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·······'!JOURNALof

STUDENTAFFAIRS

Colorado State UniversityJournal of Student Affairs

Volume Three, 1994

Editorial Board:

Coordinating EditorCoordinating EditorContent EditorTechnical EditorTechnical EditorLayout EditorProduction EditorProduction EditorContinuing Student LiaisonFirst-Year Liaison

Advisor

Reader Board:

Kris Binard '94Jayna M<£asland '95Kelly Colpitts '94ChrisDavis'95Jeremy Eaves '95Shannan Fasold '94Martha Fosdick '95

• DepartmeDt of Speech CommunicatioD

Mary Frank '94Keith Robinder '94Sherri Cummins '94Shannon Brewer '94Sue Reimondo '94Dennis Proulx '94Sharon Stead '95Alicia Vik '95Kristen Uden '94Jeremy Eaves '95

Dr. Keith Miser,Vice President for Student Affairs

Lancelvy'95Diana Kotewa '94Dave Lusk '94­Dina Maramba '94Kelly Messick '95Rick Wan '95Laurie Weaver '95

To Contact the Editorial Board:Please call or write:

Student Affairs in Higher EducationGraduate Assistant220 Palmer Center1005 West Laurel

Fat Collins, CO 80523(303) 491-SAHE (7243)

To submit articles for consideration in future volumes:• Please consult the guidelines for manuscript preparation on the

inside back cover of this volume.• Submissions for the 1995 edition (Volume Four) will be

accepted through November 1, 1994.

Cover design by Jim Farrand '92.

Notes from the Editorial Board

The editorial board is pleased to offer the 1994 edition of The ColoradoState 1JniYersity Journal of Student Affairs. The articles included inthis volume represent the growing diversity of questions that must beconsidered if we are truly concerned about meeting the needs of allconstituencies.

From one perspective, Michael T. Miller and Glenn M. Nelson notethat "one of the foremost difficulties in embracing and developingconsensus on a knowledge base for higher education has been thedisparity of thought over what is and should be required basic under­standing of the field" in their article Reading Materials Perceived tobe Basic in the Study of Higher Education. However, we must alsoinsure that the evolving theoretical knowledge base is truly representa­tive of the diversity of campus experience.

Theoretical perspectives continue to emerge as educators acknowledgethe limitations of traditional models. As Sue Reimondo points out inher article Identity Development: Is One Theory Enough?, "thesetheories which are the underpinnings of the profession today are basedon the assumption that all students develop according to models basedon a homogeneous campus population." While it continues to beimportant to recognize the contributions of the historical models, wemust infuse higher education with an equal representation of diversetheoretical perspectives.

The consequences of not educating ourselves about the differingidentity development theories are significant to our success. RosannaDuester identifies that "our educational system is failing to educate itsminority populations" in her article A Study of the Effects of aMentoring Program on Minority Students' Perceptions andRetention. Given the increasing demographic shift away from ahomogeneous population, such short-sightedness signals a challengefor our future. We must continue to expand our vision as professionalsin order to anticipate the ever changing needs of the campus. Newpathways must be identified and methodologies created to insure theirsuccessful implementation.

We believe the articles in this edition can begin to change ourperspectives. We hope you find them as challenging and thoughtprovoking as we have.

ii

Acknowledgements:

The 1994 Colorado State University Journal of Student AffairsEditorial Board wishes to acknowledge the following for their faithfulparticipation in the production of this edition.

Grant Sherwood, Director of the Student Mfairs in Higher EducationProgram at Colorado State, has provided valuable assistance with allthe administrative aspects of production. It is the technical assistanceprovided by the Department of Housing and Food Services whichmakes the publication of the Journal possible. Nancy Venturato washelpful as always in providing the Board with information aboutbudgets and alumni.

We would like to thank Manny Cunard, Keith Miser and GrantSherwood for their generous financial contributions. Without theirsupport, the Joumal would not be possible.

The students currently enrolled in the Student Affairs in HigherEducation Program also are an invaluable resource to the EditorialBoard. All the students who participated in the Reader Board helped tostrengthen the intellectual integrity of the Joumal' s content.

