Underpinnings of adult learning in formal teacher professional development in Cyprus

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Underpinnings of adult learning in formal teacherprofessional development in CyprusYiasemina Karagiorgi a; Chrystalla Kalogirou a; Valentina Theodosiou a; MariaTheophanous a; Panagiota Kendeou aa Cyprus Pedagogical Institute, Nicosia, Cyprus

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To cite this Article: Karagiorgi, Yiasemina, Kalogirou, Chrystalla, Theodosiou,Valentina, Theophanous, Maria and Kendeou, Panagiota (2008) 'Underpinnings ofadult learning in formal teacher professional development in Cyprus', Journal ofIn-Service Education, 34:2, 125 — 146

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Journal of In-service EducationVol. 34, No. 2, June 2008, pp. 125–146

ISSN 1367–4587 (print)/ISSN 1747–5082 (online)/08/020125–22© 2008 International Professional Development Association (IPDA)DOI: 10.1080/13674580802003466

Underpinnings of adult learning in formal teacher professional development in CyprusYiasemina Karagiorgi*, Chrystalla Kalogirou, Valentina Theodosiou, Maria Theophanous & Panagiota KendeouCyprus Pedagogical Institute, Nicosia, CyprusTaylor and FrancisRJIE_A_300512.sgm10.1080/13674580802003466Journal of In-Service Education1367-4587 (print)/1747-5082 (online)Original Article2008Taylor & Francis342000000June [email protected]

Despite controversy in the literature, the present article assumes that the adult learning theory pro-vides a powerful framework for evaluating training practices. This study explores the degree towhich adult learning traits are embedded in optional seminars, the primary form of formal in-serviceteacher training in Cyprus and a traditional, structural approach towards teacher development. Aquantitative research design is employed, with a nationally representative number of participants.Teachers’ views indicate adult learning as multidimensional, with the emerging factor structure sim-ilar to that derived from relevant literature, as to the extraction of the factors: orientation to learning,readiness to learn, accumulated experience and self-concept. Two additional factors – organizationof seminars and dissemination of results – show that these two dimensions should also be taken intoconsideration in training design. Although teachers’ views about optional seminars appear predom-inantly positive, such optimistic outcomes should not be projected in uncritical ways since positiveattitudes could be attributed to the voluntary character of participation and the subconsciousapplication of adult learning strategies by trainers. Despite such limitations, possible action shouldfocus, among others, on training the trainers, restructuring organizational aspects as well as enhanc-ing dissemination practices.

Introduction

Teacher professional development is often seen as a continuing learning processextending from initial training until retirement, ‘deep-rooted and lasting for the entirelength of one’s career in the field of education’ (Lewis, 2004, p. 380). Formal teachertraining is regarded as a basic component of overall professional development,contributing to the enhancement of academic competence and professional effective-ness. This article focuses on formal educational programmes, one of the three primary

*Corresponding author. 3 Ikarou Street # 102, 2107 Aglanjia, Nicosia, Cyprus. Email: [email protected]

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126 Y. Karagiorgi et al.

resources of knowledge acquisition for professionals, besides written materials andinformal interaction with other professionals (Nowlen, 1988).

Despite controversy in the literature, the notion of adult learning is placed at thecore of this study, which rests on the assumption that there is something special aboutadult learning (Gravani & John, 2005). Theories of adult learning—especially theo-ries of transformative learning—comprise the second influential body in the field ofprofessional development, beyond constructivist theories and school improvement(North Central Regional Educational Laboratory, n.d). As pointed out by Merriamand Caffarella (1999), adult learning theory provides a powerful framework for eval-uating training practices, embedding constructivist and problem-based learningapproaches to teaching teachers. In this regard, programme evaluation needs toextend beyond the assessment of the level to which programme objectives areattained, towards exploration of the degree to which core features of effective adultlearning are addressed. This article seeks to establish an alternative framework forprogramme evaluation by providing a snapshot of professional development throughthe lens of adult learning theory.

The context of the study is optional seminars, the primary form of teacherprofessional development in Cyprus. This article aims to reveal the degree to whichthese seminars support the principles about ‘how adults learn’, prevalent in therelevant literature, in an effort to extract useful lessons towards improvement ofprofessional development, not only within the particular national context but alsowithin alternative settings.

In view of the importance of contextual features of learning, which is often regardedas a multifactorial and situated activity, it is critical to clarify that this article buildson the notion of adult education in a professional rather than a non-professionalcontext. Specifically, as learning can be formal, informal or non-formal (Apps, 1989),for the purposes of this article professional context refers to adult learning in formalorganizations. This notion of adult learning diverts from community-based and indig-enous learning in other settings, which is often connected to oral traditions and indig-enous arts. As a result of this assumption and in order to reflect the context of thestudy, the term ‘adult learning’ is used interchangeably with the term ‘adulteducation’ despite the fact that they have slightly different meanings in the relevantliterature. The first refers to the processes that adults go through so as to change orenrich their knowledge, values, skills or strategies (Brundage & McKeracher, 1980),while the latter reflects only the organized activities provided for adults (Smith,1983).

