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Title and sub-title: The transition process to post-working life and its psychosocial outcomes: a systematic analysis of Spanish early retirees’ discourse. Header: The early retirement process Authors: Antonio Crego, Carlos-María Alcover, David Martínez-Íñigo Contact details:

Antonio Crego is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: antonio.crego@urjc.es

Further details: Prof. Dr. Antonio Crego. Rey Juan Carlos University. Department of Psychology (Social Psychology). C/ Camino del Molino s/n. E 28943 Fuenlabrada-Madrid (Spain). Phone: +34 914 888 456. E-mail: antonio.crego@urjc.es

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Abstract

Purpose: To carry out an in-depth exploration of early retirement processes from a

psychosocial perspective, identifying factors that play a relevant role in decisions for

leaving work as well as variables involved in retirement adjustment and possible

outcomes for retirees.

Design/methodology/approach: Qualitative data from nine focus groups –made up of

a total of 78 Spanish early retirees from different sectors of activity (industry,

bank/financial services and telecommunications) - were codified and analyzed using the

ATLAS.ti 5 program.

Findings: The study highlights the relevance of how organizational exit is carried out

(voluntariness, perception of justice, etc.) in relation to the adjustment to retirement.

The degree to which the labour market exit implies different types of rupture

(psychological contract, identity, professional and personal objectives, way of life, etc.)

conditions the adaptation to post-working life. The importance of social support during

the transition process from work to early retirement is pointed out.

Research limitations/implications: The study is an initial exploratory approach to the

early retirement experience in Spain. Although the sample is not representative, the use

of qualitative methods allows for the identification of relevant variables to include in

future research. Results should be complemented by means of triangulation method,

involving contrast between qualitative and quantitative strategies.

Practical implications: Organizational HRM policies should aim to promote a

smoother early exit as well as guarantee “fair play” during the process. Concerning

adjustment to early retirement, psychosocial programs aiming to improve coping

strategies are needed.

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What is original/ value of paper: It presents a systematic overview of early retirees´

discourse, analysing the role of different variables involved in the transition process

from work to early retirement.

Key words: early retirement process, older workers, labour market exit, adjustment to

retirement.

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Introduction

The social relevance of early retirement has increased in the last decade, due to the large

number of people affected by this form of labour market exit as well as to the important

consequences it can have on the welfare state, the organizations and the older workers.

The rate of participation in the labour force of older workers (55-64 years old) in OECD

countries is currently around 55.4%. In the EU (25 countries) the average is below that

figure, where approximately only four out of ten Europeans between 55 and 64 years

old are employed and the average exit age from the labour force has decreased to 60.9

years old (Eurostat, 2005). If the early retirement tendency continues, the OECD

forecasts that in the year 2050 there will be only one person employed per retiree in

European countries (OECD, 2006).

Although the early retirement phenomenon has mainly been tackled from economic and

demographic perspectives, the fact that it is an experience that may be studied from a

psychosocial perspective should not be overlooked.

Our research aims to carry out an in-depth exploration of the transition process from

work to early retirement, analyzing the discourse of a sample of early retirees in order to

describe their perception of how the organizational exit comes about, its consequences,

what elements are involved in the adjustment to retirement, and what is the role of the

different actors involved (employee-early retiree, close and extended social networks,

and organization). Special attention is paid to the role played by the variables put

forward in previous research and other significant variables are identified.

This systematic approach to the early retirement process allows for an integration of

previous findings. It has heuristic value in suggesting possible relations between

variables involved in the transition process to early retirement and therefore researchers

can benefit from the presented results in order to orientate future studies (i.e. design of

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questionnaires, quantitative studies aiming to provide a more accurate view of relations

between variables, etc.). Besides, the analysis of early retirees’ discourse provides

practitioners with useful indications to carry out organizational exit processes in a

satisfactory way for both the employee and the company (i.e. to guarantee “fair play”

during the process, management of emotions associated with the labour market exit, to

anticipate the challenges involved in early retirement, etc.).

We shall firstly review the literature concerning the antecedents and possible

consequences of early retirement and point out some limitations of previous research.

