Title: UNDERGROUND CITIES

A possible answer to sustainable development

Silvia-Andreea DRAGOMIR

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Theme:Theme:Theme:Theme: Master Thesis

Period:Period:Period:Period: February 2012 – June 2012

Title:Title:Title:Title: UNDERGROUND CITIES

SubtSubtSubtSubtitle:itle:itle:itle: A possible answer to sustainable development?

Author:Author:Author:Author: Silvia – Andreea DRAGOMIR

Supervisor:Supervisor:Supervisor:Supervisor: PhD. Daniel GALLAND

Nº of pages:Nº of pages:Nº of pages:Nº of pages: 96 pages

Nº Nº Nº Nº of appendixes:of appendixes:of appendixes:of appendixes: 1 appendix

Cover:Cover:Cover:Cover: Utah Canyon, U.S. ©crazy-frankenstin.com

Note:Note:Note:Note: This paper contains property material belonging to the author. Contents of

this report cannot be copied or distributed without her permission.

UNDERGROUND CITIES


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Abstract

Since this fall the globe population exceeded seven billion people. In 2050

the estimated population will get above 9,5 billion. (Global Statistics, 2011) In the

context of climate change, drinking water and land seem to have become more

and more valuable resources. Therefore, cities started to develop strategies for

sustainable development, some driven to the extreme: occupying underground

spaces, underneath them, for functions like transportation, leisure, parking, or

commercial facilities. Their main goal is to limit the increasing traffic and

infrastructure land use leading to the environment degradation and freeing up

space for green areas, public spaces, residential and offices. This paper

investigates whether underground planning can reinforce sustainable urban

development or undermine it, and tries to identify possible implications or

connections along the process.

The basis of this discussion is represented by the study case of Helsinki, a

city already following both planning practices of underground and sustainable

development, as separate strategies. Research is triggered by the question of

possible overlaps between the two, together with the implications over the planning

practice and of the reasoning why they are not implemented as a single strategic

plan. The findings are that underground if well planned can benefit sustainable

development and it cannot be set apart when establishing the goal for a healthier,

greener city, rather it is one of the means to accomplish them. A new approach

considering a holistic, inclusive underground urban planning for achieving

sustainable urban development is suggested in the end, underlying the urgency of

planning the underground resource to preserve its potential.

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Acknowledgments

After visiting the troglodyte development from Dordogne, France, and being

inside of such a space, I have been conquered by the quality of living, the minimal

dependency on heating, or the low maintenance of a rock sheltered habitat. The

same inspiration guided architects or urban designers in more recent urban

development like Les Halles, or Musée du Louvre, in Paris, spaces which, even

though going five stories under the ground layer, are always crowded and full of

life. This encouraged me to investigate further more this type of planning, in

correlation to sustainable development and the possibility of densifying today’s

cities beyond the ground limit allows it, improving the urban liveability.

This has proven to be a fairly difficult task due to the scarce of literature, or

information, usually available and addressing experts like geologists, civil

engineers, or hydrologists. Helsinki’s case was of great help in understanding the

planning implications behind such a process and ways of implementing it, bridging

more underground strategy to sustainable urban development. With this occasion I

would like to thank my supervisor for the task, Daniel Galland, for his feedback,

support and understanding while building this thesis. Without his valuable

comments and suggestions this paper would have been probably poorer.



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CONTENTs

1. IntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroduction 8888

1.1 Underground urban planning and sustainable development

1.2 Hypothesis and research question

1.3 Structure of the report

2. Theoretical approachTheoretical approachTheoretical approachTheoretical approach –––– conceptsconceptsconceptsconcepts 16161616

2.1 Sustainable urban development

2.2 Underground planning

2.3 Strategic spatial planning

2.4 Analytical framework

3. MethodologyMethodologyMethodologyMethodology 34343434

3.1 Case study as an analytical frame

3.2 The explicit used methods

3.3 Research design

4. Helsinki experienceHelsinki experienceHelsinki experienceHelsinki experience 44444444

4.1 Sustainable development goals

4.2 Underground strategy

4.3 Conclusion

5. Underground planning and optimization looking Underground planning and optimization looking Underground planning and optimization looking Underground planning and optimization looking for sustainabilityfor sustainabilityfor sustainabilityfor sustainability

62626262

5.1 Mainstreaming underground strategy into sustainable development goals

5.2 Answering the research question

5.3 Conclusion

6. ConcluConcluConcluConcluding remarksding remarksding remarksding remarks 78787878

6.1 Analysis limitations

6.2 Reflections

ReferencesReferencesReferencesReferences 82828282

Illustration listIllustration listIllustration listIllustration list 86868686

AppendixAppendixAppendixAppendix 88888888

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1. Introduction

Planners own nowadays knowledge from all the different sectors involved,

and one unconventional tool to improve the sustainability of the cities could be the

new, yet old concept, of underground urban planning. Creating room above

ground for qualitative public space, green areas, housing and offices, by using the

underneath rock as a strategic space resource, the liveability increases. The city

we live in, through its public domain in particular, is the catalyst for our activities.

The way in which communities are designed has proven to have a big influence on

humans’ “physical, mental, social, environmental, and economic well-being”

(Dannenberg, Frumkin, & Jackson, 2011, p. XV).

The more sustainable way would be not to build; nevertheless humankind

needs a built environment to shelter its daily activities that will have a certain

degree of impact on the natural one. Throughout better planning of communities

and better use of available resources, cities could become greener and minimize

their impact causing climate change.

1.11.11.11.1 Underground urban planningUnderground urban planningUnderground urban planningUnderground urban planning

This type of planning, often unknown, also remains very rich and alive, and

its development area covers all latitudes and all climates, regardless of soil

conditions. If the climate aspect is immediately obvious, other qualities transpire

rather quickly: integration into the landscape, the general economy of the

construction using site material, variety and richness of the created spaces, lights

and materials game.

The few known contemporary projects, appear as individual products,

isolated manifestations of originality, which are no longer associated with tradition.

At the same time, even if in the general mentality tradition was lost, the

phenomenon’s reality is another: there was never a break of the underground

planning, but different forms of its interpretation.

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Historical development and current use

The variety of observed groups demonstrates the troglodyte development’s

ability to adapt to the conditions of soil, topography, and climate. It seems,

moreover, that the potential of a site dictates how a cluster is shaped, rather than

the function of buildings themselves: housing, defence or place of worship.

By carving their homes, the anonymous planners of vernacular architecture

did not deliberately sought for any spectacular space deployment. In the housing

area, creating a shelter prevails; the goal is to develop an environment proper for

living, improving the outdoor climate. A house is at the same time, the reflection of

the representation, social, cultural, religious systems of groups who have built it.

It is also understandable, the reason of this effort to carve a mountain, for

disturbing the natural balance as little as possible. Man dressed in nature first, and

then invented new spaces to update relationships and hidden meaning, found in

nature.

The troglodyte dwelling represents a configuration that brings a satisfactory

answer to climate variations. Reducing the variations reported to exterior

temperatures has important consequences, at least for reducing the energy

needed for heating. The thermal climate conditions will be easier to reach both

summer and winter.

Today, underground development is

starting to gain a new significance for the urban

morphology, by offering the planners a tool to

densify the cities we live in and improve their

liveability. Several current approaches will be

shortly presented as follows:

Paris

Paris was built from the rock underneath,

one side and another of Seine. Due to the massive

exploitation of about one tenth of the quarries, and

to the deadly accidents caused by the new Figure Figure Figure Figure 1111 Louvre, Paris Louvre, Paris Louvre, Paris Louvre, Paris –––– George George George George Savu 2011Savu 2011Savu 2011Savu 2011



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buildings above, in 1774 King Louis XVI ordered the prohibition of any construction

site without a building permit, accorded based on the maps and surveys realised

by the Quarries Office. (Duffaut, 2006) These catacombs were to become the

trigger of the future underground development. At present Paris is one of the

world’s cities with the largest underground development, yet the lack of

coordination in its planning wasted resources and brought problems like ground

water shortage.

Arnhem and Zwolle; Netherlands

A new model of urban planning analysis has been introduced in the

Netherlands, consisting of identifying the three spatial layers: the occupation layer

of the built environment, the network layer – transportation and all utilities, and the

underground level, where all subsurface functions, like piping or water storage, go.

By considering these layers together, along with their

interactions, planners are encouraged to adopt a

holistic, integrated planning approach.

Netherlands’ planners have already begun laying

strategies for the underground in cities like Arnhem or

Zwolle, and even considered creating a vision for

Amsterdam’s underground development. In Arnhem,

due to the lack of space, and the increased need for

qualitative public places, the City Council has promoted the use of underground

space in future development, and furthermore supported it through legislation.

Nowadays both public and private city planners must consider using the

underground space.

The city of Zwolle went even further and, after analysing the space beneath,

city planners created, in 2007, a Vision of the Underground of Zwolle. This

document maps the areas where such a development is possible, and lays out a

vision for 2020 based on the layer model approach. The vision becomes the first

strategic policy document including the underground use for a sustainable urban

development in the Netherlands. (ITACUS, 2010)

Figure Figure Figure Figure 2222 Planning layers Planning layers Planning layers Planning layers ----(ITACUS, 2010, p(ITACUS, 2010, p(ITACUS, 2010, p(ITACUS, 2010, p. 2). 2). 2). 2)

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Shanghai, Beijing; China

Due to the tremendous development speed of a lot of Chinese cities during

the last two decades and the lack of regulations, planners ran into major difficulties

while developing the underground part of the city. Metro lines had to be deviated

from their initial

course because of

new building’s

foundations going

deeper than 16

meters.

Shanghai

and Beijing are

among the first

cities to have regulated the use of the underground on two dimensions – on one

side it is indicated how deep high-rises foundations can go, and on the other what

types of developments can go underground along with plans indicating the size,

layout, development depth and timeline for new planned projects.

Image and reality of underground planning

Even if the reality of underground urban planning is dense, broad, rich, full

of life, even if buried housing units from North Africa, or Southern France are light

and healthy, the image that the public has about buried urbanism is generally a

pejorative one: shadow, darkness, world of slaves, of the inferior man.

It would be easy to explain this image, referring to the myths that major

Western religions were built upon: Shadow and Hell kingdom, Purgatory path; but

also referring to the reality, closer to the present: the mining universe, where

darkness, humidity, forced labour in the inherent possibility of death, justify both

fear and rejection.

The first responsible for this image, in the twentieth century, is the fiction

novel, which places underground the society of inferior humans, of slaves, of

Figure Figure Figure Figure 3333 Beijing, ChinaBeijing, ChinaBeijing, ChinaBeijing, China ---- (ITACUS, 2010, p. 4)(ITACUS, 2010, p. 4)(ITACUS, 2010, p. 4)(ITACUS, 2010, p. 4)



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machines - a mechanized world without passion, a universe of death. This, of

course, is due to previous myths, in order to achieve a dramatic resort.

Second, responsible is the contribution of several planners, in the 1960s’,

who associated with the buried architecture a strongly negative image: "The

underground urban planning is a necessity, underground habitat, a necessary evil."

(Utudjan, Architecture et urbanisme souterrain, 1995) The underground has not an

exclusive vocation hosting services that existing civilizations use, it can become

welcoming, it can receive place designated for life, and it can be the sun exposed.

The underground is a space limited only one side that is why it generates

fantasies. Once entered there, the individual loses the fixed points of support;

everything becomes for him imponderable, moving, unstable. The depth shakes

from foundations his structure of perceptions and equivalents. Connections

between things are no longer made, affinities fade, anything can happen. The

underground is, from this point of view, the art of run, the need to escape, to

turning back. It is also the end and the beginning, a gateway to another world, of

which depth and limits are ignored. It seems that the individual in his need of

infinity has focused on the light, astral, infinity, being unable to notice what was

happening a few inches below his feet. Earth still remains an opaque environment,

unexplored, accessible only to imaginative structures.

1.21.21.21.2 Hypothesis and research questionHypothesis and research questionHypothesis and research questionHypothesis and research question

The continuous urban growth, the rapid demographic increase and the

aging infrastructure, corroborated with a growing demand for environmental

protection and improved urban liveability, are creating a strong demand for fast

alternative solutions. In order to limit the urban sprawl, yet still allowing the city to

develop, the vertical dimension seems the immediate resource to be explored.

Going underground is usually the solution adopted for utilities or services;

it is a common practice of hiding anaesthetic urban facilities. There are little

planning frameworks, or plans guiding a development at the city scale, and the

project by project approach has lead to problems like conflicts between old and

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new functions, drinkable water shortage, huge efforts made for relocating different

facilities, all conveying to chaotic underground structures. Planners around the

world began to realize the potential a planned underground development might

have for freeing valuable space above for liveable urban environments, and efforts

for including it in planning documentations have transpired.

Helsinki is considered the pioneer of underground planning, due to the fact

that it already has a legally binding document at the city region scale, managing

present and future development of the underground. The plan was intended to

manage and solve the conflicts appeared among the multitude of underground

projects triggered by the regeneration boom above surface. Only during its

implementation, stakeholders started to realize that, despite negative perceptions

and a few drawbacks, an underground strategy can benefit the sustainable

development of a city.

This report seeks to identify possible connections among the two terms, the

level on which an underground strategy can foster sustainable development, and

ways in which the classical planning system has to be shaped in order to maximize

benefits and minimize drawbacks.

How does the underground planning strategy reinforce or

undermine existing sustainable urban development goals?

� Is it possible to link underground planning strategies to sustainable

urban development policies?

� What are the planning implications along the process?

� How have policy makers and planners accounted for possible

drawbacks and reinforcements between underground planning and

sustainable development?



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1.31.31.31.3 Structure of the reportStructure of the reportStructure of the reportStructure of the report

The first part of the report contextualizes and introduces the concept of

underground planning, where history and perception play an important role for the

further understanding of the work. This is also the part where the research question

opens up the discussion.

