Understanding Museum Artifacts: The Role of Tradition Searersand Material Analysis in Investigating Skin Processing Technology

Torunn KlokkernesMuseum of Cultural HistoryUniversity of Oslo

Anne May Oll iDaweoarjes5mi Museasiida, Samiid Vuork6-DdwiratThe S5mi Culture Museum

Abstroct

Traditionol technology for processing skin hos beenhighly dynomic over the years, with eoch generotionodding elements or changing feotures. These changes werejustified os improvements, or were reloted to the avoilobility ofmoteriols, demqnds of modernizqtion, interculturol exchonge,or individuol preference. Troditional knowledge is increasinglyimportont todoy, os museums toke on responsibility forsofeguording both its tongible ond intongible aspects. Thechollenges of preserving Aboriginal gorments are reloted tothe methods ond substqnces used in the processing of theirmoterials. When it comes to the monagement, hondling,and treatment of Aboriginol skin artifacts, it is essentiol tounderstond ond interpret the vorious aspects of the moteriqlsqnd substonces used, ond the effect they may hqve on thepreservotion of artifocts. Estoblishing links between thetechnologicol ospects of skin processing ond the visuql ondonolvtical chqracterizqtion qnd identificotion of the skinmqteriols requires the input of troditionol knowledgesuppofted by humonistic ond scientific reseqrch.

Titre et RAsumt

Comprendre les art2facts dans les musdes :Ie rdle des ddtenteurs de tradition et de l'analysedes mathriaux pour 6tudier Ia technologie detronsformotion des peauxAu fil des ons, la technoloqie classique pour le trqitementdes peoux o connu une ndtte lvolutioi, choque gdndrotionaioutant des 6l'4ments ou tronsformont des coroct4ristiques.Les changements constituoient des omdliorotions, ou 4toienteffectudes selon lq disponibilit1 des mqt'1rioux ou lo n1cessitdde moderniser l'objet, opportdes dons le codre d'un 4changeinterculturel, ou encore, entrepris en raison de prdfdrencesindividuelles. De nos iours, le sovoir traditionnel revAt uneimportonce croissonte, au moment oi les mus,6es prennenten chorge Ia sauvegorde de ses ospects concrets et obstroits.Les difficultds touchont lo conservotion des vAtementsqutochtones sont li6es oux m'lthodes et aux substoncesservont ou troitement des mot4rioux qui les composent. Ence qui concerne lo gestion, la manipulotion et Ie troitementdes objets autochtones foits de peaux, il est primordiol de

comprendre et de bien interpr,1ter les divers aspects dessubstonces et matdrioux utilisds, oinsi que leurs incidencessur la prdservation de ces objets. L'1toblissement de liens entreles ospects technologiques de Io tronsformotion de peoux, Iocaroctdrisqtion et l'identificqtion visuelles et onolytiques despeoux elles-m€mes, exige I'opport du sovoir troditionnel,ainsi que l'oppui de lo recherche humqniste et scientifique.

lntroduction

Skin processing technology represents an importantcraft and economic activity associated with the role ofwomen. Skin processing in circumpolar cultures hasnot been thoroughly described in available literature,and information is not easily accessible from theartifacts themselves.

When studying the materials found in an artifact, allavailable sources and resources should be used to getas close to the material as possible. The interpretationof what is observed in an artifact is usually basedupon previous experience with similar artifactsas well as on present and past written sources.

The assumption that skin processing methodsfollow cultures, i.e. that there are defined methodsand materials used within a specific culture thatsignificantly differ from other cultures, is an over-simplification. It does not consider the multitudeof influences (such as the availability of materialsand substances, as well as individual differencesand preferences) that may affect the technology ofproduction. For example, the local or regional floraand fauna play a more important role than culturein determining the materials and methods usedin skin processing.