We shall then present our methodology, based on discussion groups and discourse

analysis concerning the transition process from employment to early retirement. Then

the results, grouped into two thematic blocks, will be presented: the first block refers to

the decision-making processes related to organizational exit, the expectations for control

over the process and how the organizational exit is carried out. The second block deals

with the personal, interpersonal and social consequences of early retirement. Finally, the

results of previous studies and our findings will be compared, highlighting contributions

from our study specifically related with the procedural nature of early retirement

Overview of previous psychosocial research on early retirement.

The psychosocial study of early retirement and the situation of older workers in the

labour market is a relatively new and growing field of research. There are currently no

models offering an overall view of the variables involved in the process of early exit

from the labour market and its possible consequences.

Previous studies have pointed out different elements involved in the decision process of

older workers concerning ending or continuing their working life. According to Shultz,

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Morton and Weckerle (1998), health, economic status, attitudes towards retirement and

work satisfaction would be among the major predictors of older workers’ behaviour

when confronted with the opportunity of early retirement.

As follows from the works of Carr (2002), Clark and Spengler (1980), Kim and

Feldman (1998), Lens and Neves (1999), Prothero and Beach (1984), Steffick (2003)

and Weis et al.(1994), the worker’s physical and mental health plays a determinant role

when considering whether to accept a retirement plan. By the same token, those who

consider remaining in active employment as a real or potential risk for health are more

likely to apply for retirement (Fronstin, 1999).

Economic factors also play a relevant role in the early retirement decision. Older

workers must weigh up the costs and benefits of remaining employed or ending their

working life (Fronstin, 1999; Kim and Feldman, 1998; Prothero and Beach, 1984;

Szinovacz, DeViney and Davey, 2001; Weckerle and Shultz, 1999). Incentives for

leaving the company, income reductions and penalties related to early exit from the

labour market, or future financial stability are elements those eligible for early

retirement take into consideration.

Other elements frequently analyzed as antecedents of early retirement decisions are

working conditions and environments (Henkens and Tazelaar, 1994), excessive or

deficient workloads (Helander, 1984), or low wages (Kim and Feldman, 1998).

Regarding the psychosocial elements of early retirement decision-making processes,

Henkens and Tazelaar (1997) and Mein et al., (2000) have underlined the importance of

the organizational context, showing that those workers who experienced stressful

organizational events were more likely to retire early from work . Social influence

processes and group cohesion also seem to shape workers’ assessments. In this way,

Henkens has pointed out that workers who have strong social ties with colleagues are

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less willing to retire early (Henkens, 1999a) and has analysed the role of supervisors’

attitudes towards the early retirement of subordinates (Henkens, 2000).

Other psychosocial factors related to employees´ personal life, such as the family

situation (i.e., spouse’s working status or marital status) or the influence of close social

network (partner, peer group, etc.) are also remarkably present during the early

retirement decision-making processes (Henkens, 1999b; Henkens and Tazelaar, 1997;

Henkens and van Solinge, 2002; Hwalek, et al. 1982).

Finally, research on early retirement has identified several personal traits involved in

workers´ decisions, highlighting the relationship between being in active employment,

self-esteem and self-concept (Henkens, 1999a), and the relevance of employees’

attitudes towards work and retirement (Henkens and Tazelaar, 1994; Huuhtanen and

Piispa, 1992; Huuhtanen, 1994; Prothero and Beach, 1984).

Decisions concerning withdrawal are usually complex and workers bring into

consideration a plurality of reasons, involving both push (i.e. escape from perceived

aversive organizational conditions or risks related to working life) and pull factors

(attractiveness of retirement, time for leisure, more relaxation, etc.) (Feldman, 1994;

Hardy and Quadagno, 1995; Robertson, 2000; Shultz et al., 1998; Williamson et al.,

1992).

As can be observed, research on the variables involved in decisions concerning early

retirement is still fragmented and does not appear to be clearly organized in a systematic

framework in which different levels of analysis are articulated (personal, interpersonal,

organizational, and social). Something similar occurs in the research dealing with the

consequences of early retirement, as we shall see below.

The retirees’ assessments of their withdrawal from active employment and the

beginning of their post-working life are frequently ambivalent. Although the new

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situation may be a satisfactory experience for the majority of retirees (Gómez and Martí,

2003; Isaksson and Johansson, 2000; Martínez, et al., 2003; Williamson, et al. 1992),

early retirement has also been related to possible negative consequences with regard to

physical and mental health (Choi, 2003; Kivimäki et al., 2004; Tuohy, Knussen,and

Wrennall, 2005), family climate and interpersonal relationships (Gómez and Martí,

2003; Martinez et al., 2003).

