between rice (Orvza saliva 2n = 24) and a salt tolerant grass species (Porteresia coarclala 92n = 48). As many as 9,100 florets of 0. sativa and 2,658 florets of P. warelala were pollinated with P. coarclata and 0. saliva. respectively. In order to overcome incompatibility barrier, hormones such as GA3 (75 ppm), 2,4-0 (75 ppm), ACA (250 ppm). and IAA (2 ppm) were sprayed singly and in combination on the pollinated florets. In order to produce hybrids, ovary culture and embryo rescue were employed. After 1,6, 12 and 24 hours of pollination, pollen grain germination and pollen tube growth were studied. Majority of the pollen tubes either burst or were

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swollen and failed to reach the micropylar region . However, some florets sprayed with combinations of hormones produced pollen tubes up to the micropylar region. Most of the seeds produced from these pollinations were devoid of embryos but with water fluid. From O. saliva x P. caarelala cross, 572 embryos were cultured and based on plant morphology and isozyme analysis, none of the 48 regenerated plants showed any evidence of hybridity. In a cross where P. eaarelala was the female parent, none of the 32 cultured embryos grew into seedlings.

PRODUCTION Of' SEED TUBERS OF ASN 69.1 FROM ROOTED STEM CUTTINGS, MICROTUBERS AND FROM THEIR FIRST GENERATION TUBERS

CYNTHIA N. PAET; A.B. ZAMORA and E.C. AL TOVEROS. Institute of Plant Breeding, UP Los Banos, Laguna

Rooted stem cuttings (RSC) and m icrotubers of three size grades (based on diameter) and their first generation tubers were compared as planting materials for ASN 69.1. Percent survival was highest for m icrotubers of 10 mm size grade (83%) and lowest for rooted stem cuttings (57%). Tuber yield was also signifi­cantly highest in terms ofnumber (157/m 2) and weight (4.2 kg/m2) for 10 mm microtubers. Yields of smaller microtubers «10 mm) and RSC were similar. The mean number of seed tubers per hill was not signicantly different among planting materials.

For the first generation tubers, tuber yield was signlicantly affected by the size of seed tubers used rather than seed source. The traditionally acceptable seed tuber size (i.e. 28-35 mm) yielded more seed-sized tubers than smaller tubers (7-8 vs. 5 pes per hill).

RICE POTENTIAL PRODUCTION IN THE PHILIPPINES USING CROP GROWrH MODEL

HELEN GRACE S. CENTENO; A.D. BALBAREZ; N.G. FABELLAR; T. HORIE and M.J. KROFF. International Rice Research Institute. UP Los Banos. Laguna

Simulation Model for Rice-Weather Rehitionships (SIMRIW) is a crop model that integrates ontogenic development, biomass accumulation and yield formation. This model predicts crop growth and yield from daily weather data. Using crop parameters derived from field experiments at IRRI. the model has accurately simulated the dry season yield of 9.3 t/ha. We incorporated in the model the effect of CO2 on photosynthetic rate and the effect of temperature on spikelet sterility to simulate the impact of climate change on rice production. Model runs were performed using 30 years of weather data from Los Banos. The model predicted a yield reduction of 12% as a resull of 4°C mean daily

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temperature increase. Additional 50 ppm CO2 to the ambient CO2 concentration slightly increased yields.

SIMRIW was used to simulate potential production under current and future climate scenarios from other weather stations in the Philippines with at least 10 years of historic weather data. Generally, increased temperature hastened crop development by at least 7 days, producing lower yields; while CO2 enhancement generally increased yields. By using a geographic information system, it was demonstrated that the areas with high potential production which are currently in the central parts of the country will move away from the equator in response to climate change.

HISPATHOLOGICAL EVENTS DURING RHIZOCTONIA SOLAN/INFECTION IN RESISTANT AND SUSCEPTIBLE CORN PLANTS

CECILIA B. PASCUAL; A.D. RAYMUNDO; M. HY AKUMACHI and M.L. LOGRONO. Institute of Plant Breeding, UP Los Banos, Laguna

RhizoClonia banded leaf and sheath blight resistant and susceptible corn plants were sampled for hispathological study. Results from scanning electron microscopy showed that in both resistant and susceptible samples, R. so/ani exhibited stomatal penetration. However, only one hypha was observed to penetrate stomata in resistant samples while two hyphae were trequently seen in susceptible material. There was lobate appresorium formation and penetration pegs produced from this structure penetrated the plant surface directly. The susceptible sample showed more severe damaged cells than the resistant tissue.

INCREASED NITROGEN MITIGATES GROWTH AND YIELD REDUCTION OF UPLRi-5 RICE CUL TlVAR DUE TO MELOlDOGYNE GRAMINICOLA

EVEL YN B. GERGON and J.C. PROT. International Rice Research Institute, Los Banos, Laguna

Effects of M. graminico/a on growth and yield of upland rice cultivars UPLRi-5 were studied under glasshouse experiment. M. graminico/a juveniles were inoculated near the base of the plant in five splits at an interval of three days at the rate of 0, 10,50, 100,500, and IOOO/kg of soil. The levels of nitrogen used were 0,40,80 and 160 kg/ha applied in three equal splits 10 days after seeding, at maximum tillering and during panicle initiation.

