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ILHAN GOKALP

MA (New Media, Governance and Democracy), October 2012

How far does the concept of the 'public sphere' contribute to the

analysis of the historical development of mass communications,

with specific reference to any two countries of your choice?

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 The public sphere

3.0 Media, state and religion

4.0 Public sphere and communication strategies

5.0 Summary and conclusion

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1.0 Introduction

Various discussion have been held regarding the rise and

development of the public sphere from past to present. The public

sphere is also an important subject matter of debate in

contemporary politics. Many critics have discussed the

transformation of the public sphere through different

perspectives and it is generally accepted that the developments

in mass communication technology have a vital role in the

transformation of the public sphere.

In this respect, this paper aims to discuss the transformation

of the public sphere as a result of the developments in mass

communication technology by making explicit references to the

condition of the media and public sphere in the United Kingdom

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and Turkey. Concrete examples from the two different societies

will be provided in order to emphasize the growth, development

and transformation of the public sphere derived from the

cultural differences in both societies. The paper also intends

to explain the relationship between advertisement techniques and

the construction of the contemporary public sphere in light of

the examples from the United Kingdom and Turkey. In addition,

the paper discusses the role of the media in the construction of

the public sphere in contemporary politics in both countries. -

2.0 The public sphere

Argument in the public sphere comprises of tactics designed to

appeal to the minds of the masses as opposed to their emotions.

This differentiation is arbitrary and artificial, but it helps

to emphasize two quite different techniques. The relative amount

of emphasis on argument and persuasion varies from campaign to

campaign – from advertising campaigns and religious revivals,

where the emotional aspects are stressed, to debates before the

courts or one’s professional colleagues at meetings of

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scientific and philosophical associations (Dryzek et al., 2006).

In almost any propaganda effort appeals must be directed to the

intellectual elite as well as to the masses. Each movement

usually has its pioneer, its ‘father figure’, its creative

thinker. Once the minds of leaders are convinced in thought and

action,, then the task of elucidation, simplification, and

popularization begins. Most of the great communicators of

history have been based on, or are traceable to,

rationalizations of great intellectual eminence, as the history

of political, economic, and religious philosophy will attest.

The strategy of argument at the highest intellectual level is

not easily sought; the ability to manipulate public opinion and

mobilise the masses requires a strategy of inductive and

deductive logic at its best, (Calhoun, 1993). In other words,

thinking outside the box, being creative.

Persuasion in public sphere is primarily concerned with

affecting the sense and arousing the emotions, often to bridge

the gaps between belief, convictions, and action. In persuasion

the communicator may seek to arouse a favourable attitude toward

himself or his cause, to create fear of the consequences of some

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alternate action, or to play upon longings and desires of his

intended audience. Often a suggestion is employed,, or other

indirect appeals, seeking to divert or block critical attention,

to create a favourable atmosphere to facilitate the acceptance

of an argument, or to tap some motive which will result in a

desired action. The political party may stage mass meetings,

parades, or picnics; religious organizations may use pictorial

symbols, rituals, singing, and inspiring architecture; business

organizations may employ slogans, advertisements, and

psychological appeals related to deep-set motivations (Naughton,

2009).

The public sphere is also filled with publicity for the

purpose of gaining attention so that different ideas may be

perceived and understood. It is a principle which is primarily

concerned with using the channels of communication to the best

advantage. It may involve the use of the mass media – or it may

seek to disseminate its message through personal contacts,

direct mail, billboards, the pulpit, stage, lecture hall, or

press conferences. Specialists in the use of these channels of

communication have developed. The number and selection of

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channels used will depend on the size and character of the

audience to be reached, the budget available, and the nature of

the program itself. The communicator may endeavour to buy the

use of a channel or channels, or he may, as in the case of

newspapers, try to obtain free publicity by staging events which

will become news. He will then seek to attract attention by

repeating his message or by making it stand out from the

surrounding background. By relating his message to something

already newsworthy he may succeed in attracting attention to it.

