!

Uncovering*design*thinking*without*design*Keegan*Steyn,*Ayanda*Ntombela,*Siphamandla*Masuku*and*Sharief*Edwards*

ABSTRACT*

More* than* anytime* in* our* history* has* there* been* such* a* focus* on* organisations* to* navigate*

complexity*and*create*desirable*futures.*Design*thinking*as*a*method,*has*emerged*as*an*heir*

to*the*thrown*of*hypes*and*fads*in*assisting*organisations**through*this*process.*Design*thinking*

has*a*tendency*to*ascribe*purposefulness*and**intentional*forethought*to*what*is*many*a*time*

commonly* embedded* coping* initiatives,* whereby* the* focal* concern* is* the* alleviation* of*

immediate*pressing*troubles.*Design*thinking,*has*to*date,*explicitly*or*implicitly*assumed*to*be*

an*activity* that* lives*within*deliberation*and*planning,*underpinned*by*conscious*choice,*goal*

directed* behaviour* and* instrumental* rationality.* This* view* of* design* thinking* as* being*

something*consciously*orchestrated*prior*to*the*experiential* *engagement*with*the*world*aids*

in* explaining* many* successful* instances* *where* the* conditions* are* stable* and* predictable.*

However* this* paper* proposes,* through* experiential* instances,* that* design* accomplishments*

may*also*emerge*inadvertently*as*unintended*human*action*and*adaptations*within*an*existing*

problem*context,*without*the*grandiose*oversight*or*preHauthored*design.*Essentially*this*paper*

explores*a*paradoxical*movement*of*designHless*design.*This*paper*notes*that*success*does*not*

always*have*to*be*attributed*to*the*preHexistence*of*a*deliberate*planned*strategy.*Rather,*such*

a*success*may*seen*indirectly*as*an*accruing*effect*of*a*whole*movement*of*actions,*which*are*

initiated*by*a*multitude*of*individuals,*all*seeking*merely*to*constructively*make*a*riposte*to*the*

predicaments*they*find*themselves*in.*This*paper*postulates*that*the*designHless*design*success*

lies*within*a*heightened*awareness*of*the*surprising*efficacy*of* indirect*action*(Chia*and*Holt,*

2009).*We*propose*that*the*entire*realm*of*Design*thinking*has*been*pervaded*by*a*paradoxical*

logic,*and*this* logic*requires*a*different*style*of*comprehension*and*engagement*than*that*of*

the* linear* instrumental* rationality.* This* different* mode* of* engagement* is* paradoxically* less*

spectacular,* more* understated* and* one* in* which* the* seemingly* small* and* unimportant*

movements* are* recognised* for* the* overall* effect* they* eventually* produce.* *To* put* it* simply,*

design* thinking* is* more* about* allowing* the* strategic* priorities* of* the* context* to* be* heard,*

through*a*contextual*ingenuity*and*adaptive*action.*Instead*of*seeing*design*thinking*as*being*

something* explicitly* and* boldly* stated* upfront,* we* claim* that* design* thinking* emerges*

organically,*more*modestly,*take*form*and*infusing*itself*into*the*everyday*actions*of*individuals*

and*organisations.*Understood*thus,*design*thinking*is*not*so*much*about*the*act*of*design*as*it*

is*about*a*process*of*purposeHfinding.*

*

!

*

INTRODUCTION*

In* recent* years,* there* has* been* much* focus* on* the* need* for* organizations* to* navigate*

complexity* within* the* everHchanging* environment* and* create* desirable* futures.* This*

acknowledgement*was*coupled*with*a*critique*of*the*traditional*methods*utilized*to*engage*in*

problem*solving/strategy*creation*(Buchanan,*1992).*As*Roger*Martin*(2010,*pg.*38)*states,*“no*

good*product*was*ever*created*from*quantitative*market*research.*Great*products*spring*from*

the*heart*and*soul*of*a*great*designer,*unencumbered*by*committees,*processes,*or*analyses.’’*

These*critiques*led*to*a*call*to*find*an*alternative*way*creating*desirable*futures.*A*prominent*

response* to* this* call* has* been* the* perpetuation* of* design* thinking* as* a* method* to* assist*

organizations*in*this*process.**

*

This* pursuit* for* a* new*way* of* navigating* complexity,* problem* solving* and* creating* desirable*

futures*has*focused*many*scholars*and*educators’*attention*on*design*as*a*means*of*refreshing*

various* disciplines* concerned* with* subject* areas* such* as* organization* design* (Romme* 2003;*

Weick*2003;*Boland*and*Collopy*2004;*Yoo*et*al.*2006;*Mohrman*2007),*research*design*(van*

Aken* 2005;* Huff* et* al.* 2006;* Jelinek* et* al* 2008)* and* strategy* (Liedtka* 2000).* As* one* of* the*

pioneers*in*articulating*the*applicability*of*design*in*multiple*disciplines,*Herbert*Simon*(1969)*

asserted*that*design*is*an*activity*undertaken*by*many*professionals,*noting*“Everyone*designs*

who* devises* courses* of* action* aimed* at* changing* existing* situations* into* preferred*

ones...Schools*of*engineering,*as*well*as*schools*of*architecture,*business,*education,**law,*and*

medicine,* are* all* centrally* concerned* with* the* process* of* design.* (Simon* 1969:* pg.* 55H56).*

Assisting* in* this* case,* Buchanan* (1992)* sought* to* shift* design* theory* away* from* craft* and*

production* towards* “design* thinking”* which* was* viewed* as* applicable* to* both* tangible* and*

intangible*systems.*Utilizing*this*outlook,*design*was*seen*as*a*liberal*art*that*is*wellHplaced*to*

serve* the* needs* of* a* technological* culture* with* complex* human* problems.* Design* problems*

were* seen* as* indeterminate/wicked* and* the* designer* employed* a* unique* way* of* seeing*

problems*and*finding*solutions*(Rittel*and*Weber,*1973).*

*

THE*EMERGENCE*OF*DESIGN*THINKING*

Simon* (1969)*and*Buchanan’s* (1992)* ideas*were*progressed*by*many*scholars*proposing* that*

managers/business*practitioners*should*adopt*“design*thinking”*to*complement*organizational*

practices* focused*on*decisionHmaking/problem*solving* (Boland*and*Collopy,*2004;*Dunne*and*

!

