The Salem Witch Project

U t r e c h t U n i v e r s i t y

5 a p r i l 2 0 1 3

D o o r : A n t o o n T e l g e n h o f

S t u d e n t n u m m e r : 3 1 6 1 7 8 1

Witch hunting in a secular AgeOffered to dr. J. W. Spaans to finish the course Christianity in the US (RTMV07001).

Contents:

Introduction

The Crucible

Historical Salem; secular developments

Historical Salem; religious developments

Witchcraft

McCarthyism

Conclusion

References

1

2

4

6

7

9

11

13

15

1

Tiffany lit the candle, made herself comfortable, and looked at the book of FaerieTales. The moon gibbous’d at her through the crescent-shaped hole cut in the door.

She’d never really liked the book. It seemed to her that it tried to tell her what to doand what to think. Don’t stray from the path, don’t open that door, but hate thewicked witch because she is wicked. Oh, and believe that shoe size is a good way ofchoosing a wife.

A lot of stories were highly conspicuous, in her opinion. There was the one that endedwhen the two good children pushed the wicked witch into her own oven. Tiffany hadworried about that after all that trouble with Mrs Snapperly. Stories like this stoppedpeople thinking properly, she was sure. She’d read that one and thought, Excuse me?No one has an oven big enough to get a whole person in, and what made thechildren think they could just walk around eating people’s houses in any case? Andwhy does some boy too stupid to know a cow is worth a lot more than five beanshave the right to murder a giant and steal all his gold? Not to mention commit anact of ecological vandalism? And some girl who can’t tell the difference between awolf and her grandmother must either have been as dense as teak or come from anextremely ugly family. The stories weren’t real. But Mrs Snapperly had died becauseof stories.

-Terry Pratchett, The Wee Free Men, pag 62-63

This fragment from a story takes place in a fantasy discworld,resting on the backs of four elephants, which in turn standupon the shield of a turtle that swims between the stars. Asone can imagine, this world is populated by fantastic creaturesand persons with various occupations, among which wizard andwitch are just a few possibilities. But even in this made upworld the writer tells about a girl that has doubts about thefolk stories she has been told about witches and otherfantastical events. These stories result in people stopping tothink properly and cause the death of others. While witches area tangible presence on the discworld there is room to questionthe stereotypical view associated with them. That thisambivalence can be exploited by a writer of fantasy novels, howfunny or enlightening this might be, is no real clue for

2

students of religious history in the real world. Other storiesavailable to us also use themes of witches and witchcraft intheir plot in reference to historical happening that alsostopped people to think properly and cost others their live.

One of these stories is a play by the hand of ArthurMiller, The Crucible. Written in 1953 this play uses the Salemwitch trials as an analogy for the political current in theUnited States of America known as McCarthyism. In the same lineas Pratchett, Miller is critical with this play of particularthings happening in his own time by using an old story ascover. He was not really fooling anyone with this ploy for ayear later he was still denied a passport to Belgium to attendthe premiere of the play in Brussels (Ferres, 1972, 116). Thisis just one clue to the importance of The Crucible inunderstanding what took place in America in that time period.But even in recent times, after the abolition of McCarthyismand the red scare, The Cricible is still a compulsory readingin American schools. And with it comes the reputation that thePuritans were unlikable and unpleasant (Cullen, 2003, 11). Thefact that Miller based his characters on a few letters andrecords that survived from 1692 and fleshed out thesecharacters himself for dramatic purposes without actualknowledge about them is not a compelling argument for mostpeople to stop disliking the puritans. On the other hand didMiller try to conform his play to the actual behavior of thehistorical characters (Miller, 1981, 212). But what stands outis that even after the end of McCarthyism this play iscompulsory reading on schools. From this one can conclude thatThe Crucible is still relevant for modern times, even when thecomparison between the puritans and McCarthyism has become andobject of study for scholars of history.

So what is it that keeps this story about witches,religious fanatics and the beginning of what we now know as theUnited States of America interesting for modern readers? Thesemodern times are characterized by secular and scientificworldviews. Religion should be on its way out, especially

3

superstition like witchcraft, and it shouldn’t have a lotsocial significance. The old religious values have foundcompelling alternatives and this has resulted in an abolitionof the worldviews and societies associated with them (Momen,2009, 477-480). In an attempt to find an answer to thisquestion first the play shall be shortly discussed. Becausethis is not a paper for literature studies only the aspectsthat are relevant for this paper will be highlighted, like themain characters and events that construe the play. No attentionat all will be given to style or story builds in this paper.After a short discussion this paper will proceed with thebackground of the Salem witch trials in 1692 building upon theinsights gained from The Crucible. Some attention will be on,what in this paper is called, secular and religiousdevelopments. Then the belief in witches and the development ofwitchcraft is used as a bridge for an otherwise giant leap intime to the era of McCarthyism. Where did the belief in witchescome from and what was believed about them? Answers on thisquestion will be useful in relating the Salem witch trials tothe more or less modern politics called McCarthyism. To finishthis paper the relevance of the findings in this paper formodern readers will be discussed.