The business firm attracts attention to its business platform by

advertisements, press releases; the politician by frequent

speeches, verbal attacks, and prominence in civil affairs (Hardt

and Negri, 2004).

3.0 Media, state and religion

The influence of media tends to erode the very foundation of the

public sphere. With the proliferation of blogging, however, mass

media albeit in a different form has revived interest in the

virtual interaction among citizens from within the country and

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from outside of the borders. The use of propaganda, argument,

organization structure and publicity in the promotion of public

sphere is undeniable since their presence or existence is what

makes the public sphere livelier and vibrant.

In Turkey, much of the public discussions are centred on the

government’s effort to secularize the people and ensure the

separation of the church from the state affairs (Yasushi, 2010).

Hakan Yavuz (Yavuz, 2013) concentrates on an important point

about the development of the public sphere in turkey by making

reference to the transition period in history of Turkey and says

that “In the late nineteenth century, the newly emerging public

sphere in the ottoman state was dominated by the ideas borrowed

from Europe, and there was a major debate over the future of the

state and the role of nationalism within it.

With the establishment of the modern Turkish nation-state,

religion as the societal glue was to be replaced by nationalism”

(Yavuz, 2013, p.139). In this way, Yavuz defends the idea that

the secularization process of Turkish state under the leadership

of the Kemalist elite ignored the public while trying to create

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a secular public sphere. On the other hand, being a secular

state as mandated by the constitution, Turkey professes no

official religion despite the fact that 98% of its citizens

follow the Islamic way of life short of embracing fully the

Islamic religious influence.

The government is continuously confronted with the dilemma of

balancing the interest of the state and that of the religious

communities in Turkey. By simple analysis, it is the people who

approved the constitution and, therefore, the majority of the

people want government affairs to be independent of religious

activities. This may be hard to inculcate but the reality is

that the Turkish people want national governance confined to

political ideologies rather than mixedt with Islamic tendencies

(Dorroll, 2012).

Islam is adhered to by the citizens for purely personal and

cultural reasons only, serving as a guide to their daily lives

in terms of dealing among themselves and enforcing discipline

and the society’s code of conduct. It may not be totally

different from other Muslim countries in the region but the

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government setup distinguishes Turkey from the rest of the

Muslim countries (Turam, 2007). One can hardly conceptualize a

government with Islamic background refusing to follow the basics

of Islam in national governance. But Turkey is different and

this difference is explained by its desire to join the world

community. The country is currently negotiating for the

finalization of its entry to the European Union which is

expected to bring more benefits and privileges to its people in

relation to the other countries in the region or union. EU

membership has been the most hotly debated topic in the public

sphere ever since the previous administration worked hard to

achieve that end. The Turkish people seem to tilt the balance of

scales in favour of joining the regional community as a way of

adapting to the modern global community by relegating religion

to the sideways (Hauser, 1998). Islam, after all, can be defined

as a way of life influenced by the teachings of the great

prophet (Hauser, 1999).

A public sphere has a vital role to play in consolidating

and synthesizing public discussions pertaining to any issues

affecting the society; issues that may involve both local and

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international scenarios (Habermas, 1989). Mass media has been at

the forefront in this aspect and it has been so for many decades

or centuries earlier. The evolution of modern societies and

communities around the world is heavily influenced by media in

all its form – newspapers, radio, and television. With the

rising use of modern technological equipments such as internet,

smartphones, fax machines and the computers, mass media other

than these equipments is declining in importance in all major

corners of the world. Newspapers and magazines that enjoyed wide

acceptance are gradually closing doors to pave the way for the

use and application of cloud-based or equipment-based

information. Newspapers can now be accessible through a Tablet

or Smartphone while books can now be purchased online and read

on modern-day devices. Due to their unique features and small

size, these technological gadgets are becoming a part of

people’s lives from every known location in this planet. It

bears stressing that what makes public sphere active again is

the fact that it is now supported by these gadgets (Goodnight,

1982).

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The media can be portrayed as an ideal model in

understanding the public sphere concept. In his book entitled

“The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere”, Jurgen

Habermas has correlated public sphere with the bourgeois society

with the end in view of “particularly focusing on the needs of

society are freely and openly exchanged between people,

unconstrained by external pressures (Habermas, 1992).