Martin,*2006,*Martin,*2009;*Brown,*2014).* In*this*sense,*design*thinking*was*proposed*as*the*

organization*of*businesses*as*design*teams*focused*on*the*design*of*business*in*addition*to*the*

design*of*products* (Martin,*2009;*Brown,*2014).*Through*distinguishing*the*craft*of*designers*

and* approaching* problem* resolution* in* this* way,* a* key* premise* of* this* proposal* was* that*

“DesignHthinking* firms* stand* apart* in* their* willingness* to* engage* in* the* task* of* continuously*

redesigning*their*business.*They*do*so*with*an*eye*to*creating*advances*in*both*innovation*and*

efficiency,*the*combination*that*produces*the*most*powerful*competitive*edge”*(Martin,*2010,*

pg.*38).**

*

The*body*of*literature*in*design*thinking*lends*itself*to*a*number*of*potential*interpretations*on*

the*definition*and*purpose*of*design* thinking.*The*key*areas* that*have*been*outlined* for* the*

purpose*of*design*refer*to*a*pursuit*of*achieving*a*fit*between*a*form*and*its*context;*problem*

solving;* and,* the* generation* of* new* concepts* and* new* knowledge* (Alexander,* 1964;* Simon,*

1969;* Hatchuel* and* Weill,* 2009).* These* divergent* perspectives* on* the* purpose* of* design*

thinking*have*lent*themselves*to*multiple*views*on*the*modes*of*thinking*and*reasoning*to*be*

utilized*within*design.* These* views* range* from*a*perspective* that*design* should*be* reasoned*

utilizing* abductive* reasoning,*whilst* others* postulate* that* design*utilizes* inductive,* deductive*

and* abductive* thinking.* Other* schools* of* thought* view* the* rationalization* within* design* as*

balancing* divergent* and* convergent* thinking,* whereas* others* view* design* rationalization* as*

rejecting* the* selection* of* an* alternative* and* rather* designing* new* possibilities* (Boland* and*

Collopy,* 2004;* Cross,* 2006;* Dunne* and*Martin* 2006;* Lawson,* 2006;*Martin,* 2009).* Even* the*

nature*of*the*problem*context* in*which*design*may*be*applied*has*been*disputed,*with*some*

authors*viewing*design*as*having* the*ability* to* resolve*both* illHstructured*and*wellHstructured*

problems* similarly,* whilst* others* argue* that* design* is* only* effective* in* resolving* “wicked”*

problems*and*some*authors*even*propose*that*problem*solving*is*a*subset*of*innovative*design*

as*opposed*to*its*goal*(Simon,*1977;*Buchanan,*1992;*Hatchuel,*2001).*

*

A* popular* manifestation* in* the* mainstream* application* of* design* thinking* has* been* the*

utilization*of*the*design*thinking*process.*This*process*has*been*articulated*as*a*move*through*

three* general* phases.* The* first* phase* being* “inspiration/mystery”* whereby* a* problem* or*

opportunity* is* experienced* by* a* practitioner* that* moves* them* into* an* “ideation/heuristic”*

(prototyping)* phase,* primarily* focused* on* the* generation* and* testing* of* ideas* to* resolve* the*

problem* situation,* finally,* the* “implementation/algorithm”* phase* is* reached* whereby* the*

selected* solution* is* introduced* into* a* market/context* (Brown,* 2014).* In* this* light,* design*

thinking*was*presented*as* a* loosely* structured*process*or* as* a*manner*of*balancing* tensions*

between* exploration* and* exploitation* in* order* to* stimulate* innovation* (Martin,* 2009;*

Nussbaum,* 2009;* Brown,* 2014).* This* has* received* wide* acceptance* and* adoption* by* many*

!

institutions,* including*business*schools,*government*bodies,*crossHministerial* innovation*units,*

organizations*and*consultancy*firms,*aiding*in*the*legitimation*of*the*design*thinking*process*as*

a*key*organizational*activity.*This*mainstream*conceptualization*of*design*thinking*has*resulted*

in*the*perpetuation*of*design*thinking*as*a*method*for*problem*solving.*The*key*principles*of*

this*method*have*been*seen*as*the*“defining*and*emphatizing”,*which*refers*to*the*deciding*on*

what*the*issue*to*be*resolved*is,*agreeing*on*the*audience*and*determining*what*will*make*the*

project* successful,* reviewing* the* history* of* the* problem* and* collecting* examples* of* other*

attempts* to* solve* the*problem,* talking* to/emphatizing*with* the*end*users* (in*order* to* affect*

later*design*outcomes);* “Ideation”,*which* refers* to* identifying*needs* and*motivations*or* end*

users,*generating*as*many*ideas*as*possible*to*address*the*needs*whilst*not*judging*or*debating*

ideas;* “Prototyping”,* which* refers* to* combining,* expanding* and* refining* ideas,* avoiding*

consensus* thinking* and* selecting* powerful* ideas;* “implementing”,* which* refers* to* planning*

tasks,*determining*resources,*executing*and*delivering*the*selected*idea,*and;*“learning”,*which*

refers*to*gathering*feedback*from*the*consumer,*discussing*points*of*improvement,*measuring*

success*and*documenting*(Plattner,Meinel*and*Leifer,*2010).**

*

Although*the*design*thinking*process*is*widely*distributed*and*recommended,*proponents*state*

that* it* should*be*seen*as*a* series*of*overlapping*spaces*as*opposed* to*a* sequence*of*orderly*

steps*(Brown,*2014).*Whilst*the*design*thinking*process*has*provided*some*structure*regarding*

the*utilization*of*design*thinking*for*problem*solving*and*creating*desirable*futures,*this*paper*

argues*that*the*methodHism*it*has*created*has*negative*implications*in*that*the*perpetuation*of*

a* generalized*design*method* ignores* the*diversity*of*designers’*practices* (and* thus* creates*a*

distinction* between* a* right* and* notHsoHright* way* of* designing)* and* creates* a* hierarchy* that*

privileges*the*designer*as*the*main*agent*in*designing,*thus*affecting*the*purpose*being*pursued*

by*design*interventions.**

*

CRITIQUE*OF*DESIGN*THINKING*

Design*thinking,*has*to*date,*explicitly*or* implicitly*assumed*to*be*an*activity*that* lives*within*

deliberation* and* planning,* underpinned* by* conscious* choice,* goal* directed* behaviour* and*

instrumental* rationality.* This* view* of* design* thinking* as* being* something* consciously*

orchestrated* prior* to* the* experiential* *engagement* with* the* world* aids* in* explaining* many*

successful*instances**where*the*conditions*are*stable*and*predictable.*It*has*been*used*by*key*

proponents* as* a* way* of* addressing* key* social* and* organizational* problems.* However,* in*

practice,*the*design*thinking*method*does*not*always*lead*to*the*espoused*benefits.*A*number*

of*critiques*have*been*raised*regarding*design*thinking,*focusing*mostly*on*the*inapplicability*of*

the* process* when* seeking* creative* outcomes* and* designing* desirable* futures* (the* key*

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propositions*of*the*design*thinking*process).*A*key*critique*of*design*thinking*has*been*raised*

by*one*of*its*key*proponents*in*the*21st*century.*Nussbaum*(2013)*critiqued*the*perpetuation*

and* adoption* of* the* design* thinking* process.* He* highlighted* that* one* of* the* key* causes* for*

organizational*adoption*of*design*thinking*was*the*digestibility*of*the*design*thinking*process*as*

a* way* of* delivering* creativity.* Noting* that* the* perpetuation* of* design* thinking* as* a*

methodology/process* has* led* to* far* more* failures* than* success,* he* highlighted* that* the*

application*of*design*thinking*by*organizations*and*consultancies*as*an*efficiencyHbased*process*

has*denuded*the*mess/wayfinding*that* is*part*of*the*creative*process*(Nussbaum,*2013).*This*

highlights* the* key* limitations* in* utilizing* the* design* thinking* process* in* practice,* making* it*

difficult* to* engage* in* an* unstructured* process* of* purposeHfinding* and* bringing* focus* to*

compliance*with* the* outlined* process,*which*may* result* in* diminished* outcomes.* This* paper*

views* the* phenomenon* that* is* being* experienced* in* the* design* thinking* domain* as* that* of*

institutionalization* of* the* design* thinking* domain,* emanating* in*methodHism.* In* this* context,*

