30 International Journal of Gaming and Computer-Mediated Simulations, 6(2) , 30-37, April-June 2014

The Protagonist and Their Avatar:

Learner Characteristics in a Culture of Simulation

Michael P McCreery, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, NV, USA

S. Kathleen Krach, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA

Amanda olen, University of Arkansas, Little Rock, AR, USA

ABSTRACT

Given the active and authentic nature of Massively-Multiplayer Online Games. researchers have begun to question the use of this virtual setting as a teaching / learning tool (Barab et al. . 20 I 0; Squire. 2006). Specific findings in virtual environments show that several personalfactors mediate an individual s experiences within that environment (Pr::ybylski. Rigby. & Ryan. 2010). Although physical-world research hasfocllsed on the personal factor of personality and its influence on learning (Caprara et al. . 2011; Furnham, Chamorro­Premu::ic, & McDougall, 2003; Gallagher. 1996: Olesen. Thomsen. Schnieber & Tonnesvang, 2010). ve,y little research on personality within virtual seffings has been conducted. Thus, it is important to explore more aboUl personality changes between individuals and their avatars in virtual settings. Findings from the current study show statistically different personality score for individuals and their avatars across all domains of the Five-Factor Model. However. for three of the domains. Neuroticism. Openness. and Conscientiousness. consistent patterns of difference existed. Overall implications for these findings are discussed.

Keywords: Learner Characteristics. MMO, Personality. Video Games. Virtual Environments

INTRODUCTION

In recent years, the prevalence of video game play has become undeniable. As many as 88% of children between the ages of 8 and 18 years play video games(Gentile, 2009). Forone online game, WorldofWarcraft , players have invested over225 million hours collaborating, exploring, and interacting with one another (Przybylski , Rigby, & Ryan, 20 I 0). Although these spaces

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are not intended to teach educational content (e .g. math or reading), the pervasiveness of video game play has led researchers to explore the educative potential of game environments (Blumberg & Altschuler, 20 II ; Stricker & Scribner, 2009). As a result, video game play has been linked to improvements in a broad range of abilities including metacognition (Van Deventer & White, 2002), problem solving and inductive reasoning (Blumberg, Rosenthal , &

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International Journal of Gaming and Computer-Mediated Simulations, 6(2), 30-37, April-June 2014 31

Randall , 2008; Rosas et aL, 2003), spatial abil i­ties (Green & Bavelier, 2003), and perspective taking(DiPietro, Ferdig, Boyer,& Black.2007).

Squire (2006) suggests that the catalyst for such educational benefits is the authentic nature of video games, because they offer designed experiences in which learning occurs through doing and being. In other words, participants bridge the physical and virtual world by assum­ing the role of protagonist within the game's narrative structure in order to solve problems that change both the game space and the player (Barab et aL , 20 I 0). More specifically, through assuming the role of protagonist, participants can engage in active learning (i.e. , learning through doing and being). This active learning not only includes game content (Barab et aL , 20 I 0) but also the development of cognitive (Boot, Kramer, Simons, Fabiani , & Gratton. 2008) and social skills (Barnett & Coulson, 20 I 0) required to successfully navigate the literacy, spatial, and social requirements of the game space (McCreery, Schrader, & Krach. 20 II). However, as with the physical world (Geh Ibach, 20 I 0; Strom Hocevar, & Zimmer, 1987; Vermetten, Lodewijks, & Vermunt, 200 I; Wehrens et aL, 20 I 0), virtual learning experi­ences appearto be mediated by factors including "competence (sense of efficacy), autonomy (volition and personal agency), and relatedness (social connectedness)" (Przybylski, Rigby, & Ryan, 20 I 0, p. 155). This last point is of particular importance because it suggests that factors the learner brings to the environment appears to influence what take places within the environment, thereby providing the neces­sary catalyst for change or transformation that is needed to assume the role of protagonist.

PROTAGONIST AND THE AVATAR

Massively multiplayeronline games (MMOG) typify the type ofgame in which players assume the role ofprotagonist. This is accomplished by using an environment grounded in four basic principles (McCreery, 20 I I): a mixed-goal ori-

entation (i.e., the development ofsocio-cultural and economic systems), pseudo-extensibility (i.e., object instantiation, e.g. , creating armor), multiplayer(multiple players in the same game space), and persistent (an environment that continues to change regardless of players be­ing present). As a result, these factors provide players a loosely bounded narrative in which to adapt to situations through integrating physical­world strategies and norms into a virtual-world so that players can solve problems and coexist socially (Martey & Stromer-Galley, 2007).