Plant height, leaf and shoot weights, leaf area, root weight, depth of rooting and. the number of panicles and grains were reduced by the nematodes. Grain yield was reduced by 30-70% when the number of infective juveniles present aroqnd young seedlings at transplanting (Pi) was::: 375. Increased nitrogen (N) application, increased growth and yield of plants compensated for yield loss caused by nematodes. However, since yield loss remained approximately con-

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stant for a given Pi across the range of N used , N application did not reduce the relative nematode effect.

CONTROL OF IIJRSCIIMANNfELLA ORYZAE USING SESBANfA ROSTRATA AND ITS RESIDUAL EFFECTS IN A CONTINUOUS RICE CROPPING

IMELDA RIZALINA S. SORIANO; D.M. MATIAS and J.e. PROT. International Rice Research Institute, Los Banos, Laguna

A four continuous cropping experiment was conducted to determin~ if the yield increase in rice could be attributed to the decr~ase in Ifirschmul1l1iefla olyzae population when grown in a sequential cropping with Sesbania rostra/a and to evaluate if there is a residual effect of the treatment on subsequent rice crops. The treatments included the growing of S. rostra/a and rice during the first cropping and incorporation of the legume before the second rice crop. Carbofuran was added to the same set of treatments for comparison. Increase by 30-45% in the yield of the first rice crop afier treatment application resulted when S. rostra/a was grown regardless of incorporation as green manure and in all treatments with carbofuran. A signifcant correlation of yield and nematode population densities was also observed. /\ 16-25% increase in yield was observed in treatments with carbofuran after the second rice crop and a significant correlation with nematode population was noted. There was no significant differences on the yield and nematode population after the third rice crop. The increase in rice yield, therefore, could be attributed not only to the fertilizer effect brought about by growing of S. ros/rata or gr~en manure application but to the control of the rice root nematode. The treatments were effective in two rice croppings only after growing of S. rostra/a andlor incorporation a5 green manure.

DETECTION OF LEAF CURL VIRUS IN PEPPER BY USING NON-RADIOAC­TIVE DNA PROBE

LOLITA M. DOLORES and C. PISSA WAN. Institute of Plant Breeding, U I' Los Banos, Laguna

Experiment was conducted on the use of non-radioactive DNA probe pro­duced from the gene of tomato yellow leaf curl virus (TYLCV), Thai isolate, to detect gemini virus in leaf curl pepper.

Results on the detection by NBT, x-phosphate and chemiluminescence AMPDD methods showed that 25 out of63 samples collected could be hybridized with the TYLCV-DNA probe. Weed plants collected from pepper planting field such as l'hysalisflordinil and Eclipla alba also reacted with the probe as well.

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SHOOT SOLUBLE CARBOHYDRATE CONTENT AS A MEASUREOF DAILY C-ASSIMILATION IN RICE

EUZABETH A. CONOCONO; J.A. EGDANE and T.L. SETTER. International Rice Research Institute, Los Banos, Laguna

Current methods for measuring carbon assimilation require a large number of photosynthesis measurements at different times of the day in order to give an accurate estimation on a daily basis. This is impractical and expensive in terms of labor and equipment. Large scale applications such as cultivar screening require a simple method needing on Iy one or two samples. Measuring the soluble sugar levels in the plant may give a better estimate of carbon assimilated over the day. This relies on a direct relationship between shoot carbohydrate content and daily radiation. To test this, main stems of IR 72 plants growing in the field were harvested at four growth stages: ne'vly transpl~nted seedlings, mid-tillering, panicle initiation and flowering. Solu~)le sugar level. in the shoot gave high correlation with daily radiation (R2 = 0.94, n = 16) at panicle initiation but not in the other three stages. Low correlations at these stages may be due to translocation of carbohydrates to rapidly growing tissues or for grain filling. The excellent correlation with daily radiation shows that shoot soluble carbohydrate content at panicle initiation gives an accurate measure of carbon assimilation over the whole day.

NEW PLANT TYPES FOR IRRIGATED RICE: MANIPULATING PANICLE HEIGHT FOR INCREASED LIGHT INTERCEPTION

JAMES A. EGDANE; E.A. CONOCONO and T.L. SETTER. International Rice Research Institute, Los Banos. Laguna

A simulation model that identifies plant attributes for greater yield potential predicts that a 10 em decrease in panicle height will increase light interception by leaves and hence yield by 15%. Panicles usually shade the tlagleaf and lower incident radiation reaching the leaf canopy, decreasing photosynthetic rate and carbohydrate supply to panicles. Another advantage of lower panicles is reduced lodging tendency due to a lower center of gravity. This study focused on the use of gibberellic acid to increase and padobutrazol to decrease panicle height. Treatments as to what part of the plant, when and how much of the growth regulators to apply were evaluated in the greenhouse so that only panicle height and not plant height was affected. Based on the greenhouse results. light interception and yield of IR50 grown in the field were evaluated \(l test the hypothesis .