The faculty of the Student Mfairs in Higher Education program atColorado State University deserve credit for creating an environmentwhere difficult questions can be asked, and the traditions of the past canbe challenged.

Finally, the willingness of alumni and colleagues to share informationand insights with other professionals through forums such as theColorado Slate 1Jniyersity Journal of Student Mfairs is fullyappreciated. Such an exchange of ideas is integral to the on-goingdevelopment of the profession.

The Editorial Board,Colorado State University Journal of Student Mfairs

Table of ContentsA Note from the Editorial BoardAcknowledgements

State of the ProgramDr. Grant P. Sherwood

ARTICLES

iii

1

Training Student Staff in the Use of Basic Helping Skills: 2Teaching Problem Solving

Guy ArnesenBurnout and Resident Assistants 10

Jodi BermanPolitical Correctness: A Student Development Perspective 15

Randy Chinum and Kristen UdenA Study of the Effects of a Mentoring Program on 22Minority Students' Perceptions and Retention

Rosanna DuesterThe Minority Identity Development Model 31and Hispanic Students on Campus

Jeremy M. EavesHomosexual Identity Devleopment: Challenges for 38Student Mfairs Professionals

Mary J. FrankA Feminist Critique of the Ethics of Care and Justice 45

Kelly E. W. MessickReading Materials Perceived to be Basic in the 50Study of Higher Education

Michael T. Miller and Glenn M. NelsonBeyond the Dilemma of Political Correctness: 58Proactive Approaches to Battling Campus Intolerance

Tom ParentIdentity Development: Is One Theory Enough? 66

Sue ReimondoFrom Home to Hall: An Ecological Transition 69

Kym Wilson and James H. Banning

BOOK REVIEW

What Matters in Colle&e: Four Critical Years ReyisitedAlexander Astin

Review by David A. McKelfresh

74

The State of the ProgramDr. Grant P. Sherwood

Program DirectorStudent Affairs in Higher Education

My congratulations to our students and faculty for their efforts inproducing the third volume of our Jownal. Our academic programcontinues to grow and mature. We currently are reviewing datacollected from recent graduates in assessing the relationship of ourpreparation program and their readiness to perform as a professionalstaff member. This data is being compared to recent research fmdingsat Columbia Teacher's College and University of Kansas.

Additionally, we are reviewing the relationship of our Division ofStudent Mfairs and the SAHE program. The question remains: Howcan we enhance this symbiotic relationship? We have now establishedtwo Foundation Funds to support the work of faculty and students.One is dedicated to scholarship assistance and the other to generaloperations.

Finally, on a very exciting note, I am pleased to report that our SAHEprogram has gone international. Besides welcoming our thirdinternational student (from China) to our program next fall, six of ourcurrent students had an opportunity to visit/study in England for twoweeks in January. We hope to have additional opportunities like thisin the future.

I personally continue to be challenged by the changes and opportuni­ties our academic program creates. On behalf of our students andfaculty, I want to thank everyone who took the time to contribute tothis year's Joumal.

1

Training Student Staff inthe Use

of Basic Helping Skills:Teaching Problem Solving

Guy Amesen

2

Where is the line drawn?What do we dare ask our studentstaff to attempt when comingupon students struggling withttansitions and crisis in theirlives? What is our student staffsrole in helping the student sort outthe problems, concerns, and crisisthat sOOletimes seem to dominatetheir lives during the collegeyears? Our University Counsel­ing Centers are packed, and thewaiting period for an intakeinterview may be weeks.