Due to the remarkable variability of the personal and psychosocial outcomes of early

retirement, it would be interesting to know how mediator and moderator variables are

involved in retirement adjustment and to identify different patterns of adjustment to

early retirement (Isaksson, 1997). Previous research points out the following

modulators:

a) Voluntariness of early retirement (Isaksson, 1997; Isaksson and Johansson,

2000; Shultz et al., 1998)

b) Early retiree’s financial situation and health, considered classic predictors of

retirement adjustment, whose role is currently studied complemented by other

factors (Van Solinge and Henkens, 2005).

c) Gender, with men being more likely to suffer negative consequences and women

showing more retirement satisfaction (Isaksson and Johansson, 2000).

d) Personality traits, such us flexibility, resilience, ability to adapt to new

situations, self-efficacy; pre-retirement expectations; level of control over the

transition; and coping strategies (McGoldrick, 1989; Niederfranke, 1989; Van

Solinge and Henkens, 2005),

e) Continuity of goals after retirement (Robbins, Lee and Wan, 2002)

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f) Social support (McGoldrick, 1989; Neuhaus, 1995), participation in preventive

social support programs and having hobbies and interests beyond work (Gómez

and Martí, 2003).

Bearing in mind the elements and experiences that are relevant in the adaptation to early

retirement, several conclusions can be drawn. Firstly, previous research has been mainly

focused on the determinants of the labour market exit. Secondly, given the existence of

numerous modulator variables, it seems that the early retirement experience is highly

heterogeneous with regard to how one leaves the labour market and subsequent

adaptation. As a consequence, it seems appropriate to systematically explore the early

retirement process in order to present an overall view of it which builds on previous

research. Therefore this review is a point of departure for designing a qualitative

methodology that allowed for the in-depth analysis of the transition to early retirement.

As stated before, this kind of systematic analysis provides a framework to integrate

previous findings as well as possesses a heuristic value in pointing out relevant topics

for future research. The bottom-up approach (from the analysis of early retiree’s

discourse to the elaboration of a framework to understand the transition process to post-

working life) is a useful strategy to carry out an initial systematic exploration of the

phenomenon of early retirement. Given, on the other hand, the relatively scarce existing

literature, the qualitative method is especially appropriate since it enables us to identify

personal experiences and meanings that, otherwise, might have gone unnoticed. In this

sense, the studies carried out by Higgs et al (2003), Mein and Ellison (2006), Repass

(2006), Robertson (2000) and Vickerstaff et al. (2004) constitute a remarkable example

of the use of qualitative methods applied to the analysis of decision-making processes,

pathways or consequences related to (early-) retirement.

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Method

Discussion groups

Nine discussion groups made up of a sample of 78 early retirees (58 male, 20 female)

were held between February and April, 2005. Each group was composed of subjects

who had been employed in the same economic sector (bank services, industry or

telecommunications), including both genders and a wide range of ages (from 55 to 70

years old). Participants differed in the number of years that had elapsed since

retirement, career status before withdrawal, educational level and current level of

income. The directive boards of collaborating associations conducted the recruitment of

the subjects and the sessions took place at the central office of these associations. All

participants were volunteers and no reward was offered for taking part in the study.

Our research focuses on early retirees that shared a pool of characteristics: a) they

worked for large companies that offered them an early retirement plan when they were

between 50 and 64 years old; b) there was no reason for being offered the plan other

than the worker’s advanced age; c) they were currently outside the labour market with

no real possibility of being re-employed again due to their age –making it difficult to

find a new job- and the complexities of the retirement plan they signed (i.e. in some

cases, they were not allowed to work in the previous sector of economic activity); d)

they were considered to be “early retirees” if they were less than 64 years old, but many

of them have already reached retirement age in Spain-65 years old-.