To be able to analyze, and answer the research question, in the second

chapter one by one are presented the three theoretical concepts that set the

analytical frame of the report. At first sustainable urban development gives the

three analytical variables – ecology, equity and economy – then the underground

planning concept is introduced, and at last strategic planning theory sets the

structure of the analysis. The analytical framework is presented in the end of the

chapter.

Following, the third chapter describes the methods used and the research

design followed to achieve the goal established in the beginning of the report.

The fourth chapter introduces the two documents from the study case of

Helsinki concerning the sustainable goals and underground strategy, both

presented following the strategic planning process in which they were created:

diagnosis, planning, strategic management and evaluation.

Chapter five represents the analysis of the report, where underground

strategy is mainstreamed into sustainable development goals, and the research

question tries to find an answer. The structure here is following the same strategic

terms, each corresponding to one of the sub-questions, as in the scheme

indicated at the beginning of the respective discussion, while containing the same

variables - ecology, equity and economy.

The last part concludes the analysis and aims at opening new discussions.

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2. Theoretical approach - concepts

“Conceptualization is a crucial activity in social science, and we will argue

that it should take its starting point in a critical realist ontology and

epistemology. (our experiences and our own concepts – facts and values)”

(Danermark et al. (2002), p. 16)

2.12.12.12.1 Sustainable urban developmentSustainable urban developmentSustainable urban developmentSustainable urban development

In order to establish an evaluation frame for the significance of underground

strategies to sustainability, a theoretical framework for what is a sustainable urban

development is needed, along with methods in which this can be measured. Even

though over used nowadays, there is no clear, self-contained definition of the term,

but several attempts to generalize and conceptualize it, which might create a

certain ambiguity both for planners and decision-makers. Probably the most

efficient and obvious way to conduct the analysis here is following the classic

sustainability triangle, where the term results from the intersection of environmental,

social and economic considerations. Therefore this part will develop around the

three E’s – Ecology, Economy and Equity and try to develop a set of criteria for

evaluating sustainability of an urban development.

Figure Figure Figure Figure 4444 Sustainability as thSustainability as thSustainability as thSustainability as the intersection of the three E'se intersection of the three E'se intersection of the three E'se intersection of the three E's

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What is a sustainable city?

Although no standard definition exists, as mentioned before, a sustainable

city is considered to be an ideal of a totally sustainable and carbon neutral urban

settlement. (Birch & Wachter, 2008) It is based upon human behavioural habits like

waste reduction and recycling, using renewable energies for basic needs, rain

water collection and natural systems to recycle used water, cycling or any other

public transportation means. A distinction is to be made between new

development and existing cities. While for the existing cities buildings and

infrastructure are already present and they can only be reshaped and improved, for

the new ones there is the opportunity of “building energy- efficient and resource-

conserving homes and providing multipurpose, varied-size open space meeting

needs for respite, recreation, aquifer protection, storm-water management, flood

control, and urban agriculture.”(Birch & Wachter, 2008, p. 1) The sustainable city

might be seen as an ecosystem where both human needs and environment

protection are reached.

How to design a sustainable city?

A sustainable city refers to an urban region situated in balance with its

environment. It also “embodies design strategies that respond to its particular

environmental conditions, made up for both natural and built components.”Yaro, R.

& Kooris, D. in :(Birch & Wachter, 2008, p. 30)

The planning process of sustainable communities is a struggle for

reconciliation of three major fundaments: social, environmental and economic.

(Campbell, 1996) It is no longer about only considering the environment, but it also

requires social and economic strategies, “to improve human well-being while

reducing the need for environmental protection.” (Roseland, 2005, p. 4) A

sustainable development implies not only quantitative improvement but even more

- qualitative; it has become a strategy generating sustainability along with a

reduced impact on the general climate.

In order to achieve sustainable communities, local resources as well as

renewable energies have to be incorporated, biodiversity corridors must be



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assured, and local needs have to be considered. In Daniel Williams’ opinion “bio-

urbanism” mainly refers to:

� A bioclimate with compatible comfort zones

� Close proximity to other places, an ideal location

� A compelling sense of place and connection to nature and natural

resources

� Buildable land and smart-growth patterns

� Adequate precipitation

� Regional and local public transportation

� Productive soils and agriculture

� A diverse employment base, as well as job-creation capacity

� Plans to heal and reconnect natural-system functions to urban

patterns and green infrastructure needs

(Williams, Daniel; FAIA, 2007, p. 72)

Even though in the end most of them represent local solutions, their

implementation must contribute to the general aim of sustainable development,

which should be considered more as a process in time rather than a finished

product.

Figure Figure Figure Figure 5555 Today's cityToday's cityToday's cityToday's city versus Tomorrow’s cityversus Tomorrow’s cityversus Tomorrow’s cityversus Tomorrow’s city

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Along with the concept of sustainability, a new way of thinking and building

the city has developed. Green neighbourhoods emerged from the need to respect

the principles of durability in order to achieve sustainable development.

Ecology

From the environmental point of view they have to reduce their footprint,

minimize the consumption of resources, and ensure a risen quality of life by the

vicinity of nature and the implementation of green means of transportation,

encouraging the public ones. By creating rational density and promoting mixed

uses, the foot print of communities can be reduced to a minimum, saving

important land for agriculture and ecosystems. Density also means less distances

to travel between the different places of humans’ daily activity, therefore a valid

possibility to use the public transportation network or infrastructure: bus or

tramway, bicycles or walking. Meanwhile promoting mixed uses ensures an

increased liveability of new created public spaces, or its restoration for the older

ones.

As an important factor for climate change is, though, the consumption of

green spaces, the rational approach would be greening the existing city as much

as possible – encouraging brownfield development instead of wasting agricultural

land, reconverting developments which past their purpose (eg: Olympic

villages),providing multifunctional green and public spaces, promoting renewable

energies and green architecture. Scientific research showed that increasing with

10% the green areas in dense developments kept the temperature within the limits

registered between 1961 and 1990, without passing them. On the other hand,

reducing green areas with 10% affects the surface temperature with a raise up to

8,2°C. (Gill, Handley, & Ennos, 2007)Technical possibilities are now increasing for

green surfaces to cover and to create architecture or public spaces. Facades,

roofs, tramway or train railways, even streets can be turned into greenways, and

this should already happen in areas where population is at highest vulnerability in

the face of climate change (according to (Gill, Handley, & Ennos, 2007) vegetation

and tree cover reaches its lowest level in “residential areas with higher level of

socio-economic deprivation”).



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Equity

From the social point of view, promoting mixed uses, along with a

population mix, ensures a 24/24 hour use of the city, increasing its liveability and

attractiveness. Modern lifestyle removed the focus from the human scale of urban

development to other issues like accommodating the increasing traffic and parking

areas rather than developing pedestrianism, or public places, leaving behind “the

role of city space as a meeting place for urban dwellers”.(Gehl, 2010, p. 3)Even

architecture, for market reasons, promotes icon buildings, isolated and dismissive,

yet before their focus was to solve local problems and ensure urban connectivity.

Projects like Barcelona Waterfront Redevelopment showed that qualitative public

spaces, properly furnished, protected from pollution, obstacles, or any other risks,

benefiting from direct sunlight encourage pedestrianism and animate city life.

“The potential for a lively city is strengthened generally when more people

are invited to walk, bike and stay in public space. […] The potential for a safe

city is strengthened generally when more people move about and stay in city

space. A city that invites people to walk must by definition have a reasonably

cohesive structure that offers short walking distances, attractive public

spaces and a variation of urban functions. These elements increase

atractivity and the feeling of security in and around city spaces.”(Gehl, 2010,

p. 6)

Economy

From the economic point of view, promoting the use of local materials and

work force, and encouraging proximity commerce after in the neighbourhood uses,

supports the local economy and generates employment, altogether with reducing

the consumption of energy of bringing raw materials from other sides of the world.

Furthermore using new technologies and alternative energies for heating, cooling,

recycling the water, electricity, etc, and making it a community ownership creates a

possibility for an alternative energy market to develop, in which inhabitants are also

involved and committed.

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It is a given that some businesses will have to reduce in order for other to

start developing. Car industry based on non-renewable resources will diminish, yet

alternative means of transportation are and will be developed. Instead of building

roads, pedestrian areas, cycling lanes and public transportation network will be

built. Instead of natural gas people will use biomass or solar power to heat and

cook. It is not about the downfall of some economies; it is about shifting towards

new ones, less undamaging for the environment.

It is a known fact that developing a city has a major impact on the

environment; nevertheless a transversal approach for a sustainable development

can be adopted in order to respond to this need of expansion in a less damaging

way.

2.22.22.22.2 Underground planningUnderground planningUnderground planningUnderground planning

Underground planning is a poorly known concept among planners, and in

consequence rather rarely used or developed through daily practices. Finding a

consistent theoretical framework to define it as a planning process has proven to

be rather difficult, due to the fact that generally the term defines, or refers to

underground infrastructures, poorly correlated to the development above the

ground surface. This report aims at investigating and proposing an extension of its

meanings, highly connected with sustainable development and an integrated 3D

planning approach system.

Although the concept finds its roots in primitive ages, from the Neolithic

period, when cave dwellings protected people from natural hazards, or climate

extreme conditions (Goel, Singh, & Zhao, 2012), it was only reintroduced by the

French urbanist Edouard Utudjan in 1932 under the name of Underground City

Planning.

Even though many of his ideas were too visionary for his time, in twenty

years the first regional metro lines were built, along with several underpasses and

over fifty car parks in Paris (Carmody & Sterling, 1993), a development which

triggered massive underground projects, both in the French capital and worldwide.



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Further analyses, including its constraints from law and geology, done by

several scholars and researchers from North America, Scandinavia and Japan

during the 1980’s emphasized upon the major benefits the underground space can

bring to sustainable development (Carmody & Sterling, 1993) if managed properly.

Utudjan, himself, advocated underground planning for forty years, stressing on its

importance for building denser cities,

an important desideratum nowadays for

the sustainable cities of tomorrow.

Despite its great potential for

building denser, though sustainable

cities, difficulties like obsolete building

codes and ownership issues, possible

technical problems and lack of image

drew back the concept development

over the years. Nevertheless, field

experience has show that all up mentioned criteria can be overcome, but not the

lack of planning and the lack of vision.

Planning the Underground

Although a fairly old concept, underground planning has been rarely

implemented, and its four resources (space, ground water, geothermic energy and

geo-materials) along with their interactions have been disconsidered during the

process. The underground knowledge is dived in between specialists, such as civil

engineers, geologists, environmental engineers, or hydro-geologists, and it usually

consists of local information based on a building scale approach. This information

is mostly available to specialists from different departments, limiting the access of

important stakeholders, decision-makers or users have thus little ability to interpret

and exploit it, leading to its potential underestimation and poor knowledge in

relating the concept to urban development.

Massive underground development in order to be environmentally efficient

long term needs have to be considered during the planning process. The fact that,

in most cities, the immediate surface beneath public rights is already affected by

● ● ●

“The urban underground

possesses a large untapped

potential that, if properly

managed and exploited, would

contribute significantly to the

sustainable development of

cities.” (Mairie, Blunier, Parriaux, & Tacher, 2006, p. 1)

● ● ●

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built supra-structures and uncoordinated urban networks might be considered an

impediment, there still are enough underground space resources for planners

around the world to adopt this concept as a densification strategy: there is only

one ON surface, but several UNDER (Carmody & Sterling, 1993).

The main problematic aspects in such a planning process are identified by

Carmody and Sterling (1993) as follows:

� Irreversibility of excavations;

� Great dependency on the geologic structure of the soil;

� High construction risks for massive developments, cost overruns, or

delays;

� A shift from a two-dimensional traditional planning technique to a

comprehensive three-dimensional mapping system (both built

structures and geology) can be difficult and takes time.

Traditionally, planning the underground represents an individual project,

based on was first-come, first-served rule; with no focus on coordination or

reserving space for future uses. For common practice, the subsurface belongs to

the utilities, the metro lines, or occasionally for car-parks and underpasses. This

corroborated with the rapid urban growth made from visionary concept of Utudjan

an utopia rather than a reality. Nowadays in the context of climate change and

increasing world population, planners begin to consider the underground strategy

more like a necessity.

Planning for the underground space at the national, regional, or local

governmental levels encompasses different techniques, emphases and levels of

detail. At bigger scale, the national or regional one, mineral resources and broad

geologic environments are examined, and then the ones favourable for different

functions or the ones that should be preserved are mapped as three-dimensional

information. At the municipality or local level planning becomes more precise, thus

existing underground space utilization, geologic conditions are displayed together

with future development necessities in a three-dimensional setting. (Carmody &

Sterling, 1993) New under spaces should come as a resolution to urban problems,



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improving the city liveability, and their flexibility is an important asset, as they

should be able to shelter future uses according to development trends.

“Planning for urban underground utilization involves a physical inventory of

the geologic setting, relative to surface topography, existing surface uses,

anticipated development, and urban planning goals. The information must

then be correlated with the varying degree of viability or ease of construction

for various types of underground facilities.” (Carmody & Sterling, 1993, pp.

13, 14)

An immediate challenge rises after matching geological potential with urban

planning goals and needs – administrative procedures and land-ownership. For

this concept to be developed sooner, countries with such potential should limit

underground ownership corresponding to the above property and facilitate the

access to lower space, encouraging its development through financial benefits,

such as tax reductions or acquisition price.