It is possible to manipulate panicle height of IR50 from 78 cm to 65 em by applying growth regulators on the base of plants during booting. Field data

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showed that panicles intercepted 10% of the light available to the whole canopy and 40% of the light available to leaves below them. Flag leaves of low panicle plants had less shading and were able to intercept 10% more light than high panicle plants. Low panicle plants had heavier panicles compared to high panicle plants.

PROCESS OF SEEDLING ESTABLISHMENT AS INFLUENCED BY ORGANIC MATTER APPLICATION TO FLOODED SOIL

MINORU YAMAUCHI and J.K. BISWAS. International Rice Research Institute, Los Banos, Laguna

Organic matter application to flooded soil may affect seedling establish­ment by lowering the redox potential and producing toxic substances. This study was conducted in greenhouse to clarify how seedling establishment was impaired by organic matter application. Cultivars tolerant of oil hypoxia ASDI and IR41996-50-2-1-3 and a control IR 72 were sown in flooded Maahas clay soil into which 0, 0.25, 0.50, and 1.00% (wfw) rice straw was incorporated. The soil was either incubated for 14 days by flooding or non incubated. Pregerminated seeds were sown at 25 mm soil depth and 25 mm water depth. Rice straw incorporation did not affect coleoptile length but reduced leaf and root soil. Leaf and root developments was inhibited in non incubated soil The redox potential in nonincubated soil seedling establishment might be controlled by redox potential while in non incubated soil, the accumulation of organic acids from anaerobic decomposition might inhibit leaf and root development. The tolerant cultivar ASD I consistently performed better than the control even in nonincubated soil with high straw incorporation.

CHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF TWO ORGANIC MA TTER FRACTIONS IN IRRIGATED LOWLAND RICE SOILS

DANIEL C. OLK; E.B. BELLEZA and K.G. CASSMAN. International Rice Research Institute, Los Banos. Laguna

Much of the N fenilizer is applied to irrigated rice paddies cycles through soil organic matter (SOM). Chemical characterization of SOM may help predict soil N supply and N balance. Characterization is often performed on SOM extracted with NaOH. Soil Ca can bind to SOM, protecting it from complete microbial degradation-thus facilitating its maturation into more recalcitrant forms. NaOH extraction of SOM with or without initial soil decalcification allows fractionation of younger, more labile SOM called mobile humic acids (MHA) from more recalcitrant SOM bound to Ca (Ca-humates, Ca-HA). Both SOM fractions were extracted from a field experiment in which rice was double-cropped

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for 10 years without N inputs and N-source treatments with equivalent N inputs as prilled urea, azolla, Sesbania roSlrala, or rice straw (116 kg N ha- i and 58 kg N ha- i in the dry and wet seasons, resepctively). The MHA had 22% higher total Nand 50% more acid-hydrolyzable amino acids than the Ca-HA. The MHA may have a smaller molecular weight and be less aromatic and condensed than the Ca-HA. Although the quantity of total organic carbon and HA was greater in soil with organic N-sources, chemical characteristics varied only slightly by N source. These results indicate that using organic N sources can increase SOM content without changing the chemical composition of young and older HA fractions in soi Is cropped under submerged conditions.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN N, P AND K UPTAKE AND YIELD IN RAINFED LOWLAND RICE

SERAFIN T. AMANTE; W.A.T. HERRERA; c. VEJPAS; D.P. GARRITY and LJ. WADE. International Rice Research Institute, Los Banos, Laguna

Rainfed low land rice response to applied fertilizer is often poor. The ad­vantage of applying fertilizer nutrients to a pre-rice manure corp (Sesbania roslrala) to enhance nutrient availability was evaluated in experiments at six sites in Northeast Thailand from 1987 to 1991. At all sites, treatments were arranged in split-plot design with three replicates. Main plots were nutrient sources for the pre-rice crop (Sesbania, Sesbania + 13 kg P/ha, Sesbania + 3 tl ha farmyard manure (FYM), fallow) and subplots were nutrient levels for wet season rice crop (0, 50 kg N/ha + 13 kg P + 25 kg K/ha, 3 t/ha FYM). This paper examined the relationship between rice yields and N, P and K uptake.

Generally, rice grain yield was linearly related to N-uptake over sites and years R2 = 0.75**), except at Khon Kaen in 1987 and at Ubon in 1990. There were no exceptions, howe\er, for the linear relationship between DM and N uptake (R2 = 0.67**) indicating that drought stress during reproductive growth limited grain yield . The relationship between grain yield and P-uptake was not consistent over years . Uptake of K was not closely related to grain yield or total rice dry matter. These relationships will be used to estimate the N & P balance and N & P uptake efficiency.