4

The Crucible

Miller has divided the play in four acts, each of them set in aparticular place in the year 1692 that is important for thedevelopment of the story and also for development of thedifferent characters. The first act takes place in the house ofreverend Parris, he is the preacher assigned to the church inSalem. During the play it becomes clear that his election isnot accepted by all the residents of Salem. The daughter ofParris is ill and he has send for a doctor, but there is nomedical explanation for the state that she is in, he supposesit might be witchcraft. During the act different charactersenter and leave the room and it becomes clear that in Salemthere is a faction against Parris, that some girls in town wentinto the woods with Parris’ black slave, Tituba, and that thatmight be the reason for the state they are in. Also there aresome kind of manipulations between some of the characters;Abigail has some sway over the other girls and two farmers,Proctor and Putnam, also have a great deal of influence,although it is not clear why that is. A peculiar bit ofcharacter interaction is between Proctor and Abigail, for theyslept together and have some unfinished business because ofthis.

While the scene takes place in a upper room in the houseof Parris sometimes the singing of psalms or the recital ofprayers or sermons is mentioned to come from other parts of thehouse. The afflicted girl that lies catatonic on the bed reactsvery strong to the mentioning of Jesus’ name. After everybodystormed in to see what happened to the girl two othercharacters are introduced; Rebecca Nurse and Giles Corey. Bothof them play a role that reminds one of grandparents. A bitbehind the scenes but their influence is felt during the play.During the act there are mentions of meetings that take placein Salem and presumably are held for the population of the townto discuss matters of importance for the community. A lastaspect that is important for the story is the reference toauthority and how and by whom it is wielded. At the end of the

5

act it is for the better part clear what role will be played bywhich characters. Some girls will be the accusers supported byfamily Putnam and Parris. But Parris’ slave has mentioned thatthere are more witches in Salem than there are caught so thereis also some panic who these other betrayers might be.

At the start of the second act the trials have alreadybegun. John Proctor and his wife Elisabeth are at their houseand one of the things they talk about is the relationshipbetween Proctor and Abigail. Proctor wants to be forgiven andaccepted again by his wife but while they both discuss thistheir servant comes home, she is one of the girls that testifyat the trials. After some time others enter and Elisabeth isarrested because she is setup by Abigail and the servant with alittle doll. Rebecca and the wife of Giles are also arrestedand Proctor is planning to convince the court that theaccusations of witchcraft are a play for the girls.

The antechamber for the court is the scene of the thirdact. The wife of Giles is tried and Giles tries to explain thatthis has to do with Putnam reaching for their land. This is anew aspect in the story, in line with the earlier mentioning ofmeetings in act one. But judge Hathorne and deputy governorDanforth are unmoved. It is up to them to wield the authorityof the court and they decide what evidence can be broughtforward. That the girls are frauds is told to the judges butuntil Proctor enters with his servant they won’t hear anythingabout it. When Proctor and his servant tell the judges aboutthe scam of the girls that cry out they are intenselyinterrogated. But when the other girls enter and fall inhysteria Proctor’s servant joins them. Proctor also tries toillustrate that Abigail tries to kill Elisabeth to be withProctor. When Elisabeth is brought in and asked whether this istrue she tries to protect the good name of her husband anddeclares he never cheated on her. Giles and Proctor are botharrested.

6

The last act takes place in jail. At first the cell isoccupied by two witches, one of them Tituba. They must makeplace for the judges and Parris. These men discuss thedisappearance of some of the girls who cried out and also thefate of Rebecca and Proctor who will be hanged because they donot confess their witchery. Apparently the court still hadpower while the witnesses have fled. Proctor and his wife arebrought in so that Elisabeth can make him confess. His finalchoice is to die without confessing instead of living a lie.