Adult learning and professional development: drawing links

Adult learning is often referred to with the term ‘andragogy’, the art and science ofhelping adults learn, in contrast to ‘pedagogy’, the art and science of teaching chil-dren (Knowles, 1990). Rudman (1999) asserts that there are four main ways in whichadults differ from young learners. Firstly, adults are self-directing as they are oftenprompted to learn by their curiosity, their need to apply scientific learning and their

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Adult learning in formal teacher professional development 127

desire to gain academic or other recognition. Secondly, adults have accumulatedmore experience than young people. Thus, since they prefer their learning to be inte-grated with experience, their readiness to learn is different. Finally, adults develop aproblem-centred orientation to education. On the basis of the above, adults’ particu-larity in their learning appears to become apparent, while learner-centredness is oftensuggested as the most distinguishing characteristic of adult education; learnersbecome the centre of policy and practice while adult learning institutions need toemploy flexibility and individualization in addressing self-directed, empowered adults(Mancuso, 2000; Kerka, 2002).

However, the research community has not reached consensus about whether adultlearning varies substantially from that of children (Kerka, 2002). Characteristics ofadult learners have been criticized as reflecting a small number of identified factorswith little empirical evidence to support them (Courtney et al., 1999). Andragogy hasbeen accused for characterizing adults as we expect them to be rather than as theyreally are (Sipe, 2001). Tice (1997) suggests that both andragogical and pedagogicalmodels assume a ‘generic’ adult and child learner. Haggis (2002) points out thatwhilst one strand of literature describes adult learning as increasingly complex anddifficult, another strand—mostly concerned with staff development, the focus of thisarticle—projects adult learning ideas in a simplistic and uncritical way. Models ofadult learning are proposed as reflecting uncontested descriptions of how adults learn(Knox, 2000; Wisker, 2000). It appears, then, that:

… how adults learn is not unproblematic due to the long-running debate about the validityof Knowles’s andragogical ideas (1990), the problems of defining adults (Squires, 1987),the implication that ‘adult’ implied homogeneity (Hanson, 1996; Richardson, 1987); thequestions raised about the use of power in institutional contexts (Brookfield, 1993;Collins, 1996) or the doubts that have been expressed about the original evidenceupon which claims about the adult learner were made (Davenport, 1987). (Haggis, 2002,p. 209)

Psychological studies indicate that differences in adult and child learning may not infact be dichotomies but rather qualitative and quantitative nuances along a contin-uum (Kerka, 2002). Draper (1998) attributes the qualitative differences betweenpedagogy and andragogy to the kind of experiences adults have and the intent of theirlearning. Merriam and Caffarella (1999) agree that the use adults make of experienceis different. Studies of meta-cognition also attribute differences between children andadults to acquired expertise and active use of expert knowledge (Smith & Pourchot,1998). Adults, as mature persons, accumulate a growing reservoir of experience thatthey can share through a process of critical reflection (Hillier, 2002). Such reflectionhas been regarded as a basic component of learning in different learning theories(Dewey, 1916; Kolb, 1984).

Since scholars in andragogy stress the importance of life experience, self-directionand collective inquiry for effective adult learning, honouring adults’ wisdom andautonomy is essential in designing effective professional development programmes(North Central Regional Educational Laboratory, n.d.). Loucks-Horsley et al. (1987)refer to designs built on principles of adult learning as one of the characteristics of

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successful teacher development. Similarly, Eraut (2001) rejects the suggestions ofGrant and Stanton (1998) that effective professional development does not dependon the learning methods adopted. Designing staff development is described as adynamic process, involving strategies, activities and links to outcomes (Schwandt &Tobin, 1999). With regards to selecting strategies, a critical aspect is making certainlearning methods used with adults match the learning processes they are expected touse with their students to avoid the possibility that teachers will be lectured about theimportance of having students work in small groups with little or no opportunity toexperience the process themselves as learners. Schwandt and Tobin (1999) refer tofour basic principles in addressing adults’ needs in staff development programmes.First, such programmes must account for the self-directed, experience-based learningneeds of adults. Second, because teachers use practice and knowledge in their prac-tice, staff development programmes must help them employ reflective activities, sothat they can understand their actions and assess their performances, even when theyare fully involved in the high-intensity activities of teaching. Finally, staff develop-ment efforts must include learning strategies, designed to integrate knowledge ofparticipants in a given community.

In practice, despite the strong call for experiential, authentic, collaborative, self-directed learning models, staff development remains surprisingly traditional. One-shot workshops on generic topics and little follow-up still account for the majority ofprofessional development experiences. Several sources indicate that teachers havelittle or no input in either the topics or the format of their professional growthprograms (North Central Regional Educational Laboratory, n.d.). In a study byKember et al. (2001), although instructors viewed adult students as being at theandragogical end of the continuum, their teaching methods stemmed from theirconceptions of good teaching. According to Beder (2001), adult teachers expressedlearner-centred orientations but observations portrayed instruction that was theantithesis of learner-centred. Thus, although teachers were shown as learner-centredin their affective relationships with learners, instruction was teacher-directed; learner-centredness appeared as an expression of values but not a teaching method. Alongthese lines, Cervero and Wilson (1999) pointed to learner-centredness as a politicallynaive and ethically blind position, due to the multiple interests at stake in adult educa-tion activities. Eraut (1994, 1995a, b) repeatedly argued in favour of dynamic andresponsive models of professional development, pointing towards identifying andprioritizing individual learning needs as well as matching prioritized needs tolearning, as three often neglected areas (Eraut & Du Boulay, 2000).

Setting the scene

Cyprus is the third largest island in the Mediterranean and a middle-income countrywith a relatively short post-Independence period since 1960. As a result of politicaland economic concerns, structures of educational administration, curriculum devel-opment and policy-making remain highly centralized. Recruiting teachers is easy dueto guaranteed employment and job security at the end of it (Phtiaka, 2002). The

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teacher-training system appears as centrally determined and supply driven, and func-tions on a purely individual basis in isolation to teacher and school needs (Karagiorgi& Symeou, 2006).