In most MMOGs participants do not act directly within the environment as they wou Id in a classroom, but rather through a proxy known as an avatar (Williams, 2007). Through this avatar, participants not only engage with the narrative structure (Barab et aL, 20 I 0) but also express emotions, verbal and nonverbal com­munications, and physical movement within the virtual environment (Talamo & Ligorio, 200 I). Moreover, research suggests that over time the participant/avatar relationship shifts from being a mere proxy to an extension of self, or a virtual self(Bessiere, Seay, & Kiesler, 2007; Gee, 2003 ; McCreery, Krach, Schrader, & Boone, 2012; Turkle, 1997). This occurred even in the earliest forms of virtual environ­ments (multi -user dungeons; MUDs), where players personified their text-based avatar. For example, a player might im bue their player with personal descriptors such as he is a "macho, cowboy type whose self-description stresses that he is a ' Marlboros rolled in the tee shi rt sleeve kind of guy '" (Turk Ie, 1997, p. 74). These character descriptions were thought to help builda framework through which a player could interact with others (McCreery, 20 I I) . More recently, Bessiere et aL , (2007) reported that participants feel "psychologically connected to their character, .. . keeping the same one for months or years" (p.530). What is very clear is that individuals are psychologically connected to their avatar characters and this connection between avatar and personality characteristics may play an important role regarding the impact on learning.

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32 International Journal of Gaming and Computer-Mediated Simulations, 6(2), 30-37, April-June 2014

PERSONALITY'S IMPACT ON LEARNING

There is a substantial body of work predicting the impact of personality characteri tics on learning and learner outcomes. For example, early research into how personality traits shape educational experiences suggested that cooperation and integrity (McCloy, 1936), value assimilation (Ausubel , 1968) and hon­esty (Gage & Berliner, 1991 ), all appeared to moderate how students responded to instruction. More recently, researchers have explored how the Five-Factor Model (FFM) of personality predicts outcomes within various educational contexts (e.g .. elementary, secondary, higher education, and workplace) (Hofer, et aI., 20 12; Jackson. Baguma. & Furnham, 2009; Muller, Palekcic, Beck, & Wanninger, 2006). The FFM consists offive bi-polardimensions of personal­ity that categorize fundamental character traits into the following domains: eurot;c;sm (e.g., irritable -+ calm), Extroversion (e.g., outgo­ing -+ introverted), Openness (e.g .. curious -+ tough-minded), Agreeableness (e.g .. warm -+ disagreeable), and Conscientiousness (e.g. , organized -+ unstructured) (Costa & McCrae 1992).

Personality research specific to education in each of these five factors has shown some interesting findings . For example, despite early assumptions about euroticism (e.g., lower IQ. academic attainment; Hembree ( 1988», more recent research has shown that those with high scores on neuroticism scales perform equally as well (compared to those with low or moder­ate scores) on cognitive tasks occurring in less stressful situations (Dobson, 2000). Openness to experience has been shown to influence critical th inking. Speci fically, students who rate themselves as more intellectual, imaginative, and creative are more likely than their counter­parts who lack these qualitie to perform well in academic settings (Bidjerano & Dai , 2007). Agreeableness appears to have an impact on intrinsic motivation. Specifically, the more agreeable the individuals are the more likely they are to be intrinsically motivated by the learning task (Komarraju, Karau, & Schmeck, 2009).

Finally, the variable of Conscientiousness has consistently been the strongest predictorofaca­demic performance within the FFM framework. Research has shown that variations in levels of Conscientiousne s have demonstrated effect sizes similar to instructional design strategies. socioeconomic status, and grade difference (Poropat, 2009).

In addition to individual trait effects on learning, complex interactions among traits also demonstrate an impact on ski lis associated with better achievement. For example, students who are both conscientious and introverted have a higher probability of excelling academically given that they practice better study habits, are more task focused , and limit socializing (Furnham, Chamorro-Premuzic, & McDougall, 2003). However. that is not to say that extro­verts do poorly academically. Those who are extroverted may weather the emotional stress of academic work by reaching out for help more often as compared to those who are introverted and do not possess the benefit of higher levels of Conscientiousness (Gallagher, 1996).

Personal ity also appears to playa role in the development ofself-efficacy, autonomy, and social connectedness. For example, it appears that early in one's academic career, Openness appears to act as a proxy for fostering learning while cognitive development is occurring(Cap­rara et al., 20 II). It is thought that through these experiences and over time that self-efficacious beliefs develop. However, as students reach high school, the influence of Openness appears to lessen and Conscientiousness begins to have a greater impact on self-efficacy (Caprara et aI. , 20 II). This results in the further development ofself-regu latory abi I ities. Extraversion, Open­ness, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness are all positively correlated to autonomy (Olesen, Thomsen, Schnieber & T0nnesvang, 20 I 0) . Although how they are related has yet to be completely resolved, early research suggests that self-regulation and perceived locus of causality are related to self-fulfillment, imagi­nation, and tolerance of ideas and emotions, all of which are facets of the domain of Openness (Olesen , 20 II). Social connectedness appears to be related to euroticism and Agreeable-

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International Journal of Gaming and Computer-Med iated Simulations, 6(2) , 30-37, April-June 2014 33

ness. Specifically, social connectedness arises from valuing relationships and being sensi­tive towards how one's actions impact others (Dunkley et aI. , 2006).

