THE GREATER MIDDLE EAST THE MUSLIM BROTHERHOOD: SEEDS OF DISCONTENT

Dr. Juan R. Céspedes, Ph.D.Florida International UniversityJack D. Gordon Institute for Public Policy and Citizenship StudiesSchool of International and Public Affairs

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20th Century and Contemporary Issues Online CertificateThe Jack D. Gordon Institute for Public Policy & Citizenship Studies sponsors the 20th Century and Contemporary Issues Online Certificate. The program consists of five 3-hour interactive modules, completely online, designed to provide both teachers and students with further insight, instructional material, and rigorous preparation for the International Baccalaureate History Exam. The modules focus on Communism in Crisis, The Cold War, The Nature and Causes of War, The Nature of Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes, and The Americas.

The Certificate Program Instructor is Dr. Juan R. Céspedes, a veteran educator, lecturer, and author. He is currently a History Instructor for the International Baccalaureate program at Miami-Dade County Public Schools, and an Examiner for the International Baccalaureate Organization. In addition, Dr. Céspedes is a Social Studies Test Bank writer for the Florida Department of Education. He has been successfully helping students pass the IB history exam for 10 years.

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Lectures on the 20th Century and Contemporary Issues

Class Notes

1. THE MUSLIM BROTHERHOOD

1.1. ( Arabic: ججممااععةة االلإإخخوواانن االلممسسللمميينن‎ )

1.2.

1.2.1. [Image 1: Muslim Brotherhood emblem]

1.3. Religious/political organization (The Society of Muslim Brothers)

1.3.1. Started in Egypt in 1928 and subsequently spread throughout most Muslim countries.

1.4. Founder: Hasan al-Banna (1906–1949), the son of a modest but learned religious teacher, who received traditional as well as modern training at Dar al-Ulum (educational institution since 1871) in Cairo.

1.5.

1.5.1. [Image 2: Hasan al-Banna]

1.6. Al-Banna was exposed to the prevailing Salafiyya ideology of Islamic revivalism preached in Egypt by Muhammad Abduh.

1.6.1. The salafs ("predecessors", "ancestors") believe they provide the epitome of Islamic practice.

1.6.2. Al-Banna was posted to teach Arabic in a primary school in in Ismaʿiliyya, a showcase of poverty and European colonialist wealth and power, where he founded the Muslim Brotherhood.

1.7.

1.7.1. [Image 3: Egypt, second half 19th century]

1.8. In 1934 Banna moved back to Cairo, his organization merged with the Society for Islamic Culture, headed by his brother, the combined organization quickly became the largest grass-roots movement in Egypt.

1.9.

1.9.1. [Image 4: Cairo, Egypt in the early 20th century]

2. A POLITICAL/RELIGIOUS GRASS ROOTS MOVEMENT

2.1. With more than half a million members (middle class, labor groups, peasants, students), and with an efficient structure, hundreds of mosques and clubs throughout the country, and printing presses.

2.1.1. The British concerns about the Muslim Brotherhood came not only from the Brotherhood’s anti-occupation rhetoric, but also through the Brotherhood’s participation during the Arab-Israeli War of 1948.

2.1.2. The Brotherhood provided much support to the Palestinian effort, holding a massive demonstration on 15 December, 1947, as well as training and equipping 10,000 volunteers to fight and defend Palestine.

2.1.3. The growing Brotherhood at this point was making a conscious choice to publicly mobilize their support for the Palestinian effort, all the while doing so independently of the Egyptian government, specifically King Farouk I, of Egypt, who they regarded as a British puppet.

2.1.4. In doing so, The Muslim brotherhood effectively set itself apart from the monarchy, organizing and garnering support from Egyptians citizens

enraged by the Western meddling, if not outright aggression, onto what was considered sovereign Palestinian, i.e. Arab, soil.

2.2.

2.2.1. [Image 5: King Farouk of Egypt (far right), seen here during the month of Ramadan in the early 1950's, who maintained the Muslim Brotherhood had been behind his overthrow]

2.3. In the 1940s the Brotherhood became a powerful organization intent on affecting the government's social policies and ridding Egypt of British occupation.