FUNCTIONAL EQUILIBRIUM OF THE RICE ROOT SYSTEM

MARRIANNE I. SAMSON; C .A. REDULLA; J.P. DESCALSOTA and K.G. CASSMAN. International Rice Research Institute, Los Banos, Laguna

The effect of nutrient supply on root length and distribution of rice was examined in field studies at PRRI (Nueva Ecija) and IRRI (Laguna). Roots from 0-5, 5-10, 10-20, and 20-30 cm, and above ground biomass were sampled at

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flowering in two cultivars (lR72 and IR29723-143-3-2-1) with and without NPK inputs (+/- NPK) in 1991 WS and 1992 OS. In the 1993 OS, a pot experiment was conducted in the IRRI phytotron under controlled day/night temperature (28.5/ 21/5°C). Treatments and measurements were the same as in the field experi­ments. Grain yield was 2.7 t ha· 1 in -NPK and 4.5 t ha- I in +NPK in the WS, and 3.4 and 7.8 t ha· 1 in the OS, respectively. At flowering, shoot weight in +NPK treatments was 70% (WS) and 190% (OS) greater than in -NPK. By contrast, root length increased by only 15% (WS) and 24% (OS) in +N PK. In the pot experiment, shoot dry matter increased by 180% and root mass by 33% with +NPK, while total root length was equivalent for + and -NPK. Stability of root relati ve to shoot growth resulted in a decrease in the root/shoot dry matter ratio from 17% in -NPK to 8% in +NPK. Tiller number per pot increased from 16 in -NPK to 43 in +NPK, but root length per tiller decreased form 48 m in -NPK to 14 m in +NPK. These results indicate a dynamic functional equilibrium in root­shoot partitioning of rice in response to the external nutrient supply such that when nutrients are deficient, rice allocates relatively more dry matter to root development than when nutrient supply is abundant.

COMPONENTS OF PER COLA TlON LOSSES IN IRRIGATED PUDDLED RICE FIELDS

JOVITA A. MARQUEZ; T.P. TUONG and M.C.S. WOPEREIS. International Rice Research Institute, Los Banos, Laguna

The very low water use efficiency of irrigated lowland rice system is partly due to water losses by percolation. The components of percolation losses in a puddled rice field with highly permeable subsoil were quantified using detailed field experiments conducted at I RRI last 1993 dry season. Water balance com­ponents were measured independently in each of the five 11.5-m x 6.2-m experi­mental plots for Scenarios I to 3. In Scenario I, water losses in the well puddled field were measured. Scenario 2 included the water losses through the non­puddled areas. Water losses by underbund percolation, which results from lateral movement of water from the flooded fields into the bunds and then vertically down to the water table, were accounted in Scenario 3.

Inclusion of small nonpuddled area (1.5 m2 per 100 m2 of puddled soil) within the field of 5-cm ponding water depth (PWD) increased water losses from 2.7 mm d-I to 14 mm d· l . Underbund percolation increased percolation rate 10 mm d-I further in a typical farmer's field of25 x 100 m and even more in smaller fields. Maintaining shallow PWD does not significantly affect percolaton loss through a homogeneously puddled soil but greatly reduces losses in nonpuddled spots and underbund percolation. The latter can be further reduced if horizontal conductivity of the bunds is reduced, e.g. via sealing of macropores with mud.

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The importance of the processes and its implications in water-savings in

irrigated puddled rice fields are discussed.

INCREASING RAIN FED FARMERS' INCOMES THROUGH AN APPROPRIATE POSTHARVEST TECHNIQUE

MAXIMINA A. LANTICAN; R.M. LAMPAY AN and S.1. BHUIY AN . Interna­tional Rice Research Institute , Los Banos, Laguna

An evaluation of a postharvest technique of farmers in a rainfed lowland area in Guimba, Nueva Ecija, revealed that lack of storage facilities can be offset by stacking harvested palay in the upper part of the field near the farmers' houses. In 1991 and 1992, harvesting commenced the last week of October and continued through the second week of November. No rainfall was expected within the period of stacking. The amount of rainfall expected at 80% probability was less than I mm per day. Farmers dried the harvested palay in the field for 1-2 weeks and then stacked them up for another 1-4 weeks to wait for a better price for palay. Average labor and power costs .for stacking was P386/ha. Farmers reported no inse~t, bird or rat damages and were not aware of any possible postharvest losses in sta~king .

Even with an assumed 4% loss due to handling and stacking, farmers got a gross margin 30% higher than if had they immediately threshed and sold their products. The high income gained froms stacking encouraged fanners to continue practicing the technique for more than 30 years. This technique offers an op­portunity of overcom ing the income loss due to low price of palay at harvest time and augmenting the farmers' meager resources.

TOWARDS AN INTEGRATED LINKAGE MAP OF MlJNGBEAN (VIGNA RADIATA L. WILCZEK) - PROGRESS AND PROSPECTS

DESIREE MENANCIO-HAUTEA I; ND. YOUNcP; L. KUMAR3; D.H.. KIM AND RA. HAUTEA I. Ilnstitute of Plant Breeding, UP Los Banos, Laguna; 2Departrnent of Plant Pathology, University of Minnesota, USA; National ChemicallLaboratOlY, India; 4Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center, Taiwan, ROC

Mungbean (Vigna radiata L.) is a leguminous species or pulse crop grown primarily in Asia. It is an important source of inexpensive protein most Asian diets and a significant component of various cropping systems. We have been developing an integrated linkage map of mungbean consisting of morphological, physiological, isozyme and DNA markers in order to facilitate the development of improved cultivars, to clone plant genes and to understand genome evolution in this crop. This report summarizes some of the significant accomplishments of our collaborative efforts during the past three years. These were: (a) construction of RFLP map with 171 RFLP markers, (b) mapping of agriculturally important genes such as resistance to bruchild and powdery mildew and for seed weight,