Underground immediate resources

As said before, the main resources of the underground are traditionally

exploited individually and locally while planning. Underground planning signifies

managing these resources. In order to understand and measure the effectiveness

of a planning process for underground utilization and grasp the importance of

correlation for better results, the four resources are presented as follows:

Figure Figure Figure Figure 6666 Underground resourcesUnderground resourcesUnderground resourcesUnderground resources (Mairie, Blunier, Parriaux, & Tacher, 2006, p. 3)(Mairie, Blunier, Parriaux, & Tacher, 2006, p. 3)(Mairie, Blunier, Parriaux, & Tacher, 2006, p. 3)(Mairie, Blunier, Parriaux, & Tacher, 2006, p. 3)

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Space – the most valuable resource, which is able to alleviate the above

city pattern from traffic congestion and undesired functions, while sheltering a

variety of interconnecting ones (banks, shops, leisure). This resource is available

almost everywhere, and it could be planned in a similar way with the ground

surface, by mapping already built elements, existing bed rocks and, then,

assigning and coordinating future uses or developments at the city level, yet using

a three dimensional mapping tool and a new land ownership legal framework. The

underground space is commonly used for communication and utility networks,

transportation, storage and processing of different materials, military and hazard

time shelter, locally developed according to current development needs above

ground. Besides all these functions, singular projects across the world have shown

its potential for accommodating sports or leisure facilities, offices or commercial

functions, or even cultural equipment such as theatres, or churches. (Mairie,

Blunier, Parriaux, & Tacher, 2006)

“The importance of the use of the underground space and the functions

devoted to this space are varying significantly from one country and from one

city to another. They depend upon the historical, practical and institutional

conditions of the development.” (Mairie, Blunier, Parriaux, & Tacher, 2006, p.

5)

Ground water resources, besides the fact that they are scarce and the

demand is high, are strongly perturbed by urban developments, blocking its

natural cycle. Planning conveys to hydrogeology departments, which develop

management schemes and strategies, relying upon “new knowledge acquired in

urban hydrogeology, the development of new models and of monitoring

methodologies with the use of tracers and geographical information tools [...] but

they also take more care of the local participation of stakeholders [...]” (Mairie,

Blunier, Parriaux, & Tacher, 2006, p. 6). Despite the general consensus that urban

planning and ground water management are highly linked, the processes are

realized apart.



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Geothermal energy has been exploited and promoted in Europe during

the past fifty years. Shallow geothermal installation can bring a significant

contribution to reducing green-house emissions (Fridleifsson, 2001) if planned

together with the other three resources of the underground; otherwise it can lead to

significant environmental impacts (noise, surface disturbance, thermal effects,

biological effects, fluid withdrawal, chemical pollution, or even to its depletion if

massively exploited). (Mairie, Blunier, Parriaux, & Tacher, 2006)

Geo-materials, historically, provided the construction materials for cities

above to be raised. The case of Paris is probably the most common. This practice

has stopped during the 20th century, and priority has been given to materials

exploited and shipped from elsewhere, in detriment of the environment and

product costs. Along with the underground planning, local materials can be reused

from extractions to build above-ground developments. (Mairie, Blunier, Parriaux, &

Tacher, 2006)

“Planning of the urban underground space should be done considering the

four resources of the subsurface as the organ of a body that is in fragile

equilibrium. There should be a holistic approach of ‘multiple-use planning’,

which considers not only geological and environmental effects but also

economic efficiency and social acceptability of underground space

development. As a result, cities will be able to make more extensive use of

their urban underground without compromising the use of their resources for

future generations.” (Goel, Singh, & Zhao, 2012, p. 7)

Underground planning and sustainable development

In order to correlate underground planning with sustainable development,

first of all irreversible waste of its resources must be avoided through full potential

investigation beforehand exploitation. In reality there is often no planning of the

underground, but only a piecemeal approach for evaluating a specific need or

local project. In 1991, the International Tunnelling Association developed a Policy

Statement on Legal and Administrative Issues in Underground Space Use that

advocates single-use approach and encourages determining the future best

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placement of a project – above or underground – rather than “optimizing the global

potential of the urban underground space” (Mairie, Blunier, Parriaux, & Tacher,

2006, p. 10). The general considerations for assessing the advantages of an

underground structure are based on the qualities of such a space, economic and

environmental advantages, and stakeholder benefits.

Major issues Subcategory Potential benefits Potential drawbacks

Physical and Physical and Physical and Physical and institutionalinstitutionalinstitutionalinstitutional

Location Proximity

Lack of surface space

Service provision

Status

Unfavourable geology

Uncertain geology

Isolation Climatic

Protection

Security

Containment

Climatic

Communication

Human issues

Preservation Aesthetics

Environmental

Materials

Aesthetics

Environmental

Layout Topographic freedom

3 dimensional planning

Ground transport

Span limitations

Access limitations

Adaptability

Sewage removal

Institutional Easement acquisition

Permits

Building code

Investment uncertainty

Life cycle costLife cycle costLife cycle costLife cycle cost

Initial cost Land cost savings Construction savings

Sale of evacuated materials or

minerals

Saving in specialized design

features

Confined work conditions Ground support

Limited access

Ground excavation,

transportation and disposal

Cost uncertainty geological,

contractual, institutional

delays

Operating cost Maintenance

Insurance

Energy use

Equipment/materials access

Personnel access

Ventilation and lighting

Maintenance and repair

Societal issuesSocietal issuesSocietal issuesSocietal issues

Land use efficiency

Transportation and circulation

efficiency

Energy conservation

Environment/aesthetics

Environment degradation

Permanent changes

Embodied energy



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Disaster readiness

National security

Less construction disruption

Table Table Table Table 1111 Benefits and drawbacks of underground space Benefits and drawbacks of underground space Benefits and drawbacks of underground space Benefits and drawbacks of underground space (Carmody & Sterling, 1993, p. 26)(Carmody & Sterling, 1993, p. 26)(Carmody & Sterling, 1993, p. 26)(Carmody & Sterling, 1993, p. 26)

Future studies in underground planning should have as goal to describe

multiple-uses interactions and then define target and sustainability criteria in

function of geologic and urban conditions, where GIS tools would play a crucial

role in centralising the data. The desired result is to maximize its benefits towards

environment, society and economy.

2.32.32.32.3 Strategic spatial planningStrategic spatial planningStrategic spatial planningStrategic spatial planning

Environmental, social, economic and political forces drive urban

development. Planners and decision makers needed a complex tool that allows

them to understand the complexity of specific urban areas, its interactions with

both local and global environment, in order to

achieve better spatial organization, while

supporting social equity, economic growth and

sustainability for future developments. A reliable

tool has proven to be strategic spatial planning,

an economic born urban planning model from

the beginning of the 1990’s. (Kaufman &

Jacobs, 1987)

The corporate model appeared 20 years

earlier, from the need of companies to manage

rapid growth and uncertain future evolution. It

easily spread to other sectors, such as city and

regional planning, where, due to the rapid

increase of the urban areas, traditional planning

couldn’t face the challenges of global

interdependence and climate change.

Moreover, strategic spatial planning encourages

“a transformative and integrative, public sector-led socio-spatial process through

● ● ●

� Corporate strategic

planning is oriented more toward

action, results and

implementation;

� It promotes broader and

more diverse participation in the

planning process;

� It places more emphasis on

understanding the community in its

external context, determining the

opportunities and threats to a

community via an environmental

scan;

� It embraces competitive

behavior on the part of

communities;

� It emphasizes assessing a

community’s strengths and

weaknesses in the context of

opportunities and threats.

(Kaufman & Jacobs, 1987, p. 25)

● ● ●

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which a vision, coherent actions, and means for implementation are produced that

shape and frame what a place is and what it might become” (Albrechts, 2006, p.

1150).

Strategic spatial planning in transformation

Strategic spatial planning theorisations have been mostly dominated by

Albrecht, Healey, or even Kaufman and Jacobs, all planning scholars who cover

both results from the empirical research and normative of how it could be

implemented. (Olesen, 2011) Nevertheless, the concept suffered transformations

along the years, depending on the power dynamics of the different governance

contexts.

Therefore, at first, strategic planning was strictly related to growth

management through structure plans due to the rapid urbanization process, where

the main concern was to ensure an even distribution of developments while

maintaining a reasonable life quality. (Healey, Khakee, Motte, & Needham, 1997)

During the 1980’s the core idea resented pressures from neo-liberal policies, and

due to the further economic crisis, and discourses of competition and

globalization, urban development lost terrain in front of economic development.

(Healey, Khakee, Motte, & Needham, 1999) Nevertheless, towards the 1990’s, this

concept evolved into preparing inspirational visions through collaboration rather

than regulations, making from strategic spatial planning an important contributor to

international competitiveness and economic development, whilst supporting

sustainability. (Healey, Khakee, Motte, & Needham, 1997)

Afterwards, characterising the 2000’s period, relational geography

developed innovative spatial representations, drawn from the fields of sociology of

planning and human geography, raising awareness about the complexity of an

urban area and the unpredictability of the spatial change evolution, mainly due to

the human factor. This left room for interpretation in which concerns the spatial

concepts, and led to a degree of de-politicisation of the strategic spatial planning

process. (Healey, 2006) The strategic planning process encourages public

participation in decision making, from which emerge especially created

partnerships designing and managing sustainable urban development. (Kaufman



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& Jacobs, 1987) The responsibility for organizing the process of participation,

ensuring the presence of strong technical actors and laying the ground rules for

achieving consensus while taking into consideration both individual and collective

benefits, primarily goes to the local government:

“Urban strategic planning allows local governments to enlist the participation

of social actors, to achieve

consensus about policies and

projects and to encourage

partnerships aimed at

proposing, implementing and

evaluating projects. Urban

strategic planning is only

possible, however, if the

government is willing to share

the power and respect the

decisions which emerge from

the process of negotiation.”

(United Cities and Local

Governments, 2010, p. 3)

Future-oriented planning approaches

Cities can be seen as complex entities considering the sum of forces, both

internal and external, that influence their development. Due to this complexity and

the unpredictability of the human factor it is even harder to plan the desired

sustainable growth. Couclelis (2005) has identified three planning approaches for

the strategic process; all future oriented and meant to be useful in structuring the

decision-making process: scenario writing, visioning and storytelling.

The scenario writing is based on the fact that a strategy should be flexible in

the context of its implementation, thus enforcing the idea that strategic spatial

planning is rather a learning process than a rigid plan. Scenarios are plausible

different views of the future (Couclelis, 2005), a tool to try to understand and to

● ● ●

STAGES Basic steps

DIAGNOSIS 1. Scan the environment

2. Select key issues

PLANNING

3. Set mission statements or

broad goals

4. Undertake external and

internal analyses - SWOT

STRATEGIC

MANAGEMENT

5. Develop goals, objectives

and strategies

6. Develop an implementation

plan

MONITORING

&

EVALUATION

7. Monitor, update and scan

Table Table Table Table 2222 Own correlation between (Kaufman & Jacobs, Own correlation between (Kaufman & Jacobs, Own correlation between (Kaufman & Jacobs, Own correlation between (Kaufman & Jacobs, 1987) and (United Cities and Local Governments, 1987) and (United Cities and Local Governments, 1987) and (United Cities and Local Governments, 1987) and (United Cities and Local Governments, 2010)2010)2010)2010)

● ● ●

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anticipate it. “Spatial scenarios offer various views of the future, based on different

assumptions or underlying trends and on what might be the best or, at least, the

satisfactory spatial outcome.” (Geertman & Stillwell, 2003)

According to Hodgson (2003) there are five steps to be taken in developing

scenarios for the future:

1. “Gathering a wide variety of perspective;

2. Writing stories of the future from combination of these perspectives,

imagination and logic;

3. Understanding of the driving forces that are likely to be shaping the

future;

4. Paying attention to the turning points which are like the switches that

route us to one future rather than another;

5. Defining deep structures of forces that determine varieties of behaviour.”

(Hodgson, 2003)

It is not about predicting the future, but about raising awareness and

challenge decision-makers in considering a broader area of circumstances and

possibilities or critical conditions that are to influence the planning process.

Visioning is the process of elaborating a vision, as a result of the public

involvement in the decision making through normative debates about a desirable

future of a certain community. (Couclelis, 2005) It helps in prioritizing the agenda,

generating different alternative solutions altogether with commitment, building

consensus and enabling opinion manipulation through long-term goals debates.

(Shipley & Newkirk, 1999) This process is important in developing understanding

and setting a common language for spatial development and cooperation.

Storytelling signifies building narratives of the past and possible futures for a

certain region in order to secure the decision making process under complexity

conditions, providing better understanding of the region’s evolution. Its argument

for being is the fact that science and rhetoric coexist – both quantitative and

qualitative data provide planning support information. Therefore logically,



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empirically testable, consistent, morally acceptable, aesthetic and actionable

stories are important to construct a basis of planning. (Couclelis, 2005)

2.42.42.42.4 Analytic frameworkAnalytic frameworkAnalytic frameworkAnalytic framework

Research question

SQ 1SQ 1SQ 1SQ 1 Is it possible to link the underground strategy to Helsinki’s sustainable development goals? What are the common points and where do conflicts arise?

Synergy and conflicts

SQ 2SQ 2SQ 2SQ 2 What are the planning implications along the process? How do planners and policy makers manage to ensure an equitable outcome?

Policy level

SQ 3SQ 3SQ 3SQ 3 Do policy makers and planners account for possible drawbacks or reinforcements between different strategies? Is there any correlation between the implementation phase?

Implementation

The analysis will be carried in the following way: sustainable development framework will

give the analytic variables, as underground development will be measured against it trying to find

synergies and conflicts in utilising its four resources in a coordinated manner, and, as the process is

a strategic one, its basic steps will be structuring both the study case and the analysis.

