TIA - Active Torque Damping

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This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI10.1109/TIA.2015.2399617, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications

Active Torque Damping for an ICE-basedDomestic CHP System with an SPM Machine Drive

Mattia Morandin, Member, IEEE, Silverio Bolognani, Member, IEEE, and Adriano Faggion

Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Padova,via Gradenigo 6/A, 35131 Padova - Italy (e-mail: [email protected]).

Abstract—The domestic Combined Heat and Power (CHP)system is an effective residential distributed energy generationtechnology. Nano-CHP is a growing technology that simultane-ously provides heat and electricity to households. An ElectricMachine (EM) connected to an Internal Combustion Engine(ICE) is used to produce the electricity, while ICE delivers heat.Any conventional ICE exhibits a pulsating torque which causesvibration and noise of the system and also reduces the powertrain life time. The additional task for the electric drive ofsmoothing the speed oscillations by controlling the EM as anactive torque damping system, that applies an inverse torquesequence to crankshaft, is here proposed.

In the paper different torque damping techniques have beenexplored with the aim of find out the best solution; the in-vestigated techniques have been taken from researches in thefield of hybrid electric vehicles. In order to model the torqueengine oscillation phenomenon, an effective but simple ICE modelhas been developed. It allowed to compare by simulations thedifferent techniques; some of them have been later validated byexperimental tests carried out on a dedicated laboratory testbench composed by a real ICE connected to an EM.

Index Terms—Active torque damping, cogeneration, CHP,SPM machine, electric drive, renewable energy.

I. INTRODUCTION

NOWADAYS the greatest part of anthropogenic CO2

emissions are due to the electricity production, [1].Recently many studies have been carried out to identify newtechnologies that should increase the efficiency of the electric-ity distribution infrastructure especially at level of DistributedGeneration (DG). This type of generation allows to change theconventional logic of production and distribution from few andbig power plants to many and small interconnected sites withina smart grid, [3].The principal advantages of the DG, at low and mediumvoltage level, are the reduction of transmission losses, thepeak production limited only to local demand, the easy pen-etration in remote areas, and moreover, small plants allowto reduce costs and investment risks [?], [4]. Examples ofDG sustainable technologies are wind turbines, photovoltaicplants, fuel cell plants, and Combined Heat and Power (CHP)plants. CHP has the advantage that the output power can beeasily controlled, but the disadvantage that the CHP does notuse, generally, renewable fuel. The nano-CHP (n-CHP) is asmaller CHP, with the thermal power of 4 ÷ 25 kW andwith the electric power of 1 ÷ 5 kW . The n-CHP is one

This work was financed by Italian Ministry of Economic Development inthe frame of INDUSTRIA 2015 program: PIACE project.

of the technologies most likely to have the largest uptakeby domestic consumers, replacing conventional gas heatingboilers. Potential markets for n-CHP are European countriesas well as Japan and parts of the USA and Canada, [5], [6].Still open issues in the field of domestic cogeneration are themitigation of system vibration and noise because the latterreduce the life time of the components and the comfort if thesystem is installed inside the house. In fact for n-CHP a singlecylinder ICE is often used which produces a pulsating torquewhich is reflected in speed oscillations to the engine shaft. Themost common solution to reduce this oscillation is to increasethe flywheel mass of the system. In order to minimize the massand volume of the flywheel, the goal of this work is to usethe advance techniques of active damping derived from theresearch in the field of Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs), [7]–[10]. This technique consists of using the Electric Machine(EM), directly coupled to the ICE shaft, as active torqueactuator that contrasts the engine torque oscillations. In otherword the electrical machine is controlled as generator duringexpansion stroke (i.e. in presence of excess of engine torque)and as a motor during compression stroke (i.e. in case ofdeficit of engine torque). The main advantage of applying thistorque damping technique at CHP respect to HEV is that thereciprocating energy should not be stored in ultra capacitorsbecause the CHP is connected to the grid.The paper also describes an effecting ICE model in orderto study the problem of the engine torque oscillation bysimulation, allowing to carry out experimental tests only usingthe best envisaged techniques.The paper gives hints for choosing and designing a torquedamping for CHP system exploiting the already installedelectric machine.