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(c) comparative mapping of mungbean, cowpea and soybean genomes, (d) iden­tification, inheritance and linkage studies of isozyme and morphological markers. and (e) development of additional mapping populations from interspecific crosses, recombinant inbred lines (RILs) and near-isogenic lines (NILs). We also initiated the development of pulsed-field gel techniques for physical mapping and gene cloning in mungbean. Extensive breeding programs for mungbean are continuously being undertaken in international and national agricultural research centers. With a well-developed map and appropriate technologies for developing countries, it will now be possible to integrate marker-based technology into conventional breeding programs for mungbean and improve production of local cultivars.

CYTOLOGY, MORPHOLOGY AND POLLEN FERTILITY OF INTERSPECIFIC HYBRIDS BETWEEN ORYZA SATIVA AND 0. OFFICINA LIS

VIOLETA N. VILLEGAS t ; AA ALFONS02 and T.H. BORROME02 tInstitute of Plant B reeding, UP Los Banos, Laguna, 2Philippine Rice Research Institute, Munoz, Nueva Ecija

UPL Ri3 was crossed with O,yza officina/is. a source of resistance against brown planthopper, green leafhopper and white-backed planthopper. Eleven to fourteen-day old embryos were cultured in vitro resulting in identical hybrid plants. Very few F2 seeds obtained from F, plants were germinated in vitro and grown in the greenhouse for evaluation. This study aimed to analyze the mor­phology, pollen fertility and cytology of both the F, and F~ plants.

The F, hybrids had semi-erect, grassy and vigorous growth. Like the wild parent, they had perennial growth cycle, rigid awns, well exerted panic les and purple stigma, auricles and basal leaf sheath. F2 plants had sort-textured awns, moderately exerted panicles and longer anthers, flag leaf. panicles, grain and culm. Variation in tillering ability, panicle type, grain si;:e and color of the leaves, basal leaf sheath, awn, apiculus and internode were noted among the F2 plants.

Pollen fertility of the F2's ranged from 0-0.45%, similar to the value ob­tained from the F ,'s. Cytological exam ination of the m icrosporocytes of both the F ,'s and the F 2's showed a wide array of chromosomal aberrations like the congression, extra chromosomes ar.d chromosomes elimination. The abnormal meiotic behavior may explain pollen sterility.

AGRONOMIC EVALUATION OF DOUBLED HAPLOIDS DERIVED FROM RICE ANTHER CULTURE

VIOLETA N. VILLEGASt; M.T.B. PERALTA2; c.c. BATOt and S. OBIEN2. tInsti­tute of Plant Breeding, UP Los Banos, Laguna, 2Philippine Rice Research Institute, Munoz, Nueva Ecija

Agronomic performance of doubled haploid (DH) rice plants derived from anther culture of two purelines (lR 43 and Momay) was evaluated in terms of II

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characters. Three sources of variation were exam ined: variation among anthers, among regenerants within an anther and among tillers within regenerants. Vari­ations were noted among regenerants within an anther and regenerants coming from different anthers. DH lines of IR 43 differed significantly from the check (seed-derived plants) by having higher yield, longer days to heading, more productive tillers and higher panicle sterility. DH lines of Momay had shorter, wider and smaller grains and more tillers. Surprisingly, there was also variation among tillers of an I R 43 regenerant in terms of days to heading, panicle length, number of filled grains and 100 seed gram weight.

Theoretically, doubled haploids derived from anther culture of purelines should be similar to the check. Present results deviated from the expected, indicating that there may be some genetic changes occurring during ill vitro culture . These changes could take place during any stage of callus formation, proliferation. differentiation. Regenerants could also arise from groups of cells with mutant sectors and tillers could have originated from these sectors. Stability of these changes needs a follow-up study.

ANTHER CULTURABILITY OF SOME PHILIPPINE TRADITIONAL RICE VARIETIES

VIOLET A N. VILLEGAS t and MT.B. PERALTA 2 t Institute of Plant Breeding, UP Los Banos, Laguna, 2Philippine Rice Research Institute, Munoz, Nueva Ecija

The response to anther culture of 17 Philippine traditional rice varieties and elite lines, currently being used as parents in the crossing work. was initially evaluated using N" and SK3 as basal media, supplemented with 2 mgll 2,4-D, 0.5 mgll kinetin and 60 gIl sucrose . Callus induction was observed in 14 genotypes with callus induction frequency ranging from 0-0.17%. Regeneration efficiency (based on the total number of anthers plated) was 0-0.71 %. Among the responsive genotypes were UPLRi5, C2982-5-3-1. IR 43, Momay, Basura, and Tuhaw. Albinism among the regenerants was a major concern.

Although anther culture of rice appears to be a routine procedure. problems associated with the technique need to be investigated to improve its efficiency and practical application in rice breeding.