Those of us in Housing knowwho is in the best position to helpthese students; the talented,concerned, and eager student staffwho live in the communitieswhere the constant struggleoccurs. Still, we hesitate tochallenge and prepare our studentstaff for the work because wehave the constant fear of loadingso much responsibility upon theirshoulders, and sometimes doubttheir maturity level for handlingthe task (not to mention the usual

Guy Arnesen ('86) is an AssistantDirector ofResidence Hall Life atColorado State University.

excuse of legal liability).We are a part of an educa­

tional institution. Our staffsconsistently include some of themost talented student leaders thatour institution has to offer. Therole of these leaders should bethat of the teacher; helping thestudents in transition and pain tolearn the skills and self-conti­dence to begin taking control oftheir lives through the use ofproblem solving skills. Manysystems limit the involvement ofstudent staff; they are to listen,reflect feelings, and refer to thecampus experts. It is only thesystem's lack of confidence thatlimits the possibilities, for ourstudent staffs are capable of goingwell beyond this expectation. Aslong as our staff remember that itis essential to use our counselingcenters, academic advisors, andother university services as a partof the student's action plan, wecan train and empower them to domuch more for our students.

Our tool, the Ten Steps toUsing Basic Helping Skills, is anapproach that we created basedon the Reality Therapy techniquesof Glasser (1965). It presents a

step by step process for helping,and provides a foundation to buildupon, as staff develop andincorporate their own skills andcreative styles. The purpose ofhelping skills training is toprovide student staff with aprocess that is easy to understand,simplistic in nature, easy to use,and always provides direction andgoals for the helper. Manystudent staff members feelcomfortable listening to andreflecting feelings, but they havefrustration with forever listening,rehashing problems, and nevergetting any movement towards aproblem solution. Where are theresults? This frustration seems tolead to one of two things. Thestaff members will either end uptaking responsibility and solvingthe problem for the student, orthey will fmally give up on thestudent who continues to do a lotof complaining and never seemsto feel any better. Staff frustrationincreases because they do notknow where to go from that placein the helping situation. The TenSteps give helpers an ultimategoal of teaching students tobecome confident and able toproblem solve on their own (toteach life long skills).

This helping process helpsstudents learn to look at theirsituation and current behaviors.They then brainstorm possibleoptions and consequences, make aplan of action, and follow throughwith new actions and behaviors.Through this process the studentslearn they can produce betterresults, improve situations, and

have some control of the path thattheir lives take.

This article will explain theten step process that student staffcan be taught to improve theirown skills, and also learn to teachothers to problem solve in theirown transitions to college andresidence hall living.

STEP ONE: PREPARATIONGain the skills and informa­

tion needed. The housingdepartment and the student staffmembers have obligations inpreparing staff for the helpingrole. The housing department hasthe obligation to provideinformation, skills training,support, and resources that willhelp staff develop their skills.Staff have the obligation to makea commitment to helping others,to begin looking at personalmotivation, to understand thegoals of the helping role, and todevelop skills for working one onone with students. These skillswill include attending skills,listening skills, reflecting skills,questioning techniques, and theuse of resource information.

STEP TWO: DEVELOPINGRELATIONSHIPS

Make yourself approachable.Students in need will approachthose people they are comfortablewith; those who seem open andaccepting of differences. It isimportant for staff to consistentlyshow others that they are peoplewho care about others and havethe ability to help (role modeling).

Staff members who greet3

4

students and parents, provideinformation, answer questions,and are easy to talk to showthemselves as potential helpers.As students go through the toughadjustment periods they will feelmore comfortable approaching thepeople who have been open andhave shown an interest in them.

When sitting down with astudent who is struggling, the staffmember should relax a bit andtake time to flfSt ask questions toget to know the student better.After the relationship beginsdeveloping, both the student andstaff member will feel morecomfortable and the two can beginto start discussing concerns andlooking for solutions.

STEP THREE: LISTENINGAND GATHERINGINFORMATION

Use active listening skills.Sitting face to face, the staffmember should flfSt try to get acomplete picture of the problemsand concerns of the student whocomes to him/her for help. This isdone through a combination oflistening and questioning tech­niques. This is an informationcollecting time, not a problem­solving session. Helpers shouldnot be trying to make points, sharetheir ideas, or fmd solutions inthis step. This step concludeswhen staff feel they have a goodidea not only what is concerningthe student, but also what otherfactors in the student's life areaffecting their <Jecisions andactions.