Strategic planning Stages Variables

DiagnosisDiagnosisDiagnosisDiagnosis Policy level

Ecology Equity

Economy

PlanningPlanningPlanningPlanning

Strategic managementStrategic managementStrategic managementStrategic management Implementation

Monitoring and evaluationMonitoring and evaluationMonitoring and evaluationMonitoring and evaluation

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3. Methodology

This report’s objective is to investigate how using underground planning as

a strategy can influence the sustainability of an urban development. Furthermore

as the outcome is mainly balancing territory and climate change by increasing the

urban density and placing in the Under layer transport, electricity, water treatment

and heating infrastructure along with other functions that might go along, the

hypothesis is that using an underground urban planning strategy (as a part of a

three dimensional planning system) plays an important role in a transversal

approach for sustainable urban development. Recent underground planning from

developments around the globe will be introduced, and then the case study of the

Strategic Spatial PlanStrategic Spatial PlanStrategic Spatial PlanStrategic Spatial Plan and its sustainability goals, with the first official Underground Underground Underground Underground

Master Plan of Helsinki Master Plan of Helsinki Master Plan of Helsinki Master Plan of Helsinki – a strategic urban development using the first mentioned

role models – will be analyzed.

After limiting the information to a few sample cities developing the

underground use, only one has been chosen to represent the case study of this

report. The advantage Helsinki had over Paris, Montreal or Tokyo was represented

by the fact that the underground development is already a planning process with

legal status, in correlation with sustainable strategies, all binded in a document

until now only prepared for the development of a city – a master plan – which

consists of its uniqueness. Thus, even though the up-mentioned cities present a

great percentage of underground facilities, and Paris is even the birth place of the

modern concept of underground city planning, Helsinki had an important

advantage in the use of a correlated planning system in-between above and under

development all connected with the municipal sustainable strategies.

Planning theories knowledge were useful in the extent of classifying and

understanding planners’ decisions or methods along the process as well as

defying underground planning as a general concept and its influences on

sustainable urban development. Theories help the planner in the sense that their

main focus is to prescribe “how to go about things” (Allmindinger, 2002), and the

means of how to achieve a desired future.

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“This understanding of planning in climate change [...] draws attention to the

need for both a short term focus and long term strategic thinking in order to

develop the collective action around education, mitigation and adaptation

required at multi-scalar governance levels.” (Steele & Gleeson, September

2009, p. 9)

The case study including the two policies involved – the Strategic Spatial Strategic Spatial Strategic Spatial Strategic Spatial

PlanPlanPlanPlan and its sustainability goals and the UUUUnderground Master Plan of Helsinkinderground Master Plan of Helsinkinderground Master Plan of Helsinkinderground Master Plan of Helsinki, a

strategic spatial planning policy planned to densify the existing city rather than

expanding it, by freeing up space for qualitative urban space and higher value real-

estate, like housing and offices in order to respond to the pressure for housing of

the new inhabitants of the city, by using underneath bedrock as a valuable

resource – has been used as an analytical frame. Qualitative and quantitative data

have been used to investigate the hypothesis, among which the most relevant are:

documents, interviews, literature review and statistics. Through a series of

hermeneutic and phenomenological approaches, this example was experienced

both into his context as well as into a broader one.

Furthermore the empirical research results are combined with relevant

theory to support the up-mentioned hypothesis. At first there will be the discussion

of the sustainable urban development terminology, with the main concepts related

to the topic of this report; along with the actual debate of the underground city and

the strategic spatial planning, presenting similar urban interventions. Following this,

the case study of Helsinki with its reasoning for happening, its relation with

sustainability and the decision making process (actors and conflicts) are

presented. Towards the end of the report, a conclusion will sum up the former

given arguments and, probably, open up new discussions.

3.13.13.13.1 Case study as an analytical frame Case study as an analytical frame Case study as an analytical frame Case study as an analytical frame

As mentioned before, this report seeks, from the analysis of underground

planning practice through sustainable urban development theories, to create a

patchwork of information in order to study the influences an underground strategy



Page | 36

might have on the sustainability of a city. This research was conducted close to the

interest unit, through the case study of Strategic Spatial Plan and Underground

Master Plan of Helsinki. The following part will argue for going with a case study as

an analytical frame.

According to Flyvbjerg (2006), case study is not only a detailed examination of a

real world situation, but also a hypothesis generator if used in the preliminary

stages of the investigation. Moreover a case study in itself cannot the pilot method

used only for building hypothesis, or testing theoretical framework, it needs to

follow the hypothetic-deductive model of explanation (Flyvbjerg, 2006).

Researchers have accused the method of only one study case to be arbitrary and

subjective, and that one cannot generalize upon its basis. Even though somewhat

contested for its relevance to scientific research, regarding data validity, case study

can bring coherence investigating “a contemporary phenomenon within its real life

context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not

clearly evident” (Yin, 1994, p. 13).

Table Table Table Table 3333 Inductive Inductive Inductive Inductive ---- deductive loopdeductive loopdeductive loopdeductive loop

The case study as a research strategy focuses on investigating dynamics

within single settings. A researcher may choose to go with one or multiple study

cases, filtered through several levels of analysis, a multiple choice would definitely

bring more relevant data to any research, yet it can be more time and resource

consuming. (Yin, 1994) In this particular situation, a singular case study was

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chosen, mainly for two reasons – the flexibility it can offer to the researcher and the

uniqueness of the Helsinki strategy for underground development brought to both

a policy and a planning practice level.

The aims for using a case study can either be to describe, to test or to

generate theory. (Eisenhardt, 1989) The interest of this thesis is to test and also try

to generate new theory regarding the possibility of linking sustainable development

concepts with underground planning.

Building theory from case study research

Mintzberg (1979) stresses out the importance of defining a research

question for building theory from case studies, situated on the same level as in a

hypothesis testing research. Without this filter the researcher might become lost or

overwhelmed by the quantity of data available. In the same measure early

constructs specifications are valuable to shape the research design; nonetheless

both are flexible and relative terms as no place is guaranteed for them in the final

theory. (Eisenhardt, 1989)

For the theory building research the ideal is to start “as close as possible to

the ideal of no theory under consideration and no hypotheses to test. Admittedly, it

is impossible to achieve this ideal of a clean theoretical slate.” (Eisenhardt, 1989, p.

536) In her opinion having preordained theoretical perspectives affects the final

result by limiting the findings. In the absence of strong theoretical perspectives, the

researcher is to specify variables or concepts, with reference to existing literature,

which may structure the research. (Eisenhardt, 1989)

Next the case selection is the following important step, action which can be

done in a random or an informed manner (Flyvbjerg, 2006). For a random choice

the possibility for statistical generalization is given by the sample size, whereas for

the informed one the data is maximized through collecting fewer smaller samples

and then choosing among them. As the goal for this report is to get as much

information as possible for the research question, the informed choice had been

the best one.



Page | 38

“The cases may be chosen to replicate previous cases or extend emergent

theory, or they may be chosen to fill theoretical categories and provide

examples of polar types.” (Eisenhardt, 1989, p. 537)

The methods frequently used for collecting data in using a case study as an

analytical frame might be both qualitative and quantitative: documents, interviews,

observations, statistics; or exclusively one of them (Yin, 1994). This research is

based on qualitative data; the methods used here would be documents, interviews

and social media combined with the own observations and experience as a

professional. Nonetheless quantitative data, as numbers from different studies

regarding benefits and drawbacks of underground planning, may be found further

in the analysis; its limited availability makes it though inconsistent for this report to

rely on it, too.

Another important aspect of building theory from case study is to overlap

data collection with data analysis. This can be achieved through maintaining an

idea booklet, or field notes, throughout the process, while continuously questioning

its relevance or learning. Moreover overlapping gives a researcher the advantage

of flexibility in data collection, a key feature in theory building (Eisenhardt, 1989), as

shown previously. This report suffered adjustments along the way according to

new findings, or data availability, its structure being reshaped once emergent

themes or opportunities appeared.

“The flexibility is not a license to be unsystematic. Rather, this flexibility is

control opportunism in which researchers take advantage of the uniqueness

of a specific case and the emergence of new themes to improve result

theory.” (Eisenhardt, 1989, p. 539)

The case analysis represents the core of the theory building process, as

difficult as it may be to draw the right conclusions from all separate data. The first

step to take in achieving that is the within-case analysis, which basically involves

managing and filtering the data volume, often resulting in a descriptive part, yet

generating further insight. (Mintzberg, 1979) The next step would be constantly

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comparing data and theory, iterating toward a better fitted theory for the case, and

in the meantime – empirically valid. “This process is similar to developing a single

construct measure from multiple indicators in hypothesis – testing research.”

(Eisenhardt, 1989, p. 542)

The final findings may lead to either valid emergent relationships, or to a

lack of correlation among concepts, hypotheses, theory and literature. The second

situation does not necessarily mean that the whole research has failed; on the

contrary, it represents an opportunity and motivation for the researcher to be more

creative and to reach a deeper insight into the emergent theory, as well as drawing

a sharpener limit for generalizing. The result is a stronger theory, in which concerns

the internal validity, and a higher conceptual level of the research. (Eisenhardt,

1989)

“The final product of building theory from case studies may be concepts, a

conceptual framework, or propositions or possibly mid-range theory. O the

downside, the final product may be disappointing. The research may simply

replicate prior theory, or there may be no clear patterns within the data.”

(Eisenhardt, 1989, p. 545)

STEP ACTIVITY

REASON

Getting started Definition of research

question

Possibly a priori constructs

Focuses efforts

Provides better grounding of construct

measures

Selecting cases

Neither theory nor

hypotheses

Theoretical not random

sampling

Retains theoretical flexibility

Focuses efforts on theoretical useful

cases – those that replicate or

extend theory by filling conceptual

categories

Crafting instruments

and protocols

Multiple data collection

methods

Qualitative and quantitative

data combined

Multiple investigators

Strengthens grounding or theory by

triangulation of evidence

Synergistic view of evidence

Fosters divergent perspectives and

strengthens grounding

Entering the field Overlap data collection and

analysis, including field

notes

Speeds analysis and reveals helpful

adjustments to data collection

Allows investigators to take advantage



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Flexible and opportunistic

data collection methods

of emergent themes and unique

case features

Analyzing data

Within case analysis

Cross-case pattern search

using divergent

techniques

Gains familiarity with data and

preliminary theory generation

Forces investigators to look beyond

initial impressions and see

evidence thru multiple lenses

Shaping hypotheses

Iterative tabulation of

evidence for each

construct

Replication, not sampling logic across cases

Search evidence for “why”

behind relationships

Sharpens construct definition, validity

and measurability

Confirms, extends and sharpens theory

Builds internal validity

Enfolding literature

Comparison with conflicting

literature

Comparison with similar

literature

Builds internal validity, raises

theoretical level and sharpens

construct definitions

Reaching closure Theoretical saturation when

possible

Ends process when marginal

improvement becomes small

Table Table Table Table 4444 Process of building theory from case study research (Eisenhardt, 1989)Process of building theory from case study research (Eisenhardt, 1989)Process of building theory from case study research (Eisenhardt, 1989)Process of building theory from case study research (Eisenhardt, 1989)

3.23.23.23.2 The explicit used methodsThe explicit used methodsThe explicit used methodsThe explicit used methods

As mentioned in the previous part, mainly qualitative research methods will

be used due to their complex nature. The skeleton of analysis is formed by

interpretation of planning documents and qualitative interviews with actors from

different departments of the City of Helsinki involved in realizing the Underground

Master Plan.

Interviews

The qualitative interviews provide important direct data from the planners’

experience with underground planning in Helsinki and Finland. They are also

relevant for understanding the planning traditions and the hierarchies, or

configuration of the City Planning Departments.

Robson (2002) indicates three types of interview: structured, semi-

structured and unstructured. This report uses structured open ended interviews,

where the interviewee benefits from more space of expression, considering the

questionnaire like a guided conversation in opposition to one rigidly structured.

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The interviews were sent beforehand by email correspondence to few key

individuals, like the Head of the Geological Section from the Real Estate

Department, or the urban planner from the City Planning Department, as they have

been deeply involved in the elaboration of the Underground Master Plan, other two

have been made face-to-face with two scholars from Aalto University, Helsinki. The

documents available on their official website together with relevant literature

generated the questions per se.

The face-to-face interviews had the advantage of grasping the non-verbal

expressions and work with them, while the correspondence ones provided the

interviewee personal space and benefited from more relaxed answers.

Documents

The language barrier was an important factor in selecting the documents

from the Municipality and Finish media. There was though an opportunity in the

fact that Helsinki case is a pioneer in the domain at international level and due to

that several main documents were also available in English, including the main

document – the Underground Master Plan. This being said, all the available

material was systematically run through, keeping in mind that “every document has

been written to some specific purpose and to some specific audience” (Yin, 1994,

p. 87). Yin (1994) supports the relevance of document analysis for a case study

topic, yet underlines that no ultimate truth can be contained by them.

The ongoing process of document analysis contained a collection of

assumptions, interpretation and opinions of underground development and

conditions. Some refer to development strategies and directions; others refer to

policies and principles biding the first ones into a legal frame: municipal policy

papers concerning underground planning, sustainable goals, traffic policies,

growth patterns and statistics.

3.33.33.33.3 Research designResearch designResearch designResearch design

This analysis needs to be flexible and concerned; reasonable and critical.

Deduction, induction and abduction – it takes from the general themes to the



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particular strategy and vice versa, and awareness is needed for as there is more

than one causal effect for the same consequence. It is an open system analysis,

based on specific theories, and this gives this report enough freedom to build

towards its ending recommendations as a sum up of this learning process,

opening a new window for new approaches.

Table Table Table Table 5555 Research designResearch designResearch designResearch design

STEP ACTIVITY

Getting started Problematizing

Definition of research question

Selecting cases Informed selection

Crafting instruments

and protocols

Multiple data collection methods (interviews, documents)

Qualitative and quantitative data combined

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Entering the field Overlap data collection and analysis

Analyzing data Within case analysis

Shaping hypotheses Iterative tabulation of evidence for each construct

Search evidence for “why” behind relationships

Enfolding literature Comparison with literature

Reaching closure Opening new discussion



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4. Helsinki experience

In order to better understand the underground master plan status and grasp

possible connections with the city’s sustainable development, the way in which the

Finish planning system functions must be presented; as well as, later on, in order

to be able to analyze whether the underground planning strategy reinforced or

undermined the existing sustainable urban development goals, these last ones

must also be introduced to the reader.