institutionalization*refers*to*models*of*habitualized*behaviour*implicitly*built*from*control*and*

historicity*and* focused*on*perpetuating* that* control* and*historicity,* for* instance,* this*may*be*

seen*in*the*growing*number*of*business*schools*and*design*institutions*focused*on*transferring*

knowledge*regarding*the*“design*thinking*way”,*thus*creating*a*distinction*between*“accurate”*

behaviours/practices* and* “inaccurate”* behaviours/practices* whilst* engaged* in* design.* This*

institutionalization* results* in* a* methodHism,* which* refers* to* the* “objective”* application* of* a*

methodology* across* contexts* as* opposed* to* utilizing* the* context* to* determine* the* most*

appropriate*approach.*

*

Although*a*number*of*these*criticisms*have*been*placed*regarding*the*limitations*of*the*design*

thinking*process,* there* is* not*much* literature* to* explain* the*occurrence*of* this* phenomenon*

and* the* implications*of* the*continued*perpetuation/institutionalization*of* the*design* thinking*

process.* This* paper* highlights* the* institutionalization* of* the* design* thinking* and*methodHism*

and*highlights*the*key*implications*of*these.**

THE*INSTITUTIONALIZATION*OF*DESIGN*THINKING*

According* to* Berger* and* Luckmann* (1966)* institutionalization* is* the* illustration* of*models* of*

habitualized* behaviours,* which* have* a* reciprocal* relationship* between* the* institutional*

typifications,* actors* as*well* as* the* actors*within* the* institutions.* Any* institution* exists*within*

some*form*of*model*and*the*habitualized*actions*which*construct*the*model*of*the*institution*

are*shared*by*the*actors*involved.**Tolbert*and*Zucker*(1996)*respectively*describe*the*process*

of*institutionalization*in*three*progressive*stages:*[1]*Habitualisation,*[2]*Objectification,*and*[3]*

Sedimentation.* Berger* and* Luckmann* (1966)* noted* that* once* sedimentation* is* achieved,* the*

facts* and* routines* become* externalized,* and* the* externalization* process* enables* those* facts*

!

and*routines*to*be*transmitted*effortlessly*across*time*and*space.*Foucault*(as*sited*Räisänen*&*

Linde,* 2004)* approved*of* this* notion* as*he*demonstrated* that*we*human*beings* are* strange*

creatures,* because* we* create* objects* of* study* and* then,* over* time,* we* forget* it* was* our*

creation* and* treat* the* object* as* though* it* is* an* objective,* external* facet* of* reality.*

Sedimentation* can* be* seen* as* the* process* through* which* typifications* become* an* objective*

facet*of*reality.*

*

Institutions* are* implicitly* built* from* control* and* historicity* and* thus* aim* to* perpetuate* that*

control* and* historicity.* The* reciprocal*models* of* actions* are* created* in* the* path* of* a* shared*

history;* it* is* impossible* for* them* to* develop* instantaneously.* All* institutions* lives*within* the*

history*that*preceded*it.*Berger*and*Luckmann*(1966)*suggest*that*institutions,*by*mere*virtue*

of* its* existence,* govern* human* conduct* as* they* design* predetermined* patterns* of* human*

conduct,*which*are*then*channeled*into*one*particular*direction.*

Institutions* manifest* themselves* as* collectives* of* people,* these* collectives* of* people* are*

responsible* for* constructing* the* design* thinking* domain* world* and* since* they* shaped* this*

design*thinking*domain*world*on*the*path*of*a*shared*biography*which*they*can*remember,*the*

shaped*world*appears*completely*transparent*to*them.*Within*the*process*of* transmission*of*

these*models*of*human*conduct,*the*institutional*reality*stiffens*and*solidifies*itself,*not*only*to*

the* laymen* but* also* the* practitioners* (thus* finding* it* inescapable* to* engage* in* design* in* the*

absence*of*the*design*thinking*process).*As*Berger*and*Luckmann*(1966)*describes*it,*the*‘there*

we* go* again’* eventually* becomes* the* ‘this* is* how* these* things* are* done’.* The* image* of* the*

model*solidifies*itself*within*consciousness,*the*socially*constructed*model*becomes*perceived*

as* a* model* of* actual* reality.* Berger* and* Luckmann* (1966)* postulated* that* because* the*

responders* (or* the* imparted* laymen)* are* not* involved*within* the* shaping* of* this*model,* the*

reality*is*never*fully*transparent*to*them,*it*imposes*itself*as*a*given*reality*which*is*opaque*in*

certain* places.* Therefore* institutionalization* is* the* process* by* which* social* processes* and*

obligations* take* a* lawHlike* status* in* thought* and* action.* This* concept* of* institutionalization*

provides*an*understanding*of*the*perpetuation*of*design*thinking*and*with*the*key*implications*

of*this*being*the*creation*of*design*“hierarchy”*in*which*there*are*those*who*are*perceived*as*

“more”* equipped* than* others* to* engage* in* problemHsolving* and* the* creation* of* a* desirable*

future* based* on* their*mastery* of* the* design*methodology* and* “bestHpractice”* regarding* the*

application*of*the*design*process.*This*institutionalization*has*also*contributed*to*the*pursuit*for*

methodHism* in* the* design* domain.* The* following* section* describes* methodism* and* the* key*

implication*of*this*within*the*design*domain.*

*

!

METHODHISM*

It*is*of*value*to*note*that*this*paper*is*not*in*opposition*to*methodology*or*any*particular*tools*

or* techniques.* Rather,* we* seek* to* place* attention* on* the*mentality* of* methodHism,* with* its*

belief*in*the*universal*truth*of*methods*(Introna*and*Whitley,*1997;*Feyerabend*,*1993).**

*

MethodHism*can*most*adequately*be*described*by* the* following*propositions.* The* first* is* the*

presumption*that*methodology* is*necessary*and*sufficient*for*design*success,*essentially,*that*

all* the* things* that* are* required* to* understand* and* articulate* a* problem* space* and* design* a*

fitting*solution*can*be*found*in*a*well*designed*methodology*(Introna*and*Whitley,*1997).*The*

second*proposition* is*that* if*designers*have*a*suitable*methodology*at*their*disposal*they*will*

use*it,*holding*the*point*of*view**that*designers*grasp*the*value*of*methodology*and*are*inclined*

to*use*one*rather*than*not*(Introna*and*Whitley,*1997).* * * * * *

* *

* * * * * * * * * * * *

As* previously* stated* methodHism* believes* that* methodology* is* a* necessary* and* sufficient*

requirement* for* successful* design* to* take* place.* Inherently* this* assertion* maintains* that* a*

methodology* can* encompass* all* the* knowledge* that* is* required* to* allow* for* its* successful*

application* in* any* design* situation.* However,* we* put* forward* that* the* effective* use* of* a*

methodology*in*itself*is*dependent*on*an*existing,*tacit*and*holistic*understanding*of*the*world*

or*the*context*at*hand*and*is*something*that*does*not*exist*in*any*specific*methodology.*This*so*

called*background*knowledge*provides*the*basis*for*the*effective*use*of*methodologies*and*its*

usage*fails*when*this*understanding*is*not*present*(Introna*and*Whitley,*1997).*

*

Our*main*claim*is*that*the*use*of*methodology*stems*from*our*understanding*of*and*immersion*

within*a*context.*In*supporting*this*claim*we*point*to*the*theory*of*methodological*pragmatism*