7

Historical Salem; Secular Developments

After this very brief and superficial recounting of TheCrucible more time will be expended on the historical situationin Salem. The first thing to notice is that in 1692 there weremore or less two Salem’s. Salem Town was a port on the AtlanticOcean that received rights to trade, so it became a rich town.The farmers that called Salem their home lived more to theWest, in Salem Village, and benefitted less from the trade inSalem Town but lived a more agricultural live. For matters ofgovernment Village was part of Town and didn’t have any powerof its own. This led to various problems in the contactsbetween the different places. While the farmers lived more intothe wild than the people in Town they were required to providemen for the village watch for instance. The injustice in thiswas the greater risk of Indian attacks and also the lessfavorable circumstances to defend against these attacks inSalem Village. Through petitions to the council of Salem Townthey tried to gain some independence for their own. The councilmembers however were predominantly people, that is to say:males, living in Town, with more interest in town so lesslikely to attend to the needs of Village. This power structurebetween Village and town made it possible to create twofactions in Salem Village. This was also hinted at in the firstact of the play. The farmers living closest to Town couldbenefit from the new found prosperity through trade. More tothe east these benefits were harder to come by while expansionto the east was not beneficiary because of the low quality ofthe ground. So the Eastern part of Salem Village stood withtheir backs against a wall so to say (Boyer & Nissenbaum, 1974,92-98).

The independence of Salem Village from Salem Town was notnecessarily something worth having for most farmers living inVillage. Most of the petitions were answered after some timeand adjustments would be made to be more forthcoming towardsVillage. But the way to power was different from what it usedto be. While half a century earlier Salem as a whole had been

8

an agricultural settlement, in 1692 Town had become somethingdifferent. The usual way to power had changed with the way thetown made its money. The trade with Europe, Africa and Asiamade Salem Town into a pre-industrial capitalistic town.Needless to say that this was a great difference how thingswent in an agricultural community (Boyer & Nissenbaum, 1974,86-92). In this new commercial environment taking risks couldpay off but could just as easily lead to financial disaster.This is clear if one looks at two of the families alsomentioned in The Crucible: Putnam and Porter. While bothfamilies started with comparable wealth in Salem the Proctorslived closer to town. With smart marriages and use of recoursesthey gained more wealth and influence, especially in Town wherethe payoff was bigger if fortune was favorable. The Putnamslived more to the east and had more difficulty working theirgrounds to produce food but also had fewer opportunities toescape from a life of agriculture. The risks they took to trysomething different failed and left them with less recourses.Not that they were impoverished but they couldn’t get to gripswith the new way of doing business. Both these families had alot of influence, but the influence of the Putnams in Villagewas reduced in efficiency by the power from Town, and that wasa stronghold for the Porters (Boyer & Nissenbaum, 1974, 110-132). So a combination of political and economic reasons led tothe development of two factions in Salem Village. But there isanother component that has a role in this split.

Historical Salem; Religious Developments

The division in Salem was also based on religion. This is alsowhat the puritans are most famous for; their strong religiousconvictions (Kittredge in Ferres, 1972, 21). The puritans cameto America from England, after the civil war didn’t bring thechanges they hoped for. In this new world they could create agodly society, free from religious enemies. The basis of thissociety lay in the devotion of each individual to God and tothe others in the community. This was meant to be a societybased on the covenant of God with man (Noll, 2002, 41-45). In

9

the play from Miller there is great consternation as Titubadeclares that there are more witches than there are peoplesuspected of being a witch. Seen in light of the strong socialties that formed the basis of puritan society this meant thatthe theological covenant was endangered by these unmaskedbetrayers.

This idea was made more frightening by the way in whichthese witches collaborated with the devil. By making a pactwith Satan the witch allowed him to take on his or her form asa specter. Some kind of ghost that threatened peoples souls.The problem with this kind of influence from the devil was thatit was not empirical provable. This made it quite a problem toidentify witches and this made them scarier for they could beanyone that pretended to live under the covenant (Boyer &Nissenbaum, 1974, 18-21).