Before introducing the reader to details concerning the research design of thestudy, it is important to briefly refer to some organizational aspects of the optionalseminars, offered as the primary in-service training form during the past decade inCyprus. These voluntary courses are provided in training centres in all five districtsof the island (see Figure 1) after school hours and consist of five afternoon sessions(Pedagogical Institute, 1999; Georgiou et al., 2001). The seminars are open to teach-ers of all levels and they are defined in terms of their audience as: primary education,secondary education, vocational education and interdepartmental. The handbookwith the programme for the optional seminars is sent to schools at the beginning ofeach school year and teachers can apply to attend the courses of their preference.Optional seminars cover a great range of educational topics, prepared by the Peda-gogical Institute and presented to the consulting and interdepartmental Committeesfor feedback. Thematically, the courses cover school subjects, social and psychologi-cal issues, educational research skills and information technology, and they aim tomeet the needs of all teachers, as identified by the Pedagogical Institute and theMinistry of Education and Culture. This form of training is quite popular amongteachers since, as a 2004/05 survey showed, approximately one out of four teachers(23.4%) attended optional seminars (Karagiorgi & Symeou, 2005).Figure 1. Training centres in all five districts of the islandIn terms of their structural characteristics, optional seminars share a degree ofhomogeneity with regards to their design, distinguished in terms of three dimensions,suggested by Garet et al. (2001) in a similar study. First, in terms of their form, theseseminars reflect a structured approach to professional development that occursoutside a teacher’s own classroom, involves a leader with special expertise andinvolves participants who attend sessions at scheduled times after school. In thisrespect, optional seminars can be regarded as a traditional form of teacher profes-sional development, threatened by all the weaknesses attributed to such approaches.Traditional forms are often criticized as being ineffective in providing teachers withsufficient time, activities and content necessary for increasing teachers’ knowledge

Figure 1. The five districts of Cyprus

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and fostering meaningful changes in the classroom. Second, in terms of their durationas the number of contact or extended hours of involvement, optional seminars can bedescribed as short courses, less likely to provide opportunities for in-depth discussionof content, teacher conceptions–misconceptions and pedagogical strategies, and lesslikely to allow teachers to try out new practices in the classroom and obtain feedback.Third, these courses do not encourage collective participation of groups of teachersfrom the same school. Individual teachers from many schools cannot discusscommon problems that arise from their experiences and they cannot integrate whatthey learn with other aspects of their instructional context; they cannot discussstudents’ needs over time; and, finally, they cannot sustain changes in practice overtime, since there is lack of a forum for debate, maximizing teachers’ capacity to grow.In this regard, despite individual learning, organizational learning in the form ofestablishing a culture, supporting reform instruction and facilitating individualchange efforts fails to be developed.

The present study aimed to explore the degree to which optional seminars incor-porated aspects of adult learning, outlined by the relevant literature. In view of agovernmental initiative for need for educational reform in Cyprus (Committee onEducational Reform, 2004) on one hand, and the need to reshape training systems inEurope (European Commission, 2005) on the other, pressure is exerted on thenational training provider—that is, the Pedagogical Institute—to move towardsprovision of an enhanced in-service training scheme. Thus, the evaluation appearedin accordance with the broader effort towards improvement of teacher professionaldevelopment in the country.

Methodology

To address the research question, questionnaires were selected as the data collectioninstrument to provide insight into participants’ views on the courses attended.Because of the focus on the extent to which professional development embeddedadult education traits, data collection and analysis focused on identified factors ofadult learning. Questionnaires consisted of five sections, developed on the basis of theliterature: personal background, self-concept, accumulated experience, readiness tolearn as well as orientation to learning. Questions remained closed and the range ofpossible responses was predetermined using a Likert-type scale; responses to state-ment items were indicated in a numerical scale from one to five, in such a way that ahigher score always represented a higher degree of agreement with a statement.

The survey was conducted with a nationally representative number of participantswho attended optional seminars during 2005/06. Random sampling was employed asthe population included all pre-primary, primary and secondary teachers, who hadattended optional courses during a specified three-month period (i.e. January–March). Teacher trainers whose seminars finished during this particular period wereasked to randomly distribute questionnaires to one-half of the participants during thelast meeting session of the course. Questionnaires were distributed to attendants of35 out of the 78 seminars offered during the particular school year (i.e. 44.87% of the

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optional seminars offered). The sample consisted of 607 teachers out of the 1467teachers (i.e. 41% of all participants) in optional seminars during the particularacademic year.

Questionnaires were numbered, recorded and statistically analysed. Due to themulti-dimensionality of adult learning as a construct, factor analysis was chosen asthe data reduction technique. It was interesting to find out which factors emerged inthe adult learning scales as well as how the emerging factors related to those identifiedin the literature. Thus, the 38 questionnaire items were factor analysed to assesswhich items were inter-correlated and to establish internal reliability. The total matrixsampling adequacy for factor analysis was found sufficient (i.e. 0.89). The BartlettTest of Sphericity was significant, indicating the presence of factor structure (χ2(595)= 3270, p = 0.0001). Kaiser’s criterion that only factors with eigenvalues greater thanone are retained (Child, 1990) was applied. Principal axis factoring with a varimaxrotation yielded, after careful examination of the scree plot, a six-factor solutioninvolving 35 items with factor loadings above 0.30 that explained 63% of variance.