(Rescher,*1998),*which*suggests*that*theories*and*methods*that*are*more*effective*in*achieving*

their*objectives*will*be*adopted*in*favor*of*others.*This*concept*of*“rational*selection”*says*that*

more*effective*theories*are*more*likely*to*survive.*Maybe*it*is*of*benefit*to*adopt*this*less*rigid,*

pragmatic* viewpoint.* The* main* assertion* of* pragmatism* is* that* the* value* of* a* proposition,*

theory* or* model* is* to* be* judged* by* the* consequences* of* accepting* it* (Wicks* and* Freeman,*

1998).*Essentially,* the*position*of*pragmatism*is*that*any*design* is*good*or*true*or*valuable* if*

and*only* if* it* is* useful* H* in* the* sense* that* it* helps* people* satisfy* a* need* (Recker*&*Niehaves,*

2008).*

*

Echoing* the* point* made* by* Introna* and* whitley* (1997)* we* stand* for* the* effective* use* of*

methodologies,*techniques*or*tools,*the*type*of*usage*that*emerges*from*the*immersion*within*

!

a*context*and*an*appreciation*for*everyday*life*whilst*designing*as*opposed*to*the*methodology*

use*born*out*of*a*methodHism*mindset.*Thus,*it*seems*more*realistic*to*adopt*a*more*pragmatic*

view* of* an* involved* designer* who* will* hack,* improvise/bricolage* the* tools* that* are* readily*

available*towards*achieving*the*outcome*rather*than*the*perspective*of*a*designer*objectively*

applying*a*methodology*(Introna,*1997;*Introna*and*Whitley,*1997;*Ciborra*1998).*The*purpose*

should*not*be*to*find*the*methodology,*it*should*be*how*to*help*those*that*need*to*design*to*

improvise* in*the*situation* in*order*achieve*satisficing*outcomes*(Ciborra,*1996;*Ciborra,*1998;*

Introna* and* Whitley,* 1997).* This* position* shifts* the* attention* from* institutionalizing* and*

mastering*a*design*thinking*methodology*and*process*towards*a*practice*of*designHless*design,*

whereby* the* context* and* purposeHbeingHpursued* shape* the* relevance* of* the* methodology,*

tools* and* techniques* utilized.* In* essence,* as* opposed* to* the* methodology* or* process*

presupposing*the*context,*the*context*presupposes*the*methodology.***

*

This*has*wideHscale*implications*on*the*perpetuation*of*design*practices*in*that*it*removes*the*

importance*or*notion*of*hierarchy* in*design.*This*creates*a*new*consideration* for* institutions*

from* a* movement* focused* on* perpetuating* the* “design* thinking* way”* (which* encompasses*

design*thinking*methodology*and*process*as*the*manner*in*which*one*should*engage*in*design)*

towards* facilitating* the* learning* of* design* techniques/methods* that* may* be* utilized* (or* not*

utilized)* by* practitioners* at* the* their* discretion* based* on* the* context* and* the* purpose* being*

pursued.*

*

METHODLESS)DESIGN)“We$know$as$we$go,$not$before$we$go$(ambulatory$knowing)...the$world$is$not$ready;made$for$life$to$occupy...It$is$rather$laid$out$along$paths$of$movement...To$find$one’s$way$is$to$advance$along$a$line$of$growth,$in$a$world...whose$future$configuration$can$never$be$fully$known.”$

Tim*Ingold,*The*Perception*of*the*Environment,*pp.230–231*

*

This* paper* proposes* that* design* accomplishments* may* also* emerge* inadvertently* as*

unintended* human* action* and* adaptations* within* an* existing* problem* context,* without* the*

grandiose*oversight*or*preHauthored*design.*

*

Chia* and* Holt* (2009:11)* have* expressed* that* “…many* established* social* phenomena* and*

institutions* that* we* take* so* much* for* granted* and* that* enable* modern* society* to* function,*

including*political*structures,*language,*money*and*legal*systems,*have*all*emerged*unplanned*

!

and* undirected.*Notwithstanding* their* obvious* complexity,* the* regularity* and* orderliness*we*

encounter* in* the* social* sphere* of* everyday* life* are* often* a* consequence* of* the* cumulative*

efforts* of* countless* individuals* acting* over* long* periods* of* time,* none* of*whom* intended* to*

contribute* to*any*preconceived*plan.”*As*an*example,* the*Micronesian*seafarer* feels*his*way*

towards*his*destination*by*continually*adjusting*his*movements*in*relation*to*the*flow*of*waves,*

wind,* current* and* stars.* In* this* respect,* his* activity* does* not* differ* in* principle* from* the*

terrestrial*traveller*who*responds*to*the*flow*of*perspective*structure*as*he*journeys*through*a*

landscape.*Every*journey*is*remembered*as*a*movement*through*time*rather*than*across*space*

(Chia*and*Holt,*2009).**

*

Following* the*work*of*Martin*Heidegger,*we*have*chosen* to*present* the* terms* the* ‘building’*and*

‘dwelling’.*Whilst*Heidegger*conceives*of*these*modes*as*being*naturally*sympathetic,*he*suggests*

that*modern*life,*and*notably*the*rise*and*spread*of*technological*sophistication,*has*wrested*them*

apart,* making* them* almost* antithetical.* In* the* building* mode* the* designer* is* presumed* to*

construct*mental* representations*of* the*world*prior* to*any*practical*engagement*with* it.*The*

dwelling*mode*of*engagement,*on*the*other*hand,*consists*of*local*adaptations*and*ingenuity*in*

everyday*practical* coping,* in*order* to*deal*with* immediate* concerns* at*hand*but*doing* so* in*

habituated* ways* that* are* consistent* with* and* reinforcing* his* or* her* own* sense* of* identity.*

Through* this* lens* the* ‘Disclosurer’*must* be* cognisant* that* there* exists* limits*with* his* or* her*

pragmatic*images,*and*of*how*things*might*be*encountered*other*than*simply*as*equipment*for*

human*ends.*

* * * * * *

In* this* section* we* attempt* to* illuminate* the* practice* of* dwelling* amid* things* phronetically,*

which*typically*introduces*the*notion*of*design*as*a*process*of*Disclosing*or*DesignHless*design,*

in* contrast* to* the* conventional* idea* of* design* thinking* as* a* navigational* process.*Whilst* this*

conventional* view* implicitly* presupposes* that* there* is* a* strategic* actor* that* is* detached* and*

surveying*from*a*‘God’sHeye’*point*of*view,*ironically*it*connects*to*judeoHchristianHislamic*view*

of*god*as*the*ultimate*designer,*which*would*explain*why*one*of*the*key*principles*is*empathy,*

as*though*the*designer*is*not*a*human*and*needs*to*understand*what*it*is*like*to*be*human*(i.e.*

Jesus*the*son*of*god).*The*Disclosing*perspective*treats*the*human*as* intimately* immersed* in*

and*inseparable*from*the*contexts,*from*which*movements*emanate*from*within*the*constantly*

evolving* circumstances.* Here* designing* is* about* allowing* the* context* to* speak,* by* getting* in*

touch* with* the* unknown* and* consciously* allowing* an* incomplete* but* practically* sufficient*

comprehension*of*the*image*to*come*into*being.*From*this*perspective*we*begin*to*recognise*

that*there*is*no*outer*and*inner*process;*there*is*only*one*unitary*process,* it* is*a*whole,*total*

movement,*the*inner*movement*expressing*itself*as*the*outer*and*the*outer*reacting*again*on*

the*inner.*It*holds*that*senseHmaking*is*prospective*rather*retrospective,*and*that*learning*lives*