Another assumption that must be questioned isthat traditional technology ceases to be "traditional"when it is modified. When asking tradition bearerslworking on skin processing why they do things ina certain way, the answer is often "because we havealways done it like this; it is our tradition." Eventhough there may be changes in the process toadapt to a particular circumstance, such as usinga purchased leather fat instead of cod liver oil, orquebracho tannin powders instead of willow bark

Paocrcowcs or Svtuposruu 2007

extract (Salix species), it still remains a traditionalprocess. This indicates that a traditional process canbe highly dynamic and constantly changing, withoutceasing to be traditional.

Including tradition bearers in investigativeresearch on an artifact enables the researcher andthe museum to interpret and subsequently handleand preserve the artifact according to its holisticneeds. At the same time, it enables the traditionbearer to observe and possibly discover newinformation about the materials of which theartifact is made, and their characteristics andspecific features. Skin processing leaves tracesor characteristic features in an artifact. Learning toread these signs can be complicated, and may requirea prior knowledge of skin processing technologyand an understanding of the characteristics of thematerial. To obtain this, a multidisciplinary approachis needed, including familiarity with the materialsused, dialogue with tradition bearers, study of pastand present written sources, and use of chemicalanalytical methods. This approach was applied inthe investigation of skin artifacts from the Siimiculture in Northern Norway and from the Evenkculture in Eastern and Northern Russia.

Culture Versus Nature in theInterpretation of Historic Artifacts

Skin artifacts reflect culture-specific skills, technology,and ideas. This is particularly visible in the desigoornamentation, and use of svmbols, but less so inthe technological aspects of st<in garment production.This indicates that desigO decoratiory and symbolsare more important features in maintaining culturalidentity than the material from which the garmentis made (Dunfjeld 2003).

Variations in skin processing technology in thecircumpolar area are numerous and materials andmethods diffef, but these variations are not primarilyculturally determined. The flora and fauna in a regiondetermine the choice of skin materials, and alsowhich tanning substances are most likely to beused in skin processing. In regions where reindeermigration occllrs, or where reindeer herding is thebasic subsistence activity, people are likely to usereindeer skin for winter clothing and reindeer legskin for boots. This choice is based on the availabilityof the skin and on experience that this materialgives excellent protection under certain climaticconditions. This pattern of use can be observed in theinvestigated areas in northern Norway and in severallocations in Siberia. In areas where reindeer do notmigrate and where subsistence is based mainly on

elk and other fur-bearing animals, elk skin and wolffur (for example) are used for clothing and footwearpurposes. This pattern of use is observed in theEvenk culture in the Katanga County in Siberia(Gron 2005). Adaptation to local availableresources is described by Shirokogoroff:

The elements of the Tungus complex of clothingand household, beginning from the wigwam,are indicative of two facts, namely that theTungus gradually and regardless of origin haveaccumulated knowledge of using the materialsfound-at-hand in the most economical way inthe given conditions and that their complex ofthe clothing and household with a few exceptionsis well adapted to the local conditions and needsof a hunting mode of life. (Shirokogoroff 1935.)

As discussed by anthropologist ]ulian Steward, certainaspects of a culture are influenced by the environment(Steward 1955). This human-environment interaction(Mriller-Wille 2001) can be observed in all aspectsof skin processing and material use in thecircumpolar area.

The human-environment interaction can also beobserved in the use of tanning substances, such aswillow bark extract and marine oils in the North Siimiculture in Finnmark, Norway. The traditional Siimiculture subsistence activity is reindeer herding,which provides the skin materials. Both the inlandand coastal areas are rich in higher plants such as

Figure 1. LiIIy Guttorm (Norway) applying willozo bark extractto a reindeer leg skin. Photo by T. Klokkernes. @Museumof Cultural History - Unioersity of OsIo, Nonaay, 2004.

1 1 0 Acrrs ou Svupostuu 2007

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willow, as well as alder (AIntLs species) and birch(Betula species), and these particular species areused to produce bark extracts for tanning purposes(Figure 1). The move to the coastal areas in springand summer provides access to marine oils, such ascod liver oil. These oils, in combination with woodta4 are used in waterproofing depilated skin materials.