It is important to note that the methodology adopted in the study could beconsidered limiting in scope, mainly since it only employed one methodologicaltool (i.e. closed-type questionnaires). Due to practical constraints, it was not possi-ble to collect qualitative data through techniques such as interviews or observationsso as to establish validity through triangulation of the quantitative data, collectedwith the questionnaires (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994; Burns, 2000). In addition, sincedata were collected from a specific population, teachers attending optional semi-nars, generalization of the study results to the whole teacher population would beinappropriate. Nevertheless, in spite of the limitations, this study is probably thefirst attempt to evaluate the degree to which a specific form of in-service trainingincorporates aspects of adult learning in an under-reported national educationalcontext, where the effectiveness of professional development is an issue of concern(Karagiorgi & Symeou, 2006). In addition, this study could provide a baseline todesign and develop more ambitious projects towards evaluation of formal trainingpractices in the near future.

Results and discussion

Return rates were considered satisfactory. According to the research design, provid-ing for distribution of questionnaires to one-half of the participants, instrumentswere completed by 273 participants; that is, 45% of teachers attending the semi-nars selected for this study and 18.6% of the total teacher population attendingoptional seminars during the particular academic year. Table 1 presents the diver-sity of the optional seminars attended, in terms of core characteristics such as levelof education and district. Although none of the seminars were offered in Larnaca, anumber of them were organized in Ammohostos, so the South/East region was stillrepresented. In addition, the participation of technical education teachers failed tobe established as no seminars of technical education were offered at the time. Ingeneral, 21 trainers were involved in the 35 seminars selected, some trainers

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offering more than one seminar. Table 1 further presents the characteristics of theresponders in terms of level of education at which they taught, gender, as well asyears of teaching experience.

In terms of the themes of the 35 seminars attended by research participants,approximately one-third of the seminars (n = 12) were related to contemporary teach-ing methodologies—including information and communication technology integra-tion—in several school subject areas (e.g. English, history, literature, technology).Almost one-third of the seminars (n = 11) related to issues in educational psychology,such as family violence, communication skills and behavioural problems. The rest ofthe seminars focused on educational research—use of statistical software or actionresearch methods (n = 7)—intercultural education (n = 3) and environmentaleducation (n = 2).

Table 1. Characteristics of seminars and responders

Participants

Frequency (n) Percentage (%)

Seminars Level of education Inter-departmental 175 64.10Elementary education 39 14.29Secondary education 59 21.61

District Nicosia (Central) 146 53.48Limassol (South/Central) 78 28.57Larnaca (South/East) 0 0.00Paphos (South/West) 34 12.45Ammohostos (South/East) 15 5.49

Participants Age of students that respondents teacha

Pre-primary (3–6 years old)Primary (6–12 years old)

33138

12.0950.55

Gymnasium (12–15 years old) 66 24.18Lyceum (15–18 years old) 53 19.41Technical 3 1.10Pre-primary (3–6 years old)Primary (6–12 years old)

33138

12.0950.55

Gymnasium (12–15 years old) 66 24.18Lyceum (15–18 years old) 53 19.41Technical 3 1.10

Years in occupation 0–3 55 20.153–10 115 42.1210–20 77 28.2120 and more 23 8.42

Gender Male 33 12.09Female 222 81.32

aSome respondents noted more than one group.

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The resulting factor solution is presented in Appendix 1. The six factors extractedwere labelled as: factor 1, Orientation to Learning; factor 2, Readiness to Learn;factor 3, Accumulated Experience; factor 4, Self-concept; factor 5, Organization ofSeminar; and factor 6, Dissemination of Findings. Orientation to Learningcomprised seven items (Cronbach alpha = 0.87) representing, mainly, views thatadults seek to address existing problems or current needs. Readiness to Learncomprised seven items (α = 0.88), reflecting views that course goals should becompatible with participants’ needs, skills and experience levels (Curriculum Designand Delivery Process, 2001). Accumulated Experience comprised eight items (α =0.90) and represented participants’ views on the crucial role of their pre-existingconceptions and understandings. Self-concept comprised five items (α = 0.86),representing participants’ views on autonomy as the basic component of learning.Organization of Seminar comprised three items (α = 0.57) representing participants’views on the structure and content of the seminar. Finally, Dissemination of Findingscomprised five items (α = 0.80), representing the degree to which participants sharedtheir seminar experience with colleagues, administrators, students, and family. Thefirst four factors reflect adult learning traits identified in the literature, while the lasttwo indicate additional dimensions. The factor structure has also certain similaritiesto that resulting from the literature, especially as to the extraction of the first fourfactors, while differences obtained in the item structure can be attributed to thedifferent local context.

It is interesting to notice that, with regards to teachers’ evaluation of the seminarson the factors above and as shown in Appendix 2, this study outlined that optionalseminars embedded adult learning traits to a great extent. This finding is consistentwith the finding of another teacher survey conducted during 2004/05 by Karagiorgiand Symeou (2005), which showed that participating teachers appeared satisfied(mean = 3.30, standard deviation = 0.99 on a scale from one to five, with 1 = not atall and 5 = very much) from this form of professional development.