While this problem of identifying witches was not only aproblem for the puritans but also for example for the Spanishinquisition in Salem this was combined with a lack of religiousauthority. Like the politics and the economic structure betweenSalem Village and Town there was dependency from the Village onthe town on a religious level. Reverent Parris was the fourthminister in Salem Village since it had acquired the right tobuild its own church and choose its own minister. But due tothe different factions inside Salem Village and the power ofTown this position was much contested. The ministers beforeParris al left with a lot of trouble, centered on the ministerbut part of the social mechanics of the broader Village. Parriswas no exception in this scheme, for he was supported by the,let’s call it the Putnam-faction. The faction in Village thatwasn’t able to take part in the politics and economics of Town.His opponents where much more focused on Town and can be calledthe Porter-faction. The rivalries between these two factionsspread through every level of the community and was madeclearly visible in these two important families. One of thefirst who called for action after the strange affliction of thegirls was Parris himself, automatically dragging the two

10

factions in town with him to the episode in history known asthe Salem witch trials. But during the year that theaccusations of witchery kept coming he kept influencing thechurch in Salem Village from the pulpit. In the end he madesome reconciliatory efforts in his sermons but to no avail. Inhis earlier sermons he had been focused on his own welfare andthe power in Salem (both Village and Town). With this he madeno friends in the Porter-faction, for it meant they had to payfor a minister they didn’t want (Boyer & Nissenbaum, 1974, 153-178).

The focus Parris had on his own salary also resembledremotely the new economy build in Town. No longer was the focusof every man on the greater good of the community, under thecovenant of God. People gained individual ideas about what theywanted and how they could get it. The tension this createdbetween the formal authority wielded by state and churchrepresentative and the individual genius is nicely put forwardin the play when Giles pleads for his wife to be released. Thejudges remain resolute in their conviction to the way thingsshould be handled. Giles points to the new ways of acquiringpower and makes an argument that the witch trial is connectedto it. Although he does this ad hominem in the play it takesnot a lot of energy to continue from stealing ones land to anabolishment of the social order based upon the covenant. Thereis a possibility that the dreams of one person could endangerthe aspirations of the community (Cullen, 2003, 32)

For purpose of transparency this paper has seen a split inthe factors that contributed to the Salem witch trials, secularand religious developments. But as already has been noted, thepuritans wanted to create a godly society. This meant that thegovernment was a theocracy. In the publication of Boyer andNissenbaum this is underplayed. They create a brilliant schemewith the various factors and factions in Salem, from which alot is used in this paper. But the ease with which they,amongst others, seem to accept that witches were a normal partof the worldview for a person in the 17th century is probably

11

farfetched. To conclude the specific case of Salem it can bestated that with all the changes happening at various levels ofthe puritan society the witch trials functioned as a form ofresistance. Resistance from a system at the end of its days,where the sense of community disappeared and new, threateningforms of conduct could be found that made a revision necessaryof old norms and values that were taken for granted for a longtime. The role the belief in witches plays in this resistanceis an important one and will now be closer examined.

12

Witchcraft

Believe in witches is not a logical part of the Christianbelieve system. Biblical passages about witches are sparse,except for the ambiguous and best known: “Thou shalt not suffera witch to live” (Ex 22: 18). The origins of fear for witchescannot be exclusively found in the bible without stretchinghermeneutical possibilities to the limit. It is far more likelythat the witch in the Christian cosmos is borrowed from theGermanic traditions. In the unorganized cult of the Germanicpeople there was belief in the existence of many monsters,heroes and gods with a direct presence in the material world,or a personification of the natural world. This contrasts tothe Christian idea that nature is created by God, and has noconsciousness of itself. The Germanic witches are classic evilpersons but with a ghostly touch. They were more alike tospirits than to people. While Europe became Christian for therecord there remained a religious undercurrent that keptheathen ideas in a Christian worldview. The institutionalreligion was not aware of witches, other than a superstition.Popular religion was the undercurrent that maintained a diversecosmos influenced by heathen practices and beliefs (Huisman inVrijhof & Waardenburg, 1979, 5-68).

At the height of Christianity in the Middle Ages the belief inwitches suddenly flares up like a pyre. An entire anti-institutional system can be detected with one of its maincomponents witchcraft. On closer examination is becomes clearthat this is mainly a inversion of Christian ideas and values.To escape from God one should enter a pact with the devil. Thepower of this inversion lies in the danger that it is validatedby the Christian cosmos. The undercurrent that survived formany centuries became part of institutional religion andreligious specialists were schooled and trained to recognizeand combat these formerly unknown evils (Frijhoff in Vrijhof &waardenburg, 1979, 91-94). What is made clear with this revivalof witchcraft is the way in which it is related to thoughtsabout good and evil. The devil is evil because there is a good

13

god. This gives belief in the existence of witches power byvirtue of the system it tries to invert, or escape from. Andbecause Christianity was deeply embedded in the community notonly the celestial order was threatened but also the socialorder. Witchcraft was an anti-social act.