2.4. Partly because of its mass power, and partly in order to play it against the other political parties, the Egyptian government alternately compromised and fought the organization, jailing Banna intermittently then releasing him for fear of mass insurrection.

2.4.1. From the start, the Muslim Brotherhood operated as an internal reform movement and resistance to foreign occupation.

2.5. Banna's early and primary concern, had been to bring about a return to the ‘original and pure’ sources of the faith and away from the many ‘distortions’ and ‘distractions’ of the west.

2.6.

2.6.1. [Image 6: A scan from Farouk's memoirs, where the ex-king wrote that the Muslim Brotherhood had orchestrated the coup against him (Empire News, 12 October, 1952)]

3. “SALAFIYYA” AND THE BROTHERHOOD

3.1. The Brotherhood was a continuation of the powerful Salafiyya reform movement that spread throughout the Muslim world in the eighteenth century, although unlike the latter (but similar to earlier reform movements), the Muslim Brotherhood showed Banna's strong attachment to Sufi spirituality.

3.1.1. The Salafiyya sought to establish shariʿa and to use Islam to combat corruption, moral laxity, economic exploitation, and oppression through the creation of a strong civil network centered around the mosque.

3.1.1.1. A Powerful Social Netwrok: Also providing for employment, education, welfare, clubs, health clinics, and other social services. It advocated dialogue, preaching, and gradual reform rather than revolt.

3.1.1.2. However, the Muslim Brotherhood was also operating in the context of Egypt's occupation by the British, who dictated government policy. Moving away from the Salafiyya, which had become concerned solely with a strict interpretation of Islam, the Brotherhood looked to fulfill Egyptian independence, and it used anti-imperialist rhetoric from the start.

3.1.2. Attempting keep its legal status, the Brotherhood initially maintained a policy of non-confrontation, but this was challenged by its followers. A major turning point came in 1936 with the eruption of riots in Palestine against Zionist implantation.

3.1.3. The Brotherhood, which already had offices in Palestine, helped to raise funds for the insurrection. In 1938 a meeting with the Palestinian mufti Muhammad Amin al-Husayni produced a military wing to push back the Zionists, and a secret order was created within the Brotherhood to repel Western colonialism.

3.1.3.1. Thus, part of the organization focused on (a) reform and dialogue with a Muslim government, part (b) on jihad against the foreigners, and part on (c) helping the Palestinian insurrection.

4. A SCHISM IN THE RANKS

4.1. 1939: Brotherhood members defected, claiming that its lack of action against British occupation, and Shabab Sayyiduna Muhammad, which advocated the use of force against any government that cooperates with Western occupation or with policies they believe are against the interests of Muslims.

4.2.

4.2.1. [Image 7: Egyptian Prime Minister Mahmoud an-Nukrashi Pasha, who was assassinated by a member of the Muslim Brotherhood in 1948 shortly after outlawing the group]

4.3. Banna had opposed jihad against fellow Muslims. But to the militants, fighting the British occupation of Palestine was the same as fighting the occupation of Egypt, or fighting pro-western Muslim governments.

4.4. The partition of Palestine in 1948 led to uncontrollable riots and acts of violence against British and Jewish interests. This show of force led the Egyptian government to outlaw the Brotherhood, and to a wave of repression against its members.

4.5.

4.5.1. [Image 8: Muslim Brotherhood fighters in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War]

4.6. Although Banna tried to rein in his followers, some of them carried out assassinations of public figures, and as a result, Banna was assassinated by government officials in February 1949.

5. THE MUSLIM BROTHERHOOD AFTER BANNA’S LEADERSHIP

5.1. Under a new murshid amm ("supreme guide") and with the promise not to get involved in political activity, the Brotherhood was allowed to operate again in 1951.

5.2. It had a large number of followers in the army, supplied arms to Egyptian soldiers in Palestine during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War.