Orientation to Learning

According to the relevant literature, adults are present-oriented and their learningshifts from subject-centredness to problem-centredness (Knowles, 1984). Partici-pating teachers tended to agree that the seminar contributed towards the develop-ment of their critical thinking to a great extent (mean = 4.03). Thus, one can inferthat the trainers focused on problem-solving rather than mere information transmis-sion. However, there is lack of information as to the extent to which trainers relatedproblems to adults’ multiple roles and responsibilities, different life experiences,transitions from one developmental phase to another that provide reinterpretationand rearrangement of past experience and the experience of anxiety and ambiva-lence related to job pressure and relational problems (Brookfield, 1986). Inaddition, we are not aware of the extent to which problem-solving methods such asskill performance exercises, case studies, role-plays and brainstorming sessions—regarded as most suitable for participants because of the focus on practicality—were

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employed. However, the seminars appeared to respond to adults’ need for immedi-acy of application of new learning and for context-based development. Participantstended to agree that the seminar attended accommodated their professional needs(mean = 3.99), was useful for application at the work environment (mean = 3.89),enhanced application of new ideas (mean = 3.72) and provided opportunities forassessment of suggestions with regards to their potential for application in theschool reality (mean = 3.56) or for practice in situations that simulated school real-ity (mean = 3.55). These positive outcomes are surprising in view of two limita-tions. First, that the traditional structure of the training does not—as mentionedabove—encourage collective participation of teachers from the same school whocould share experiences and discuss effective solutions for the same problems,supporting a collaborative approach to change. Second, these seminars would alsoappear less likely to allow for feedback to teachers who might try out new practicesin the classroom. It is important to note here that the lowest rate given by theparticipants concerned the relation of teaching material to school life (mean =3.40). This could be attributed to the fact that seminars are de-contextual in thatthey are externally provided outside the school environment.

Readiness to Learn

Adults are motivated to learn for a variety of reasons related to their personal needs,which affect their readiness to learn and, consequently, determine the personal char-acter of their learning. Participants believed that the seminars met their personalneeds (‘It helped me to obtain new skills/knowledge for the fulfilment of specific,personal needs’, mean = 3.87; ‘It systematically ensured that participants’ needs andinterests were addressed’, mean = 3.97; ‘It fulfilled my expectations with regards toits goals and approaches’, mean = 4.02). Although these findings are encouraging, itwould be useful to know the reasons behind participation. According to Rogers(1989), the most common motives are promotion, entry to a new career, money andchange in the professional area. Other kinds of motives are more intrinsic and concernsocialization, such as the need for adults to test themselves ‘against a yardstick ofacademic difficulty’ (Rogers, 1989, p. 32). According to Knowles (1984), internalmotivation is mainly oriented to the developmental tasks of social roles. As adultsrealize personal needs within the requirements of their social role, they prefer learningto be integrated with their experiences and take place in a psychologically and physi-cally comfortable environment. The context (‘Functioned in a friendly and comfort-able atmosphere’, mean = 4.64), learning pace (‘The material was gradually providedso as to be better assimilated’, mean = 4.02) and teaching approach (‘There wasconsistency between the different sessions and the issues addressed’, mean = 4.07)appeared appropriate. These outcomes could suggest the establishment of clear rela-tionships between goals, learners’ expectations and learning activities (CurriculumDesign and Delivery Process, 2001). The lowest rate in this trait was given to the itemreferring to the variety of teaching approaches used (mean = 3.63). This could be dueto the short length of the optional seminars, which could make it less likely for trainers

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to provide a repertoire of teaching approaches—in-depth discussion of content,misconceptions and pedagogies—considered time consuming.

Accumulated Experience

Adult learning procedures should place a lot of emphasis on experience and observa-tion (Amstutz, 1999). This principle that supports construction of new learning onrelevance to prior learning and past experiences appears to have been applied.Consideration of participants’ accumulated experience is indicated in a number ofstatements (‘It efficiently connected the new with the previous knowledge and expe-rience of the participants’, mean = 3.72; ‘Participants’ previous knowledge and expe-rience on the particular topic were taken into consideration’, mean = 3.78). Theseoutcomes suggest that the underlying notion of accumulated experience wasaddressed by trainers. Adult learners can use their colleagues as reflective mirrors ingroup discussions, individual and group case-study exercises and through groupprocesses that enable communication with the trainer and other learners. It is worthnoticing that participants’ score regarding the adjustment of the content of the semi-nar to their previous experience was the lowest in this trait (mean = 3.49). It seems,therefore, that trainers should pay more attention to participants’ prior knowledge byindividualizing instruction and adapting teaching material to individuals’ experiences(Brookfield, 1993). Active participatory learning also appeared enhanced. Partici-pants reported opportunities for interaction with their tutor (mean = 4.27); exchangeof views, knowledge and experiences on the topic (mean = 4.22); interaction amongthemselves (mean = 4.15); active involvement in learning procedures (mean = 4.06);and involvement in problem-solving procedures (mean = 3.74). It could thus appearthat focus on knowledge—practically derived from experiential situations—was notlimited to the manifestation of abstract generalizations, but rather situational,‘socially located, very often complex and problematic and consciously and intention-ally carried out’ (Usher & Bryant, 1989, p. 82). However, it is not known whetherpractice has indeed led to an application of the notion of practical theorizing, enablingparticipants to become critically aware of the informally developed theories that guideteaching practices, thus bridging the gap between theory and practice, groundingtheory in practice (Hillier, 2002). A preventing factor towards this direction could bethe diversity of participants’ experience. Since teachers come from different schools,it would appear difficult for participants to discuss common problems, arising fromexperience in terms of their unique instructional context or institutional setting.