II. ICE OSCILLATING TORQUE

In [11], [12] an effective ICE model of a Diesel enginehas been described. This model of the ICE allows to study theproblem of the engine torque oscillation directly by simulation;so the experimental tests can be carry out only using the mostpromising techniques for reducing the oscillation phenomenon.

A. ICE model

The nonlinear dynamics of the ICE’s piston and crankmechanism has been modeled by Matlab Simulink® softwareusing the engine fundamental kinematic equations, [10], [13]–[15]. In Fig. 1 a schematic representation of a single-cylinder



four-stroke Diesel engine geometry and its basic parts areshown.

Fig. 1: Geometry and notations of Diesel ICE.

The kinematic analysis consists in determining the pistonposition (xc) as function of crank angle α. With the assumptionthat r sin(α) = c sin(β) the piston position can be representedby the following equation:

xc(α) = rcos(α) + c

√1− r2

c2sin(α)2 (1)

where α is the angle between the crank axis and the x-axis(increasing clockwise), c is connecting rod length and r iscrank radius. The equation of the ICE torque M as functionof α results:

M(α) = Mext︸︷︷︸external

−Fpxcα︸︷︷︸

pressure

− Fmp

xcα︸︷︷︸

piston weight

+

−Pcrort

˙yGα− Pcrpar

xGα︸︷︷︸

connecting rod weight

(2)

where xc is the piston speed, α is crank angular speed, ˙yGand xG are the connecting rod mass center (G) speed in x-ycoordinates, Pcrort and Pcrpar are the orthogonal and parallelcomponents of connecting rod weight force (with mass mcr),Mext is the external torque applied to the crank, Fp is actingforce on the piston, and Fmp

is gravitational force due to thepiston weight. Force Fp is obtained by an idealized model ofDiesel’s cycle, as reported in [11], [12]. The engine simulationmodel highlights the typical problem of single cylinder ICE,namely it produces a pulsating torque which is reflected inspeed oscillations to the engine shaft as reported in Figs. 2and 3 respectively. Fig. 2 points out that the average torquevalue is very small, about 10÷ 15 times lower, than the peakone. Fig. 3 shows that during the compression the speed valuebecomes 65 % of the average one (speed a-axis is zoomed)instead during the end of expansion phase the speed valuebecomes 105 % of the average.

Fig. 2: Example of simulated of engine oscillating torque.

Fig. 3: Example of simulated of engine oscillating speed.

B. Power train dynamics

The average inertia of ICE side is JICE ' 0.110 kgm2 andinertia of EM side is JEM ' 0.030 kgm2. A block schemeof the test bench power train is shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4: Torque measurement block scheme.

The elastomer coupling has a spring constant kEM =kICE ' 4500 Nm/rad. Defining equivalent keq and equiva-lent inertia Jeq as [16]–[18]:

keq =kEMkICE

kEM + kICE(3)

Jeq =JEMJICE

JEM + JICE(4)

The resonant frequency due to elastomer coupling which



affects any transient response is:

fr =ωr

2π=

1

2π

√keqJeq' 50 Hz (5)

Neglecting torque/nuclear inertia, the equations of power traindynamics are:

mICE = JICEdωICE

dt+mTM (6)

mTM = JEMdωEM

dt+mEM (7)

mTM = keq

∫(ωICE − ωEM )dt (8)

that brings to (in Laplace domain):

mTM =mICEJEM +mEMJICE

(JICE + JEM )(1 + s2

ω2r)

(9)

Eqs. (9) and (5) justify the presence of oscillations at frequencyfr in the speed and torque measurements. In addition fromEq. (9), one could reconstruct the ICE torque from measuredtorque, predicted EM torque and dynamics parameters. Thisis demonstrated in Figs. 5 and 6 where the first refers to thegain corrections and the seconds to dynamic removal.

