PROJEC'fMANAGEMENT279-285)2001(19al Journal of Pt'oject ManagetnentבInternatiolPERGAMON

www.elsevier.com/locate/ijproman

The use of just-in-time training in a project environmentShlon1o Globerson a,*, Abe Korman b

"Tlle LeOll ReCCl11tiGradU(lte School 0/ Business Ad,ninistl'ation, F(/culty oj'Manacf!;ement, Ulli"el'sity Campus, PO Box 39010, 69978 Tel Aviv, !.v/·aelbBa/'uc}l College, The City Univel·.vily 0/ New YOI'k, NY, USA

200030 Decembel' 1999; accepted 20 JanuaryבReceived 17 Jllne 1999; t'eceived in revised forn

Abstract

Around 40% of the knowledge acquired in tl'ail1ing is lost after a break of 1 n10nth, rising to 90% after 6 months. By providingseeks to solve this pl·oblem. In othel' words, effort is 110t invested in trainingכe Training (JIT-Tסtraining 'as needed', Just In Til

re. The paper describes the use of the JIT-T approach in trainingןtlןpcople in skills tl1at they are not going to use in the very near flpl'oject managers, working in a hi-tech company. JIT-T was selected because the management felt that the convel1tional trainil1g

.was not effective enough. The mOl'e crucial pl'oject management ,lreas wel'e identified, and the training program was executed.2001 Elsevier Science Ltd and IPMA. Alll'ights reserved<

Key\vords: Training programs; Project management; Loss of know-llOW

Aftel' taking a traini11gseminar, a participant typicallyreturl1 to their wOl'king environment and is expected to

.impl'ove 11isperformance by applying his new know-howObviously, not al1 the 11ewknowledge can be appliedimmediate]y si11ce,at any one moment, only specificissues are being dealt with. In other words, a significant

ring the training hasןportion of the knowledge gained dlto wait some time before it is needed. It is this fact oftraining and its implementations that sel'ves as our point

.of departure

2. The impact of forgetting

It has long been known that a significant portion ofthe knowledge acquired during a traditional trainingprogram, having no immediate use, is stored in the

.memory system, and n1ay be forgotten over timetmost importance to evaluate theןTherefore, it is of l

.loss of knowledge as a fllnction of break lengthIt has been shown by l'esearchers (e.g. [2,16]) that the

length of the interval during which people do not pl'actice.the releval1t skills is a very good pl'edictor of forgettil1g

Other researchers [5,9] have suggested that fOl'getting isalso affected by the kind of activities tl1at people are

.ring the intervening periodןengaged in dlImpl'essive information on the cost of forgetting was

presented by Anderll10re [1], who found that a plant

1. Introduction

As the world of work evolves in the dil'ection of the-adoption of strategies reflecting such actions as down

se of contingencyןtsourcing and the increasing lןsizing, olemployees, the implications for traditional managemel1tpolicies and practices are only now beginning to beexplored. 111ustl'ativeof this is the training function, one

.of the most cl'ucial of all management responsibiJitiesTraining strategies and approaches which l1ave been of

,value now need to be reexamined and restructuredwhen necessary, in ol'der to meet the demands of thisne\\' world. In this paper, we discuss the value of onetype ofrestl'ucturing, i.e. the use of Just-In-Time Training

).JIT-T(Training is defined as the act of teaching individllals

the knowledge they need to function properly on thejob. A typical training method consists of a programjseminar lasting a few days, where individuals are taughtand exposed to issues and methods relevant to their

-working envil·onment. For example,a typical intl'o5-10ductory project management seminar would last

ldןdays, would give a general introductiol1, and wOl].12[cover all nine areas defined by the PMBOK

.972-3-6409560+:Correspolldillg author. Tel.: + 972-3-6408515;fax*E-nlail.(ב (lddl'ess: globe(a;post.tau.ac.il (S. GlobersoI

0263-7863/01/$20.00 (Q 2001 Elseviet· Science Ltd and IPMA. All rights t·eserved.PII: S0263-7863(00)00012-0

Page 372

3. JIT training

S. GI()bel'SOI1, A. KOI'maI1/ Interl1ational Joul'nal 01 Project Nlallagen1ent 19 (2001) 279-285280

(~(~

Since the present el'a is characterized by the need of-cOlnpanies to keep a tight control on expenses, compa