Figure Figure Figure Figure 7777 Helsinki map Helsinki map Helsinki map Helsinki map ---- City of Helsinki, 2012City of Helsinki, 2012City of Helsinki, 2012City of Helsinki, 2012

Finish planning system

The administrative structure in Finland relies on a three level model, starting

with the national one, then the regional and last the local one. The legal frame is

exclusively established by the central government. In Finland there are 19 Regional

Councils – associations of municipalities – which have the authority for regional

development and carry the responsibility for regional planning and policy. A

municipality relies on this basic decision making and administrative system, while

being responsible for youth work, education, health and social security, and land

use planning. (Jarva & Klein, 2007)

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Land Use and Building Act are regulating, since 1999, the land use planning

and development. Their objectives are to create a basis for promoting sustainable

development, qualitative residential environments, an open planning process and a

transparent decision making. (Jarva & Klein, 2007)

The Finish planning system instruments go from national guidelines to

regional plans, from master plans to detailed plans; the last two answering strictly a

municipality’s needs. A master plan is elaborated every ten years and it sums up

the present and future development of an urban area according its goals and

establishing directions for growth, while local detailed plans guide the act of

building per se.

Figure Figure Figure Figure 8888 Environmental management in the city of Helsinki Environmental management in the city of Helsinki Environmental management in the city of Helsinki Environmental management in the city of Helsinki ---- CCCCity of Helsinki 2012ity of Helsinki 2012ity of Helsinki 2012ity of Helsinki 2012

A master plan birth place is inside the local authority, and the responsibility

relies on the City Planning Department to elaborate it, and on the elected council to

approve it. Finally the Ministry of Environment has to ratify the whole document.

(Jarva & Klein, 2007)



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“The following must be taken into account when a local master plan is

drafted:

1. The functionality, economy and ecological sustainability of the community

structure;

2. Utilization of the existing community structure;

3. Housing needs and availability of services;

4. Opportunities to organize traffic, especially public transport and non-

motorized traffic, energy, water supply and drainage, and energy and

waste management in an appropriate manner which is sustainable in

terms of the environment, natural resources and economy;

5. Opportunities for a safe and healthy living environment which takes

different population groups into equal consideration;

6. Business conditions within the municipality;

7. Reduction of the environmental hazards;

8. Protection of the built environment, landscape and natural values;

9. Sufficient number of areas suitable for recreation.”

Section 39 of the Land Use Building Act 132/1999 in (Jarva & Klein,

2007)

The driving principle of the land use planning in Finland is that it should

promote a sustainable use of the natural resources and secure their availability for

the future. This corroborated with the late underground development motivated the

Ministry of the Environment to include bedrock resources, along with ground water,

geo-materials and geo-thermal energy on the list of accountable natural resources

and aim at protecting them through future planning. (Ministry of the Environment,

2002)

4.14.14.14.1 Sustainable Sustainable Sustainable Sustainable developmendevelopmendevelopmendevelopment t t t goalsgoalsgoalsgoals

“Sustainable development is possible by integrating and supplementing land

use with particular attention to rail connections and access to efficient public

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transport. Dwellings, workplaces and services should be constructed within

walking distance of existing railway and metro stations. Urban planning

should favour solutions that improve connections for non-motorised and

public transport. The objective must be to achieve a habitation structure in

which daily mobility does not require use of passenger motor vehicle.” (City

of Helsinki. City Planning Department, 2007, p. 35)

Diagnosis

Helsinki population is increasing each year and so is the need of developing

housing areas, businesses and facilities, while fostering sustainable growth. “The

changes occurring in the community are fast and have an impact also on the vitality

and land use of the city. Therefore, the Master Plan must be ready to react to the

changes in order to maintain the vitality and competitiveness of the city in a quicker

way.” (City of Helsinki. City Planning Department, 2009, p. 6)

Planning

Helsinki Strategic Spatial PlanHelsinki Strategic Spatial PlanHelsinki Strategic Spatial PlanHelsinki Strategic Spatial Plan

The Strategic spatial plan of Helsinki is

a development strategy prepared by the City

Council every four years and consisting of

spatial planning framework and sustainable

development policies, which guides and

revises the Master Plan 2002 – a document

which can only be prepared from ten to ten

years. It presents a Vision for the city future

and desired goals of spatial development for

the next decades. Environmental, social and

economic relationships are set out, in

correlation with their physical impact over the

future metropolitan development during 30

years. (City of Helsinki. City Planning

● ● ●

Key strategic issues

� The growth of Helsinki and its

region is beneficial to the whole

country;

� The main city centre will be

expanded;

� Social unity is strengthened by

satisfying people’s needs in the future;

� The city-region grows more

urban and improves the environment;

� By building the region also

towards the coast, the region will

retain its vitality and the balance of

the regional structure will be

improved.

(City of Helsinki. City Planning

Department, 2009, p. 7)

● ● ●



Page | 48

Department, 2009)

“The plan sets out the economic, social and environmental relationships, and

their impact physically upon metropolitan development for the next 30 years.

The integrated relationships are set out in a series of policies grouped

around key issues of business activities, housing, city landscape and

regional structure. These form the strategic spatial framework to guide future

development.” (City of Helsinki. City Planning Department, 2009, p. 5)

Figure Figure Figure Figure 9999 Helsinki Master Plan 2002 Helsinki Master Plan 2002 Helsinki Master Plan 2002 Helsinki Master Plan 2002 ---- City of Helsinki 2012City of Helsinki 2012City of Helsinki 2012City of Helsinki 2012

Ecology – Better green network

The protection of the present cityscape and creating new high quality urban

landscapes represent the goals of the metropolitan development. Nature and

landscape have always shaped construction of cities in Finland. Intersections

among terrain, water and natural paths are the dominant input for obtaining the

present Finish city landscape. For instance the inner city of Helsinki is a regular

grid was applied over the natural ground structure, yet emphasising it and not

trying to deny it. Unlike traditional practices of urban planning, the landscape is

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considered here more like a sculptural element, providing identity and creating a

higher degree of urban liveability.

“The green areas of the city and the cultural environment are, however, much

more diverse environments for recreational activities, sports and urban

culture and offer hidden possibilities to produce a genuine urban space in

Helsinki.” (City of Helsinki. City Planning Department, 2009, p. 32)

The future actions considering the green network of the city will be focused

on maintaining the existent parks and increase the space accessibility and quality,

while fostering multi-form uses of nature, and the creation or reservation of space

for new ones will come secondary along with new development. Tourism

conditions will be improved and relationships between built environment and green

areas will be sharpened.

Figure Figure Figure Figure 10101010 Green areas map Green areas map Green areas map Green areas map ---- City of Helsinki 2012City of Helsinki 2012City of Helsinki 2012City of Helsinki 2012



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Equity – Making the city liveable

Massive regeneration and renovation projects will take place in all former

industrial or harbour areas, and in developments which are dated for more than

thirty years in order to diversify the living conditions. Offering access to a large

variety of life-style and to social services will strengthen communities, especially for

the less well-off areas. The attractiveness of suburbs will be increased by bringing

workplace and housing activity closer, and by encouraging complementary

activities to develop along.

Throughout the regeneration process, while keeping in mind the status of

Helsinki as Finland’s capital and an international city, local traditions will be

fostered and encouraged to develop, ensuring a proper urban identity. Thus the

historical identity will still be preserved and carried on by the new urban

environment. (City of Helsinki. City Planning Department, 2009)

“The starting points for these housing identities will be the attractive

environmental characteristics from the point of view of housing. These are

that they function securely, will have beautiful landscapes, will be

architecturally strong, and close to recreational areas, and have a socio-

cultural mix. A unique relationship between the built city and the maritime

nature of Helsinki will be realised.” (City of Helsinki. City Planning


Economy – Successful business

For the next 30 years Helsinki ambition is to become a diversified city-region

with clusters of specialization and economic balance. Its capital position needs to

be strengthened, with priority to commercial and cultural functions towards the

centre, and diversified business, maximizing each area’s local strengths, towards

its outskirts. The centre will also play a role of regional and national pole, with

services related to culture, finance, tourism and leisure, with the possibility of

hosting international events. In parallel with the dense centre, provided with good

accessibility and high-quality urban environment, business like digital services, art,

science or finance will spread towards the outskirts according to each area’s

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special characteristics. New metro lines, as well as the existing motorways and

railways will ensure connectivity and accessibility from and to the city centre or the

airport. In order to limit the unnecessary expansion of the city, former industrial or

harbour areas will be used at first. (City of Helsinki. City Planning Department,

2009)

“The city centre is the most significant centre for finance, culture and leisure

and will be given support to continue to do so. Other regional centres such

as the regional shopping centres and the new business clusters expanding

into the former industrial and warehouse areas will be supported and

integrated into the new development areas.” (City of Helsinki. City Planning


Figure Figure Figure Figure 11111111 Business map Business map Business map Business map ---- enlarging the Inner City and service clusters enlarging the Inner City and service clusters enlarging the Inner City and service clusters enlarging the Inner City and service clusters ---- City of Helsinki 2012City of Helsinki 2012City of Helsinki 2012City of Helsinki 2012



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Strategic management

As this strategy is an update and a completion to the Master Plan from

2002, it offers a spatial coherence platform not only for the city development but

also for an improved coordination of the programme. Its objectives aim at

providing high quality planning for the metropolitan region, objectives which have

to be carried in practice. Any discrepancy will appear among them will be dealt

with coordination and carried out during the detailed development of the specific

plan.

The three criteria – ecology, equity, economy – and their relationships are to

be joined in a set of maps, which form the action plan. Through this plan the key

development issues regarding the implementation are specified. The goal is to

debate whether the Master plan is still up to date, considering the actual needs,

and whether it has to be re-elaborated in the near future or not. (City of Helsinki.

City Planning Department, 2009)

Evaluation

As a city’s development is an ongoing

process, and a plan in order to be

successful it has to be monitored and

updated. The Strategic Spatial Plan is

already a method of scanning the validity of

a former one and of updating it to the

present needs. Nevertheless it will still be

evaluated at its turn following sustainability

indicators and assessing it through annual

and financial reports.

4.24.24.24.2 Underground StrategyUnderground StrategyUnderground StrategyUnderground Strategy

Already from 1960’s City of Helsinki started to be an adept of utilizing the

underground space for various constructions or different uses. Its geological

context allowed the development of hall-type spaces connected with tunnels

● ● ●

� The plan must name the

operational decisions for which it is

intended;

� The plan must be of continue

relevance to the situation it evolves;

� The plan must help in defining

operational decisions situations.

(City of Helsinki. City Planning

Department, 2009)

● ● ●

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through the classical mining method, and the resulted material was used to

consolidate terrains above or to gain space above sea water. Today it sums up

over 200km of tunnels and more than 400 premises, which will increase with at

least 200 new reservations in the near future. (City of Helsinki, 2007)

Figure Figure Figure Figure 12121212 Helsinki Underground Master Plan 2007 Helsinki Underground Master Plan 2007 Helsinki Underground Master Plan 2007 Helsinki Underground Master Plan 2007 ---- City of Helsinki 2012City of Helsinki 2012City of Helsinki 2012City of Helsinki 2012

To assure coordination, the authorities have made important efforts in

surveying and updating the geological data as well as evaluating its potential for



Page | 54

future usages. Due to insignificant number of aquifer soil interferences very little

conflicts appeared between underground development and ground water, unlike

the case of Paris, for example.

Diagnosis

The increased demand for underground facility triggered, from the

beginning of the 2000’s, the need for coordinating this development from the

planning level, in a similar, yet more complex way, as for the ground surface.

“The need for an underground master plan derives from:

� Demand for underground premises has increased in the city centre;

� City structure has become denser and certain activities must be

placed underground;

� Sufficient rock resources for the future must be protected;

� There is no guiding legislation available.”

(Kivilaakso, 2012)

Planning

Helsinki Underground Master Plan Helsinki Underground Master Plan Helsinki Underground Master Plan Helsinki Underground Master Plan

The City of Helsinki is the first city to

have ever drawn an Underground Master

Plan. Its role is not only to support current

development, but to reserve and assign

underground space for future city expansion.

Unlike the examples from the Netherlands,

presented in the first part of this chapter,

Helsinki goes further, in the sense that the

Underground Master Plan is already a legally

binding document, and an ongoing urban

planning practice. It doesn’t only encourage, or make from the consideration of the

underground space into further developments an obligation, but it actually shows

● ● ●

OBJECTIVES

� Freeing up land for other uses;

� Moving environmentally

harmful activities underground;

� Placing important

infrastructure functions inside rock

structures;

� Carefully consider use of rock

in the city centre.

(Kivilaakso, 2012)

● ● ●

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where and how underground development will be present in the future

development of Helsinki. (City of Helsinki, 2007)

The pressure of urban development and the necessity of coordinating the

use of the four underground resources with and at the same pace with the above

ground rhythm of projects, together with the availability of a good bed rock

resource and the important scale of underground utility development, made the

officials from the City of Helsinki imagine a new city Under, with the main role of

alleviating the Above one from undesired and polluting infrastructure, such as

transportation or water treatment plants, and massive commercial, sports or

cultural facilities.

Figure Figure Figure Figure 13131313 Density map Density map Density map Density map ---- City of Helsinki 201City of Helsinki 201City of Helsinki 201City of Helsinki 2012222

As the structure of the city becomes denser, the demand for underground

space rises. While planning, insurance has to be taken that this side of the city will

provide enough space for future development. Its constant growth and this urgent



Page | 56

need for coordination triggered the need of preparing an underground master plan

with a legal status, which can assure the quality of construction.

“Underground construction has an extremely important and central role to

play in the development of the city structure of Helsinki and the adjoining

areas, helping to create a more unified and eco-efficient structure.”