Fig. 5: Torque measurement and reconstructed torque of ICE.

Fig. 6: Torque measurement and reconstructed torque of ICEremoving the oscillating torque due to elastomer coupling.

The result in Fig. 6 is well reproducing the predictedwaveform given in Fig. 2.

III. DIFFERENT TORQUE DAMPING TECHNIQUES

The control principle adopted for the n-CHP is a heat-ledcontrol so that the target of EM control is to generate ashigher electric power as possible following the heat demand.Furthermore the constant speed operation is fixed in order tomake optimal the overall performance of the system (lowernoise and vibration) [5], [12]. The energy produced by EM istransferred by a bi-directional power converter to the grid. Thisconverter is composed by two stages: a three-phase inverterconnected to EM and a single-phase full bridge converter,connected to the single-phase grid.

The EM control scheme is reported in Fig. 7. It is com-posed by two current loops, which references comply withthe Maximum Torque Per Ampere (MTPA) operation, andan external speed loop in order to maintain constant thespeed of the system. The active torque damping algorithmsis incorporated in the speed regulator of Fig. 7. In orderto find the optimal active damping for n-CHP application,three different techniques have been investigated by meansof simulations and experimental tests. It has been chosen themost effective solution for this work; however other solutionsare available in the literature, [8]–[10].

A. Reference case, conventional speed regulatorThe EM is controlled for constant speed operation by the

control scheme reported in Fig. 7. Curves in Fig. 3 highlightthe speed oscillation due to engine pulsating torque. Thismeasurements have been carried out with conventional PIspeed regulator the scheme of which is shown in Fig. 8. Thetransfer function between current reference and measured EMspeed can be obtained from Eq. (3) to Eq. (8). and results:

ωmeasme

iref=

32p

2Λmg

s(JICE + JEM )

1 + s2

ω20

1 + s2

ω2r

(10)

with ω20 = keq/JICE . Eq. (10) is essential for design the

regulator gains.The obtained results with this controller are indicated here-

after as Reference case and the performance of this controlis used as term of comparison for the three different activedamping techniques.

Fig. 8: Conventional PI regulator, Reference case.

In the paper, three of the most effective solutions of activedamping have been investigated; however other solutions areavailable in the literature, [8]–[10].

B. Method 1, speed error feed-forwardThe regulator scheme of the first active damping technique,

indicated as Method 1, is reported in Fig. 9. It is based on



Fig. 7: Synchronous EM control scheme, speed and d- and q-axis current loops.

an increase of the bandwidth of the classical speed loop bymoving part of the proportional action of the controller afterthe conventional anti-windup structure and modifying the latterfor along larger EM torque pulses. To this purpose the PIspeed regulator has been modified adding a parametric anti-windup to the integral part and connecting a feed-forwardsignal proportional to the error speed at the output [19]. Theoutput of the scheme, i.e. the current module reference islimited at twice the nominal current to allow transient currentshigher than the rated one.

Fig. 9: Speed regulator with anti wind-up and additional speederror feed-forward, Method 1.

C. Method 2, estimate torque feed-forward

The second damping technique, indicated as Method 2, fore-sees the use of an observer to carry out a torque feed-forward,[20], [21]. The observer estimates the ICE torque from therotor position measurements, the EM torque (proportional tothe current), and the load model of of electric machine. In thisdamping technique no additional measure is necessary becauserotor position information is available from the EM control andgains are based on the EM parameters. The control techniqueblock scheme is reported in Fig. 10.

Fig. 10: Speed regulator with estimate torque feed-forward,Method 2.

D. Method 3, programmed torque feed-forward

In last technique, indicated as Method 3, the damping actionis realized by feed-forward of a programmed ICE oscillatingtorque. The latter is obtained by the approximation of realengine torque by a rectangular waveform synchronized withthe shaft angle, [7]. The real ICE torque is obtained from theanalytically model that has been reported in Section II. Fig. 11shows this control block scheme.