11iestoday are not willing to spel1d nloney on having an.inventory of kl10wledge' to be used whel1 needed'

Managers ask then1selves what kind of trainil1g tl1eyture with anןlncel'tain flןneed in ordel' to adapt to an

il1creasing1y vo1atile vvorkplace. A1so, n1anagers arel'e1uctant today to release elnp10yees for 1011gtl'aining

.COUl'ses-IT-T means 'as needed' trail1ing rathel' than accu]'mulating an il1ventory of kll0W-how that is lost ovel

time. ]IT -T means not only at the appropriate time, bllt.also just enougl1 training and in just the right context-IT-T may also be considered as a rediscovel'y of on]

.the-job training offered in a se1f-paced mannerThe importance of ]IT-T has already been recognized

-by leading cOl11panies. For example, a nun1bel' of companies included in Computerworld n1agazil1es 1997 BestPlaces to Work, have lnade a con1mitment to ]IT-T for

)soft and technical skills, United Parcel Sel'vice (UPS-and Xerox ha ve also implen1ented ]IT -T by having self

].15[study rooms equipped with workstationsThe adoption of ]IT-Tdoes not mean that 110general

eןןןtrail1ing is given, since in order to apply a certain modof know-how, the trainee needs to have a generalknowledge of the subject matter. Fig, 3 describes thebasic difference between the conventional training

.approach and the ]IT-T approachhe general trail1ing n10dule is required il1 bothז

appl'oaches. Howevel', while the conventional approachdelivers the three know-how modules, Ml, M2, and M3together with the general training, the ]IT-T approach

.delivers them separately and only when they are neededA major issue that should be resolved when designing

a ]IT- T approach is the ability to define the required-overview module and to evaluate the extent of indepen

dence among the different modules. In ordel' to allowuse of the modular approach, the diffel'ent modulesshould be indepelldent of each otl1er, That is, eacl1 lnaybe taught and applied indepel1dently. If this is not true

Tin1e

ma)' lose al'ound 50% of its productivity due to a pro-duction break of 3-6 mOl1tl1s and may lose 75% after a1 year break. Globerson et al. [8] found a loss ofkl10wledgeof around 400/0 after a bl'eak of 1 month, rising to 90%after 6 months. It was found that people tend to forgetmore 011cognitive task.s than on motor tasks, ReJnainingknow-how was found to decrease exponentially withbreak length, as described in Fig. 1, Therefore, the10nger the de1ay between a tl'aining program and the useof the knowledge acquired during the training period,the greatel' the loss of gained knowledge,

If n1anagement desil'es the 10st know1edge to beregained, another training program is needed. The crucialquestion is the duration of the retraining sessionrequired for regaining 10st knowledge. A carefulliteraturesurvey has not revealed any source tl1at gives soundiJlforlnation concerning the duration of a retrainingsession. However, using the findings cited above, onemay expect the bel1avior pattern presentedin Fig. 2,The first session on the time sca1e in Fig. 2 representsthe first forn1al training pel'iod. The second session oftrainil1g, which repl'esents a retrail1ing session, comesaftel' a break in Wl1ich there was no training and no usewas lnade of the know-how gained during tl1e fil'Sttraining session. As can be seen, the level of know-howafter the second session grows at a faster pace.

Left know-how

Breaklength

(month)

50%

100%

5 642 31

d t11e amOllnt ofךןFig. 1. T11e re1atiollship between hreak length a.renlaining know1edge

Levelofknow-how

Break,No work

1SI session I Break, I~~~~INo\york ~

Fig. 2. Leve1 of know-how iiS ii fUllction of trainillg sessiollS and bl'eaks .

._-~-._. ----~_ .....__ .-

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281

The JIT-T approach

279-285)2001(191cIl01Projecl Mal1agen1entro/1, A. KO/'man!lnle/'/1ationc/1 JOll~S. Globe/·.