Given these details, McCreery and col­leagues (2012) exam ined whether th is psycho­logical connection was predictive of behavior. As such, McCreery et aI. , (2012) assessed the personality of the participant and their avatar using Five-Factor Model (FFM) characteristics such as: euroticism, Openness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness. These responses were compared to corresponding behavior found within the video game World of Warcrafi. Results from the study found the avatar personality trait of Agreeableness was predictive of in-game behavior. I n other words, those that rated their avatar as agreeable (or disagreeable) behaved as such in the game.

A follow-up study (McCreery, Schrader, Krach, & Boone, 2013) exam ined whether pres­ence (i.e., a sense of being there) mediated this behavior. Results indicated that Agreeableness was still predictive of in-game Agreeableness beh'aviorand the presence variable of "negative effects" (i.e. , feel ing dizzy, sick etc .... ) was the on ly mediator of that behavior.

Based on the aforementioned findings (McCreery et aI. , 2012; McCreery et aI. , 2013; Przybylski , Rigby, & Ryan, 20 I 0) and the substantial literature in support of personality influencing learning(Capraraetal. ,20 II ; Furn­ham, Chamorro-Premuzic, & McDougall , 2003; Gallagher, 1996; Olesen, Thomsen, Schnieber & T0nnesvang, 20 I 0), it would seem prudent to begin to understand how and in what ways the personal ity of an individual is I inked to the personality attributed to their avatar in virtual environments, particularly since the majority of research in th is area focused on ind ividuals with in physical environments. Thus, the current researchers were interested in understanding whether learner characteristics might differ between the person in the physical world and their digital representation (avatar). This is important, given what we know about person­ali ty and learning, as discrepancies between the learner and their avatar-proxy may change the very nature of the educational experience.

METHOD

Sample

Participants were limited to individuals who interact in the virtual environment of World of Warcrafi (Wo W) due to its design, large popula­tion (Blizzard, 2009), and prior research base (Bessiere et aI. , 2007; Oliver & Carr. 2009: Williams 2006). A power analysis (Cohen. 1992) was conducted todetennine the number of participants needed for a large effect size using standard regression analysis at p =.05. Results from the analysis indicated that a minimum of 38 participants was sufficient for the largest model ; 40 were recruited . Participants were recruited through email solicitation from the student body of a publ ic four-year, doctoral extensive university over a seven-month period. Strategic criterion sampling was then used. requiring participants to have a minimum-level character (i.e ., level 80). Level 80 was selected based on previous literature that demonstrated players had a higher familiarity with the game and demonstrated a connection with their avatar (McCreery, Schrader, & Krach. 20 II : McCreery et aI. , 2012: McCreery et al.. 2013).

Instruments

Two instruments were utilized in this study: (a) the EO-FFI Personality Short Form (McCrae & Costa, 1992) and (b) a demographic survey.

The EO-FFI Personality Short Form is an abbreviated (60-item) version of the EO-PI-R (240-item) personality inventory (McCrae & Costa, 1992). Based on the five-factor model. the EO-FFI is designed to assess individual differences in domain level personality (i.e ..

euroticism, Extroversion. Openness. Agree­ableness, and Conscientiousness) for partici­pants 18 and older(Costa& McCrae. 1992). The instrument has demonstrated strong convergent and discriminate validity, as well as reliability coefficients from .86 to .95 (Botwin. 1995: Costa & McCrae, 1992).

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34 International Journal of Gaming and Computer-Mediated Simulations, 6(2), 30-37, April-June 2014

Participants

Forty participants ' completed the instruments. This included the demographic questionnaire, and a EO-FFI personality inventory on them­selves and their avatar. The average age of the participants was 28 years old (SD = 7.4) with the youngest being 19 years old and the old­est being 47 years old. The participant gender distribution (males n = 31 , 77.5%; females n = 9; 22.5%) reflected the over-representation of males among MMOG users (Vee, 2006). However, while the participants were mostly male, the avatars were more evenly distributed across gender(males n= 19,47.5%; femalesn= 21 , 52 .5%). inety-five percent (n = 38) of the participants rated themselves as either"Expert" or "Proficient" with respect to their expertise playing their avatar, averaging between II and 20 hours of playtime per week.