TAKE IN TABLE 1

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Table 1. Characteristics of discussion group sessions

Session Economy sector

Participants per group Male Female

Participants per association

1 7 5 2

2 3 2 1

3

Bank

8 4 4

18

23,07%

4 Industry 8 8 0

8

10,25%

5 11 6 5

6 6 5 1

7

Tele-communications 10 7 3

27

34,61%

8 12 10 2

9 Industry 13 11 2

25

32,05%

Totals 78 100%

58 74,35%

20 25,64%

Discussion groups were designed and conducted following the instructions provided by

scientific literature (Krueger and Casey, 2000; Morgan, 1998; Stewart y Shamdasani,

1990). During the sessions two members of the research group were present, one as a

facilitator and moderator of the conversation and the other as an observer of the

interaction. Before beginning each session, the moderator briefly described the context

of the research, the method and the task to be carried out. A semi-structured frame was

established, indicating that the subjects could intervene freely in a way as similar as

possible to a natural informal conversation. In order to orient and reactivate the

conversation when necessary, the interviewers could make use of a script with questions

referring to two general blocks (the process of organizational exit and the subsequent

adaptation to post-working life), covering four relevant levels of analysis (personal,

interpersonal, organizational y social). For the elaboration of the above-mentioned

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script, we took into consideration the information gathered after a bibliographic review

concerning the relevant variables for the study of early retirement (Crego and Alcover,

2004). We also took into consideration the information obtained in preparatory

meetings with the leaders of collaborating associations. At the end of each session, the

researcher in the role of observer could request additional information with respect to

aspects that had come up in the conversations.

Discourse analysis

Around 13.5 hours of audio recordings were obtained in these discussion groups. Tape-

recorded qualitative data were transcribed and then coded and analyzed using the

ATLAS.ti5 program. To carry out this task, we followed the indications of Miles and

Huberman (1994) concerning the analysis of qualitative data. Taking the above-

mentioned review of existing literature as a point of departure, several drafts of a system

of categories were elaborated and, afterwards, the members of the research group

reached agreed to an initial version. This initial version was tested by analysing three

different sessions. Afterwards, the system of categories was reviewed and a final

version was elaborated. The resulting codes (see table 2) were introduced in the

ATLAS.ti5 program and we proceeded to codify each session. Two researchers carried

out this task and a third researcher supervised independently the codified material. After

codifying the 9 discussion groups, the systematization of the categorized information

was carried out, identifying the most important topics arising from the discourse of the

early retirees. For this the tools that ATLAS.ti5 offers (grouping in families, creation of

networks, etc.) proved very useful.

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It is important to remark that the aim of this method is to obtain information about the

possible meanings of the early retirement experience, in other words, to gain access to

the “semantic network” associated to early retirement. Taking into account this purpose

and the fact that the sample is not a representative one, we have considered that a

quantitative treatment (i.e frequencies of statements) of the data collected during the

discussion group sessions would not add reliable information concerning the early

retirees’ experiences. Furthermore it would represent an illicit leap from a specific

qualitative method to a general quantitative interpretation. Obviously, as will be stated

in the discussion section, the qualitative results obtained need to be complemented by

quantitative research in order to reach a more accurate view of the early retirement

process.

TAKE IN TABLE 2

Table 2. Categories for discourse analysis on decision-making for leaving or remaining

in the labour market

So

cial

le

vel

• Socioeconomic situation justifying early retirement

Org

aniz

atio

nal

leve

l • Previous situation in the organization (mergers, reorganization, etc.) • Fulfilment of early retirement plan

� Voluntariness � Plan’s content � Procedure for early retirement → collective/ individual homogenous/ heterogeneous

• Work climate prior to exit � Organizational change (structure, work procedures…) � Organizational conflict (between workers, workers-management) � Work motivation prior to exit

Inte

rper

son

al l

leve

l • Family situation prior to exit • Support/ counselling prior to exit • Family relations • Family support • Impact on family • Social relations • Reorganization of time • Reorganization of activity

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Per

son

al le

vel

• Work attitudes � Way of earning a living vs. vocational � Monotonous vs. creative job

• Organizational commitment • Working conditions • Difficulties for carrying out job

� Skills gap � Burnout

• Physical health � Physical health antecedents

• Mental health � Mental health antecedents

• Perception of justice/injustice • Gap between expected age of retirement- early retirement age • Professional career development

� Career stage when exiting � Interruption of career

• Perception of rupture (with the business, with own identity…) • Coping strategies • Gender (differences in adaptation) • Attractiveness of retirement • Self-concept/ self-esteem / identity • Free time • Economic situation

� Before/ after retirement

Results

As a result of the discourse analysis, the following thematic structure emerged. Within

the generic block referring to the organizational exit process, early retirement decision-

making processes, expectations for control during the process and possible scenarios of

organizational exit appeared as sub-topics. In the thematic block concerning the

consequences of early retirement, three sub-topics were identified: personal,

interpersonal and social outcomes. According to this structure, our findings are

presented in this section organized around two thematic blocks (organizational exit

process and early retirement consequences) and three sub-topics (marked as A, B and C)

per block.