!

in* the* present* ‘momentHtoHmomentness’.*What* this* implies* is* that* designing* is* continuously*

being* clarified* through* a* total* iterative* movement* and* adjustment* and* not* through* any*

predetermined* agenda.* Understood* thus,* design* thinking* is* not* so* much* about* the* act* of*

design*as* it* is* about*a*process*of*purposeHfinding.* This* insight*on*designHless*design*provides*

implications*on*how*the*success*of*design*interventions*may*be*seen.*In*other*words,*success*

does*not* always*have* to*be*attributed* to* the*preHexistence*of* a*deliberate*planned* strategy.*

Rather,* such* a* success* may* seen* indirectly* as* an* accruing* effect* of* a* whole* movement* of*

actions,*which*are* initiated*by*a*multitude*of* individuals,* all* seeking*merely* to* constructively*

make* a* riposte* to* the* predicaments* they* find* themselves* in.* This* paper* postulates* that* the*

designHless* design* success* lies* within* a* heightened* awareness* of* the* surprising* efficacy* of*

indirect*action*(Chia*and*Holt,*2009).*We*propose*that*the*entire*realm*of*Design*thinking*has*

been*pervaded*by*a*paradoxical*logic,*and*this*logic*requires*a*different*style*of*comprehension*

and*engagement*than*that*of*the*linear* instrumental*rationality.* In*this*sense,* it*may*be*seen*

that*the*successful*element*of*design*is*the*creation*of*resonance*to*a*purpose*as*opposed*to*

the*pursuit*to*reach*end*of*a*delineated*process.*To*repeat*the*words*of*Ingold*(2000,*pg.*230H

231)*“We*know*as*we*go,*not*before*we*go…the*world*is*not*readyHmade*for*life*to*occupy…It*is*

rather* laid* out* along* paths* of* movement…To* find* one’s* way* is* to* advance* along* a* line* of*

growth,*in*a*world…whose*future*configuration*can*never*be*fully*known.”**

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

!MethodLess*design*case*example*!

For* example,* Google* represents* an* unplanned* and* unanticipated* phenomenon,* the* success* of*

which*has*been*unprecedented*in*this*day*and*age.*Indeed,*a*measure*of*its*achievement*is*that*

within*a*space*of*ten*years*it*has*transformed*the*way*of*life*of*hundreds*of*millions*of*people*all*

over*the*world,*who*cannot*today*realistically*contemplate*how*they*would*go*about*their*daily*

need*for*accessing*information*were*Google*to*cease*to*exist*as*an*internet*search*facility.**

* * * * * *

Revenue*streams*for*Google*itself*were*something*of*an*afterthought,*and*they*came*from*a*very*

simple,* unassuming* and* lowHcost* source:* adHwords.* Revenue* came* as* an* adHon,* literally.*

Attending*the*results*page*of*each*search*Google*began*to*append*‘sponsored*links’.*Firms*would*

bid*for*words*that*they*felt*were*apposite*in*some*way*to*what*they*were*selling,*and*each*time*

the*link*was*followed*from*a*search*page*the*agreed*fee*was*levied.*Again,*there*was*no*attempt*

at* imposing* a* pricing* structure,* so* the* fee* followed* emerging,* shifting* search* patterns,* and* it*

would* typically* be*measured* in* cents,* depending* on* the* level* of* use.* Thus* the* earning* stream*

went*almost* unnoticed,* a* financial* tracery* from*web* crawler* to*an* immensely* sophisticated*ad*

business,*its*information*and*communication*technologies*echoing*the*everHexpanding*reach*of*a*

nested*system*of*users*and*computational*processes.**

* * * * *

As*more*people* searched,*and*clicked*on* related*adHwords,*more* revenue*was*earned,*without*

any*marketing,* or* strategic* positioning,* or* public* investment* –* and,* if* search* pages* could* carry*

sponsored*links,*then*why*not*other*web*pages,*such*as*bloggers*and*small*business*websites*with*

which*revenues*might*be* shared?*The*only* job*was* to*enhance*the* sophistication*of* the*search*

engine* in* order* that* the* adHwords* became*better* targeted,* and*more* nuanced* in* their* appeal,*

without* their* becoming* seditious* or* disguised.* This* was* Google’s* unique* offering,* its* singular*

‘trick’,*and*even*this*was*never*specified*or*touted*as*such.**

* * * *

Within* the* ambit* of* this* unconfining* mission* comes* an* unending,* rhizomic* growth* of* lines* of*

flight:* Froogle;* Google* Scholar;* gmail;* Google* Earth;* Google* News* (which* came* about* after* an*

engineer*wrote*a*webHcrawling*programme*for*himself*and*colleagues*that*would*gather*together*

news* items* relating* to* 9–11* without* him* having* to* enter* search* terms* actively);* and,* more*

recently,*an*openHsourced*browser*called*Chrome.*Employees*are*the*firm,*and*their*only*job*is*to*

look* for* ever* new* modes* of,* and* reasons* for,* human–machine* interaction* that* might* be*

predicated*by*variants*of*the*ubiquitous*Google*sobriquet.**

* * * * *

Google*exemplifies* the*art*of*wayfinding* from*within*an*embedded*set*of*dwelt*circumstances.*

Innovation* is*not*a*nonHimitable*asset,* it* is*not*a*niche*market*position*and* it* is*not*a*powerful*

occupation*of*territory;*it*is*a*disclosing*attitude*to*life*of*infinite*flexibility*–*period.*To*innovate*is*

to*acknowledge,*absorb*and*respond*to*an*everHshifting*array*of*opening*and*closing*experience*

without*recourse*to*relying*on*the*explicit,*the*codified*and*the*orthodox.**

!

!

DISCUSSION:*LESS*METHOD,*MORE*CONTEXT*

*

This* paper* has* focused* on* illuminating* the* implications* of* the* institutionalization* of* design*

thinking*and*the*methodHism*that*results*from*this.*It*should*be*repeated*that*the*authors*are*

not*opposed*to*method*and*process*and*the*utilization*of*these,*however,*we*argue*that*the*

onus*should*not*be*on*the*method*and*the*process*but*rather*on*the*context*and*the*purpose*

being*pursued*by*the*design*intervention,*which*in*turn*determines*the*nature*and*relevance*of*

a*method.*The*concept*of*methodLess*design*was*presented,*however,*in*the*application*of*this*

concept,* a* key*question*arises,* If* one* is* to*endeavor* in*design*without* clinging* to*a*method,*

what* are* the* key* considerations* that* may* assist* in* this* regard?/what* are* those* things* that*

might*be*observed?*

*

The* following* section* provides* an* understanding* of* key* considerations/heuristics* that* assist*

one* in*engaging* in*methodless*design.*This*heuristics* refer*both* the* role*of* the*designer*and*

engagement*in*design.*These*considerations*provide*the*ability*to*attract*and*evaluate*activities*