(Vahaaho, 2012)

While the City Planning Department is administrating the document, by

assigning reserved areas and new functions, the Geotechnical Division from the

Real Estate Department provided the base for making it happen: they realized

surveys for the city region regarding the bedrock conditions, the existing context

above and accessibility, interconnections and traffic areas, possible protected

green areas, after which they qualified the areas into suited or not for large

structure construction.

Thus the underground of Helsinki is categorized into five usages:

1. “Community technical systems

2. Traffic and parking

3. Maintenance and storage

4. Services and administration

5. Unnamed rock resource”

(City of Helsinki, 2007, p. 3)

The last one provides space for any other usage that might fit underground,

such as leisure or commercial, and it also reserves space for future development.

This Master Plan also maps the areas that cannot be used due to geological

reasons. Being an approved document, with legal status, owners and future

developers must submit to its regulation.

Unlike the ground surface of Helsinki, which goes up to seven meters, the

immediate granite bedrock is ideal for developing underground constructions or

tunnelling, not only because it needs non to very little reinforcement and the

material can be left apparent, but also for its relative reduced cost of the outcome –

the average price is about 100€/m3. (Vahaaho, 2012)

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What made this plan possible in a tight time frame is the fact that if the City

owns 65% of the administrative territory (Vahaaho, 2012), and if it does not own the

land it tries to buy it if important for future development, even if it means

expropriation. Owning an important percentage of the land, and being the decision

and policy making institution gives the City free hand to develop the underground

especially whether it is under its own real estate. Until now the underground space

has reached 10.000.000m3 in parking, metro, sports, commercial, storage, water

treatment plant, district heating and cooling, telecommunications, and reserves,

which mean more than 1m2 underground per 100m2 surface area. (Vahaaho, 2012)

This ratio indicates the important amount of the underground resource in

densifying the city, and not only for the city centre, as 55 rock areas of the 200

identified as suitable for construction are to be found in the city region, near major

traffic arteries.

Figure Figure Figure Figure 14141414 Water treatment station entranceWater treatment station entranceWater treatment station entranceWater treatment station entrance ---- City of Helsinki 2012City of Helsinki 2012City of Helsinki 2012City of Helsinki 2012

Another important aspect of planning the underground, besides

coordinating and assigning future uses, is managing the entrances and the relation



Page | 58

to the upper city. Not only do they have to be enough for the flow of users, but they

also have to respect certain distances among each other. As for the rest of the

space, the Geotechnical Division has been responsible for their planning design.

Strategic management

“The Underground Master Plan sets the framework for future planning,

enhances the overall economy efficiency of facilities located underground

and boosts the safety of these facilities and their use. The planning

regulations are broad, allowing facilities to have different purposes.”

(Vahaaho, 2012)

Due to the fact that the City is the owner of more than a half of the

administrative territory, the implementation of the Underground Master Plan

became a rather easy task from the timetable point of view. Its challenges consist

of the fact that land ownership and development have to happen on different levels

on a three dimensional planning system.

Land ownership strategyLand ownership strategyLand ownership strategyLand ownership strategy and and and and 3D city model3D city model3D city model3D city model

Probably the first challenge that arises here, after realising the geological

survey of the existing bed rock, is how to transfer the collected data to the two

dimensional cadastral system, in order to make a good use of it and to able to

manage property rights. Before 2006, the legislation assured property rights also to

the underground side of a plot together with purchasing the property. After laying

the new legal framework, the lower boundary has been limited to six meters from

its lowest surface point. This, together with the reduction of 50% over the

corresponding ground level rent encourage and offer a greater range of control for

this type of development. (Vahaaho, 2012)

The city of Helsinki relies on GIS technology for planning, which is able to

support all the three dimensional data coming from a multi-layer development and

managing the land ownership. The 3D city model is actually been evolving since

1982, when it was introduced for the first time as a support for the architectural

competitions. While the above ground surface is realized through classical

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projection, the underground one is rasterized through laser scanning activity.

Moreover the geological surveys realized by the Geotechnical Division contribute

also to the enrichment of the plan. (Vahaaho, 2012)

With the help of different programs it is now possible to model development

for a city area in less than a day, using initially as a support for discussion and to

discover unforeseen problems, while offering the precision needed when

assessing the impact of a new development. For city planners this also represents

an efficient way of communicating their intentions and it grants approval much

more quickly, both from public and from decision-makers, while ensuring a higher

level of transparency to the process and meanwhile saving important costs.

Helsinki finds itself in a very busy period construction-wise, due to the

massive brownfield redevelopment and increasing its vertical dimension, where

planning plays a crucial role in redefining its future. Benefiting from such

technology, stakeholders can have a better grasp of the interstitial space and can

feed it with geometries as well as analytical information in order to have a glimpse

of the outcome of any development.

Evaluation

As the other plans or policies elaborated by the City, also the Underground

Master Plan implementation and evolution are monitored following sustainability

indicators and assessment through annual and financial reports.

4.34.34.34.3 ConclusionConclusionConclusionConclusion

For Helsinki to fully benefit from the underground development and to

achieve its sustainable and climate goals, more collaboration among policy

makers, politics and other stakeholders is desirable. The underground strategy can

be easily introduced as part of the sustainability one, therefore both planning and

implementation efforts should be combined as for one strategy instead of two

separate ones.

“Effective planning for underground utilization should be an essential

precursor to the development to the development of major underground



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facilities. This planning must consider long-term needs while providing a

framework for reforming urban areas into desirable and effective

environments in which to live and work. If underground development is to

provide the most valuable long-term benefits possible, then effective

planning of this resource must be conducted.” (Carmody & Sterling, 1993,

p. 10)

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Page | 62

5. Underground planning and optimization looking for

sustainability

Despite the little coordination among departments while realizing the two

strategies, underground planning has a great potential for optimizing sustainable

development in all world city that benefits from this resource. Looking at Helsinki’s

experience, the next part of the report will also try to synthesize and generalize the

possibilities of using underground space as an asset for sustainability.

FiguFiguFiguFigure re re re 15151515 Different uses of the underground in Helsinki Different uses of the underground in Helsinki Different uses of the underground in Helsinki Different uses of the underground in Helsinki ---- City of Helsinki 2012City of Helsinki 2012City of Helsinki 2012City of Helsinki 2012

5.15.15.15.1 Mainstreaming Mainstreaming Mainstreaming Mainstreaming underground strategy into sustainable underground strategy into sustainable underground strategy into sustainable underground strategy into sustainable

development goalsdevelopment goalsdevelopment goalsdevelopment goals

While the previous chapter introduced one by one, the underground

strategy and sustainable goals of Helsinki, this section will examine and try to find

the complementary areas, or the contradictory parts of the two policies, while

mapping the possible mainstreaming of the two parallel strategies into one, or at

least establish their common points and corroboration alternatives.

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Sustainability goals of Helsinki Underground

EcologyEcologyEcologyEcology

� Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions Direct benefit

� Protecting and fostering biodiversity in Helsinki Direct benefit

EconomyEconomyEconomyEconomy

� Strengthening the city’s competitiveness and

business structure in order to safeguard stable

economic development

Indirect benefit

EquityEquityEquityEquity

� The inclusion of life-cycle thinking in the city’s

physical planning, purchasing practices and

construction

Indirect benefit

� Increasing interaction and citizens’ participation and

strengthening partnership Indifferent

� The prevention of exclusion and social segregation Indirect benefit

� Fostering cultural diversity and the built-up

environment Direct benefit

Table Table Table Table 6666 MainMainMainMainstreaming underground strategy into sustainability goalsstreaming underground strategy into sustainability goalsstreaming underground strategy into sustainability goalsstreaming underground strategy into sustainability goals


Is it possible to link the underground strategy to Helsinki’s sustainable

development goals? What are the common points and where do conflicts arise?

The Underground Master Plan of Helsinki and the sustainable goals for the

city are presented as different documents, even though they are elaborated by the

same city department, with only the first one containing few references to eco-

efficient structures, and benefits the underground development might have in

increasing the green area percentage in the city centre and the real-estate value.

This indicates a lack of coordination between departments and services in

preparing these documents, despite the fact that both the Master Plan and Climate

Strategy were approved in 2007 (City of Helsinki. City Planning Department, 2007).

Moreover Helsinki also has a valid Master Plan for the ground surface, realised in



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2002 for a duration of ten years, yet the 2007 Underground Master Plan presents

week correlation with it.

The underground development coordination appeared more from the

pressure of the high request in underground space, and the increased risk of

overlapping functions, together with wasting valuable resources. From here the

idea of utilizing a similar form of planning as for the above surface – the master

plan – a valid document with legal status, providing framework and managing

future construction work for underground facilities. Even though a master plan is

the City Planning Department responsibility, the Geotechnical Section from the

Real Estate Department took the lead in gathering data and realizing the policy.

While this concept is fairly new implemented into a planning system,

sustainable development has been an older desirable goal and a current planning

practice. Nonetheless, considering the complexity of the term and all of its aspects,

it is surprising to see the actual strategy referring only to its basic understanding –

as the intersection among ecology, equity and economy. Thus the Strategic Spatial

Plan has more the perception of a politic, or branding instrument, rather than a

document providing framework for the sustainable development of the city.

The first mentioned document is introduced by the Head of the Geological

Division as follows: “The particular focus of this paper is on sustainability issues

related to urban underground space use including to an environmentally sustainable

and aesthetically acceptable landscape, anticipated structural longevity and the

maintenance of opportunity for urban development by future generations.”

(Vahaaho, 2012) Nevertheless, further in the document there are only few

sustainable advantages underlined, such as the possibility for increasing in

density, freeing up space for green areas and higher value real estate by locating

underneath several space consuming functions, economy efficiency in terms of

lower acquisition and maintenance prices, increased liveability, and reutilization of

the blast stone as local construction material for above buildings.

The fact that the Geotechnical Division took the responsibility of both

surveying and designing the preliminary and the construction phase, and the City

Planning Department only assigned and reserved functions for future development

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transpires in the sense that, even though benefits of the underground space use

along with its other three resources – ground water, geothermal energy and geo-

materials – go beyond the ones presented here and stand out from a pure

theoretical approach, the two – underground development and sustainable goals –

were not correlated, but treated as two different policies.

While a significant part of the sustainable goals can be reached throughout

underground planning, the last one can become a relevant strategy for achieving

sustainability, and policies could merge into one, in order to ensure better results.

The next table indicates possible synergy between sustainable criteria and

underground planning.

Sustainable criteria Underground benefits

EcologyEcologyEcologyEcology

� Space economy

� Preservation of heritage sites

� Increased usable surface � Decrease of distances

� Underground public transportation

� Reduced urban congestion

� Car-parks out of sight

� Reduced noise

� Lower energy used

� Reduced air pollution

� Groundwater natural cycle

� Wastewater management

EquityEquityEquityEquity � Free-up space for green corridors and

qualitative public space

� Mixed uses and diversity

EconomyEconomyEconomyEconomy

� Free up space for valuable real-estate

developments

� Increase property value

� Free up space for agriculture Table Table Table Table 7777 Synergy sustainable criteria and undergroundSynergy sustainable criteria and undergroundSynergy sustainable criteria and undergroundSynergy sustainable criteria and underground benefitsbenefitsbenefitsbenefits

Nevertheless, there are several drawbacks considered to conflict

sustainable goals, such as irreversibility of excavations, great dependency on the

geologic structure of the soil, or high construction risks for massive developments,

yet all of which can be fought back by, or worked with, through long term planning,

including risk management and life-cycle cost.



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Policy level

What are the planning implications along the process? How do planners and

policy makers manage to ensure an equitable outcome?

There are three main implications along the process to be identified here:

the shift from a 2D to a 3D planning and informational system from the use of

geological and geotechnical data, the land ownership legal framework and the

necessity of correlation between departments that were never set to work together

in the preparation of a master plan or policy, such as the City Planning Department

and the Geotechnical Division, or at least including extra-expertise in the decision-

making process.

As the City of Helsinki owns 65% from the land within the administrative

boundary (Vahaaho, 2012), it becomes fairly easy to develop policy and manage

land use and development. It can also mean that the City Council has an extra

power over the decision making process and the outcome, which, if not including

collaboration and stakeholders’ participation, can lead to a questionable result

from the equity point of view.

Figure Figure Figure Figure 16161616 Geological map of Helsinki Geological map of Helsinki Geological map of Helsinki Geological map of Helsinki ---- City of Helsinki 2012City of Helsinki 2012City of Helsinki 2012City of Helsinki 2012

Using GIS system and a 3D City Model support made possible for Helsinki

to plan the underground. The shift from the traditional planning method was eased

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by the fact that 3D city mapping already existed since 1982, when parts of the city

were modelled by the City Surveying Department for architectural contests, and

that today all building construction permits require a 3D model. This, though, might

not be a tool at hand for any municipality, due to the important amount of technical

and human resources needed to be able to support this system. Only in this case

there are 90 architects in the City Planning Department (Vahaaho, 2012) handling

just the 3D city modelling.

Besides the planning method shift, including the underground in the city

planning requires a thorough knowledge of its resources. Bed rock survey is

essential in establishing development possibilities and assigning different usages

to the underground. Because of the massive implication of the Geotechnical

Division in gathering all the data, the Master Plan finally became their product, with

little collaboration from the City Planning Department, which justifies the little

consideration the underground resource had in establishing the sustainable goals

for the Finish capital. An indicated solution for a corroborated result might be

creating a mixed team with specialists from all departments involved in the

process, working within the main one responsible for elaborating the city’s master

plans – the City Planning Department.

This might also ensure an equitable result, because knowledge comes from

different areas and the possibility of not considering certain aspects will be

minimized. On another hand, while speaking about the policy approvers, it might

be difficult to point out this aspect due to the fact that the city owns a large amount

of the administrative land, thus, the economic aspect takes a big advantage in

front of others through the real estate value of each finished project or future

contracts between the city and investors.