The organizational exit process

A) Decision-making processes regarding early retirement. Table 3 provides a systematic

view of the elements involved in early retirement decision-making processes, as can be inferred

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from the participants’ discourse. Among these elements an important group of work-

related variables might be mentioned: the meaning of work, work attitudes, values

related to work, organizational commitment, task contents and the perceived effect of

work on health. For example, if the employed person considered work as a means of

earning a living or even as a punishment, he was more likely to leave the organization.

On the contrary, if work was very important for him (e.g. example work represents a

form of life or it is vocational) then he would be expected to refuse the retirement plan.

Regarding organizational commitment, it was clear that those workers highly committed

to the company (i.e. they referred to the company as a family) would prefer to remain,

whereas those linked to the company by a mere working contract would be more likely

to prefer the exit option.

Another group of elements could be labelled “contextual variables”, such as the

financial and family situation before retirement. At this point, the type of burdens seems

decisive. Thus, when family burdens require maintaining a certain level of income, the

worker tends to prefer to continue working, above all if the early retirement offer is not

highly advantageous in economic terms. On the contrary, there are family burdens that

require more time (e.g. caring for a sick relative) and in these cases the preference was

early retirement.

Developmental factors concerning the professional career stage and the expected age of

retirement are also involved in early retirement decision-making processes. In this

sense, those in a declining or static point of their career would be expected to prefer

retirement, whereas workers who had reached a high professional status clearly assessed

retirement as a bad option. Finally, the degree to which retirement is an attractive option

for the worker and the expectations concerning his post-working future also play a

decisive role.

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TAKE IN TABLE 3

Table 3. Elements involved in early retirement decision-making processes.

Facilitators of early retirement Inhibitors of early retirement

Work attitudes/ meanings and values

Work as a means of earning one’s living

Work as a punishment

Organizational values in conflict with personal values or ideology

Work as a form of life

Vocational work

Task contents Monotonous tasks Creative or challenging tasks

Organizational commitment

Low commitment

A mere work contract between company and employee

High commitment

“Psychological contract”

“Company as a family”: i.e. close relationships between colleagues

Expected age of retirement

Age of retirement is close to expected age of retirement

Age of retirement is far from expected age of retirement

Professional career stage

Declining or static career Successful professional career

Possibility of job promotion

Professional prestige, recognized expert, increased responsibility or

authority

Perceived effects of work on health

Burnout, stress, depression.

Fear of work illness or potential work risks

No aversive effects of work on health

Financial situation before retirement

No financial burdens (current or anticipated)

The company’s offer is not enough to pay financial burdens

Family situation before retirement

No family burdens (i.e. single person)

Family burdens demand spending time (i.e. taking care of children, relatives or ill family members)

.

Family burdens demand high income: cost of maintaining children

or relatives, etc.

Attractiveness of retirement

Positive assessment of retirement Negative assessment of retirement (boredom, lack of incentives, etc.)

B) Expectations in relation to control over the process. In general, early retirees

attributed to their companies an absolute decision-making power to achieve

organizational goals. Older workers frequently showed low expectations for control

over the downsizing process and subsequent outcomes. They considered that the

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company had the intention of getting rid of them and, consequently, it would use

different strategies to force the acceptance of the offer. As a consequence, they defined

their situation as one of uncertainty and helplessness: to accept the early retirement plan

implied facing an unknown post-working life whereas to refuse the offer could imply

remaining in an equally uncertain working life (new organizational policies and

procedures, new working conditions, risk of dismissal, fear that early retirement

incentives could be worse in the future, etc.). Furthermore, all this occurred in a context

in which a lack of social support in the workplace was perceived (feeling that they had

been betrayed by the unions, lack of confidence in receiving support from other younger

workers, individualized negotiation of the organizational exit, etc.)