The conventional approach Cost-benefit analysis ofthe alternative training strategieslar to that for an inventory ofוlnay be done in a mannel' sin

material kept by an ol'ganization to be used later. In both',cases, inventory of matel'ia1and 'inventory of know-how

the value decreases ovel' time. Since inventory analysis isused by many organizations and has been around for quitea while, let us review its basic concepts, and then give a

.comparative analysis for inventoried know-howA typical objective of an inventol'y systenl is to satisfy

annual demand at the lowest possible cost, whel'e cost-consists of ordering cost (also cal1edsetllp cost), and hold

ing cost, Setup cost comprises the costs of al1the activitiesing a new order, such as evaluating presentןןil'ed for issןןreq

inventory 1evels, identifying potential suppliers, issuingpurchasillg orders, and delivering the ol'der. Holding costcomprises the costs associated with keeping the iteln in

-inventory until it is needed. These costs include main,tenance cost, insurance cost, and costs of perished items

A typical objective of an annual training pl'ogram is-to satisfy annua1needs at the lowest possib1e cost, COll

sisting of setup and holding costs. In a similar mannerone may also analyze pllrchasing and maintenance ofknow-how gained by training, There is a setup cost forprepal'ing the training seminar, and a holding costwhich is l'elated to the 10ss of know-lloW gained duringthe trainil1g period. The following sections discuss and

.develop a training cost model

4.1. Trail1ing setup cost

The costs associated with this category relate to al1theactivities from the initial stage of identifying training11eedsto the last day of the training pel'iod, They includethe fol1owing:

• Identifying training needs• Preparing the training package• Administering the training (space, food, material,

instrllctors, equipment)• Work time lost by the trainees and paid by the

conlpal1Y·

.We may differentiate between two types of setup costThe first type is generated by a ne'vvseminal', whichrequires a11the above stages. The second type of setupcost is generated by l'epeats of the same seminar, Sincethe needs 11avel10t changed, there is no 11eedto identifythem again, and thel'e is no need to prepare the trainingpackage, Therefore, the setup cost of a repeat seminar is

,ction of adlninistration cost and time lostתjust a fu

4,2. KJ1ow[edge holding cost

The costs associated with this category relate to thecost of 10ss of know-how acquired during the tl'ainingperiod. Rather t1lan ta1king about the cost of lnaintaining

General training

Ml I M2 I M3

.esוFig.3. COl1\'entional and JIT-T approacl

fOl'any pair of lnodll1es, then they should be integratedinto one.

Let us illustrate this approach with an example fl'omproject managen1ent trainillg. Applying t1leconventiona1approach, the areas included in the Project ManagementBody Of Knowledge Guide (PMBOK) [12], wil1be cov-ered as one package. The use of the JIT-T approach willcal1 for one general session, fo1lowed by separate ses-SiOl1St11atcovel' eacll of the modules when needed.

4. Cost-benefit analysis of training

If there is no immediate use of the l<nowledge gainedduring the training session, forgetting takes place. As

tioned, forgetting is a function of the break lengthתmebetween the end of the training session and the start ofperforming tlle task which l'equires the actual use of the

.gained know-howchןTraining strategies may differ in many attributes, sl

bjects covel'ed, the extent of covel'ageןןas the number of s-bject, and the frequency of trainil1g workןof each sl,shops. A typica1 training wOl'](shopmay last a few days

and may be either given on consecutive days, or may bespread over a few weeks. For the purpose of i11ustration

:and analysis, let us identify two extreme strategies

g workshop covers al1 relevantתStJ-ategy A: The tra.inisubjects within the al'ea of interest. Forexample, a project lnanagelnent \vorkshop

tified by theתwil1cover all nine subjects ide],12[PMBOK Guide

-Strategy B: The fil'Sttl'aining workshop covers an overview session and one subject. The secolldworkshop will cover another subject whichhas not been covered, and so on, Eachtraining worksll0p will start whenever a

.need is recognized

Fig, 4 sumlnarizes the differences between the two.alternatives with regard to l'elevant attributes

pןse of JIT-T is justified when the training setlןThe lcost is low enough, in comparison wit1l knowledgeho1ding costs, to allow shorter and more frequent

.training wOl'kshops

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S. Globel'S011, A. KOI'man/ Inlel'11atiol1al }oul'nal oj'PI'ojecl Mal1agelnel1( 19 (2001) 279-285

ATTRIBUTE STRATEGY A: STRATEGY B:ALL SUBJECTS SINGLE SUBJECTS

number ofworkshops 1 9number of subjects covered in each 9 1workshopduration of a workshop 5 days around half a daytraining cost per 5ubiect lower higher1055of know-how higher !ower

.tegies·<ןFig. 4. Attribute5 of t\VOextrclne tl'ainillg stl

-a] needs. COlllputer assisted instrucןleal'ned to individltiOll keyed to individuality alld individual needs isobviously not a new mediunl. 1t has been used by military