5.3. A liaison was established between the Brotherhood and the 1952 movement of the Free Officers who, seized power in the new regime dominated by Gamal Abdel Nasser.

5.4.

5.4.1. [Image 9: Fresh off the revolutions of the 1950s, the Middle East settled into a cold war between upstart military autocracies, with Gamal Abdel Nasser's (right) Egypt leading the way, and conservative monarchies, with King Saud bin Abdul Aziz's (left) Saudi Arabia foremost among them. The Egyptian-Saudi rivalry has subsided in recent decades, but some of its undercurrents remain]

5.4.2. Nasser quickly became a secular nationalist-socialist autocracy that banned any opposition to the state and a mouthpiece of Soviet policies, while claiming to be a leading member of the “non-aligned movement”.

5.4.2.1. An assassination attempt on Nasser in 1956 led to the dissolution of the Muslim Brotherhood, the jailing of hundreds of its members, and the execution of many of its leaders, including its chief ideologue, Sayyid Qutb.

5.4.2.2. Nasser imprisoned and executed the Brotherhood’s foremost ideologist, Sayyid Qutb, whose prison manifesto Milestones remains a foundational text of modern political Islam.

5.5. 1970: Anwar al-Sadat became Egypt's president. Hoping to defuse the power of the followers of Nasser who opposed his policies of reconciliation with Israel, Sadat released from jail Umar al-Tilimsani, the leader of the Brotherhood, and allowed the Brotherhood to operate again (though without a legal status).

5.6.

5.6.1. [Image 10: Sayyid Qutb, whose prison manifesto Milestones, remains a foundational text of modern political Islam].

5.7.

5.7.1. [Image 11: Anwar Sadat, seen here in 1975, recalled in his memoirs the decision of the Free Officers to disband the Muslim Brotherhood]

5.8. The loss of the charismatic Nasser and the failure of the government's socialist policies helped the Brotherhood to regain its membership. Sadat promised to restore legal status to the Brotherhood if it supported his policy toward Israel.

5.8.1. It refused, and the leadership and hundreds of members were again thrown in jail.

5.9. 1981: Sadat assassinated by a member of one of the radical Muslim movements.

5.10.

5.10.1. [Image 12: Egyptian President Anwar Sadat (left), U.S. President Jimmy Carter (center), and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin (right) join hands as they agree to sign a peace treaty between Egypt and Israel at the White House on 26 March, 1979. This was seen as a betrayal by Sadat by certain elements in the Arab world]

5.11. The new president, Husni Mubarak, granted more freedom to the Brotherhood, which saw its membership soar.

5.12. 1984: Because it had no legal status, the Brotherhood could not participate in political elections, so its members ran for parliamentary election by forming an alliance with the Wafd Party; winning the majority of opposition seats.

5.13. 1987: The same success was achieved when the Brotherhood allied itself with the Socialist Labor Party and the Liberal Party, and included Coptic representatives.

5.13.1. 1990s: The Brotherhood's strength led to a crackdown by the Mubarak government, attempting to counter its ideology with strong government propaganda.

6. PARLIAMENTARY ELECTIONS NOVEMBER 2000

6.1. The Brotherhood retained its power; a majority of members of the Brotherhood were independently elected to parliament.

6.2. The Brotherhood, though officially banned, was the largest holder of opposition seats in the parliament.

6.3. 2004: The sixth leader of the Brotherhood, Maʾmun al-Hudaybi, who had assumed the leadership in 2002, dies, and Muhammad Mahdi Akif was elected the new guide-general for the Muslim Brotherhood.

6.4. Power at Last

6.4.1. Following the 2011 Egyptian Revolution that overthrew Hosni Mubarak, the Brotherhood emerged as a powerful political group with unparalleled ability to mobilize its followers under Mohammed Morsi.

6.4.2.