C) Scenarios of organizational exit. The discourse of the early retirees concerning the

way organizational exit is carried out can be organized by combining the answers they

gave to two questions: “Do I want to accept the early retirement plan?” and “Could I

reject it?” The first question involved considering older workers’ willingness to retire,

which was obviously based on their reasons for remaining in or leaving the labour force,

whereas the second one referred to their control expectations during the downsizing

process. As a result, four possible scenarios emerged:

1. Voluntary acceptance of the early retirement plan: the older worker wanted to

accept the offer and thought that he could have rejected it, if retirement had not

been a good option. People in this first scenario considered that the withdrawal

was favourable for both the company and the worker, and they thought of

themselves as being rather autonomous and self-directed.

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2. Resistance: the older worker decided to refuse the early retirement plan and he

believed that the company would respect this choice because he was not being

removed but only proposed as a candidate for the program.

3. Unavoidable withdrawal: the older worker did not want to retire early but he

understood that there was no alternative because the company had a strong

interest in his exit.

4. Forced acceptance: the exit from the organization did not occur against the older

worker’s will, in the sense that he applied for leaving the company.

Nevertheless, he believed that it would not be possible to oppose the company’s

efforts to remove him. People in this scenario were aware of an unbalanced

power situation and therefore they considered their choice as being grounded in

both the willingness to leave the company and the impossibility of remaining.

In the discourse of the early retirees, the “resistance” scenario is associated with those

that implied low expectations of control (“forced acceptance” and “unavoidable

withdrawal”). After communicating their refusal of the offer, workers in the

“resistance” scenario were exposed to an increasing level of aversive working

conditions such as changes in the habitual workplace environment, redefinition of job

contents, introduction of new work procedures, threats (“resign or be fired”), mobbing,

etc. Moreover, workers had to consider that future retirement agreements might be even

worse than the present one or that they could even be fired and, therefore, that they were

perhaps missing a great opportunity. Given the high cost of standing firm against (real

or imagined) organizational pressures, a shift in the locus of control from internal to

external occurred: the older worker became convinced that the only alternative was to

quit. As a consequence, the older worker moved to “unavoidable withdrawal” or “forced

acceptance” scenarios, depending on his new attitude towards retirement (he may want

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to remain employed but he thinks there is no real possibility; or he may want to leave

the organization not wilfully but due to the currently negative situation). A worker who

moves to the “forced acceptance” scenario not only has his initial locus of control

changed but also his thoughts and feelings about the workplace (“a bad place to stay

in”) and the early retirement plan (“an opportunity to escape, a means to obtain

freedom”, in short, negative reinforcement). According to early retirees, their

experience would be a type of lay-off disguised as a voluntary agreement. As we shall

analyze below, how the labour market exit is produced (voluntary or forced, perceived

as fair or unfair, abrupt or smooth) may greatly condition the adaptation of the early

retiree to his new situation.

Early retirement consequences

The assessment of the withdrawal experience, as was shown during the discussion

group sessions, is ambivalent and early retirement consequences are modulated by

several elements.

Given the fact that early retirement implies not only organizational exit but also

withdrawal from the labour market, one modulator element is the degree to which

labour market exit implies a rupture with professional and vital objectives of a person.

Early retirement was more difficult for high work-centrality subjects who were forced to

leave a vocational job or had assumed that work defines the person. In such cases, the

retiree has to redefine not only his professional identity (from being in active

employment to retirement) but also his life objectives, which can increase the sense of

breakdown.

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In addition, the way in which the organizational exit is carried out may increase even

more the feeling of rupture, considering it unfair, obligatory, or a violent termination of

the “psychological contract” between the business and the employee. From the

discourse of the early retirees, it can be inferred that in order to cope with the confusion

deriving from this rupture and to begin to organize their post-working life, the degree of

social support from the family or “significant others” was essential. In this regard, a

style of active coping, oriented towards the solution of the challenges involved in the

new situation and the management of emotions that brought about the rupture were

equally desirable. Finally, the financial situation of the early retiree was repeatedly

pointed out as a modulator element of the degree of adjustment.

The discourse of participants on possible outcomes of early retirement can be structured

around three topics or levels of analysis, as summarized in Table 4.

TAKE IN TABLE 4

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Table 4. Early retirement consequences

Topic Tasks Positive outcomes Negative outcomes Rebuilding personal

identity, self-concept and self-esteem

Search for new sources of

identity

Possibility of being oneself.