In the Evenk culture, seasonal hunting of thewild reindeer provided the skins needed. Only afew domesticated reindeer were kept for transportpurposes. The higher plants found in the investigated

F i g ur e 2. Afnn nsi ea a Taty an n S t ep anoun a ( Ru s si a )applying broun rotted larch wood to n reindeer leg skin.

Photo by T. Klokkernes. @Museum of CulturalHistory - Uniaersity of Oslo, Norway, 2001.

(A colour uersion of Figure 2 is aaailable on p. 211.)

areas were mainly Tarch (Larix species), leading to theuse of brown rotted larch wood for skin processingpurposes (Figure 2). The long distance from coastalareas suggests that fats from terrestrial animals hadto be the main choice for fatty substances used inskin processing in these areas.

The central Inuit cultures of Nunavut provide

another example where the skjn proceising methodreflects the environment. Because vegetation in these

areas is scarce, the main method of processing wasby mechanical actiory with various scraping toolsand without the use of tanning substances andsmoke. This is based on examination of objectsfrom the Roald Amundsen collection at the Museumof Cultural History in Oslo, which consists of skinartifacts from the Netsilingmiut culture in KingWilliams Island between 1903 and 1906 (Amundsen

1903-05; Klokkernes 1994). Obtaining waterproof orwater-repellent skin materials in this area dependedon the use of marine animal skin materials, wherethe natural high fat content of the skin and thepreservation of the epidermis yielded thedesired properties.

Changing Traditions

Base mater ia lAs other materials (e.g. wool, cotton, linerysilk, and synthetic fabrics in all varieties) becameavailable through trade, and later in shops, theywere incorporated in the range of materials utilizedfor clothing and footwear. In both the Sdmi and theEvenk areas today, outdoor clothing for the severeclimatic conditions found during the low temperatureperiods in winter is made mainly from the fur of themammals available in the local area, e.g. reindee4,elk, red dee1, marine birds, bea1, and wolf. However,summer and indoor clothing are made from avariety of fabrics and materials obtainable inshops. Depilated reindeer skin is still the primarymaterial used for boots by the Elders in the Evenkcommunities, but the younger generation seldomwears depilated reindeer skin boots or clothingin everyday life. This change in material use maybe explained by the general modernization ofsociety. Women are still mostly responsible for theproduction of garments. However, today's womenalso have other priorities and need to rationalizethe time spent on producing clothing, especiallyif ready-made clothing of substitute materialsis available and provides "the same" or"better" qualities.

The skin garments display decorative qualities aswell as specifically and carefully chosen materialtypes. But each generation has added elements orchanged features of skin processing. These changeswere justified as improvements, or were related to theavailability of materials, demands of modernization,process rationalizatiory intercultural exchange, orindividual preference. As one tradition bearerstated: "There is always an ongoing evaluation ofprocessing methods and exploration of materials.You test new methods and materials all the time"(Eira Buljo 2004).

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Processing and tanning materialsOne example of change in skin processing technologyin the Siimi culture is the switch from cod liver oil toleather fats that can be bought locally, or to otheravailable fats that yield the desired propertiesin the skin material. One side effect of using codliver oil was an undesired smell, which is one reasonwhy it is not used extensively today. Other changesinclude the use of new vegetable tanning agents,such as ready-made tannin powders (quebracho andmimosa). However, these purchased tannin powdersseem to be used more in the production of items forthe tourist trade than in the manufacture of itemsand garments for personal use.

In the Evenk culture there is a marked decreasein the smoking of skins. This may be a sign ofrationalization as well as an evaluation of theproperties required for the intended use of the skin,i.e. does the skin need to be waterproofed or not. Ifthe skin material is not to be used specifically in wetareas, there is no need to smoke it. Smoking may,howevet be used to give colour to the skin.

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Figure 3. (a) Winter boot seured with toozten bands. Outner: Tor Mikkel Eira,Karasjok, Norzuay. Photo by T. Klokkernes. @Priaate photo, 2004.