Self-concept

Adults determine what, when and how learning takes place while they plan, conductand evaluate their own learning (Amstutz, 1999; Curriculum Design and DeliveryProcess, 2001). Within the scope of this study, participants stressed that they werehelped to realize their own needs, motives, interests and potentials (mean = 3.75);were given individual help according to their personal needs (mean = 3.48); and were

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offered the opportunity to evaluate the extent to which goals were attained (mean =3.55). These outcomes support that self-directed learning, an important aspect ofadult learning, occurred to a certain extent. Self-directed learning is based on thisawareness and ‘the consciousness of their [adults’] personal power’ (Brookfield,1986, p. 58). Knowles (1984) suggests three reasons behind self-directing learning:adults who take the initiative to learn, learn more things; adult education is in tunewith the natural process of psychological development; finally, the new developmentsin education put heavy responsibility on learners. These reasons enable adult learnersto continually exercise control over all decisions related to their learning and gainaccess to and select from a full range of available and appropriate resources. Self-empowerment concerns an internal change in adult learners’ mind and consciousnessas well as the external management of instructional events. Thus, as long as adultlearners become aware of their autonomy in the act of learning, they ‘invest that actwith a sense of personal meaning’ (Brookfield, 1986, p. 58). Except for determiningtheir own objectives and pace of learning, realizing individual learning styles can alsomaximize the effectiveness of adult learning (Brookfield, 1986; Hillier, 2002). Honeyand Mumford (1982) identify four categories of learning styles: activists, reflectors,pragmatists and theorists. Inevitably, every learning situation should include aspectsof all these learning styles. Once acknowledged by the trainer, individual learningstyles can enrich the learning experience of the participants in a team. As Hillierpoints out: ‘finding out about learner’s preferred learning styles will help [the trainer]to provide a variety of learning experiences’ (2002, p. 72). However, within the scopeof this study, it did not become possible to acknowledge the extent to which partici-pants became aware of their learning styles. Although participants were shown to real-ize their autonomy in the act of learning, the control of the participants over theirlearning appeared restricted with regards to the methods (mean = 2.78) or thecontext of the seminar (mean = 3.07). A possible reason for this could be the central-ized character of the teacher-training scheme in Cyprus, in which training providersand stakeholders make the decisions with regards to the topics that teachers shouldbe trained on, allowing participants to only choose from the proposed topics the onesthat interest them. In addition, emphasis appears to be placed at the acquisition ofknowledge, rather than on self-empowerment and the facilitation of individualchange of each and every participant.

Organization of Seminar

The scores of the participants in this trait coupled with their scores on Self-concept,concerning the extent of their autonomy in controlling their own learning. Partici-pants stressed that the content, the methods and the pace of instructions were pre-specified (mean = 3.94). These findings underline participants’ awareness of therestrictions in fully controlling the context and the methods employed during trainingactivities. However, despite the fact that participants did not express their opinionsbefore the realization of the seminar, it appears that trainers managed to fulfil theparticipants’ expectations with regards to the content and the pace of instructions

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(‘The curriculum was overloaded’, mean = 1.87; ‘The pace was too quick for me’,mean = 1.82). This might have happened intuitively or by chance with the trainersnot taking these aspects consciously into consideration while scheduling the seminars.Thus, it is important to make sure that participants are given the chance to assert theirown perceptions regarding basic organizational issues in advance, and not at the endof the seminar as a form of final evaluation.

Dissemination of Findings

Participants’ replies revealed that optional seminars did not place emphasis only ontheory (mean = 2.10) but helped them address problems of their everyday lifemore effectively (mean = 3.42). Participants felt prompted to discuss the contentof the seminars with their colleagues who did not attend (mean = 3.58), even theirfamilies and friends (mean = 3.19), but not with the administrative staff in theirschool (mean = 2.69). This reluctance to share training experiences with manage-ment teams—despite acknowledging the relevance of issues discussed to schoollife—implies a communication gap between teachers and managers within theschool setting. This gap could be attributed to centralized structures impactingschool culture, and creating power distance issues in levels of hierarchy. In addi-tion, since optional seminars were not attended by groups of teachers from thesame school, it could be expected that impact would appear in individual ratherthan organizational learning.

Implications

As mentioned before, the aim of the present article was to indicate the degree towhich core features of effective adult learning were embedded in the optional semi-nars in Cyprus. In a theoretical perspective, an underlying assumption was that, byapplying adult learning theory to professional development, this study could establishan alternative-to-the-ordinary framework for evaluation of teacher education prac-tices. In practical terms, however, this study was undertaken to provide valuableinsight on the efficiency of the existing training scheme to all stakeholders. Thus, dataare here discussed in an effort to explore policy implications with regards to the designof teacher professional development activities.

As already pointed out above, optional seminars reflect a traditional, structuralform of professional development; they are short courses less likely to provide oppor-tunities for in-depth reflection; and they focus on individual learning rather thancollective participation. Considering the structural restrictions of this form of teacherprofessional development with regards to training format and type, the researchreported in this article is fundamentally optimistic in that it shows that the method-ology used by trainers satisfied participants to a great extent, indicating that adultlearning traits were embedded in the particular approach to teacher professionaldevelopment (i.e. the optional seminars). However, it would be unfair and oversim-plistic to view this outcome in its own right. Such an approach would support Haggis’

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(2002) argument that adults learning ideas are projected in uncritical ways. There-fore, the emerging implications should be viewed with a critical eye.