Accordingly, a public sphere is a virtual or imaginary community

that is not fixed in any one place or space. The media can be

treated as the closest thing towards the attainment of what a

public sphere should be because of its increasing influence in

mass communication network affecting the global community. The

ownership structure of the mass media is however under strict

scrutiny because of possible influencing factors and undesirable

persuasive effects on the moulding of public opinion. In Turkey,

mass media can be regarded as heavily regulated due to the

secularization mandate of the constitution. In UK, the state

regulates the mass media to the extent that public safety and

security is not endangered as in most of the democratic

countries of the world (Gorman and McLean, 2009).

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Information dissemination offers the avenue for every

person or organization to express their ideas and concepts into

concrete action and the public sphere is the rightful place

where dissemination becomes effective or implementable.

Governments of the western countries are organized with the

support of the public sphere because selection of officials is

made by majority vote based on the agreed rules of procedures

that are usually incorporated in the constitution. A government

that is despotic or autocratic may be the result of over

concentration of power or unauthorized extended rule usually

without the conformance of the majority rule.

There is no question as to how the UK’s parliamentary government

functions since it has evolved over time based on the generally

accepted principles and traditions of the British people. It is

a result of over a thousand years of public governance founded

on adherence to democratic principles with historical origin

particularly that of the Romans and the Greeks. On the other

hand, Habermas reveals the point that “a public sphere that

functioned in the political realm arose first in great Britain

at the turn of the eighteenth century”(Habermas,1989). He

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continues by defending “forces endeavouring to influence the

decisions of the state authority appealed to the critical public

in order to legitimatise demands before this new forum” and,

according to him, the process that leads Great Britain to the

modern parliament is the period in which the assembly of estates

transformed into the modern parliament. So, Habermas explains

the historical development of the modern parliament in relation

to the transformation of the public sphere in Britain (Habermas,

1989). The reader is acquainted with the historical development

of the public sphere which is necessary to understand the

condition of contemporary Britain.

Public sphere seeks to inform and persuade with enormous

resource allocation needed to do so effectively (McKee, 2005).

Multinational companies spend a substantial percentage of the

nation’s gross national product on advertising. Advertising,

therefore, is a large and important element in firms and in the

national economy. But advertising is not possible without media

and its allied services. So without media advertising activities

are just pigments of the imagination. National advertising is

promoted by manufacturers. Local advertising is sponsored by

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wholesalers or retailers. Consumer advertising is directed to

the general public; the audience for industrial advertising

comprises manufacturing firms. Most advertising is paid for by

individual firms, but the cost of some advertising is shared by

a number of marketers and is called cooperative advertising.

While some advertisements attempt to provoke direct action, most

are geared to indirect action, or future purchase. Finally,

primary demand advertising aims to sell a class of products, for

example, milk; while selective demand advertising, the most

common variety, promotes a specific brand within a product

class.

Almost every aspect of marketing is a form of

communication. The product itself communicates to potential

users in functional and psychological benefits, the price

communicates value, and distribution communicates availability.

But promotion is by its nature communication in its purest form.

There are five main kinds of promotional activity. Advertising

is an impersonal form of communication paid for by an identified

sponsor and relayed to consumers by the mass media; newspapers,

magazines, television, radio, direct mail, transit vehicles, and

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billboards. Personal selling involves person-to-person

communication in which the consumer immediately responds to the

producer’s or intermediary’s message through words, gestures,

expressions and so on (Ward, 1989).