(b) Winter boots where the hairs haae been art in the upper part of the leg sectionand uthich are worn with wooen bands, as seen in the left photo. Museum number

SVD 1069. Samiid Vuorkd-Drioairat - The Sdmi Culture Museum, Norway.Photo by T. Klokkernes. @Museum of Cultural History - Uniztersity of OsIo,Norway, 2004. (c) Modified zuinter boot where the leg section is higher. Thismodified zuorking boot does not require tying or fastening to the leg. Owner:

Anne May OIli, Karasjok, Nonuay. Photo by A.M. OUi. @Prioate photo,2007(A colour aersion of Figure 3a is aoailable on p. 211.)

These examples not only show the diversity ofmaterials and tanning substances used, but alsoindicate that a variety of substances can be applied toobtain a specific property. They also demonstrate thateven though the literature states that a certain tanningsubstance was traditionally used on specific types ofartifact materials, it does not necessarily mean thatthe artifact under investigation has been processedusing the same tanning substance.

DesignChanges in traditional practices are also observedin the shape and design of clothing and footwear.Figure 3 shows an example of the leg skin winterboots (Skaller) from the Sdmi culture. The upperpart of the leg section of the boot is usually shavedto facilitate the wrapping of the woven bands, whichprevent snow from entering the boot. In the last fewyears there has been a slight change in the shape ofthe working boot: the leg section is lengthened andslightly narrowed in order to produce boots withoutties or wrappings and at the same time to obtainboots that are easier and faster to put on. Howevet

the shape of the toe part is maintained asit is regarded as an important feature inthe design of the Siimi boot. This modifiedworking boot may be inspired from theRussian winter boots (knee high) madefrom reindeer leg skin.

Traditional KnowledgeComplementingScientific I nvestigation

Establishing links between the technologicalaspects of skin processing and the visualand chemical characterization andidentification of skin materials and tanningsubstances of Aboriginal cultures requiresan interdisciplinary approach includingtraditional knowledge, humanistic researcfuand scientific research. This involves closecommunication between the researcherand the tradition bearel, through repeatedconsultations, interviews, and discussions(Figure 4).

The ideal methods to explore andunderstand the processes used in skinprocessing are observation and learningby doing. In our case, the characteristicsof various skin processing stages (e.g.

indicators of preprocessing, tanningsubstance, mechanical actiory preparatioryand the wearer's use) were explained and

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Figure 4. Interaiewldiscussion session with a trndition bearer.(Left to right) Tradition bearer Inga Guttorm, researcher

Torunn Klokkernes, nnd interpreter EIen Kirsten Anti Hansen.Photo by Aa. Hegge. @Samiid Vuorkd-Drioairat The

Sdmi Culture Museum, Norwav, 2004.

recorded through discussions and interviews withtradition bearers. This information was applied insubsequent visual condition assessments and in theinterpretation of the results of chemical analysis.It was an important contribution in explainingthe physical signs left by the processing method,the evidence of use and repairs, and the featurescaused by subsequent materiai deterioration.

It is also important to be able to separate the visualfeatures from one another. In our interviews anddiscussions with tradition bearers, the researcherstook along skin artifacts and samples of processedskin, as well as photographs of features that requiredexplanation. This led to discussions about the useof vegetable tannins, and the different skin qualitiesand colours that may be obtained in the skin materialby the use of different tannins - variations thatdepend on when the bark was harvested, howit was prepared and applied, and the effect ofcombining more than one type of tannin.

Previous studies indicate that there is, to some degree,a relationship between the visual and the analysedcharacteristics of skin materials (Klokkernes 1994,2007). Howeveq, the complexity of the deteriorationprocess in skin materials can make assessment andidentification a challenge. Using sensory evaluationto determine skin processing methods also hasinherent problems. The visual descriptions arebased on the person's knowledge and experiencewith similar artifacts, as well as the person'sperception and use of terminology to describe notionssuch as colou4 stiffness, and smell. Because people

may have different understandings of such terms,the transmitted information must be used with care.