]]since the early 60s and is now being used in virtually atypes of ]earning and training contexts as evidence forits value contintleS to accumulate with the increasingpopu1arity of interactive multimedia techno10gy. Withlllultimedia, 1earning can be achieved 30% fastel' andperformance incl'eased by 250/0 over traditional trainingmethods [3]. As mentioned before, the use of JIT-T is

tlle setup cost is 10w enough to a110wךjustified on1y \Vhelent use of training sessions since differentןlllOl'e freql

a]s may require the know-how at differelltןindividltinles. Obviously this may be achieved - and has

,a11'eady been achieved - by the use of the InternetW11ichhas already become a very common medium. Forexamp1e, in 1997, around 150 accredited colleges anduniversities in North America had nontl'aditionalbachelors degree programs that allowed students tospend little or no time on the col1ege campus [10]. Theuse of the Internet and Intrallet have a1ready spl'ead toconlpallies as we11,particu1ar1y the latter. Intranet seemsto be becoming a major player in JIT-T. Its market isaround twice as large as the Internet market [4], andcompanies intend to use it as a majol' vehic1e for

]14[enhancing internal JIT-T. For examp1e, GTElelp their employees do tl1eir jobsןdelivers JIT-T to

better. Employees al'e ab1e to use the Intranet in orderto get tl'aining whenever they need it and whi1e doing

.their regu1ar work

er6ח. Skills of the trai

In deve10ping stlch progl'anls, there are severa1 ski11s.cia1 for traillers in JIT -T programsןthat seem to be crl

They need to be ab1e to organize and categorize themateria1 in a proposed training program into thosepatterns which can be utilized at different times and inan order which is potentia1]y maxima11y efficient foreffective 1earning and minimal forgetting. The cha1-1enges then are severa]. The trainer needs to organize themateria1 into meaningfu1 modules, order them in a waythat maximizes learning and minimizes fOl'getting. Thretrainer also has to present thenl in a manner such thatthe individual trainee knows enough about each and can

-unused know1edge, we can estimate the va1ue of knowl,edge lost due to lack of maintenance. For example

using the finding quoted above with regal'd to the40%impact of forgettillg, we may aSSUllle that around

.of the know-how achieved is lost after a month,In order to ana1yze tlle cost of possible training patterns-one shou1d deve10p a unit of measurement for know

how. FOl' simplicity, let us use a "training day" as thent of know-how equal toןunit of measurement. An amol

ringןa "training day" means the know-how gained dlone tl'aining day. Lct llS introduce the loss of kno\v-how

.by going over the following example

4.3. Example

A tl'aining program lasts for 3 days. During tlle firstmonth after the training, none of the know-how gained

.during this program has been used by the traineesTherefore, around 40% of it 11as been ]ost, which is

.equal to 1.2 training daysAn informal survey administel'ed to trainers by the

authors, found that trainers estimated the reCO\ferytraining time to be around 50% of the loss. That is, ifthe loss was 1.2 days, ttlen the l'etraining session shouldbe around 1.2 x 0.5 = 0.6 days. Expressing the loss in

al to the cost of running aןןdollars, we may say that it is eqshort training seminar lasting 0.6 days. Let us furtherassume an instruction cost of $5000 per day and a trainees

)0.6daily salary of $150. Or, an amount of $90 (150 x.10st dlle to a retl'aining seminal' that 1asts for 0.6 days,90To run the retraining seminar will cost 5000 + X x

where X is the number of tl'ainees who participate in theseminar. That is, if a l'etraining session is held just forone person, its cost is $5090, alld for five participants itis $5450, or an average of $1090. As can be seen, theaverage l'etraining cost per trainee is a functioll of the

.numbel' of participants-Obviously, the retraining issue is llluch more compli

cated since there is a need to identify the content and the.intensity of the lost know-how

gחiחtraiחסology5ח. The impact of tech

FOl'tunate1y, technology has now become availab1ewhich make possib1e the tailoring of the materia1 to be

282Page 375

283

understand them we11enough to that he/she wi11be ab]eto choose those training modu1es most appropriate for aparticll1ar time and context. It may be noted a1so t11atthe categorizing of training n1ateria1s into modu1es isnot a new perspective. F1eishman [6], fOl' examp1e, hasshown training materia1s cou1d be categorized intoseparate components by re1ating them to abi1ity teste1ationships w1li1eGlickman and Vallance [7] uti1izedנ'