4.0 Public sphere and communication strategies

From one point of view, communication media are not prime

sources of propaganda, but merely channels through which

propaganda stemming from other sources is disseminated. Yet it

is true that newspapers, magazines, books, and other types of

printed matter, as well as radio, motion, pictures, television,

and other media either originate propaganda themselves in the

form of editorials, news stories, special articles, or feature

presentations. Alternately the chose to transmit propaganda

especially advertising which originates in large measure from

individuals and corporation rather than from governments and

pressure groups. Strictly speaking, all propaganda which becomes

significant is communicated through media of some sort. This is

true of government and pressure-group propaganda. But the

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importance of the latter justifies a degree of special treatment

(Benhabib, 1992). In this respect, the propaganda and the

freedom of the media is an important subject matter deserving to

be discussed. Rupert Murdoch says “public service broadcasters

in this country (Britain) have paid a price for their state-

sponsored privileges. That price was their freedom” (Murdoch,

1989:9). In this way, Murdoch makes emphasis upon another

important aspect of the problem deriving from the media

relations and the concept of propaganda. The position of the

mass media and its relations with the governmental affairs are

referred by Murdoch as the other side of the problem.

The skilful communicator carefully plans and organizes his

activities by explicitly defining objectives in terms of the

direction and amount of change in public opinion desired, the

prevailing attitudes and opinions of the public to be

influenced, the specialized personnel and tools needed, and the

specific ideas and themes to be stressed. The organizational

structure will provide the staff and align agencies, and set up

geographical divisions, as well as specialized branches to deal

with specific public audience (Fraser, 1990). For example,

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political parties in Turkey and UK have their regional and local

units of organization, and also special divisions to deal with

such publics as labour, business, religious groups, farmers,

youth, and the women’s vote. The organization gives the idea to

be propagated a body, a structure. It serves to bind members

together; to coordinate and systematize their efforts; and to

make possible specialization and an efficient division of

labour. Notable propaganda organization have been developed by

various churches; by Communist, Fascist, and other political

parties; by the United States, Great Britain, and other national

states; and by pressure groups generally (Fiss and Hirsch,

2005).

However, democracy also faces the problem of the use of

public sphere as an instrument of domestic policy. To what

extent should government agencies, especially administrative

agencies, use public sphere? Their responsibility for informing

citizens is generally accepted and often prescribed by law. In

matters of law enforcement and the carrying out of specific

policies, efforts to influence, persuade, and promote may

receive general approval. The real problem arises when as an

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agency of government desires to change an existing policy or

induce the enactment of a new one contrary to the deeply rooted

tradition and culture of the people. This has been the

prevailing predicament of the Turkish government, where public

policy formulation is hindered by Islamic influence and

perceptions. Democracies such as that of UK have been reluctant

to see official agencies of government seek to promote through

the public sphere a policy which has not received the approval

of the majority (Gamson, 1992).

5.0 Summary and conclusion

It is difficult to determine precisely the effects of mass

media, whether it be a single speech or editorial, or a far-

flung campaign to implement government policy and combat hostile

public attitude. The reason is the difficulty of separating the

specific effects due solely to the public sphere from those

caused by other influences. Many factors other than mass media

may account for the spread of Islamic doctrines in Turkey or

democratic ideals in UK such as the strict adherence to culture

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but public sphere is the major determinant in shaping a

particular society as can be gleaned from history. The problem

of authoritarian governments is to discover the doctrines,

truths, and propagandas which best serve the long-term purposes

of their state. Having discovered them, it is only necessary to

tell citizens what to think. The task facing democracies is to

establish those conditions which make it reasonably certain that

in the public sphere, the wisest ideas will survive. The need

to discuss and agree is the main determinant of how public

sphere guides the societies to their development and integration

(Asen, 1999).

To conclude, the transformation of the contemporary public

sphere and the technological developments in mass communication

are deeply interconnected because of the fact that the media has

an important role in the construction of the public sphere. The

needs of the society are formed in different ways by the mass

media and the attention of the people is directed to the

intended point in different advertisement techniques. It is a

fact that the mass media differs from one country to another but

its authority does not differ from one society to another. The

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United Kingdom and Turkey are two useful examples in order to

understand the relation between the mass media and the public

sphere. The two different societies having different cultural

backgrounds and thus helping to explain the role of

communication technologies in development of the public sphere.,

It is therefore impossible to understand the contemporary

politics and the discussions about the public sphere without

understanding the relation between the mass media and the

construction of the public sphere.

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