Implementation

Do policy makers and planners account for possible drawbacks or

reinforcements between different strategies? Is there any correlation during the

implementation phase?

It is actually through the process of implementation that the planning

department realized the important contribution of using the underground resource,



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especially in such constricted landscape, shaped through water force. The City

Planning Department and decision makers realized that if anything else, at least

underground development can move visually, noise or smell polluting urban

functions out of sight, in the meantime the land above remains available for

qualitative real estate and urban space or greener areas, yet the effort falls on the

Geotechnical Division to advocate the fact that not only the underground can be

more than a tenebrous dark place of machines and sewage, but through planning

and architecture it can become a human space with major benefits for

sustainability.

Figure Figure Figure Figure 17171717 ---- Underground planning Underground planning Underground planning Underground planning ---- Interacting actorsInteracting actorsInteracting actorsInteracting actors

Throughout the process the City Planning Department, decision-makers, or

citizens might have become aware about some of the underground benefits, yet

still what is out of sight is out of mind. So it appears on the annual reports of the

city; only projects with a visible exterior shell are highlighted and passed through

sustainability indicators filter. Nevertheless neither these would have been possible,

nor the best scores obtained at the sustainability measurement, if it weren’t for the

underground to free up the land and alleviate above ground traffic.

Underground

planning

land administration

urban construction

urban planning

infrastructure provision

environmental protection

real estate

public finance

politics

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The reasoning for the lack of coordination during this phase comes from the

way in which the process is designed throughout the City Departments – each of

them is responsible for their own policies or projects when it comes to

implementation. Thus, the City Planning Department is responsible for the

implementation of both the City Master Plan 2002 and the Strategic Spatial Plan

2007, while the Geotechnical Division from the Real Estate Department is

responsible for the implementation of the Underground Master Plan 2007, even

though they have common goals. This indicates that correlation must happen from

an incipient phase of each policy or plan.

“The Geotechnical Division of the City of Helsinki’s Real Estate Department

has been the main designer responsible for the preliminary and construction-

phase planning required for the rock construction of the utility tunnels, the

underground wastewater treatment plant and the treated wastewater

discharge tunnel. The facilities designed by the Geotechnical Division have

included tunnel lines, halls, vertical shafts and the necessary access

tunnels.” (Vahaaho, 2012)

Figure Figure Figure Figure 18181818 Temppeliaukio Church, Helsinki Temppeliaukio Church, Helsinki Temppeliaukio Church, Helsinki Temppeliaukio Church, Helsinki ---- George Savu 2010George Savu 2010George Savu 2010George Savu 2010

Figure Figure Figure Figure 19191919 Itäkeskus swimming pool, HItäkeskus swimming pool, HItäkeskus swimming pool, HItäkeskus swimming pool, Helsinki elsinki elsinki elsinki ---- City of Helsinki 2012City of Helsinki 2012City of Helsinki 2012City of Helsinki 2012

Mainly companies or businesses attracted by the 50% reduction of the land

value and the possibility of cutting on maintenance and energy costs prefer to go

underground, if they do not necessarily need the sunlight. They go from

transportation, wastewater treatment plant and water supply, energy production,

storage and sharing, to protection of heritage or archaeological sites, cultural,

commercial, leisure and sports areas. Underground living areas’ success, like the

Temppeliaukio Church, or the Itäkeskus swimming pool with 400.000 visitors a year



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(City of Helsinki, 2007), is the one indicating the feasibility of creating more such

spaces in the near future, which will also benefit the underground perception from

its users.

5.25.25.25.2 Answering the research questionAnswering the research questionAnswering the research questionAnswering the research question


To what extent can sustainable goals be supported by underground planning

strategies? Can any city benefit from adding the underground dimension?

As shown in the previous chapter, significant part of the sustainable goals

can be reached throughout underground planning. It is important though to

thoroughly analyze its geology and feasibility for sheltering different usages, and to

correlate the planning process among interested departments. Even though not all

cities have the bedrock of Helsinki, they still develop a series of networks

underground, such as foundations, sewage, electricity, which can all be better

monitored and correlated through planning.

The increase of population led to the horizontal expansion from the last

decades and created cities often inconsistent with sustainability. Problems like air

pollution, traffic congestion, insufficient water supply or lack of green space extent

because of the high rate of urbanization around the world. The underground

possesses a high potential for contributing to sustainable development, yet only if

properly managed. “The use of its principal resources can be optimized to help

• Is it possible to link underground planning strategies tosustainable urban goals?

Synergy and

conflicts

•What are the planning implications along the process?Policy level

•How have policy makers and planners accounted forpossible drawbacks or reinforcements betweenunderground planning and sustainable development?

Implementation

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create environmentally, socially and economically desirable urban settings.“ (Mairie,

Blunier, Parriaux, & Tacher, 2006, p. 1)

The traditional planning of the underground ignores its potential, dealing

with individual projects and causing more environmental damage through the lack

of coordination at the city region scale. A more complex method using three

dimensional models and bedrock surveys is necessary in order to waste its

resources.

Direct benefit good impact on

Environmental quality

Density, Mobility and Accessibility

Biodiversity and landscape

Energy and climate

Water

Waste

Polluted soil on sites

Noise Table Table Table Table 8888 Underground impactUnderground impactUnderground impactUnderground impact –––– Direct benefitDirect benefitDirect benefitDirect benefit (Li, 2011)(Li, 2011)(Li, 2011)(Li, 2011)

Besides the initial cost implications, the underground presents other few

drawbacks while compared to the surface. At first this psychological effect, of a

dark tenebrous world, a space which is closed and might create claustrophobia,

where orientation is difficult, plays an important role in even considering of

inhabiting such a space. To contradict this impression there are several examples

around the world, from historical sites, like Cappadocia in Turkey, to more recent

ones, like Musé du Louvre, or Les Halles in Paris, all underground developments

fairly high visited or frequented. Second, the constant need for lighting, or

ventilation, requires a significant amount of energy to be spent only on that, yet

again it might be compensated by the economy on heating or cooling, and it can

be provided by green energy sources, even situated above.

Of all its perceptions and underestimations, the economic implication

seems to be the one drawing back its development. There are often excuses

implying the underground construction being more costly than an above ground

one. This is only partially true, if only looking at the gross cost for construction; but

adding land acquisition, maintenance and energy costs, the possibility of using the

rock surface apparent instead of building up walls, and moreover the possibility of



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selling the extracted material for the above construction, reduce overall cost under

the ground surface one.

From a strictly environmental point of view, underground development will

encounter the most of its synergies with sustainable goals. It also indirectly benefits

the social and economic aspect, which are not to be set aside either. “All which is

put underground saves surface space, leaving space for wider streets, for greenery

or for more buildings: all things which will enhance the quality of urban life.”

(Duffaut, 2006, p. 9) Analyzing the global geological map, a conclusion can be

drawn that not a few of the world’s cities can benefit from developing the

underground as an asset for sustainability.

Indirect benefit outcome

The global intelligence

of the project

Creative urban projects

Projects where life quality and social connection

primes

Projects respecting local identity

Economy growth supporting future projects

Table Table Table Table 9999 Underground impact Underground impact Underground impact Underground impact ---- Indirect benefitIndirect benefitIndirect benefitIndirect benefit (Li, 2011)(Li, 2011)(Li, 2011)(Li, 2011)

The aim is to exploit the underground potential in such a manner to

maximize its benefits to the environment, economy and society. Only a

technological approach, from a geotechnical division, is undesirable “since

underground development can only be realized if it is socially and politically

acceptable, economically viable and legally possible” (Mairie, Blunier, Parriaux, &

Tacher, 2006, p. 12).

Policy level

Is it institutional feasible to shift from a traditional policy making and planning

model to a sustainable 3D governance? Can cities go underground without a

vision?

As there is no reward without effort, changes or adaptation must be

proceeded in order to fully benefit from underground benefits regarding

sustainable development. Moreover a shift from a 2D to a 3D planning model

might not be so difficult, or so far from being achieved, due to the fact that the

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majority of projects nowadays already contain the three-dimensional model. It only

takes an informational support for collecting all existing data, completing it with the

missing one, and finally creating the city model. Afterwards different studies can

enrich the application and then any simulation for a future project may be run

through the system and assess its impact.

From Helsinki case it became though clear that without building a clear

vision and setting a detailed strategy for the entire underground surface from a city

administrative area, no synergy could have been created between underground

development and sustainable goals.

In order to respond to the challenges of the sustained rhythm of

urbanization a new tool for managing the land administration system is required. It

should provide the infrastructure for integrating built and natural environment

information using a common framework of property and land. “By facilitating

access, discovery, and sharing of land and property information, this system will

provide a multi-level infrastructure to link to government, industry and citizens to

support the functions of a modern land administration system which provides the

foundation for realising a spatially enabled society and achieving sustainable

development.” (Ho & Rajabifard, 2011, p. 103)

CONSTRAINTS

+++ Property rights and vertical ownership limits

++ Construction cost

+ Insufficient market information for investment

TableTableTableTable 10101010 ---- Constraints and objectives Constraints and objectives Constraints and objectives Constraints and objectives ---- underground planning systemunderground planning systemunderground planning systemunderground planning system (Li, 2011)(Li, 2011)(Li, 2011)(Li, 2011)

OBJECTIVES

For public stakeholder: optimize urban land use

(long term benefits)

For private stakeholder: business profits

(short term benefits)



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Even though a three-dimensional format is at times difficult to record,

organize or comprehend, the current two-dimensional format can no longer cope

with the complex challenges of urbanisation, therefore the aim is to achieve a

spatially enabled society, with access to development information, and a

transparent decision-making, while cutting on administrative costs by saving

valuable time with the help of a 3D city model application.

Any market economy is highly influenced by the administration of property

and land. This is why governments will still have a central role in coordinating the

new land administration system, but it also implies engaging and promoting the

citizens and industry participation. The concept is that a multi-level infrastructure

enables interested parties in accessing, or sharing land and property information.

The system is not only linking governments and industry with citizens; it can also

link various levels, or departments inside the government which are dealing with

land ownership matters.

URBAN SUBSURFACE Build a 3D city with economic viability

From the provision capacity of space resources to the

need of urbanization

- comprehensive evaluation of subsurface

Coordination with surface urban planning

- integrated assessment taking into account socio-economic context, planning regulation and policies

Strategic decision-making process for investors

- multi-criteria analysis to justify investment

Table Table Table Table 11111111 ---- Building a 3D economic viable cityBuilding a 3D economic viable cityBuilding a 3D economic viable cityBuilding a 3D economic viable city (Li, 2011)(Li, 2011)(Li, 2011)(Li, 2011)

Setting a vision before starting any development and running model

applications, is as important as the three-dimensional administrative system. Due

to the irreversibility of excavations, the analysis, diagnosis as well as planning

steps are vital in transforming underground development into a sustainable asset.

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Implementation

How can a Municipality manage conflicts while maximizing synergy, attract

stakeholders while fostering future development, and improve the underground’s

perception for the users?

Conflicts can be managed through collaboration and implication of

interested stakeholders during the planning process. To maximize the synergy

among strategies, policy makers, even from different departments of a city’s

structure, must interact from the first lines of the future plans.

For an underground development to support the sustainable goals of a city,

stakeholder’s efforts, both public and private, have to be corroborated from the

beginning of the process towards the end of it. The implementation of such a plan

can be significantly simplified by initial collaboration among city’s departments

implicated in the project. Also owning an important percentage of the future

development area makes significant difference in establishing the implementation

timeline, thus saving important administrative costs.

Promoting spaces like qualitative underground sport facilities, cultural

centres, or commercial areas, can have an important influence on the users’

perception, to a point that they might even forget they are situated Under.

Cities like Paris, or Montréal might not have Helsinki’s coordination when it

comes to underground planning, but in terms of living the under space and

conquering the phobia related to it, they probably set the best example.

Developments like Le Musée du Louvre, Châtelet, or Les Catacombes not only

benefit from hundreds of users every day, but they also attract even more tourists,

willing to explore this hidden space. Transportation hubs combined with living

spaces, like bistros, shops or cinemas deploy on over five underground levels

without oppressing their users with any claustrophobia symptoms, on the contrary

they became one of the most crowded public spaces in the city.

Moreover, underground constructions cost can be significantly influenced

through adequate legislation. If the building cost itself is the one which is higher



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compared to an above ground building, then other additional costs should be

reduced, like in the case of Helsinki the acquisition cost is 50% lower than the for a

surface property. These facilitations boost underground economy, and implicitly

the one at the city level.

Figure 20 Technical corridor - City of Helsinki 2012

Figure 21 Sport facility - City of Helsinki 2012

5.35.35.35.3 ConclusionConclusionConclusionConclusion

“More extensive use of the urban underground can help cities to reach the

goal of sustainable development, but only under the condition of long term

planning.” It is also important to “promote a holistic approach of the multiple-

use planning, which considers not only the geological and environmental

effect but also the economic efficiency and the social acceptability of

underground development. As a result, cities will be able to make more

extensive use of their urban underground without compromising the use of

their resources for the future generations.” (Mairie, Blunier, Parriaux, &

Tacher, 2006, p. 13)

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Figure Figure Figure Figure 22222222 Temppeliaukio Church, HelsinkiTemppeliaukio Church, HelsinkiTemppeliaukio Church, HelsinkiTemppeliaukio Church, Helsinki –––– GeorgGeorgGeorgGeorge Savu 2010e Savu 2010e Savu 2010e Savu 2010



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6. Concluding remarks

Metropolis will have to bring response to a lot of challenges, of which

providing housing for all its inhabitants is not its least one. Trapped into a

competition for excellence, economic attractiveness or high quality life standards,

the access to housing of middle or disadvantaged class is more and more

restricted.