As a result of communication with traditionbearers and visual and chemical analyses, a numberof important issues related to the productiory wearand tea1, and deterioration of an artifact have beenidentified and observed. These are related to featuresthat are characteristic for different stages in skinprocessing, tannin type and tannin penetratioryand fatty substances utilized on skin materials. Thestudy of Siimi and Evenk skin processing technologyrevealed that the main tannins used on skin materialswere vegetable tannins of the condensed type(Klokkernes 2007). Chromatographic analysis alsorevealed that different skins tanned with the samevegetable tannin exhibit very different tannin content,although the general technology is the same. Amongother factors, this is caused by individual differencesin the processing methods and the varying strength ofthe tannin extract. This affects the colour of the skin,which may vary from a very light to a fairly darkcolour. A darker colour can be obtained by exposingthe tanned, depilated skin material to sunlight.

Conclusions

As with all Aboriginal traditional knowledge, skinprocessing is context-based and holistic. This meansthat the practice of knowledge in one field may beclosely related to knowledge in other fields, such asto spiritual aspects and environmental aspects, and tolanguage. For example, skin processing terminologymay include more than a description of an actualprocess. A specific term may also give an idea ofhow far the process has gone and what materialone is working on (Eira Buljo 2004). The change intraditional knowledge from being "non-formal"to "formaT" will dramatically change the way it ishanded down. For example, is it possible to recordthe entire process of producing a specific artifact?Is it possible to understand the subtleties of such anintuitive way of working? The answer has to be "no".

This implies that the passing down of traditionalknowledge or specific skills must be from personto persory i.e. directly from teacher to learner.

The preservation of museum collections that includeAboriginal artifacts made of skin material is onefield where traditional knowledge and sciencemay interact. When seeking to interpret the resultsfrom an investigation and subsequently manageand preserve an artifact, the knowledge of materialscience and technology is important. This requires thepooling of different fields of researcfu and being ableto communicate the needs and wishes of all involved.

PnocttotNcs or Svtttpostuu 2007 1'.t 3

so as to arrive at the best possible preservationproposal for the artifacts in question. At the sametime the information "contained" in an artifact isstored in a museum archival system and madeavailable for research and study. This collecteddocumentation may serve as backup informationof basic traditional knowledge. Howeveq, it shouldnever be considered an archive of traditionalknowledge in its full sense, which can only besustained by active tradition bearers in each culture.

Endnote

1. Tradition beareq, as we see it here, is an Elderor a younger person who knows the traditionalknowledge of a certain craft or art and theknowledge systems related to it, and whosees it as a wish and a responsibility to passon her/his knowledge to future generations.

Bibliography

Amundsery R. Unpublished diaries from the1903-1906 expedition of the North West passage,1903-05.

Dulfjeld, M. "Samekofte som verdi." pp.763-1.68in Araaut Arao Vierhtie. Samiske aerdier (edited byE. Hetta Eriksen). Karasjok: Dawi Girji OS, 2003.

Eira Buljo, K.M. 2004. Personal communication.

Grsn, O. 2005. Personal communication.

Klokkernes, T. Caribou-pels. En undersskelseaa caribou-pels f'ra Roald Amundsens samling,G j o a eksp e dis j one n. Master's thesis, The RoyalDanish Academy of Fine Arts, School ofConservatiory Copenhag en, 799 4.

Klokkernes, T. Skin Processing Technology in EurasianReindeer Cultures. A Comparatiae Study in MaterialScience of Sdmi and Eaenk Methods - Perspectiaeson Deterioration and Preseruation of Museum Artefacts.Ph.D. thesis, The Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts,School of Conservation. Rudksbing: LMR Press, 2007.http: / / www.langelandsmuseum.dk/ museum_en/LMRTo21Press.htm

Klokkernes, T., and N. Sharma. "The RoaldAmundsen Collection. The Impact of a SkinPreparation Method on Preservation." pp. 91-94in Arctic Clothing of North America - Alaska, Canada,Greenlnnd (edited by |.C.H. King, B. Pauksztat, andR. Storrie). Montreal: McGill-Queen's UniversityPress.2005.

Krasheninnikov S.P. Explorations of Kamchatka,North Pacific Scimitar: Report of a lourney Madeto Explore Eastern Siberia in 1735-1741, by order ofthe Russian lmperial Gozternment. Portland: OregonHistorical Society (North Pacific Studies 1),1972.