(relevance*and*nature)*whilst*engaged*in*design.*

KEY*CONSIDERATIONS*REGARDING*THE*ROLE*OF*THE*DESIGNER*

The*following*sections*provides*considerations*for*those*engaged* in*design*on*the*role*of*the*

designer*in*relation*to*“knowing”*and*“inciting*emotional*commitment”.*

*

In*accordance*with*the*Smith*and*Winter*(2010)*we*too*stress*the*role*of*the*designers*(those*

engaged* in* design* interventions)* to* be* that* of* senseHmaking*and* sense* giving,* denoting* a*

mediator*role*between*what*is*known*and*understood*by*the*designer*and*consolidating*it*to*

what* is* shared* and* understood* by* all.* In* this* regard* in* our* experience,*apart* from* requiring*

compassion*and*a*strong*willHtoHwantHto,*this*required*what*we*called*“sincere*inquiry”.*Sincere*

inquiry*refers*to*the*act*of*relinquishing*one’s*preconceptions*and*desired*outcomes*in*order*to*

be*able*to*listen*and*appreciate*the*perspective*of*others*without*seeking*to*justify*one’s*own*

position*and*objectives.* It* is*adopting*a*disposition*of*coHpresencing*and*coHcreating,*meaning*

that*the*outcomes*are*coHcreated*through*collective*dialogue*and*not*brought*assembled*prior*

to*the*dialogue*and*justified*in*the*dialogue.*Our*opinion*is*that*the*role*of*the*designer* is*to*

ensure*that*they*take*on*this*disposition*and*act*as*facilitators*of*disclosures*in*order*to*build*

shared*vision,*purpose*and*spur*on*emotional*commitment.*

!

On*“knowing”*

A*key*concept*that*applies*within*the*role*of*the*designer*is*the*“permeability*of*self”*(Yanow*

and*Tsoukas,*2009).*This*refers*to*an*attention*and*responsiveness*to*unfolding*processes,*and*

a* conscious*awareness* in* the*moment* that*entails*both*a* selfHobserving*and*an*observing*of*

others.* But* most* importantly,* it* relates* to* the* *(Yanow* and* Tsoukas,* 2009,* pg.* 1356H7)*

“relinquishing*(or*willingness*to*relinquish)*the*sense*of*control*over*the*situation*and/or*over*

others*(although*one*retains*control*over*oneself)…[and]*living*with*the*possible*anxiety*of*notH

knowing,*as*well*as*with*whatever*anxieties*might*be*around*by*being*perceived,*publicly,*as*

not*knowing”.*In*the*application*of*methodLess*design,*we*experienced*this*to*be*a*struggle*for*

understanding*and*being*true*to*oneself.* It*was*undertaken*as*a*responsibility*to*ourselves*to*

ensure* that*we*were* always* aware*of* our* state*of*mind*when*engaging*with* colleagues* and*

clients.* Related* to* this* experience*was* the* struggle* for* learning* to*disagree*with* compassion*

and*without*anger.*The*phenomena*was*experienced*as*a*“knowing”*when*to*lead*and*when*to*

step* back* and* be* led,* and* related* to* this* is* the* experience* of* wanting* to* be* in* control* and*

letting*go.**The*most*striking*experience*of*the*phenomena*was*the*desire*to*not*be*judgmental*

i.e.* to* improve* our* way* of* listening* and* interpreting* dialogue* without* drawing* too* many*

conclusions*too*quickly.*

On*emotional*commitment*

The*most*critical*role*of*the*designer*is*to*create*the*conditions*for*themselves*and*for*the*for*

their* coHdesigners* to* be* emotionally* committed* to* the* task* at* hand* or* the* purpose* being*

pursued.**In*our*opinion,*emotional*commitment*refers*to*the*fundamental*reasons*why*people*

do*the*things*they*do,*and*our*interpretation*is*that,*if*they*know*and*understand*why*they*are*

doing*it,*they*are*likely*to*do*with*emotional*commitment.*Therefore*our*understanding*of*the*

role*of*the*designer*is*to*take*seriously*this*venturing*to*uncover*these*meaningHsystems*and*to*

have*dialogue*with*their*coHdesigners**around*these.*The*goal*would*be*to*articulate*these*at*an*

individual*level*and*to*have*a*collective*dialogue*with*the*project*participants*around*a*shared*

vision*and*goals*that*closely*aligns*to*what*they*have*identified.*We*hypothesize*that*this*may*

create* emotional* commitment* but* also* develop* trust,* shared* purpose,* and* a* likelihood* of*

design*success.**

ENGAGING*IN*DESIGN*

The*following*section*outlines*key*considerations*related*to*engaging*in*design*

*

A*useful*point*of*departure*is*the*view*of*the*world*as*socially*constructed*realities*in*which*the*

reality* they* know* is* interpreted,* constructed,* enacted,* and* maintained* through* discourse*

!

(Berger* and* Luckmann,* 1966;* Searle,* 1995;* Weick,* 1995).* In* this* constructivist* view,*

interventions*are*not*used*to*bring*about*a*greater*alignment*with*a*“true”*reality,*but*rather*

to* construct,* deconstruct,* and* reconstruct* existing* realities* so* as* to* bring* about* different*

outcomes.* Since* constructed* realities* provide* the* context* in* which* people* act* and* interact,*

shifting* these* realities*opens*new*possibilities* for*action*and* the* realization*of*new*orders*of*

results.* The* role* of* those* engaging* in* design,* therefore,*would* be* to* create* new* realities* in*

which*people*and*organizations*are*more*effective*in*achieving*the*outcomes*to*which*they*are*

committed*(Senge,*1990).*

Following*this*notion,*key*structural*elements*that*may*assist*in*the*process*of*disclosing*a*new*

organizational/institutional* reality* include* gathering* an* understanding* of* the* values* and* the*

heuristics*that*enable*you*to*deliver/attain*your*pursued*purpose.*Another*crucial*area*of*focus*

is*ensuring*the*energy*is*attuned*to*the*disclosive*space*which*one*is*seeking*to*illuminate.**

*

When*one*has*an*understanding*of*the*purpose,*values*and*heuristics*to*guide*them*through*

the* design* endeavour/journey,* design* is* seen* as* occurring* in* this* interplay* between* values,*

purpose,* heuristics* and* the* practices* needed* to* produce* things* (solve* problems* or* create*

desirable*futures).**

*

Purpose*

!

What*is*the*truth*but*to*live*for*an*Idea...Kierkegaard,pg*263*

*

We*wish* to* further*add* three*additional*points* to* the*above*based*on*our*experience* in* the*

application* of* methodLess* design.* The* first* is* that* in* order* for* such* a* selfHawareness* to* be*

achieved* or* sought* after,* the* designer* has* to* have*what* we*would* describe* as* “theHwillHtoH

wantHto”,*meaning*a*profound*desire*to*do*so*based*on*a*tacit*or*explicit*existential*question*or*

anomaly*they*seek*to*address*about*themselves*for*doing*so*i.e.*the*purpose.**This*in*our*case*

related*to*an*ontological* inquiry* into* the*self*and*beingHinHtheHworld,*and*seeking*answers* to*

such*questions*in*the*hope*of*disclosing*the*forehavings*that*give*meaning*to*both*the*self*as*

an*identity*and*the*foresight*that*give*meaning*to*our*actions*in*situations.**

*

Secondly,* this* would* require* what* Heidegger* (1962)* referred* to* as* the* “courage* to* be”* or*

“letting–be”*referring*to*the*attainment*of**“unconcealment”*from*the*everydayness*of*beingH

inHtheHworld*as*a*type*of*“freedomHtoHbe”.*

*

!