IV. NANO-CHP TEST BENCH OVERVIEW

In order to verify the active torque damping techniques areal hybrid test bench has been used. The core of this benchis a 4 kW single-cylinder Diesel engine directly connectedto SPM synchronous electric machine with the same rateof power, as shown in Fig. 12. Table I gives the principalinternal combustion engine data and geometrical parametersadopted in the ICE model [11], [12]. The electric drive controlis based on a dSPACE® fast control prototyping board. Theexperimental setup is shown in Fig. 13. In order to detect the



Fig. 11: Speed regulator with programmed torque feed-forward, Method 3.

speed oscillations to ICE shaft, an additional position sensorto ICE side has been added.

TABLE I: Test bench ICE principal data

Parameter Symbol Value

Type combustion cycle - DieselNumber of cylinders - SinglePiston displacement - 280 cm3

Maximum power PmaxICE 4 kW

Maximum speed nmaxICE 4000 rpm

Minimum speed nminICE 900 rpm

Starting torque T startICE 18 Nm

Connecting rod length c 0.124 mc gravity center lower coord. a 0.0496 mc gravity center upper coord. b 0.0744 mConnecting rod weight mcr 0.426 kgConnecting rod inertia Jcr 0.561 gm2

Crank length r 0.031 mPiston bore d 0.074 mPiston weight mp 0.605 kgPiston length lp 0.0185 mPiston area A 0.0043 m2

Friction coefficient B 0.015 NmsTotal inertia (crank +

JICE 127 gm2

flywheel + shaft)Maximum distance between

xmax 0.176 mcrankshaft rotation axisand the cylinder head

A. Electric Machine

In n-CHP application usually PM synchronous machines areused because they exhibit high torque density (low volume)and high efficiency. The main tasks of EM in a n-CHPare: starting-up the ICE and generating electrical energy. Theelectric machine, that has been adopted in the test bench, isdirectly connected to ICE, without any gearbox. Due to thehigh torque demand and in order to reduce copper weight theEM has been designed with outer rotor, surface mounted PM(SPM), 28-slot and 16-pole, and tooth wound.

Fig. 12: Power train overview of n-CHP test bench.

Fig. 13: Experimental setup overview.

The machine is able to deliver a torque of 10 Nm at nominalIq current of 3.5 A and more than twice during engine start-up.This electrical machine has been designed by a finite elementanalysis and the results have been validated by experimentalmeasurement an EM prototype. Some EM parameters areshown in Table II and the prototype photo is shown in Fig. 14.The constant torque loci of the motor are reported in Fig. 15,

Fig. 14: Electric machine prototype.

obtained by experimental measurements. It can be noted that



TABLE II: Electric machine parameters


Pole number 2p 16Slot number Q 18Stator external diameter De 150 mmStack length Lstk 45 mmNominal torque TN 15 NmNominal current IN 4 Arms

Phase resistance Rp 1.0 ΩDirect inductance Ld 7.9 mHQuadrature inductance Lq 12.1 mHPM flux linkage Λmg 0.45 V sInertia JEM 15 gm2

Efficiency ηmac 89÷ 92 %

the MTPA trajectory lies well on q-axis up to the nominalcurrent; instead for higher currents the EM is slightly affectedby saturation.

Fig. 15: Constant torque loci of the electrical machine.

B. Electric Converter

The electric converter scheme is in Fig. 16.The electric drive includes an unidirectional grid-to-motorpower converter, composed by three stages: a three-phaseinverter connected to EM, a brake branch in order to maintainthe DC BUS voltage fixed to VDC = 450 V during generatingphase, and a conventional diode rectifier that is used onlyduring the start-up of the engine when energy is taken fromthe grid. Inverter technical date are given in Table III.

C. Drive control scheme

In n-CHP systems the SPM electric machine is generallycontrolled for constant speed operation. The EM controlscheme has been already shown in Fig. 7. In order to generatea higher level of the torque, the stator current vector hasto be synchronized with the rotor polar axis (d-axis), so anencoder or a resolver has to be used for the purpose of

Fig. 16: The three-phase EM inverter and rectifier.