The mobility, around which both the quality of individual life as well as the

community one is shaped, is also an important factor. Considering that the majority

of developments happen in already built environment of a certain metropolis,

reducing car use, increasing public transportation and cycling only partially solve

the pollution matter. It seems more logical not to favour a mean of transportation

over another but to encourage their complementarities according to their

effectiveness, usage, social and environmental impact.

Neither intense planning, nor total liberty is suited for development. A strong

politic understanding and support, as well as public involvement and private

investment are needed to succeed a sustainable development. The city is part of a

bigger world, it cannot be considered individually, while being also a system of

elements, going to the individual unit. Planning a development or a restructuring a

metropolis should go from the macro scale to the micro one and it should consider

all space resources available, even if this involves going underground.

It only remains the question of how to plan in climate change; how to

proceed in turning present cities, or metropolis into sustainable ones? Choosing

the underground space for part of the future development of a city is definitely no

longer a utopia nowadays. Nevertheless, because economic and temporal

reasons, it is impossible to start a general redevelopment, for the entire city.

Working at the city scale, following sustainable criteria and setting time framed

visions with feasible objectives, has proven to be more efficient. The goal is not to

design perfect green cities, but to turn the existing ones into a healthier and more

sustainable environment for living.

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Strategic thinking and measures are vital to manage the process, as well as

collaboration is important for involving all actors. Only utilizing the underground

resource is not enough without engaging the users into understanding the

necessity for a change and without their cooperation.

6.16.16.16.1 AnalysisAnalysisAnalysisAnalysis llllimitationsimitationsimitationsimitations

Even though underground development is a fairly old concept, underground

planning in itself is a rather new practice. This aspect mainly reflects upon the

documentation available, which remains unsatisfactory. Also bridging this type of

strategy to sustainable goals has been difficult, due to the fact that the existing

information is mainly dedicated to specialists, like geologists, hydro-geologists or

civil engineers.

Moreover document analysis has several limitations due to the fact that it is

difficult to adduce from several plans the intentions of the different actors that

shaped the strategies, the extent of the political influence above them, and the

overlap of sustainable goals with different financial aspects. The interviews list also

could have been supplemented with different actors’ expertise from the decision

making, underground users or public stakeholders.

6.26.26.26.2 RRRReeeeflectiflectiflectiflectionsonsonsons

This part of the report will present the main theoretical reflections resulted

from the study. Even though there are several questions that arise from the former

analysis, two of them have been chosen to close the report and probably open up

further discussion.

Underground planning as a development issue

Often ignored or forgotten in the past, underground dimension begins to be

included in long term planning and considered a more and more feasible space

resource due to the accelerating urbanization. Helsinki case has proven that

managing the underground and investing in its development, boosts the economic

development and the liveability of our cities. When space, energy, water and



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material are needed the most to respond both present and future development

ascending trends, the underground has all four of them. In order for these

resources to support a sustainable development of the urban areas, the

underground has to be included in the regular planning practice and policy

making, along with the ground surface.

The challenges for planners are, at first, to adapt to the three-dimensional

planning practice and learn how to manage it correctly and, second, to find a

political acceptable strategy to connect the underground to development plans.

While there is a separation and not interdependency between the two concepts, it

will be impossible to include the necessity and the importance of underground

strategies into the decision-making priority list.

Underground and sustainable planning as one strategy

Underground development and its main resources, through planning, have

obvious positive impacts upon reaching sustainable goals, but like any resources

they have to be managed correctly in order for the future generations to benefit

from them, too.

“For underground space use to remain a societal asset, we need to plan and

manage its use, just like any other asset. If this is not done, its greatest

benefits will prove to be short-lived and it will eventually cease to be an

effective instrument for the support, redirection and sustainable development

for urban areas.” (ITACUS, 2010, p. 4)

Since Helsinki started implementing the Underground Master Plan, both

direct and indirect benefits, indicated in the table 8 and 9, transpired during the

process, which raised awareness among planners about underground potential for

providing a better urban life environment.

Then, the question that arises here is why having different development

policies, prepared by different city departments when the goal is similar? Isn’t it

worth rather having mixed planning teams, with extra expertises added to it, than

dividing the policy up to implementation between departments?

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Illustration list

Figure 1 Louvre, Paris – George Savu 2011 ............................................................... 9

Figure 2 Planning layers - (ITACUS, 2010, p. 2) ....................................................... 10

Figure 3 Beijing, China - (ITACUS, 2010, p. 4) .......................................................... 11

Figure 4 Sustainability as the intersection of the three E's ....................................... 16

Figure 5 Today's city versus Tomorrow’s city............................................................ 18

Figure 6 Underground resources (Mairie, Blunier, Parriaux, & Tacher, 2006, p. 3) 24

Figure 7 Helsinki map - City of Helsinki, 2012 .......................................................... 44

Figure 8 Environmental management in the city of Helsinki - City of Helsinki 2012 45

Figure 9 Helsinki Master Plan 2002 - City of Helsinki 2012 ...................................... 48

Figure 10 Green areas map - City of Helsinki 2012 .................................................. 49

Figure 11 Business map - enlarging the Inner City and service clusters - City of

Helsinki 2012 .............................................................................................................. 51

Figure 12 Helsinki Underground Master Plan 2007 - City of Helsinki 2012 ............. 53

Figure 13 Density map - City of Helsinki 2012 .......................................................... 55

Figure 14 Water treatment station entrance - City of Helsinki 2012 ......................... 57

Figure 15 Different uses of the underground in Helsinki - City of Helsinki 2012 ..... 62

Figure 16 Geological map of Helsinki - City of Helsinki 2012 .................................. 66

Figure 17 - Underground planning - Interacting actors ............................................ 68

Figure 18 Temppeliaukio Church, Helsinki - George Savu 2010 ............................. 69

Figure 19 Itäkeskus swimming pool, Helsinki - City of Helsinki 2012 ...................... 69

Figure 20 Technical corridor - City of Helsinki 2012 ................................................. 76

Figure 21 Sport facility - City of Helsinki 2012 ........................................................... 76

Figure 22 Temppeliaukio Church, Helsinki – George Savu 2010............................. 77

Figure 23 - Geological world map - City of Helsinki 2012 ........................................ 88

Figure 24 - Geological map Scandinavia - City of Helsinki 2012 ............................. 88

Figure 25 - Underground Master Plan Unnamed rock resources - City of Helsinki

2012 ............................................................................................................................ 89

Figure 26 - Underground Master Plan, detail - City of Helsinki 2012 ....................... 89

Figure 27 - Helsinki historical evolution - City of Helsinki 2012 ................................ 90

Figure 28 Greater Helsinki 2050 Vision - City of Helsinki 2012 ............................... 91

Figure 29 Greater Helsinki 2050 Vision, Landscape connections- City of Helsinki

2012 ............................................................................................................................ 92

Table 1 Benefits and drawbacks of underground space (Carmody & Sterling, 1993,

p. 26) ........................................................................................................................... 28

Table 2 Own correlation between (Kaufman & Jacobs, 1987) and (United Cities

and Local Governments, 2010) ................................................................................. 30

Table 3 Inductive - deductive loop ............................................................................ 36

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Table 4 Process of building theory from case study research (Eisenhardt, 1989) . 40

Table 5 Research design ........................................................................................... 42

Table 6 Mainstreaming underground strategy into sustainability goals .................. 63

Table 7 Synergy sustainable criteria and underground benefits .............................. 65

Table 8 Underground impact – Direct benefit (Li, 2011) .......................................... 71

Table 9 Underground impact - Indirect benefit (Li, 2011) ........................................ 72

Table 10 - Constraints and objectives - underground planning system (Li, 2011) . 73

Table 11 - Building a 3D economic viable city (Li, 2011) ......................................... 74



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Appendix

Figure Figure Figure Figure 23232323 ---- Geological world map Geological world map Geological world map Geological world map ---- City of Helsinki 2012City of Helsinki 2012City of Helsinki 2012City of Helsinki 2012

Figure Figure Figure Figure 24242424 ---- Geological map Scandinavia Geological map Scandinavia Geological map Scandinavia Geological map Scandinavia ---- City of HelsCity of HelsCity of HelsCity of Helsinki 2012inki 2012inki 2012inki 2012

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Figure Figure Figure Figure 25252525 ---- Underground Master Plan Unnamed rock resources Underground Master Plan Unnamed rock resources Underground Master Plan Unnamed rock resources Underground Master Plan Unnamed rock resources ---- City of Helsinki 2012City of Helsinki 2012City of Helsinki 2012City of Helsinki 2012

Figure Figure Figure Figure 26262626 ---- Underground Master Plan, detail Underground Master Plan, detail Underground Master Plan, detail Underground Master Plan, detail ---- City of Helsinki 2012City of Helsinki 2012City of Helsinki 2012City of Helsinki 2012



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Figure Figure Figure Figure 27272727 ---- Helsinki historical evolution Helsinki historical evolution Helsinki historical evolution Helsinki historical evolution ---- City of Helsinki 2012City of Helsinki 2012City of Helsinki 2012City of Helsinki 2012

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Figure Figure Figure Figure 28282828 Greater Helsinki 2050 Vision Greater Helsinki 2050 Vision Greater Helsinki 2050 Vision Greater Helsinki 2050 Vision ---- City of Helsinki 2012City of Helsinki 2012City of Helsinki 2012City of Helsinki 2012



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Figure Figure Figure Figure 29292929 Greater Helsinki 2050 Vision, Landscape connectionsGreater Helsinki 2050 Vision, Landscape connectionsGreater Helsinki 2050 Vision, Landscape connectionsGreater Helsinki 2050 Vision, Landscape connections---- City of HelsiCity of HelsiCity of HelsiCity of Helsinki 2012nki 2012nki 2012nki 2012

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Interviewee Function

Ilkka Vähäaho Head of the Geotechnical Division

Real Estate Department

Eija Kivilaakso Head of the Economic Division

City Planning Department

Simo Haanpää Aalto University, Helsinki

Sirku Juhola Aalto University, Helsinki



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Interview Master Thesis Analysis – Urban Planning and Management, Aalborg University

Prepared by: Silvia DRAGOMIR Date: April 2012

Purpose:

This information will benefit me, in completing my master thesis analysis, as the Underground Master Plan of Helsinki, along with the process that led to its implementation, represent my study case and the core of my report. It will only be used with this academic purpose.

Interviewee:

Function:

Contact:

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1.1.1.1. What is, in Finland, the underground status in urban planning: does it represent What is, in Finland, the underground status in urban planning: does it represent What is, in Finland, the underground status in urban planning: does it represent What is, in Finland, the underground status in urban planning: does it represent an integrant part of the urban politics or is it treated more individually, for each an integrant part of the urban politics or is it treated more individually, for each an integrant part of the urban politics or is it treated more individually, for each an integrant part of the urban politics or is it treated more individually, for each case in particular? case in particular? case in particular? case in particular?

2.2.2.2. What are the main causes/factors that led to an Underground Master Plan? What are the main causes/factors that led to an Underground Master Plan? What are the main causes/factors that led to an Underground Master Plan? What are the main causes/factors that led to an Underground Master Plan? What were its models and what theory did Helsinki use? What were its models and what theory did Helsinki use? What were its models and what theory did Helsinki use? What were its models and what theory did Helsinki use?

3.3.3.3. What actors and what types of partnerships are involved in the process?What actors and what types of partnerships are involved in the process?What actors and what types of partnerships are involved in the process?What actors and what types of partnerships are involved in the process?

4.4.4.4. Are there standards for an underground development, or every local context Are there standards for an underground development, or every local context Are there standards for an underground development, or every local context Are there standards for an underground development, or every local context creates a unique type? What was the case of Helsinki?creates a unique type? What was the case of Helsinki?creates a unique type? What was the case of Helsinki?creates a unique type? What was the case of Helsinki?

5.5.5.5. What did Helsinki considered to be the What did Helsinki considered to be the What did Helsinki considered to be the What did Helsinki considered to be the pro’spro’spro’spro’s and and and and con’scon’scon’scon’s for the use of the for the use of the for the use of the for the use of the underground space?underground space?underground space?underground space?

6.6.6.6. How can the underground use become a valuable resource for sustainable How can the underground use become a valuable resource for sustainable How can the underground use become a valuable resource for sustainable How can the underground use become a valuable resource for sustainable development?development?development?development?

7.7.7.7. Since its approval; how did it influence the sustainable development of Since its approval; how did it influence the sustainable development of Since its approval; how did it influence the sustainable development of Since its approval; how did it influence the sustainable development of Helsinki? What methods does/can the Municipality use for measuring itsHelsinki? What methods does/can the Municipality use for measuring itsHelsinki? What methods does/can the Municipality use for measuring itsHelsinki? What methods does/can the Municipality use for measuring its benefits? benefits? benefits? benefits?

8.8.8.8. How does Helsinki see the future of underground developments How does Helsinki see the future of underground developments How does Helsinki see the future of underground developments How does Helsinki see the future of underground developments –––– would it also would it also would it also would it also shelter human daily activities, such as offices, commercial, leisure, or it should shelter human daily activities, such as offices, commercial, leisure, or it should shelter human daily activities, such as offices, commercial, leisure, or it should shelter human daily activities, such as offices, commercial, leisure, or it should only remain the space of machines, pipes and infrastructure? only remain the space of machines, pipes and infrastructure? only remain the space of machines, pipes and infrastructure? only remain the space of machines, pipes and infrastructure?



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9.9.9.9. Can this strategy be applied to other cities in Finland?Can this strategy be applied to other cities in Finland?Can this strategy be applied to other cities in Finland?Can this strategy be applied to other cities in Finland? Or around the world?Or around the world?Or around the world?Or around the world?

10.10.10.10. What is the current status of thWhat is the current status of thWhat is the current status of thWhat is the current status of this strategic planningis strategic planningis strategic planningis strategic planning process?process?process?process?

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