The 17th century however sees a lot of changes thatchallenge the presumed monolithic presence of Christianity inEuropean society. Institutional religion no longer recognizesthe existence of witches, as did the intellectual upper class.Because the influence of Christianity on the whole societydeclined the anti-social aspect of witchcraft also disappeared(Frijhoff in Vrijhof & waardenburg, 1979, 94-95). From thisfollows that the believe in witches was no longer, and probablynever was, as wide spread as some like to argue (Kittrdge inFerres, 1972, 21). The prevalence of witches in folk stories isan argument for a general belief in witches in certain times.The way the witch acts and is acted upon however is probablymore important than whether the existence of the witch is true(Boyer & Nissenbaum, 1974, 144-145). Compare this with thequote from Pratchett at the beginning of this paper. But ifthis is the case then there is a specific reason why witchesare brought to public attention as part or cause of theencountered problems. The way religious power was intertwinedwith secular power in a witch hunt gave religious institutionsa great deal of control over the daily life of people. The factthat even in a Christian society like Europe in the middle agesor New England with the puritans needed such a dramatic way toestablish control can only mean that the control was no longerwith these religious institutes (McGuire, 2002, 142). Deviantpeople could thus be silenced for religious reasons. Most ofthe time with consent of the masses, for they did have ideaswho might be a witch when the possible existence of one waspointed out. Most of the time accusations of witchcraft wereaimed at people that didn’t do what the accuser wanted them todo. Simple misgivings in a normal situation could escalate intimes of social turbulence (McGuire, 2002, 306-307; Boyer &

14

Nissenbaum, 1974, 144). For this paper this is an importantnotion. Witch hunts are typically used as an enforcer of socialorder and protection thereof. Signs of a witch hunt should beused to try and comprehend what is changing and why the changeis feared to comprehend the social happening. The psychologicaltactics that are relevant in the accusation of witches and thetrials can be elaborated upon but won’t become more relevantfor this paper than this broad social mechanism of a witchhunt.

Now that is said and done this information still needs tobe translated to a time were witches are practitioners ofWicca. No one tries to hunt them for they are no threat at allto anyone, just a bit weird. What makes these witches, throughThe Crucible, important for modern times?

15

McCarthyism

The last link towards an evaluation of The Crucible, puritansand witches to the modern reader is McCarthyism. As made famousby Joseph R. McCarthy one might say. This is however amisleading notion for there were various forms of McCarthyismaround, beginning half way in the 1940s until the beginning ofthe 1950s. The reason McCarty’s name was given to thisphenomenon is probably because he had a high media profile as asenator. His personal style of investigating and preventingcommunist activities made him recognizable for sure. In thefirst year of Eisenhower’s presidential period saw McCarthy athis peak and the next year he was toppled from his elevatedposition (Latham in Ferres, 1972, 24-25).

There are several things that stand out when studyingMcCarthyism. First of all the lack of an approved processstands out. On the other hand there was much attention forsecrecy and unfairness. The accused had to name theircoconspirators for example, just like the slave Tituba. Secondis the way communists were brought to trail, first cameidentification and second the suspect was fired. All of thishappened under the flag of national security, but thedefinition of this term is never given in full. People thatprotested against the proceeding were made out to be suspectsthemselves (Schrecker, 2004, 1042-1046). All these things are astrong reminder to the Salem witch trials. The same faultyjudgment and process are recognizable even with a quick glance.This should come as no surprise for The Crucible andMcCarthyism are almost like a Siamese twin. What stands out arethe differences.

The first difference that should be mentioned is thatalthough both trials first identify and then judge the judgmentis very different. In Salem an accusation of witchery without aconfession would lead to death while McCarthyism only made surepeople were fired, so they couldn’t threaten the nationalsecurity anymore. This difference important but results in the

16

same thing, after accusations are made the accused is marked.Witch or Communist. This might be because the times changedsignificantly from 1692 to 1940. Easier explanations than thatare hard to find. This explanation hints at another difference.The leap in time is a sure predictor for a different worldview.The puritans had a Christian cosmos in which they lived andwhich they defended from witches. McCarthyism had no suchreligious basis for the praxis of hunting down communist. Thiswas more a reactionary system against the threat to societycalled communism (Miller, 1981, 239).