TABLE III: Three-phase inverter characteristics


Inverter voltage (ph-ph) VAC 350 Vrms

Max DC link voltage VDC 500 VBrake resistance Rb 50 ΩPhase current IAC 20 Arms

Switching frequency Fsw 15 kHzEfficiency ηinv 91÷ 95 %

synchronization; sensorless control are envisaged for the futuredevelopment, for example it can be adopted the the ringed-pole solution in order to create a high frequency anisotropicrotor behaviour in SPM machines [22], [23]. Fig. 7 highlightsthat two current loops are implemented for the d- and q-axiscurrents respectively. According to the MTPA control and theSPM configuration, the d-axis current reference is kept to zeroand the q-axis current reference is delivered by the speed loopregulator as torque demand.

The drive control that has been implemented in the testbench does not include the AFE control replaced by the controlof the brake branch, which is composed by a chopper converterclosed on power resistors (about 3 kW ). Block scheme ofHybrid test bench Drive control is reported in Fig. 17.

Fig. 17: Drive control scheme of hybrid test bench.

V. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

In order to find out the optimal active damping for a n-CHP application, the three different techniques investigatedby means of simulations have been experimentally tested in



the same working condition. In all experimental measurementsthe rotor speed of the system is controlled by the drive at125 rad/s. In order to exalt only the effects of the activedamping in the speed oscillations the engine throttle value hasbeen adjusted till the EM torque is null, i.e. the EM shouldwork only as active damping actuator speed are measured onthe EM shaft.

A. Reference case, conventional speed regulator

The results obtained with this controller are indicated asReference case and the performance of this control is usedas term of comparison for the three different active dampingtechniques. The results of Reference case is reported in Fig. 18.In particular Fig. 18(a) highlights a speed undershoot of 16 %and an overshoot of 9.6 %, compared to the speed referencevalue, due to compression and explosion phases. Succes-sive oscillations are due to elastic coupling (as discussed inSect. II-B) which occurs at frequency higher than speed loopbandwidth [18]. Fig. 18(b) confirms the speed drops due topiston compression, while oscillations due to elastic couplingalmost disappear on the ICE shaft side, due to high ratiobetween ICE and EM inertias.

(a) EM side

(b) ICE side

Fig. 18: Speed waveforms measured at EM and ICE side,Reference case.

B. Method 1, speed error feed-forward

The results of this first active damping technique are re-ported in Fig. 19. Compared to the Reference case, Fig. 19(a)highlights a positive action on damping power train oscillationdue to joint elasticity, but a small effect on the overshoot andundershoot peaks due to compression and expansion enginephases respectively. Fig. 19(b) confirms the results of theReference case as far as the oscillation on the ICE shaft dueto elastic coupling, and also the limited effect of the activedamping action even if Fig. 19(a) shows that the EM is ableto operate as motor during piston compression and as generatorduring piston expansion.

(a) EM side

(b) ICE side

Fig. 19: Speed waveforms measured at EM and ICE side,Method 1.

C. Method 2, estimate torque feed-forward

Fig. 20 shows the results of this second method. Comparedto the Reference case in Fig. 20(a) it highlights that thespeed oscillations decrease (because of the higher small signalbandwidth of the speed loop) and the speed undershoot peakis reduced to 8 %. Fig. 20(a) shows similar behavior thanMethod 1 but in this case during piston expansion the EMis strongly controlled as generator with benefit to speedovershoot. Fig. 20(b) points out the advantage on the ICEshaft oscillations which undershoot is moderately riduced, withadvantages in terms of ICE vibrations and noise.



(a) EM side

(b) ICE side


D. Method 3, programmed torque feed-forward

The results of this third method is shown in Fig. 21. Respectto the Reference case the speed undershoot peak has beenappreciably reduced of 11 %, both to EM side and ICE side,that mitigate significantly the vibration of the ICE and itsacoustic noise. As underlined in Fig. 21(a) and Fig. 21(b),this technique introduces a DC component that increases theaverage speed value; this is pointed out in Fig. 21(b), whereit can be realized that the EM after expansion phase is stillcontrolled as motor for a short period and this introduces aDC component in the average speed. The trouble does notaffect oscillation damping and could be avoided by adjustingthe torque feed-forward profile.