ISOZYMES FOR GENETIC MAPPING IN MUNGBEAN: OPTIMIZATION OF CONDITIONS FOR GEL ELECTROPHORESIS AND IDENTIFICATION OF POL YMORPHISMS

AMY EMILIANA N. BERNARDO and D. M. HAUTEA. Institute of Plant Breed­ing, UP Los Banos, Laguna

Electrophoresis using starch gel and polyacrylamide systems were used to resolve 24 isozymes from the dry seeds, cotyledon and young leaflets of

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three Vigna sp. (V. radiata, V. raJiatu ssp. sublobata and V. mungo). Nine extraction buffers and ten gel/electrode buffer systems were tested.

Five extraction buffers in specific combination with four star,(h gel electrophoresis buffer systems effectively resolved 15-20 different ioszymes from the dry seeds, cotyledon and young leaf samples. The 20 isozymes resolved were: acid phosphatase (ACP), al.cohol dehydrogenase (ADH), alanine aminopeptidase (A I A P), argin ine am inopeptidase (Ar AP), catalase (CAT), diaphorase (DIA), endopeptidase (ENP), esterase (EST), B-glucosidase (B-GLU), gl ucose-6-phosph ate dehydrogenase (G6 PD H), gl uta mate ox al oacetate transaminase (GOT), isocitrate dehydrogenase (1011), leucine aminopeptidase (LAP), malate dehydrogenase (MDH), malic enzyme (ME), peroxidase (PER), phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (PGD), phosphoglucose isomerase (PGI), phosphoglucomutase (PGM) and shikimate dehydrogenase (SDH). However, the best resolution for LAP, PER, PGD and SDH from young leaves were obtained using a 12% polyacrylam ide non-denaturing gel system,

All 20 enzymes were subsequently assayed for polymorphisms in mungbean (V radiata and its two closely related species, V mungo and V radiata ssp. sublobata). More isozyme polymorphisms were observed between mungbean and V mungo than between rnungbean and V radiata sp. sublobala.

KINETIC PROPERTIES AND ACTIVITY LEVELS OF AMMONIA AND CAR­BON ASSIMILATION ENZYMES IN TWO VlGNA SPECIES.

ROBERTA N. GARCIA; A.M. DE LA ROSA; E.M.T. MENDOZA and D.M. HAUTEA. Institute of Plant Breeding, UP Los Banos, Laguna

Induction of high levels of activity of ammonia and carbon assimilation enzymes of various legume nodules has been observed to parallel the develop­ment of high N2 fixation. These enzymes are: glutamine syntase (GS), glutamate syntase (COGAT), glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPC). We have been developing the potential use of these en­zymes as biochemical indices of N2-fixation in mungbean (Vigna radia/a) and cowpea (V. unguiculata). This report describes the kinetic properties and the variation observed in the activity level of each enzyme in developing and mature nodules of the two Vigna species.

Mungbean nodule GS showed an apparent Km value of 12.0 uM for NH4 and 4.95 uM for hydroxylamine. The Km values for NADH and a-ketoglutarate of nodule GOGAT were 33 .3 and 50.0 uM, respectively; for GDH, 76 .3 uM for NADH and 20uM for a-ketoglutarate. The Km value for PEP is 86.0 uM. The pH optima for nodule GS < GOGA T, GDH and PEPC were estimated to be 7.0, 5.0, 7.0 and 8.0. respectively.

In yard long bean nodules, the apparent Km values observed for: (a) GS, 13.4 uM for NH4 and 4.95 uM for hydroxylamine, (b) GOGAT, 91.2 uM for NADH and 2.85 uM for a-ketoglutarate, (c) GDH, 14.0 uM for NADH and 8.76

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uM for a-ketoglutarate, and PEPC, 82.0 uM for PEP. GS and GDH showed similar pH optimum at 7.0. GOGAT and PEPC were observed to have a pH optimum of 7.6 and 8.0, respectively.

All four enzymes were stable at 26-30oC. Small developing nodules showed significantly higher GOGA T, GDH, and

PEPC activities than mature large nodules. Percent increase ranged from 1.1 for PEPC to 26.8 for GDH. GS activity was lower in small nodules. Similarly, all enzyme activities were higher in nodules found in the root crown than in nodules located elsewhere.

INHERITANCE OF RESISTANCE TO RICE TUNGRO SPHERICAL VIRUS IN RICE

LEODEGARIO A. EBRON; R. IKEDA; T. IMBE; R.R. YUMOL ; N.S. BAUTISTA and M.J.T. Y ANORIA . International Rice Research Institute, UP Los Banos, Laguna

The genetics of resistance to infections of rice tungro spherical virus (RTSV) in resistant cultivars Utri Merah, Utri Rajapan and Pankhari 203 was studied. The F Land F3 progenies of crosses between resistant cultivars and Taichung Native I (TNI) or IR22, cultivars susceptible to RTSV, were tested to determine the mode of inheritance for resistance to RTSV. The allelic relationships of resistance genes among the resistant cultivars were also determined.