6.4.3. [Image 13: Former Egyptian president Morsi denouncing “counter-revolutionaries” undermining his political efforts]

6.4.4. The Brotherhood forms the “Freedom and Justice Party”

6.4.5. Rejects Christian Coptics or women in presidency

6.4.5.1. Persecution of minorities by Islamic radicals was ignored by Morsi

6.4.5.2. Morsi alienated and marginalized democratic forces

6.4.5.3. Hard-line Islamists increasingly dominated politics

6.4.5.4. 2012: Mohammed Morsi 'temporarily' granted himself unlimited powers

6.4.6. Egypt divided between Mohammed Morsi and Islamist allies on one side, and an opposition made up of moderate Muslims, Christians and liberals on the other.

6.4.7. 2013: On 3 July, General Abdel Fattah el-Sisi announced Morsi’s removal from power, suspension of the constitution, and new presidential and Shura Council elections

6.4.7.1. Key members of the Brotherhood were arrested or ordered arrested.

6.4.7.2. On 23 September, a court ordered the group outlawed and its assets seized.

6.4.7.3. On 25 Setember government security forces closed the main offices of the newspaper of the Freedom and Justice Party, and confiscated its equipment.

7. THE BROTHERHOOD REMAINS A POWERFUL PLAYER

7.1. The Muslim Brotherhood has offices throughout the Arab world, and a number of organizations emulating it have emerged in almost all Muslim countries.

7.1.1. The main goals are to oppose Western policies in the Muslim world in general, in Palestine in particular, and

7.1.1.1. to bring about a social, economic, and political order in line with Islamic ideals (although accepting Western advances in technology, science, and education).

7.1.1.2. reverse Western ascent and Eastern decline, and a revived multi-caliphate as a goal of its broader anti-Western project

8. TODAY

8.1. The Brotherhood's English language website describes its principles as using Islamic Sharia law as "the basis for controlling the affairs of state and society" and unifying "Islamic countries and states, mainly among the Arab states, and liberating them from foreign imperialism".

8.2. The Clarion Project, as well as Steve Emerson, the executive director of the Investigative Project on Terrorism, maintain that “The vast majority of Sunni terrorist groups – including al Qaeda, Egyptian Islamic Jihad, Hamas and the Palestinian Islamic Jihad – are derived from the Muslim Brotherhood.”

8.2.1. The Brotherhood intends to achieve its aims through a process of “cultural or civilization” jihad, which follows the Brotherhood’s strategy of gradualism.

8.2.1.1. create “political action front groups with no traceable ties” so that it can “peacefully get inside the United States government and also American universities.”

8.2.1.2. portray itself as “a kind of democracy which is different.”

8.3. The Brotherhood's most frequently used slogans (according to the BBC)

8.3.1. "Islam is the Solution"

8.3.2. "Allah is our objective. The Prophet is our leader. The Qur'an is our law. Jihad is our way. Dying in the way of Allah is our highest hope. Allahu akbar!"

9. TOTALITARIANISM, AUTHORITARIANISM, & AQAM

9.1. Ideologically impersuadable Nazism and and rigamortic communism were defeated with comparatively little loss of American life. A primary reason being that the Soviet Union, greatly helped to defeat Nazi Germany at a cost of 27 million dead. The Soviet Union then collapsed decades later without having to be fought.

9.2. The Soviets then inspired, orchestrated the implementation of, or forced communist governments worldwide

9.2.1. The worldwide cost of the communist “experiment,” however, was as high as 120 million murdered through democidal forced labor, state orchestrated hunger, or execution, as well as

9.2.2. The utter trampling of the most fundamental of human rights

9.3. Under these circumstances, the U.S. cannot afford to underestimate the potential of the totalitarian ideological mentality.

9.3.1. The Obama foreign policy promoted an “Arab Spring” which included courting the Muslim Brotherhood and the Iranian authoritarian theocracy.

9.3.2. History, however, shows that no reform the Obama administration can envisage is remotely as important as neutralizing ideological extremists who could get access to weapons of mass destruction.

9.3.3. “When people see a strong horse and a weak horse, by nature they will like the strong horse.” ~ Arab proverb

9.4. All ideologies depend on success for their credibility. This applies to what the west now calls “radical Islam”, which certainly has a long term perspective and definable goals.