E. Final considerations

In order to choose the best solution, that reduces the torqueripple of ICE, all techniques are investigated in the sameworking condition, i.e. at rotational speed of the systemcontrolled by the drive at 125 rad/s. Furthermore, in allinvestigated cases the EM is not sized to fully compensate theICE torque ripple otherwise it would become too large. In factthe engine peak torque during piston expansion is 180 Nmwhile the EM peak torque is about 25 Nm. The principalregulator parameters are reported in Table. IV in particular

(a) EM side

(b) ICE side


it is recalled that the value of PI speed regulator parameters(Reference Case) are constant for all three methods.

TABLE IV: Summery of different regulator parameters

Type of Regulator Symbol Value

Speed PI regulator KregP 0.1

Reference Case KregI 1

Speed PI regulator KawuP 1

Method 1 KawuW 1

KestD 900

Speed PI regulator KestI −2.1e7

Method 2 KestP 2.0e5

KestM 0.1

Speed PI regulatorKmeas

M 0.08Method 3

Compared to a Reference case, reported in Fig. 18(a)and Fig. 18(b), the progressive performance improvements ofall active damping techniques, in term of speed oscillationmeasure to EM and ICE shafts, are highlighted in next threepairs of figures. In particular Figs. 19(b), 20(b), and 21(b)show the damping of the speed oscillations detected at the ICEshaft. Despite to the moderate appearance, the results in term



of ICE vibrations and acoustic noise is evident. Better resultscould be achieved increasing the peak torque (i.e. the peakcurrent) capability of the EM drive which is the bottle neckof the realized system rather than the dynamic performance.Increasing more EM current peak causes further addition joulelosses that, in the real domestic n-CHP system, would beretrieved from the cooling system of the engine and exploitedby thermal plant. However the costs should be increased anda balance between cost containment and comfortable behaviorof the domestic n-CHP has to be applied.

To better compare the investigated techniques, Table Vreports the undershoot and overshoot value experimentallymeasured. The Table confirms the advantages of the secondmethod with respect to the other. It is also worthy to note thedetrimental effect that the elastic coupling between EM andICE could have. It introduces additional system oscillationsand avoids a higher speed control bandwidth to be designed.

TABLE V: Performance comparison of damping results

Measure Case Undershoot Overshoot pk-pkside [%] [%] [%]

EM

Reference 16.0 9.6 25.6Method 1 13.6 7.2 20.8Method 2 12.8 8.0 20.8Method 3 11.2 10.0 21.2

ICE

Reference 15.2 6.4 21.6Method 1 15.0 6.2 21.2Method 2 13.6 4.8 18.4Method 3 12.0 7.2 19.2

VI. CONCLUSIONS

This paper presents three simple methods to damp the dis-turbance torque of ICE in order to reduce noise and vibrationof a CHP system, making it a viable solution in households.These techniques act as virtually enlarged mass inertia of theengine by using the EM directly connected to the ICE shaft,that is used to produce electricity and start up the ICE. Alldamping methods that have been presented, are investigatedthrough simulation studies and later validated by experimentaltests. In the n-CHP application the additional losses in EM,due to active damping, are not an issue because they arerecovered from the n-CHP cooling system. It should be alsopointed out that the work is devoted to reduce vibration andacoustic noise of domestic n-CHP, complying with the severefinal cost limitations. Higher damping could be obtained byhigher size of the power electronics and drive in general, butthis contrasts with the requirement of cost containment. Thedeveloped solution is an acceptable tradeoff between vibrationand noise reduction and cost limitation.

VII. ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Authors thank to Eng. Mose Castiello for the preciouscollaboration during the realization of the experimental set-up and the execution of all tests.

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