-the lllethod of critical incidents in proposing the subdivision of tt'aining matet·ia]s. Howevet·, neither re]ated

,their wOl'kto the JIT -T framework we are proposing herea fl'amework which is a combination ofboth sophisticated

.tt'aining organization and trainee se1f-pacingJIT-T significant]y change the training approach and

the trail1el's ro1e. The new approach requires the trainernot on1y to be an expert itl the subject matter and a

-competent instructor, but a1so to be ab]e to prepare se1fguided training packages. Trainers need to consider

·themse1ves as guiders of appropriate self-]earning rathetthan on1y as teachers. As a resu1t, a typica1 trainillg

11dil1c1udetwo 111ajorpal·ts - an overvie\vןsession Sl10session and a se1f-teaching session. The overview session

-should inc1udea genera1 intl'oduction, as we11as an overview of the subjects for which se1f-paced modu1es areavai1ab1e.The se1f-teachil1gsession shou1d equip trainees

-with the proper too1s and abi1ities to retrieve the se1f.paced modules and be ab1eto study them on their own

8. Example: JIT -T in project management

S. Gloher.lon, A. K01·nl.an / lnternotional J01{I'1101oj Project Monagen1e11t 19 (2001) 279-285

Alarge high-tech company that deveJops and instaJJste1ecomlllunications sub-systems decided to establish

-1anןנ·forma1 project management procedures. Uppet-agement approached MANP AT, an educationa1 insti

tute within the business schoo1 of Tel Aviv University.that specia1izes in project nlanagement education

The company wished to introduce an aggressive andeffective .project managelllent training program usingthe JIT-T approach. The fo110wingtwo principles wet'e

:adopted

• to train project managers on]y in subjects thatcould immediate1y be put into practice in the dai1yworking environment

• to vet'ify that the managers of project managerswere fami1iar with the PMBOK Guide, and wereabJe to request their subordil1ates to app]y t'e1evantproject managemellt techniques and procedut'es

The following p1an was devised and imp1ementedusing these princip1es:

1. Review of the PMBOK with the lllanagers of pro-ject managers. This review took ha1f a day.

2. Assisting the managers with se]ection of the nlostre1evant topics to be covered in detaiJ. Fig. 5 pl'e-sents t1le average relative importal1ce assigned bythe managers to the different topics.

3. Design and imp1ementation of a 3 day seminat· fOl'the managers of project managers, aimed at cov-ering the se1ected topics and identifying too1s andtechniques to be used by the company. The fol-10wing progl'am was estab1ished for the setllinar,using the re1ative importance assigned by themanagers:Day 1:project 1ifecycle, organizatiotl of the project,WBS, work packagesDay 2: resource estinlation, scheduling, projectCOt1tro]Day 3: j'isk managel11el1t, qua1ity assurance,human l'eSOUl'cemanagement. During the seminat·,the managers identi:fiedthe fo1Jowingtemp1ates to beprepared before running the workshop for projectmanagers: a check 1istof items requil'ed for starting aproject, a generic WBS, a work package templates,and temp1ates for identifying risk drivers.

4. Deve10pment of the too1s identified during theseminar so that they cou1d be taught and practicedin the project managers' seminar. This was dOtledUl'ing a l-day workshop in which the work ofdeve10ping the too1s was shared alllollg the man-agers. The l'esu1ting temp1ates were adopted asstandard procedures to be used by a11 project

JIT-T: behavior and attitudesך.

We begin here with a paradox and a warning. Theparadox is as fo11ows:JIT-T may be most effective andmost needed in those settings'where it wi1lbe hardest toimp1ement. The reason is that JIT-T may have thegreatest potentia1 use in those organizations undergoingrapid changes since it is in these settings that it is mostdifficu1t, if at a]l possibJe or justified, to deve10p any

.long-range standardized training programsThe reason is that al1xiety makes it more difficu1t to

make the cognitive decisiotlS and develop the cogllitivestructures that are necessary for the imp1ementation of

.JIT-TAnxiety makes it harder to plan and to organize in a

fruitfu], ]ong-range mant1er and yet this is precise1ywhat the trainer needs to do in deve10ping her program

-and the trainee needs to do in choosing a trainee pro].11[gram and a tl'aining pace for himse1f