Authenticity, freedom

Time for self-development

Loss of work and organizational

membership as a source of identity.

Interrupted professional

career

Low self esteem (not being useful)

Negative self-concept

Broken identity (not being

the same as ever) Reorganizing time and

activity

Spending free time

Time for hobbies and personal interests.

Active leisure

Education/ University for

older adults

Time for family care giving or voluntary work

Bridge-employment

Wasting time

Boredom

Personal outcomes

Preventing health risks Improved health and wellbeing

Symptoms of anxiety, depression, post-traumatic

stress Psycho-somatic illness

Redefining family roles Search for a place for the

retiree. Assigning domestic tasks

Improved family life

Family conflict Divorce/ break-up

Domestic tasks invade my free time (early retiree’s

perspective)

The retiree invades my habitual space (family’s

perspective)

Interpersonal outcomes

Reorganizing social life Search for a new social

network

Creation of new networks (i.e. associations)

Time for social relations

Reduced social network Restrictions for social contact and activities

Lack of social support

Social outcomes Search for social recognition

Defence of retirees’ rights

Organizing a social movement

Social prejudices / Ageism Lack of a clear social role

Loss of prestige Ambiguous administrative

situation

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A) Personal outcomes. Early retirement leads to numerous difficulties for personal

identity. Leaving the organization and the labour force means losing a part of one’s

identity (that related to work) and also losing a membership group (professional,

organizational); therefore retirement implies a challenge to maintain one’s sense of

continuity. Some early retirees stated that after withdrawal they did not feel that they

were the same person and they revealed that not only their lives had changed but also

they themselves. Self-esteem can also be affected by retirement: many times work

provides an occasion for feeling proud and developing feelings of capability; therefore,

when the retiree drops out of the labour force, he can develop thoughts of being useless,

incapable of working, unworthiness or being marginalized.

B) Interpersonal outcomes. Role ambiguities present in early retirees’ lives may also

affect their family relationships. The retiree must consider two questions when he faces

his new post-working life situation: “What can I do now that I don’t have to go to

work?” and “Where can I go?” The former reflects that the retiree has lot of free time

and a lack of work obligations; the latter is a consequence of the loss of activity: “If I

have nothing to do, shall I stay at home?” Both questions are frequently the source of

family conflict. From the family’s point of view, the retiree has time enough for playing

a more active role in domestic tasks, but from the retiree’s perspective the extra time

belongs to him and, therefore, he should decide how to use it. An additional problem

often arises when the retiree does not leave home to carry out activities: he occupies

spaces that other members of the family may have considered theirs. According to the

retirees’ discourse, their families often think of them as being a “piece of furniture” or a

hindrance. So, a family conflict could be produced because both the retiree and his

family consider each other as an invader: the retiree sees the family’s requests as an

23

invasion of his time; whereas the family may think that the retiree is invading domestic

(material or symbolic) spaces. Participants in the discussion groups pointed out several

possible scenarios related to family difficulties. Some of them reached an explicit or

implicit agreement for reorganizing domestic life and roles. Others retirees revealed that

they used a coping strategy labelled by them as “becoming an invisible man”; that is,

they tried not to be seen by their family in order to reduce the family’s requests and

minimize “domestic space occupation”. Obviously, family conflict can be avoided in

this way, but the emotional costs are high: the retiree must deny his identity, become

marginalized, and remain in an ambiguous status (“to be but not to be”). Finally, the

negative family atmosphere leads, in some cases, to separation or divorce.

Early retirement also implies difficulties in social relations. In some cases, the early

retiree’s social network becomes smaller because an important number of social

contacts were significantly linked to work (i.e. colleagues, clients, etc.). Other

determining factors stem from the financial situation of the early retiree whose social

life sometimes decreases because he cannot afford to spend too much money on

leisure/social activities. The topic of ageism was also present in the discourse of the

early retirees. To this regard, social prejudices and misinformation concerning the early

retirees’ real situation can complicate communication between the retiree and other

people.

C) Social outcomes. Participants perceived that the organizational exit process had

eroded their social identity and thus they were actively researching for its reinstatement

through active involvement on the defence of themselves and peers´ rights. Other

difficulties early retirees faced with were loss of prestige, ambiguous administrative

24

situation, and prejudice against older people. Joining an early retirees´ association was

identified as one of the main sources of support.