Utri Merah is found to possess two independent recessive genes for TSV resistance. Resistance in Pankhari 203 and Utri Rajapan is supposed to be under monogenic control. Allelic tests among three resistant cultivars segregated no susceptible F 3 lines indicating that all the cultivars possessed the same or closely linked genes. Therefore, we would propose gene symbols for RTSV resistance gene, Isv-I in Utri Merah, Utri Rajapan and Pankhari 203, and tsv-2

for another R TSV resistance gene in Utri M erah.

ASSOCIATION OF pl2 PROTEIN OF RICE TUNGRO BACILLIFORM VIRUS TO VIRIONS

MA. LEONORA M. Y AMBAO; Z.M. FLORES; F.C. STA . CRUZ and H. KOGANEZAWA. International Rice Research Institute, Los Banos, Laguna

Rice tungro bacilliform virus, a member of badnavirus, encodes proteins with molecular weights of24k, 194k, and 46k. The 194k polyprotein encodes the coat proteins, viral proteinase, reverse transcriptase, and ribonuclease H. The functions of the other proteins are still unknown. To examine the function of 12k protein (p 12), the anti p 12 antiserum was raised by injecting rabbits with synthetic peptide covering the 16 amino acids of the N-terminus. Immunoblotling

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using the antiserum revealed the presence of pl2 in partially purified and purified virus preparations but not in the crude extracts of infected plants and healthy controls. The p 12 was not detected when polyclonal antibodies against the virus (purified using driselase) were used. This means that pl2 was lost during the driselase treatment p 12 in addition to the major coat protein, which is probably a constituent of the viral capsid. The results suggest that p 12 may playa role similar to that of the gene III product of caulimov iruses.

DIRECT TISSUE BLOTTING FOR DETECTION OF RICE VIRUSES

GILDA J. MIRANDA and H. KOGANEZAWA. International Rice Research In­stitute, Los Banos, Laguna

Most serological diagnostic methods for plant viruses require extraction of plant sap. Such a process limits its use in a field. Direct tissue blotting which does not need a sap extraction step, was applied for field testing of rice viruses such as rice tungro bacilliform virus (RTBV), rice tungro spherical virus (RTSV), rice grassy stunt virus (RGSV). and rice ragged stunt virus (RRSV). Rice plant parts, culm, sheath, and leaf, were cut by a razor blade. The cut surface was directly blotted by pressing it gently onto a 0.45 urn pore size nitrocellulose membrane. Signal for virus infection was detected using direct and indirect immunoblotting. Of the three tissues, the sheath samples gave the best signal. The indirect method is more sensitive than the direct one in detecting all viruses. Optimum dilutions of immunoglobulin (I gG) for the indirect method were 1/4000 for RGSV and 111000 for RTBV, RTSV, and RRSV. After adding the substrates, initial reaction started within 15-30 m in for RGSV and 30-45 min for RTBV, RTSV, and RRSV. The whole procedure took 4-5 h. The results showed that tissue blott ing is spec ific, sensitive, rapid and is a conven ient method to assay a large number of samples.

"RED STRIP"; A NEW RICE DISEASE IN THE PHILIPPINES

JANET F. BARROGA and T.W. MEW. International Rice Research Institute, Los Banos, Laguna

A new "disorder" has been observed in various rice fields in the Philip­pines. It occurs in IR72 (IRRI farm), in IRBB7 (Calauan, Laguna), in I R74, and PS13c4 (Zamboanga), and in Bordagul cultivar (Davao del Sur and Davao del Norte, North Cotabato, Zamboanga). This "disorder" is commonly observed in areas of intense rice cultivation. with high nitrogen fertilization. At the early flowering stage, the lesions occur more frequently on the lower leaves. At the ripen ing stage, the lesions are usually at the flag leaves, and on the other young leaves. The disorder starts as pin-point yellow specks on the leaves. The lesions are circular to oval in shape. As the lesion grows older, it darkens in color and becomes yellow-orange. sometimes with the center of the lesion

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becoming more distinct. A yellow streak then extends from the lesion to the tip of the leaf, covering the entire length of the leaf. The lesion then turns reddish brown and the streak becomes orange or rusty in color. The whole leaf eventu­ally becomes necrotic and dries up. Old lesions often become gray at the cen­ter. So far, the etiology of the disorder has not been established. There are some indications that this may be a complex disease, resulting from an i nterac­tion between soil fertility and a weak pathogen. Work in IRRI is focused on establishing the etiology of the disease.

CONCENTRATING GENES FOR DOWNY MILDEW RESISTANCE AND DE­SIRABLE AGRONOMIC TRAITS IN CORN

A YELINO D. RAYMUNDO AND B.1. CALILUNG. Institute of Plant Breeding, UP Los Baiios, Laguna

Following a simple phenotypic recurrent selection technique, two com populations which arc highly resistant to Peronosc/erospora philippinensis (Weston) Shaw, the causal pathogen of Philippine downy mildew, were devel­oped. These populations, designated as CPRPI and CPRP3, were from base populations earlier formed out of the resistant plants fo the F2 generation of commercially-available hybrids. After several cycles of selection under high inoculum pressure, a significant increase in the level of resistance was ob­served in both populations when compared to the reaction of the original F 2 populations. As each population is highly diverse genetically, visual selection for agronomic characters, such as plant height, car height, general vigor, ear size, and tassel size, was likewise done. Selection for resistance to other patho­gens that attack the crop at subsequent stages of growth is possible in these populations.

MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS OF PHILIPPINE TRADITIONAL UPLAND RICE VARIETIES

WENELIE F. PETALCORIN, SOCORRO CARANDANG AND MICHEL A. ARRAUDEAU, Department of Plant Breeding, International Rice Research In­stitute, Los Banos, Laguna

Data from documented experiments with traditional upland rice varieties in the Philippines were collected and stored in a database. The information gathered was used in obtaining both quantitative and qualitative insights about traditional rice varieties.

Traditional upland rice is usually grown under long growing season in degraded areas with serious problems such as poor, unfertile soils , mainly acidic with blast, drought and weeds. The increasing population considered as the

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"poorest of the poor" continues to grow rice in these areas. Under such envi­ronment, the idea that traditional cultivars are poor yielders is wrong, espe­cially when considering that the rice growers can hardly identify achievable input levels.

ORYZA GLABERRIMA AS AN INDICATOR PLANT FOR RICE TUNGRO VIRUSES

P.O. CABAUATAN, N . KOBAYASHI. RYOICHI IKEDA AND H. KOGANEZA WA, International Rice Research Institute Los Banos, Laguna

Oryza glaberrima (lRGC Ace. No. 100139) was identified and evaluated as an indicator plant for rice tungro viruses (RTVs). This accession was evalu­ated for its sensitivity to infection with RTVs, susceptibility to both virus and vector, and suitability as virus source.

IRGC 100139 was not only susceptible but also very sensitive to infection with RTVs. When inoculated at seedling stage with rice tungro spherical virus (RTSV), a latent virus, infected plants showed stunting, reduced tillering and pale green lea'/es 3 -4 weeks after inoculation. Visual score based on these symptoms was highly accurate when compared with serological score. This accession could also be used to distinguish plants infected either with rice tungro bacilliform virus (RTBV) alone or with both RTBV and RTSV. Generally, plants infected with both viruses died within three weeks of inoculation while those infected with RTBV alone survived beyond three weeks but died before maturity. Similar symptoms were observed when this accession was inoculated by leafllOppers collected from the field for monitoring viruliferous insects. Vi­sual score based on symptom severity and life span of infected plants corre­lated well with serological score. IRGC 100139 was also susceptible to the leaf­hopper vector Nephotettix virescens comparable to rice cv Taichung Native I . It was also a good virus source. Hence, this accession has the attributes of an ideal indicator host and it would be useful in studying the epidemiology of rice tungro disease wIthout the need for expensive serological assays.

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OPTIMIZA TION OF A SWEETPOT A TO-PEANUT COOKIE FORMULATION

LUTGARDA S, PALOMAR), F.C.F, GAL YEZ), A VA RESURRECCION) AND L.R BEUCHA T2, Visayas State College of Agriculture, Baybay, Leytc and 2Univcrsity of Georgia, Georgia

The formulation of cookies contammg sweetpotato flakes and peanuts was optimized, A 3 x 3 full factorial experiment using three levels each of sweet potato flakes (0-120g) and egg white (30-90g) in formulation containing 120 g of peanuts and 80 g sugar was conducted, Consumer acceptance tests for color, shape, appearance, flavor, mouthfeel and overall acceptability were done using 9-point Hedonic scales and 60 panelists, Response surface methodology (RSM) was used to optimized the formulation, Objective measurements of color and tex­ture were also determined, All formulations containing all levels of egg white and up to IS g of sweetpotato flakes resulted in formulations with overall acceptance of color and appearance but had deleterious effects on mouthfeeL Verification trials revealed the predictive ability of all models developed, except for flavor, However, all optimum formulations would likewise have acceptability scores for the sensory properties and physical measurements,

IMPROVEMENT OF YIELD AND FIBER QUALITY IN LUFFA SPP, THROUGH INTERSPECIFIC HYBRIDIZATION

MELQUlADES EMMANUEL C REYES* AND EFREN C. AL TOVEROS, Institute of Plant Breeding, University of the Philippines Los Baftos, College, Laguna 4031

Interspecific hybridization in Lulla was done to obtain a cultivar with a combination of traits from L. cylindrica such as good yielding ability, tolerance to pests and environment stresses as well as case of processing and traits from L. acutangula such as sponge fiber compactness, fineness, and thickness, Two trials were conducted involving 5 hybrids of LUjJil in 1991 and 8 hybrids in 1992, together with their respective parental lines and Talisay (OP) as check vari­ety, The interspecific hybrids excelled in terms of yield which was largely attributed to heterosis, Furthermore, the hybrids showed field resistance to melon fly (Dacus cucurbitae) and improved sponge thickness and fiber compactness, Hybrid SmP-l x RdP-I (or L TH-91 0 I) showed consistent performance with yield advantage ranging from 240% to 279% over the check 'Talisay.' Initial results of on-farm trials showed farmers' preferences for the interspecific hybrid LlH-8101 over the fanners' variety,