Management, therefore, needs to pJan its steps and itsdecisions, recognizing the l'eality of such anxiety and theneed to respond to by designitlg a JIT -T pt'ogram which

-does not increase anxiety and the dysfunctiona1 behaviors that result. Such gllidelines have increasingly been

lllber of authors in recent yeal's andןproposed by a nlcan be structured to fit the particu1ar characteristics of a

]).13[.particu1ar wOl-ksetting (c.f

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279-285)2001(19al Journal 01 P/'ojecl ManagemenlןזS. Globe/'son, A. KO/'man! Jnlernalio284

IMPORTANCESUBJECTHIGHLOW

xProiect life cyclexFunctional requirements

xHouse of qualityxLife cvcle cost

xCost-benefit analysisxComparison of alternatives

xWork breakdown structurexDesi!ffiofwork packages

xOraanizational breakdown structurexStatementofwork

xConfiguration managementxResource estimationxScheduling

xResource profilexBudaet planning

XMulti-proiect managementxRisk management

xPurchasingxPro.iectcontrol

xtחQuality managemexProiect termination

xHwnan resource manageme!\txMicrosoft Proiect

.agersחked by maחce of project management stlbjects, as raחFig. 5. Relative ilnporta

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the01ןanagers in the company, and were postedמן.panys IntranetמcOI

"5. Design and implementation of a 4-day seminal"fOlthe project managers. The emphasis was on learning

.and practicing the too1s adopted by the managersinar covered the same nlatel"ial asמThe 4-day sel

se ofןthe nlanagers' seminar, but emphasized the l.the adopted pl·ocedures

As a result of the JIT-T process described above, the-training concentrated on1y on the material to be imple,mented right aftel" the completion of the seminar

thereby avoiding loss of know-how gained by pl"ojectired by their managers at thatןmanagers but not regl

.stage of the imp1ementation

9. Conclusions

In tllis el"aof rapid change of technology, products, proc

cesses and personal commitment to organizatiol1s, the.conventional training strategy is not appropriate any more

JIT-T is an effectiveanswer to this new world as it offers afast response to some types of organizational training

,needs, at a relative1ylow cost. Since t.heneeded technologysuch as the Internet and Intranet, is available. It is feasible

e toנto apply ]IT -T to pl"ojectmanagement sinceit is possibidentify independent trainillg modules within the PMBOKkll0W-howcontext. Also, typica1project nlanagers seem to

-fficient1yexperiencedwith intel'net and intranet envirןbe sl.onmel1tin order to use it as the training media for the JIT-T

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R. 1991. Individual Ready16ס] Wisher R, Sabol M, Sukenik H, Kel[,1595.Reserve (IRR), call up: Skill Decay. Research Report No

.stituteתןAlexandria, VA: US Army Research

S. Globel·.~o/1,A. KO/'man I 111lel'national Jou/'/1al 0.( Pro;ect Managen1enl 19 (2001) 279-285

Abraham K. Korman is the Wollman-Distinguished Professor of Manage

ment at Barucl1 College of the CityU11iversity of New York. He is the

50author of seven books and over-articles in the al'eas of wOI'k Illotiva

tion, leadership, executive stress and.gsתinter-gl'olIP relations in work setti

alתatioתterתHe has over 30 years of it to theתsultaתexpel'ience as a co

companies such as Amstar, Beatrice,dllstries, RCAתןFoods, Fairchild

es, UnileverתIBM, American Airlilnd the New York Daily News. He~

lndllstrial PSYCl1010gyfrom the University ofתן.holds a Ph.D.Minnesota

-Shlomo Globerson is a researcher, eduthe fields ofתc,ltor and COl1s11ltanti

d operationsתagelllel1t aתpl'oject mamanagement. He is a professor at the

Graduate-ת School of Busi11essAdmi,istrationן~ Te1 Aviv University, and

g professor <ltdiffere11tתfl'equent visitid establishments a11תiversities <lתu

d the wOl·ld.Prof. Globerson isתaroudeve10ping newתsi\'ely invo1ved iתexte

-courses al1d workshops for MBA stud topתts, pl'oject 111,lnagers aתde

executives, as we11as prepari11gfor theation il1 projectתprofessiona1 exami

has published over 70 refereed articlesתal1agement. PI·of. Globel'soןת

.and sevel1books

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