The* courageHtoHbe* relates* to* this* lettingHbe* and* lettingHgo,* the* courage* to* transcend*

preconceptions*and*seek* to*disclose*or* “unconceal”*one’s*beingHinHtheHworld*and* to* take* the*

leap*of*faith*into*the*unknown*zone*of*actionHpossibilities.*We*believe*that*through*such*acts,*

the*hermeneutic*circle*of*understanding*is*set*in*motion*and*phronesis*is*gained*through*such*

praxiological*inquiry*or*what*Yanow*and*Tsoukas*(2009)*call*reflectionHinHaction.*

Lastly,*the*above*mentioned*has* implications*for*the*concept*or* idea*of*the*self*and*how*it* is*

constructed* and* protected* by* the* designer.* Our* opinion* is* that* the* self* is* an* embodied*

consequence* of* preconceptions* and* dispositions* that* regulate* perception* and* action.* We*

therefore* perceive* the* self* as* a* “clinging”* to* certain* meaningHsystems* and* an* inevitable*

rejection* of* others* that* conflict*with* the* interHsubjective* ideals* of* practices* that* the* self* can*

best*situate*itself*in*or*identify*with.**

*

Values*

!

The*criterion*for*truth,*the*starting*point,*is*the*degree*of*sincerity*and*passion*by*which*one*

maintains*what*one*holds*true,*Kierkegaard.pg*268*

*

Regarding*values*or*virtues,*the*most*prominent*value*we*have*identified*is*that*of*compassion*

towards* all;* appreciation* of* differences* and* opinions;* an* openness* to* always* learning* about*

ourselves;**and*the*pursuit*of*happiness*for*ourselves**and*everyone.*We*believe*declaring*such*

values* as* an* organisation* for* ourselves* helps* to* conscientise* us* to* our* ideal* disposition* and*

actions,* and* during* breakdowns* or* disharmonies,* these* become* essential* building* blocks* to*

progress*open*dialogue.*In*our*case*these*values*became*our*mantra*and*in*hindsight,*based*on*

Weick’s* concept* of* preconceptions* and* actions,* we* used* these* as* qualitative* markers* to*

influence* our* action* and* behavior.* This* dynamic* interplay* affects* the* activities/methods*

selected*to*be*utilized*whilst*engaging*in*methodLess*design*and*the*manner*in*which*these*are*

conceptualized*and*applied.*

Energy*

Throughout*time*the*world*has*been*enchanted*by*the*allure*of*energy.*Its*mysterious*nature*

has* captivated* us* through* our* imaginations,* its*movement,* its* play* and* its* very* essence* has*

captivated*the*scientist,*the*philosopher,*the*poet*and*wanderer*inside*each*of*us.*Despite*all*

this*wonderment*and* investigation,* its* ‘true’*essence* still* evades*us.*One*of* the*most* critical*

problems*is*how*one*conserves*energy.*

*

Krishnamurti* (2010:180)* highlights* how* “...energy* is* action* and* movement.* All* action* is*

!

movement* and* all* action* is* energy.* All* desire* is* energy.* All* feeling* is* energy.* All* thought* is*

energy.* All* living* is* energy.* All* life* is* energy.* If* that* energy* is* allowed* to* flow* without* any*

contradiction,*without*any*friction,*without*any*conflict,*then*that*energy*is*boundless,*endless.*

When* there* is* no* friction* there* are* no* frontiers* to* energy.* It* is* friction* which* gives* energy*

limitations...We*need*energy*not*only*to*bring*about*a*total*revolution*in*ourselves*but*also*in*

order* to* investigate,* to* look,* to*act.*And*as* long*as* there* is* friction*of*any*kind* in*any*of*our*

relationships,* whether* between* husband* and* wife,* between* man* and* man,* between* one*

community*and*another*or*one*country*and*another*or*one*ideology*and*another*H* if*there*is*

any*inward*friction*or*any*outward*conflict* in*any*form,*however*subtle* it*may*be*H*there*is*a*

waste*of*energy…”*

*

Design*as*Disclosing*

The* practice* of* design* is* seen* as* occurring* on* a* momentHto* moment* alignment* of* values,*

guiding*heuristics,*purposeHbeing*pursued*and*activities*engaged* in*on*a*momentHtoHmoment*

basis.* This* prospective* senseHmaking* facilitates* the* learning* that* lives* in* the* “momentHtoH

momentness”.* In* essence,* this* allows* the* evaluation* of* the* activities* engaged* in* through*

utilizing* one’s* guiding* heuristics,* which* are* based* on* values* and* the* purpose.* It* should* be*

stressed* that* this* prospective* senseHmaking* is* not* rational* nor* (necessarily)* conscious* as*

misalignment* between* the* activities* engaged* in* is* in* relation* to* the* values,* heuristics* and*

purpose*is*experienced*in*the*form*of*“disharmonies”.*Disharmonies*may*be*seen*as*“practices*

in* which* we* engage* that* common* sense* leads* us* to* overlook* because* they* are* not* well*

coordinated*with*our*other*practices”**(Spinosa,*Flores*and*Dreyfus,*1997,*pg.*23).*An*example*

of*a*disharmony*in*the*context*of*design*may*be*the*feeling*that*the*method*one*is*engaged*in*

is*not*fitting*to*the*context*or*appropriate*for*attaining*the*intended*outcomes.*The*experience*

of* the* disharmony* thus* creates* the* conditions* for* a* movement* into* a* new* disclosive* space*

(innovation).**

*

Spinosa*et*al.,* (1997,*pg.*17)*refer* to*a*disclosive*space*as*“any*organized*set*of*practices* for*

dealing*with*oneself,*other*people,*and*things*that*produce*a*relatively*selfHcontained*web*of*

meanings”.* Crucial* conditions* for* this* disclosure* include* the* ability* to* sense* and* hold* on* to*

one’s*disharmonies*in*their*disclosive*activities*and*the*ability*for*one*to*change*their*disclosive*

space*on*the*basis*of*the*disharmonious*practices*(Spinosa*et*al.,*1997).*The*prospective*senseH

making* (interplay* between* purpose,* values,* heuristics* and* the* evaluation* one’s* activities* in*

relation* to* this)* that* has* been* referred* to* provides* a* basis* on* which* to* conduct* the* first*

condition.* In* seeking* to* understand* the*movement* of* design,* It* thus* becomes* important* to*

understand*the*how*one*would*open*a*disclosive*space.*A*crucial*concept*in*this**regard*is*that*

!

of*style.*A*detailed*description*of*the*concept*will*not*be*provided*in*this*paper,*however,*key*

features*of*the*concept*will*be*discussed*as*they*relate*to*our*discussion*on*design.**

Style*may*be*viewed*as* “the*ground*meaning* in*a*human*activity* system”,* it* is* in*essence,*a*

coordinative*element*of*disclosive*spaces*(Spinosa*et*al.,*1997).*A*style*of*design*engagement*