First, although the results of this study unpredictably suggest that adult learningtraits were applied in the realization of optional seminars to a great extent, data didnot also reveal whether the trainers were much aware of this fact or just followed theirintuition as experienced teachers themselves. Therefore, to promote the enhancementof teacher education, training the trainers would appear as a significant strategy forpolicy-makers. A possible scheme for teacher training could, for instance, include theprovision of knowledge and experiences regarding adult learning traits. Trainers couldbe enabled to act as multipliers of adult learning principles to avoid implementing theoxymoron scheme of lecturing teachers about the importance of learner-centrednessin teaching, with little or no opportunity to experience the process themselves as learn-ers. In this way, it would be reassured that adult learning traits would not remain inthe sphere of theory, but would be realized as an effective approach towards enhancedteachers’ professional development. Trainers, for instance, could come to realize thatteachers do not enter professional learning programmes as empty vessels but bringexperiences, practices, perspectives, insights and anxieties, which should be addressedso as to ensure meaningful learning (Dadds, 2001). Such a systematic approachtowards teacher-training practices would make sure that trainers become learner-centred not only in principle but also in practice (Beder, 2001).

Second, organizational aspects of the seminars such as the duration and time ofactivities need to be reconsidered. Apparently, optional seminars appeared still trappedin traditional and conventional approaches to teacher development that hinder fullcontrol of teachers over their learning. Therefore, to accommodate participants’ needs,the form of optional seminars could be restructured. Decision-makers could consideralternatives to the existing pre-fixed structural design of the seminars into five meetingsand provide for more flexible schemes according to the subject taught and the type ofactivities involved.

Third, despite respondents’ report on the acquisition of new schools to a greatextent, this study has not revealed or measured real impact of training practices inschool practice. Therefore, training outcomes could be explored in terms of dissem-ination and implementation of ideas or new knowledge, leading into innovative prac-tices in areas such as the curriculum content, the instructional methods employed,the assessment methods used to evaluate students, the ways technology is used andthe approaches to student diversity. Measures should therefore be taken to establishand maintain links between professional development and teaching practice throughsupport mechanisms or mentoring systems. As Eraut points out, learning throughprofessional development does not automatically trigger ‘follow-through’, as there isa ‘great deal of further learning, usually much more than happened at the CPD[continuing professional development event] (itself)’ (2001, p. 10). In this context,the Frost and Durrant (2003) framework of enabling teachers to plan, track and eval-uate the impact of their activity rather than retrospectively evaluating the impact, byencouraging teachers to think more broadly about the influence they may have, couldbe particularly appropriate. In addition, by critically reflecting upon individual and

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collective experience, adults can become ‘proactive in trying out new ideas and solu-tions to existing problems, and aware that any action we take leads to new challenges’(Hillier, 2002, p. 18).

Finally, outcomes of this study should be regarded with caution in view of certainlimitations. On one hand, positive attitudes towards this particular form of trainingcould be attributed to a great extent to the voluntary character of participation, since‘adults engage in learning as a result of their own volition’ (Brookfield, 1986, p. 1) todevelop new skills, acquire new knowledge, improve assimilated competences orshape ways of self-understanding. The voluntary character of participation in theseminars could have created positive attitudes towards the training offered, allowingparticipants to easily withdraw if the activity did not fulfil their expectations or if theywere treated in a humiliating or insulting way. Therefore, generalizations of the find-ings to all teachers attending training seminars, especially compulsory ones, wouldappear inappropriate. At the same time, certain limitations in terms of the methodol-ogy adopted have already outlined. Therefore, further research could be conductedin the future through alternative methodological approaches so as to enhance morein-depth evaluation of forms of teacher professional development in Cyprus. Suchresearch could explore the content characteristics of the seminars, the processes interms of the quality of the interaction during training, the coherence in professionaldevelopment and the training outcomes obtained. It would be interesting, forinstance, to know whether the optional seminars supported teacher active engage-ment in the meaningful analysis of teaching and learning through observing and beingobserved teaching; planning for classroom implementation; reviewing student work;and presenting, leading and writing. Issues such as the level of coherence in profes-sional development could be assessed as to the extent to which it builds on teacherprior knowledge; it emphasizes content and pedagogy aligned with national, state andlocal standards and assessments; it supports teachers in developing sustained,ongoing professional communication with other teachers who are trying to changetheir teaching in similar ways.

Concluding remarks

Moving towards well-structured and organized teacher professional developmentprogrammes is often a priority in national systems around the world. For useful andeffective professional development to have a meaningful effect on teacher learningand classroom improvement, focus should be on providing high-quality experiences.This signifies the need for clear, coherent and comprehensive policies on effectivestaff development practices. Evaluation of existing teacher education practicesemerges as a critical component of such policies.

This study has resulted in context-specific recommendations, in view of pressureswithin the particular educational system of Cyprus for enhanced teacher training as aresult of educational reform. In particular, the survey has shown that optional semi-nars embed adult learning traits to a great extent. Provided that an optional seminaris the basic type of formal professional development for teachers in the country and

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in light of the findings, such courses should be enriched and supported. Attemptstowards this direction would need to address the six dimensions extracted in thisstudy, building on methodological and organizational axes. Such an approach wouldallow these seminars to contribute towards teachers’ personal and professionalgrowth as a complimentary scheme to other possibly compulsory teacher-trainingapproaches and would constitute a more feasible approach to incremental change,compared with drastic and radical reform in teacher-training practices in Cyprus.