This last observation makes the comparison howeverextremely clear. In both cases a society is under pressure andreacts to defend this society. In both cases this is achievedwith dramatic effect and at the cost of personal rights.Everyone that articulated criticism on the way things were donewas made to look like the enemy. The basic function of a witchhunt can with this information be broadened from defending asociety in turbulent times to: oppressing the individuals thathave not stopped with proper thinking. The ideas about good andevil, what a person should do to be a good citizen aredetermined outside his/her sphere of influence and thenprojected upon him/her. In changing times the format of a witchhunt seems to be a perfect tool to determine right and wrongwhile the actual situation for most people becomes more shadesof grey.

And with this last bit of information we can put all thedifferent pieces together to formulate an answer to thequestion; what is it that keeps The Crucible relevant in moderntimes?

17

Conclusion

Like the Salem witch trials came to an end and the era ofMcCarthyism is swallowed up by history this paper reached itconclusion. But first a summary of the findings of this paperwill be given. The Crucible is a dramatic reenactment of ahistorical happening that took place two and a half centuriesearlier. The characters are fleshed out with some minorpersonal stories but the tension in the play is created byindividuals that resist the way how a government tries todictate what is right and good. Upon closer examination itbecame clear that the circumstances for the Salem witch trialswere complex, to say the least. It must have been almostimpossible for anyone at that moment in time and space to havea clear overview of what was happening. Certainly with hysteriaand fear added to the mix of factional disputes, distrust andchanging social roles. The reaction to this uncertain situationis for an institution to create a common enemy, one within thecommunity, to strengthen its grip on society. The developmentof witchcraft showed clearly how witches have been part ofChristianity in its popular form without leading topersecution. Only when times were changing a witch hunt wasmarshaled and used as a tool by the church. But this process isnot unique for the Christian church, other institutions likethe United States of America use the same principles as areused in a witch hunt to create an enemy inside the own comfortzone that is in league with the enemy outside. This conspiracyof dark forces needs to be stopped at all costs and in this waybasic rights of individuals can be neglected for a greatergood. And this good can be given the name of godly society ornational security.

One of the points that can be made with this line ofarguing is that governments, leaders or institutions justshouldn’t do this. And how true this might be, one of thearguments in this paper is also that this is done. And thepeople who protest by saying that it shouldn’t be done end upbeing victimized. Painful as this might be, through confronting

18

people with this reality in the form of The Crucible Millerkeeps people sharp en gives a possible format in which critiquecan be formulated. Whether this actually lessens the risk ofreprisal is not guaranteed, as Miller was a victim ofMcCarthyism. But it also helps individuals to reflect on whatthey truly believe. Are they lured with the sacredness of agood cause? What price can be paid for the cause?

At the end it comes all down on the individual in thisline of reasoning. With the new problems in the Koreas, theclash of civilization between the West and the Muslim world andecological disasters our present time is also a turbulent one.Combined with the aforementioned abolition of old valuesystems, worldviews and social roles it is hard to decide whatis wrong and right. What to choose and where to stand. With thehelp of The Crucible and the relatively easy recognizable rolesof the characters people might be helped to reflect upon theirown morality and the things they choose to stand for.

19

‘Can’t you teach me what I need to know to be a witch?’ Said Tiffany.

‘Tell me why you still want to be a witch, bearing in mind what happened to MrsSnapperly?’

‘So that sort of thing doesn’t happen again.’ Said Tiffany.

-Terry Pratchett, The Wee Free Men, pag 48

20

References

Boyer, P., & Nissenbaum, S., Salem Possessed; The Social Origins of Witchcraft, Harvard University Press, Cambridge/London, 1974.

Cullen, J., The American Dream; A Short Story of an Idea That Shaped a Nation, Oxford University Press, 2003.

Ferres, J. H., Twentieth Century Interpretations of The Crucible, Prentice-Hall Inc., New Jersey, 1972.

McGuire, M. B., Religion; The Social Context, Wadsworth Thomson Learning, Belmont, 2002.

Miller, A., Eight Plays, Viking Penguin Inc., New York, 1981.

Momen, M., Understanding Religion; A Thematic Approach, Oneworld,Oxford, 2009.

Noll, M. A., The Old Religion in a New World; The History of North AmericanChristianity, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Compagny, GrandRappids/Cambridge, 2002.

Pratchett, T., The Wee Free Men, Random House Children’s Books,London, 2004.

Schrecker, E.(2004), McCarthyism: Political Repression and theFear of Communism, Social Research, vol 71(4), 1041-1086.

Vrijhof, P. H., & Waardenburg. J., Official and Popular Religion;Analysis of a Theme for Religious Studies, Mouton Publishers, TheHague/Paris/New York, 1979.

21