Larsen, R., and L. Rahme. Lader, pergament og skind.F remstilling, historie og nedbrytning. Det KongeligeDanske Kunstakademi. Konservatorskolen.Copenhagen, 1999.

Mriller-Wille, L. "Cultural Identity Among Siimiand Inuit: Issues of Ethnic Groups and Boundaries."Etudes Inuit Studies 25,7_2 (200i), pp.285-294.

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Steward, l.H. Theory of Cultural Change: TheMethodolo gy of Mttltilinear Eaolution. Urbana:University of Illinois Press, 1955.

Biographies

Torunn Klokkernes is a Senior Obiects Conservator at theMuseum of Cultural History, University of Oslo, Norway.She received a Ph.D. in Conservation Science from theSchool of Conservation, Copenhagen, Denmark in 2007,where she also completed her Bachelor and Master degreesin Objects Conservation. The topic of her Ph.D. thesis is thetechnology and preservation of skin and fur artifacts inEurasian reindeer cultures, more specifically the Siimiculture in Northern Norway and the Evenk cultureat two main locations in Eastern Siberia.

Contact InformationMuseum of Cultural HistoryUniversity of OsloPO Box 6762, St. Olavs plass01 30 OsloNorwayE-mail: torunn. klokkernes@khm.uio.no

Anne May Olli is an Objects Conservator and anAboriginal Siimi employed at the largest S5mi Museum(http://www.sam imuseum.com) in Norway. This m useu mis one of four museums in an association (siida) under theSiimi Council in Norway. She is currently working towardsestablishing a conservation department for these fourmuseums. She was educated as an objects conservatorat the Department of Archaeology, Conservation andHistorical Studies, at the University of Oslo, and sincegraduating has been interested in the use of traditionaltechnology for preservation purposes. She also has aspecial interest in preservation-related issues in arcticand subarctic climates.

Contact lnformationDaweoarjes5mi Museasiida, Samiid VuorkS-D5wiratThe Siimi Culture MuseumPO Box I439730 KarasjokNorwayE-mail: annemav@samimuseum.com

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Preserving Aboriginal Heritage:Technical and Traditional Approaches

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Pr6server le patrimoine autochtone :approches techniques et traditionnelles

Acrrs ou SvrvrposruM 2007

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Preserving AboriginalHeritage: Technical andTraditional Approaches

Proceedings of a ConferenceSymposium 2007Preserving Aboriginal Heritage:Technical and Traditional ApproachesOttawa, CanadaSeptember 24-28,2007

Organized bythe Canadian Conservation InstituteEdited byCarole Dignard, Kate Helwig, ]anet Mason,Kuthy Nanowiry and Thomas Stone

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Pr6server le patrimoineautochtone : approchestechniques et traditionnelles

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Preserving Aboriginal Heritage, Technical and Traditional Approaches :proceedings of a conference symposium 2007 : Preserving AboriginalHeritage, Technical and Traditional Approaches, Ottawa, Canada, September24-28,2007 I organized by the Canadian Conservation Institute; edited byCarole Dignard ... [et al.] - Pr6server le patrimoine autochtone,approches techniques et traditionnelles : actes d'un congrbs symposium2007 : Pr6server le patrimoine autochtone, approches techniques ettraditiorrnelles, Ottawa, Canada, du 24 au 28 septembre 2007 I organis1 parI'Institut canadien de conservation ; publi6s sous Ia direction de CaroleDignard ... let a1.].

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1. Preserving Aboriginal Heritage, Technical and Traditional Approaches(2007: Ottawa, Ont.). 2. Native peoples-Material culture--Collection andpreservation--Canada--Congresses. 3. Native peoples-Antiquities-Collection andpreservation--Canada--Congresses. 4. Museum conservation methods--Canada--Congresses. 5. Museum techniques--Canada--Congresses.I. Dignard, CaroleII. Canadian Conservation Institute III. Title. IV. Title: Pr6server le patrimoineautochtone, approches techniques et traditionnelles.

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