Except from the recommendations at the broader policy-making level of theparticular national context, this study has also indicated the need for furtherresearch in the field of teacher professional development and adult learning.Although the particular study has been a search for ‘research-based evidence’ ofwhat ‘works’ in formal learning situations (Haggis, 2002), the need for evaluation ofteacher-training programmes beyond ‘client’ satisfaction methods has been repeat-edly underlined. In this respect, the adult learning framework could be furtherapplied in researching the effectiveness of teacher professional development experi-ences in alternative settings and methodological approaches. More research into thenature of situated adult learning experiences in teacher development programmes,not only in Cyprus but in other countries, could complement ‘standard’ evaluationapproaches, which usually measure teacher satisfaction with training experienceswith questionnaires delivered to participants at the end. Resulting data focusing onthe quality of the adult interaction would contribute significantly towards enhance-ment of teacher learning in formal professional contexts. The adult learningtheory—easily compatible with contemporary approaches, such as constructivismand problem-solving—could provide an answer to effective teacher development inthe twenty-first century.

Acknowledgements

The research presented in this article was undertaken within the framework of theGrundtvig 2 programme ‘Diagnosis of Teachers’ Needs and Evaluation of Teachers’Development Forms in Partner Countries—Comparison and Looking For the MostEffective Solutions’. The authors would like to thank the European Commissionfor their financial support in conducting the research. The views presented do notreflect the views of either the European Commission or the Socrates NationalAgency.

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Appendix 1. Factor analysis (principal axis factoring with varimax rotation) with individual questionnaire items as variables

Appendix 1

Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4 Factor 5 Factor 6

Item/variableOrientation

to LearnReadiness to Learn

Accumulated Experience Self-concept

Organization of Seminar

Dissemination of Findings

c2 0.711c3 0.611c6 0.628c8 0.675c9 0.765c10 0.634c30 0.479c1 0.555c11 0.510c15 0.684c16 0.740c17 0.706c18 0.671c19 0.534c12 0.400c21 0.780c22 0.709c23 00.808c24 0.847c28 0.609c29 0.564c31 0.452c32 0.494c33 0.549c34 0.854c35 0.838c36 0.541c13 0.786c14 0.835c37 0.561c5 0.486c7 0.522c25 0.579c26 0.626c27 0.671

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Appendix 2. Distribution of questionnaire items per factor

Appendix 2

Factor Statement Mean SD

Ori

enta

tion

to

lear

n

It offered suggestions, useful for an immediate application to my work. (c2)

3.89 0.93

It was strongly related to my professional needs. (c3) 3.99 0.97The teaching material included was related to the school life. (c6)

3.40 1.18

It offered support or guidance to me with regards to the application of new ideas in my school/personal environment. (c8)

3.72 1.02

It provided opportunities for assessment of suggestions with regards to their potential for application in the school reality. (c9)

3.56 1.02

It gave opportunities for practice in situations that simulated school reality. (c10)

3.55 1.12

It offered opportunities for the development of participants’ critical thinking. (c30)

4.03 0.91

Rea

din

ess

to le

arn

It helped me to obtain new skills/knowledge for the fulfilment of specific, personal needs. (c1)

3.87 0.87

A variety of teaching approaches was included. (c11) 3.63 1.05There was consistency between the different sessions and the issues addressed. (c15)

4.07 0.84

The material was gradually provided so as to be better assimilated.(c16)

4.02 0.84

It systematically ensured that participants’ needs and interests were addressed. (c17)

3.97 0.85

It fulfilled my expectations with regards to its goals and approaches. (c18)

4.02 0.90

It functioned in a friendly and comfortable atmosphere for the participants. (c19)

4.64 0.60

Acc

um

ula

ted

Ex

per

ien

ce

The participants were involved in problem-solving procedures. (c12)

3.74 1.06

It offered opportunities to participants to exchange their views, knowledge and experiences on the topic. (c21)

4.22 0.89

Participants’ previous knowledge and experience on the particular topic were taken into consideration.(c22)

3.78 1.08

It provided opportunities for interaction between the tutor and the participants. (c23)

4.27 0.87

It provided opportunities for interaction among the participants (c24)

4.15 1.01

The content was adjusted to the participants’ previous experiences. (c28)

3.49 1.10

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Appendix 2 (Continued)

Factor Statement Mean SD

It efficiently connected the new with the previous knowledge and experience of the participants. (c29)

3.72 1.00

Opportunities were given for active involvement of the participants in the learning procedures. (c31)

4.06 0.94

Sel

f-co

nce

pt

Individual help was provided to the participants according to their personal needs. (c32)

3.48 1.12

It helped me to better realize my own needs, motives, interests and potentials. (c33)

3.75 1.02

I was given the chance to participate in the construction of its context. (c34)

3.07 1.25

I was given the chance to participate in the selection of the methods used. (c35)

2.78 1.32

I was given the chance to participate in the evaluation of the extent to which goals were attained. (c36)

3.55 1.16

Org

aniz

atio

n

of t

he

Sem

inar

The curriculum was overloaded in relation to the time provided for its realisation. (c13)

1.87 1.01

The pace was too quick for me.(c14) 1.82 1.03It had pre-specified content, pre-specified methods and pre-specified pace of instruction. (c31)

3.94 1.03

Dis

sem

inat

ion

of

Res

ult

s

It placed emphasis only to theory. (c5) 2.10 1.07It helped me (or will help me) to face problems of my everyday life more effectively. (c7)

3.42 1.11

It prompted me to discuss its content with colleagues who did not attend the seminar. (c25)

3.58 1.11

It prompted me to discuss its content with the administrative staff in my school. (c26)

2.69 1.33

It prompted me to discus its content with my family and friends. (c27)

3.19 1.32

Underpinnings of adult learning in formal teacher professional development in Cyprus

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