9.5. In the 1970s and 1980s, Soviet citizens, despite their poverty, viewed the world through an ideological prism. Eastern Europe was socialist and the revolution had triumphed in China, Vietnam, Cambodia, Cuba, Nicaragua, Grenada, may parts of Africa and, so it seemed at the time, Afghanistan.

9.5.1. The worldwide victory of socialism appeared to be only a matter of time in the Marxist dialectic of history.

9.6. In 1983, under the Reagan administration, the U.S. overthrew the communist regime on Grenada, an island of 100,000 persons.

9.6.1. The action was widely criticized by the left at the time, but it represented the first time that a communist regime had ever been displaced.

9.6.2. The unthinkable had become thinkable. It was followed by the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan, the collapse of the Soviet empire in Eastern Europe and the breakup of the Soviet Union itself.

9.7. Like the Soviets, the Islamic radicals promise their adherents an inevitable and eventual victory.

9.7.1. In this respect, the arguments over the links and differences between the Taliban, al-Qaida , ISIS, and other groups is irrelevant.

9.7.2. Al-Qaeda and associated movements (hereinafter referred to as “AQAM”) share the same essential ideology, and a victory for any one is a victory for the system of thought that was responsible for the terrorist attacks on the U.S.

9.7.3. AQAM victories will also lead to a surge in support for radical Islam in the Muslim world, which, at the moment, has very few psychological defenses against it.

9.8. In dealing with an ideological opponents, haggling and temporizing will not work. The West must show the AQAM fanatics that they cannot win because it will not lose. In the long run, it is political determination as much as military power that will make victory possible.

9.8.1. A balanced and consistent Middle East policy is indispensable

9.9.

9.9.1. [Image 14: A young man in Britain shares his view of the future]

10.WORDS OF BEAUTY, NOT HATRED

10.1. ييأأااييههااااللذذييننااممننووااككووننووااققووااممننييللللههششههددااءببااللققسسططووااللييججررممننككممششنناانن

10.2. للللتتققووىى ٴااققرربب ههوو ااععددللوواا تتععددللوواا ٴاااالل ععللىىققوومم

10.2.1. “Oh you who believe, stand up firmly for Allah and be just witnesses and don’t let the enmity and hatred for others cause you not to do justice. Be just, that is closer to righteousness.”

10.3. ممننككااننئئووممننببااههللللووااللييووممااآآللخخررففللييققللخخييررأأااووللييصصممتت

10.3.1. “Whoever believes in Allah and the last day, he should speak only good or remain silent.”

10.4.

10.4.1. [Image 15: Shaykh Muḥammad Ibn Ṣāliḥ al-‘Uthaymīn (9 March, 1925 – 10 January, 2001), one of the most prominent Sunni Muslim Islamic scholars of our time, and considered one of the two leading representatives of the conservative Saudi Arabian religious establishment]

10.4.1.1. “Try to distance yourself from everything that causes you worry and sadness, so that you may always live with peace of mind and an open and tranquil heart, seeking Allah and His worship and working on your worldly and otherworldly matters...”

~ Ibn Ṣāliḥ al-‘Uthaymīn

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Sources - Images

Image 1: Muslim Brotherhood emblem. Retrieved 9 September 2014 from http://misguidedchildren.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/MuslimBrotherhood-1.jpg.

Image 2: Hasan al-Banna. This Egyptian work is currently in the public domain in Egypt because its copyright has expired pursuant to the provisions of Intellectual Property Law 82 of 2002. Retrieved 10 September 2014 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hassan_al-Banna#mediaviewer/File:Hassan_al-Banna.jpg.

Image 3: Egypt, second half 19th century. Retrieved 5 September 2014 from http://www.kiefer.de/Abbildungen/73/73-2613-1.jpg.

Image 4: Cairo, Egypt in the early 20th century (Photo courtesy of Magda Malek / egyptianroyalty.net) Retrieved 4 September 2014 from http://english.alarabiya.net/en/perspective/features/2014/01/26/Did-the-Muslim-Brotherhood-overthrow-Egypt-s-King-Farouk-.html.