Discussion

The findings of our study support the characterization of early retirement as a process

whose results begin to appear from the first stages of organizational exit and in which

different levels of variables (personal, psychosocial, organizational and social)

intervene. This sheds some light on the existing literature on early retirement. Although

previous research has made a significant contribution to the understanding of variables

triggering early retirement, a general framework for organizing and including available

information and to orient future research was lacking.

The information obtained enables us to confirm the presence, in the discourse of early

retirees, of variables included in previous studies as antecedents of early exit, such as

health, work attitudes, the characteristics of the organizational context or the financial

situation before withdrawal, in line with studies by Henkens and Tazelaar (1994), Mein

et al. (2000), or Shultz et al. (1998), among others.

From the discourse analysis carried out, other factors that have received less attention in

earlier research (with the exception of studies by Henkens, 1999b; Henkens and

Tazelaar, 1997; Henkens and van Solinge, 2002; Hwalek, Firestone and Hoffman, 1982)

may be included. In this sense, our research points out the relevant role of the family

situation during the early retirement decision-making process and elements concerning

the professional career (i.e. the moment in the career at retirement, the difference in the

expected and real age at retirement, and the degree of organizational commitment

achieved during the worker’s career).

25

The possible effects of labour force exit emerge in a process that begins way before

organizational exit takes effect, from the moment when the worker confronts the

decision of accepting or refusing the offer. With regard to this point, previous literature

had already highlighted as a modulator variable the degree of voluntariness in the early

retirement decision (Isaksson, 1997; Isaksson and Johansson, 2000; Shultz et al., 1998),

the social support of the future retiree (McGoldrick, 1989; Neuhaus, 1995) or the

possibility of ending his professional life in a way that does not suppose a rupture with

vital objectives (Robbins, et al., 2002), aspects that also appear in discourse analysis.

The results show that the perception of justice and “fair play” in the way that

organizational exit is negotiated is also a determining factor when adapting to post-

working life.

In line with studies by Isaksson (1997) or Wang (2007), with samples of early retirees

and retirees respectively, the results indicate that the early retirement experience is not a

homogenous phenomenon, with a wide variety of possible personal and interpersonal

situations and different patterns of adjustment to retirement. We have identified four

scenarios related to the way in which exit from the labour force comes about, which

consequently imply a different point of departure with respect to adaptation to post-

working life. The discourse of early retirees seems to point out differences in the degree

of adaptation among those who exit voluntarily, those who accept obligatorily their exit

after a period of organizational pressure or those who consider the end of their

professional career as inevitable. However, in order to clearly establish profiles of

retirement adjustment, this point requires additional research using quantitative

methodology. Finally, another contribution of our research is the identification of

different tasks with which the early retiree must cope after withdrawal. In addition, we

26

have highlighted the situation of rupture, uncertainty and ambiguity involved in the

above-mentioned withdrawal.

As to the limitations of our study, the choice of the sample –although similar to the

structure of the total population of early retirees in Spain- is not representative, as can

clearly be seen in the fact that in the discussion groups there are a greater number of

men than women. Another problem stems from the fact that the participants belong to

combative early retirees´ associations and this could bias our findings. On the other

hand, the use of techniques that allow for a greater degree of precision when contrasting

the relations between the above-mentioned variables would be desirable. Due to these

limitations, our findings might be considered an initial in-depth exploration of the

phenomenon and these findings should be contrasted using additional methods (for

example, the triangulation strategy).

This approach to early retirement and its consequences offers some suggestions for

HRM policy-making The way in which the labour market exit takes place conditions

subsequent retirement adjustment, making necessary programs aiming to facilitate a

non-traumatic transition towards post-working life and equip affected persons with

strategies to cope with the challenges of retirement, thus avoiding or minimizing the

negative consequences in relation to psychological wellbeing, as has been confirmed in

the case of retired workers (Kim and Moen, 2002; Wang, 2007).

Likewise, the development of organizational practices and social policies for

guaranteeing the real voluntariness of the process and satisfactory agreements for both

parties seem relevant.

From our point of view, discussions on the early retirement outcomes should not only

include a “scientific” (supposedly neutral) perspective but should also introduce

considerations on work ethics, social responsibility and social values.

27

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