“or*the*coordination*of*actions,*opens*a*disclosive*space*and*does*so*in*a*threefold*manner:*1)*

by*coordinating*actions,*2)*by*determining*how*things*and*people*matter*and*3)*by*being*what*

is* transferred* from* situation* to* situation.* These* three* functions* of* style* determine* the* way*

anything*shows*up*and*makes*sense*for*us”*(Spinosa*et*al.,*1997,*pg.*20).**Spinosa*et*al.,*(1997)*

go*further*to*describe*a*method*of*‘involved*experimentation’*in*which*reflective*practitioners*

may* engage*with* disharmony* in* a* deep,* deliberate*manner* to* bring* about* evolutionary* and*

purposeful* change* within* the* system.* This* involves* three* processes* namely* H* articulation,*

reconfiguration*and*crossHappropriation* H*which*through* involved*engagement*may*cause*the*

style*to*change.*

Articulation*is*when*a*style*is*defined*and*described*in*greater*detail.*According*to*Spinosa*et*

al.,*(1997,*pg.*25),*“all*articulating*makes*what*is*implicit*explicit.*If*what*is*implicit*is*vague*or*

confused,*then*we*speak*of*gathering*from*dispersion.* If* it*was*once* important*and*has*been*

lost,*then*we*have*the*special*kind*of*articulation*we*call*retrieval”).**

Reconfiguration*then*represents*a*larger*shift*in*the*style,*what*may*most*closely*be*described*

as*a*form*of*recombination*of*parts*of*a*systemic*whole.*Although*it*represents*a*fundamental*

change*in*the*workings*of*the*style,*it*does*not*include*a*departure*from*its*intrinsic*meaning.*

“In* the* case* of* reconfiguration,* a* great* sense* of* integrity* (experienced* in* articulation)* is*

generally*not*experienced.*Rather,*one*has*a*sense*of*gaining*wider*horizons”*(Spinosa*et*al.,*

2007,* pg.* 26).* This* often* occurs* through* relabelling/reHpurposing,* the* understanding* of* the*

source/route/base* concept* is* maintained,* however,* other* conceptualizations* may* be*

entertained*or*utilized.**

CrossHAppropriation* can* be* seen* as* changes* occurring* between* two* disclosive* spaces* or*

Worldhoods,* specifically* the* adoption* of* a* practice* or* set* of* practices* “that* it* could* not*

generate*on*its*own*but*that*it*finds*useful*(Spinosa*et*al.,*1997).”*CrossHappropriation*is*often*

associated*with*largeHscale*change,*representing*a*significant*change*in*the*coordination*of*the*

style.**

These*three*skills*are*different*ways* in*which*disclosure*may*occur*and*bring*about*historical*

change.* This* concept* of* historical* change* is* fundamental* to* a* reckoning* of* the* evolutionary*

mechanism.* Historical* change* refers* to* a* constructivist* view,* that* people* sense* them* as*

!

continuous*with*the*past*and*therefore*as*meaningful*(Spinosa*et*al.,*1997).*This*is*contrasted*

with* discontinuous* change* that* is* an* imposed* order.* Therefore* these* skills* of* disclosure* are*

involved*in*the*discovery*of*what*might*be*called*an*implicate*order*and*it*is*this*revealing*that*

is*the*primary*activity*of*designing*and*creating*purposeful*systems.**

CONCLUSION*

This* paper* sought* to* highlight* a* key* point,* design* thinking* will* not* necessarily* solve* your*

problems,*to*rephrase,*focusing*on*design*thinking*methods/process*will*not*necessarily*solve*

social* or* organizational* problems.* In* conceptualizing* design* as* a* method/process,* two* key*

implications*occur.*Hierarchies*are*created*and*this*further*creates*dependency*to*a*method*in*

seeking* to* solve* problems* or* create* desirable* futures.* This* dependency* affects* the* focus* of*

design*to*be*on*the*application*of*the*process*and*success* is*seen*as*reaching*the*end*of*the*

process* lifecycle* as* opposed* to* engaging* in* the* act* of* purposeHfinding* (dynamic* interplay*

between*the*context,*purpose,*values*and*heuristics),*whereby*success*is*seen*as*the*creating*

of*resonance*to*purpose*and*the*goal*is*disclosure*of*new*realities.*This*implies*that*we*would*

be*better*served*to*adopt*a*more*humble*and*nimble*stance*towards*design,*which*requires*a*

‘willHtoHwantHto’*endurance*that*assumes*a*position,*where*the*only*thing*that*exists*is*the*yet*

unrealized*possibilities.*To*engage*in*design*is*not*to*apply*a*method*or*process,*to*engage*in*

design*is*to*move*through*and*illuminate*disclosive*spaces,*as*Louridas*(1999,*pg.*531)*states,*

“design*is*concerned*with*changing*the*world”.*

*

Key*considerations*highlighted*to*assist* in* this*methodLess*design*are*abandonding*positions,*

surrendering*oneself*from*the*known,*and*nurturing*a*curiosity*whose*spiralling*enquiry*moves*

through*infatuation,*focus,*and*indifference*with*a*somewhat*equivalent*amount*of*passion.*To*

engage* in*methodLess* design* is* to* be* in* a* state* of* fulfilled* emptiness,* to* see* the*world* in* a*

moment*and*to*seek*disclosure*through*disharmony.*

*

In*summary,*one*must*not*live*to*separate*oneself*from*disharmonies.*No*we*must*embrace*it,*

like*the*hungry*in*search*of*food,*for*they*are*the*mirrors*to*the*self.*One*moment*of*anger*can*

shed*more*light*into*the*self*than*a*1000*years*of*isolation.*But*the*goal*is*not*to*search*so*that*

one*can*lose*oneself,*rather*search*so*that*one*can*disclose*oneself.*Disharmonies*provide*an*

opportunity*to*have*a*breakdown.*Breakdowns*are*all*breakages*on*the*images*of*ideology,*and*

when*we*lose*ourselves* in*the*breakdown,*the*mind*becomes*slave*to*our* ideological* images*

and*in*this*space,*we*can*only*duplicate.*But*if*we*allow*ourselves*to*see*these*constructs*for*

what* they* are,* ideological* images,* then* we* create* an* opportunity* or* a* space* for* us* to* be*

transformed.* These* ideological* images* are* always* creating* the* context* for* us* to* be*

transformed,*to*design*and*to*transform.*

!

*

About*the*Authors*!

Keegan!Steyn!currently!functions!as!a!Director!and!Chief!Context!Analyst!at!OwnPower!Purposeful!Systems.!He!has!recently!completed!his!Masters!in! Inclusive! Innovation!at!UCT!Graduate!School!of!Business,! focusing!on!the!project!management!domain.!!

!

!!!!Sharief! Edwards! currently! functions! as! a! Director! and! Organisational!Analyst!at!OwnPower!Purposeful!Systems.!He!has!recently!completed!his!Masters! in! Inclusive! Innovation!at! the!UCT!Graduate!School!of!business,!focusing!on!analysis!in!design.!!

!

!!!!!Siphamandla! Masuku! currently! functions! as! a! Director! and! Alignment!Strategist! at! OwnPower! Purposeful! Systems.! He! has! recently! completed!his! Masters! in! Inclusive! Innovation! at! the! UCT! Graduate! School! of!Business,! focusing! on! emerging! thought! within! the! IS! governance!paradigm.!

!

!!Ayanda!Ntombela!currently!functions!as!a!Director!at!OwnPower.!He!has!recently! completed! his! Masters! in! Inclusive! Innovation! at! the! UCT!Graduate! School! of! Business,! focusing! on! the! asLlived! experience! of!project!management.!!

!

*

!

*

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