Image 5: King Farouk of Egypt (R), seen here during the month of Ramadan in the early 1950's, maintained the Muslim Brotherhood had been behind his overthrow. (Photo courtesy of Ahmed Kamel / egyptianroyalty.net). Retrieved 8 September 2014 from http://vid.alarabiya.net/images/2014/01/26/7c7988c7-f465-4a7f-bd25-44e93d7a582d/7c7988c7-f465-4a7f-bd25-44e93d7a582d_16x9_600x338.png.

Image 6: A scan from Farouk's memoirs, where the ex-king wrote that the Muslim Brotherhood had orchestrated the coup against him (Empire News, Oct. 12, 1952) Retrieved 10 September 2014 from http://english.alarabiya.net/en/perspective/features/2014/01/26/Did-the-Muslim-Brotherhood-overthrow-Egypt-s-King-Farouk-.html.

Image 7: Egyptian Prime Minister Mahmoud an-Nukrashi Pasha, who was assassinated by a member of the Muslim Brotherhood in 1948 shortly after outlawing the group. (Photo courtesy of Wikimedia Commons). Retrieved 10 September 2014 from http://english.alarabiya.net/en/perspective/features/2014/01/26/Did-the-Muslim-Brotherhood-overthrow-Egypt-s-King-Farouk-.html.

Image 8: Muslim Brotherhood fighters in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. Retrieved 8 September 2014 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_Brotherhood#mediaviewer/File:Ikhwan48-1.gif.

Image 9: Fresh off the revolutions of the 1950s, the Middle East settled into a cold war between upstart military autocracies, with Gamal Abdel Nasser's (right) Egypt leading the way, and conservative monarchies, with King Saud bin Abdul Aziz's (left) Saudi Arabia foremost among them. The Egyptian-Saudi rivalry has subsided in recent decades, but some of its undercurrents remain. Retrieved 10 September from http://www.foreignpolicy.com/files/fp_uploaded_images/130425_nasseraziz.jpg.

Image 10: Sayyid Qutb, whose prison manifesto Milestones remains a foundational text of modern political Islam. Retrieved 10 September 2014 from http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2013/04/29/36_mustaches_that_explain_why_there_s_no_peace_in_the_middle_east.

Image 11: Anwar Sadat, seen here in 1975, recalled in his memoirs the decision of the Free Officers to disband the Muslim Brotherhood. (File photo: AFP). Retrieved 9 September 2014 from http://english.alarabiya.net/en/perspective/features/2014/01/26/Did-the-Muslim-Brotherhood-overthrow-Egypt-s-King-Farouk-.html.

Image 12: Egyptian President Anwar Sadat (left), U.S. President Jimmy Carter (center), and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin (right) join hands as they agree to sign a peace treaty between Egypt and Israel at the White House on 26 March, 1979. This was seen as a betrayal by Sadat by certain elements in the Arab world. Retrieved 19 October 2014 from http://media3.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/photo/gallery/100322/GAL-10Mar22-4120/media/PHO-10Mar22-213593.jpg.

Image 13: Former Egyptian president Morsi denouncing “counter-revolutionaries” undermining his political efforts. Retrieved 25 October 2014 from http://gatemedia.ahram.org.eg/english/News/2013/1/24/2013-634946662206742733-674.jpg.

Image 14: A young man in Britain shares his view of the future. Retrieved 6 September 2014 from http://cdn2.bigcommerce.com/n-nr1m3w/t79dofd/product_images/uploaded_images/ulster-3.jpg.

Image 15: Shaykh Muḥammad Ibn Ṣāliḥ al-‘Uthaymīn (9 March, 1925 – 10 January, 2001), one of the most prominent Sunni Muslim Islamic scholars of our time, and considered one of the two leading representatives of the conservative Saudi Arabian religious establishment. Image retrieved 18 October 2014 from http://i1.ytimg.com/vi/pBhZfHGgwfU/mqdefault.jpg]

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