RESULTS

As part of the demographic survey, partici­pants were asked if they viewed themselves as similar to or different from their avatar. This was designed to contextualize the quantitative analysis . The responses were almost evenly split with 52.5% (n = 21) considering themselves more similar to their avatar and 47.5% (n =

19) as different. However, when paired t-tests where run that compared participant personal­ity scores with avatar personality scores across all five domains on the EO-FFI significant differences were found for each: eurotlclsm (t39) = 2.538, P < .05, Openness (t39) = -4 .045, P = .000, Extroversion (t39) = 8.196, P = .000, Agreeableness (t39) = 2.302, P < .05, and Con­scientiousness (t39) = -4.165, P = .000.

Follow-up analyses where then conducted using standard linear regression that compared participant and avatar scores on the EO-FFI for each domain of personality (i.e., euroti­cism, Extroversion, Openness, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness) in order to determine if there were patterns among the data or if these differences were random in nature.

Results indicated that participant personality scores were predictors of their corresponding avatar personality scores for the domains of

euroticism (Rl = .343; F( I ,38)= 5.082, p < .05), Openness (R] = .480; F( I ,38) = 11.378, P < .05), and Conscientiousness (R] = .656: F(I ,38)= 28.723, P < .05).]

DISCUSSION

Findings indicated that differences between an individual's personality and their avatar 's personality do exist. However, for three of the domains , euroticism, Openness, and Conscientiousness, there appears to be con­sistent patterns of difference. Specifically, as participant scores move away from the center of each personality domain continuum, the more likely they are to rate their avatars cor­responding personality scores even higher. In other words, the more conscientious you are , the more likely you are to attribute even higher levels of conscientiousness to your avatar.

This type of attribution raises interesting questions for those who are conducting out­comes research or teaching with avatar-based games, particularly in light of Przybylski and colleagues (20 I 0) findings related to "compe­tence (sense of efficacy), autonomy (volition and personal agency), and relatedness (social connectedness)" (p. 155). Forexample, Caprara et a\., (20 II) found there is a positive correlation between self-efficacy and both Openness (r =

.40, P < .01) and Conscientiousness (r = .49, P < .0 I). This would suggest that participants who rate their avatars higher in Openness and Conscientiousness may be more likely to believe (self-efficacy) they can be successful within the game environment. However, those who rate their avatars even lower may be inhibiting their success even further.

Additionally, Olesen et a\. , (20 I 0) found there is also a positive correlation between autonomy and both Openness (r = .35, p < .00 I) and Conscientiousness (r = .22, P < .00 I). When examined in relation to the current finding, data appears to suggest that those who

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International Journal of Gaming and Computer-Mediated Simulations, 6(2), 30-37, April-June 2014 35

attribute avatar scores toward either end of the continuum spectrum could potentially beat-risk. Specifically, those on the high end may think they should be more autonomous in situations that call for more group participation, while those on the low end rely on others at times that call for autonomy to be successful.

Further, research has shown that the capacity for social interaction (social connect­edness) is instrumental in promoting shared goals and the social construction of knowledge within these games (Delwiche, 2006; Esteves et aI. , 2008; Young, Schrader, & Zheng, 2006). However, neuroticism , (i.e. , how effect ively an individual responds to stressors), has been shown to impact social connectedness (r = .31 , p. < .05) (Dunkley et aI. , 2006). Raising the question , of how consistent mispercept ion of this trait may influence outcomes during times of social stress. This would be of particular importance for those who are highly neurotic. in that if feelings of emotional instability are heightened in these situations, they may lead to greater impulsivity, self-consciousness, and ineffective handling of stress.

CONCLUSION

Ultimately, given not only the di screpancies in personality but also the patterns associated with these discrepancies, it would be prudent for researchers to begin thinking about how personality may impact outcomes associated with learning in a virtual environment or game space. It appears that the avatar provides a layer of misperception that should be accounted for when exploring outcome-based research . Further, additional research is warranted with regard to a variety of individual differences and how theymay influence the learning en viron­ment when in acted upon through a proxy like an avatar. There are limitations to the current study. The sam pie consisted on Iy of se I f- se lected World of Ware raft players that were college or graduate students. A more generali zed sample may offer different results . Results suggest it would be prudentto evaluate personality within

a game-based learning environment (i.e., seri­ous game) and with the inclusion of learner outcome variables.

Although WoWandotherMMOG s are not formal learning environments they do provide meaningful settings to explore the processes of learning and development. As such, the findings of this study contribute to a broader understanding about how learner characteristics may influence learning these environments. Specifically the mediated nature of these en­vironments suggests that one must cons ider the factors or characteristics the part icipant (i.e .. learner) brings to the environment because it will likely influence what takes place w ithin the environment.

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