Attending behavior, listening

skills, and reflection of thestudent's feelings are essential asthe helper and student discussconcerns. The training throughthe Housing Department is criticalto help this discussion go well. Ifdone successfully, this step willgive the student a chance toexpres,s feelings and frustrations,and to re-examine the problem.It also will help staff gain thetotal picture involved with thestudent's concern.

STEP FOUR: PROCESSINGCURRENT ACTIONS

Ask questions. This is thetime when most helpers makemistakes in attempting to helpsomeone. The heart is in the rightplace as they start giving adviceand helping the student do theright thing. They end up takingcontrol and responsibility formaking things better for thestudent. The helper's role is tohelp students begin to look at theircurrent actions and decisions, andthen think about how they aredealing with the situation. It isnot extremely important what thestaff member feels should happenat this point, for their role is tohelp the student look at his/herown attempts, if any, to work onthe problem.

Although this may seem to bea complex task, it is really donevery easily by asking some basicquestions to get students toexamine their current efforts.What are you doing now to workon the problem? Ifnothing, whathave the consequences been?What actions have or have not

been successful?

STEP FIVE: REVIEWINGOPTIONS

Begin exploring choices. Thenext goal for the helper is to helpthe student begin thinking ofpossible options that can beattempted to solve the problem.What are the possible conse­quences for each option? Whatelse can you try to make thingsbetter? What things do you thinkmight happen if you try that?How do you want things to be?What other actions would makethings better?

Students have now reviewedthe possible factors involved inthe problem. They also havebegun to think of possible thingsthat can be done to help improvethe situation, and to examinepossible consequences for each ofthe actions that could be taken.

How does the helper get thestudent to do something toimprove the situation? At thispoint in the process the studentmust begin to make some deci­sions and come up with a plan ofaction. Staff can assist in thisprocess by helping studentsreview the factors involved andbegin dealing with them one at atime. Some factors might be puton hold while students make plansto tackle other concerns. To­gether they begin to come up withconcrete actions and tasks that thestudent can try, and the staff canhelp by making sure students arerealistic in how much to startwith. Students should narrowdown the options to what they feel

will bring about the most positiveconsequences in improving thesituation. The plan of actionshould include definite guide­lines; and helpers should recordall the decisions made and tasksplanned in these areas: Whatdoes the student want to achievewith the plan and what should theoutcomes be? What behaviorswill they change? Where willthey go for information orassistance? Who will theycontact? By what day will theycomplete these tasks? When willthe student get back together withthe helper to discuss the progressmade with the problem?

STEP SIX: GAININGCOMMITMENT

Make a commitment Thestudent has realized the impor­tance of changing behaviors andtaking action. If the situation is toget better, students must dosomething to improve it. If theyspend time processing thesituation and coming up withtheir own possible solutions, thestudent will be more apt tobelieve in the plan and commit tofollowing through with theactions that may bring change.Since the plan is tailored specifi­cally to them, the students mayhave more confidence in itssuccessful completion. Studentsshould be feeling more in controlof their own destiny if they cansee how the plan can affect theproblem. They will feel lesshelpless because they havealready improved in takingcontrol through better understand-

5

6

ing the predicamen~ coming upwith possible solutions, andmaking a plan of action.

The students must give anhonest effort to following throughwith the tasks in the plan. Stu­dents must give the plan areasonable amount of time tosucceed or fail. Students must bepatient and realistic. Problemstend to make individuals veryemotional. Students shouldaccept this and commit torealizing that if it has taken awhile for things to get bad, it willalso take a while for things to getbetter. Students must be persis­tent. Students must keep commu­nicating with the helper.

STEPSEVEN: SUPPORTAND CHALLENGE

Put the plan into action. Thestudents should contact the peoplethey need to, communicate whenexpected to, and begin to changethe habits and behaviors that havebeen selected for change in theirplan.

Positive reinforcement fromstaff is needed as the studentfollows through with the plan, andchallenge to take action should beexpected if the student doesn't.The helper's role is to be sure thatno excuses are accepted forstudents not following throughwith the plan. Things cannot getbetter without the effort of thestudent.

STEP EIGHT: EVALUATIONAND PROCESSING

Review the process. Thestaff member and student come

back together at the predeter­mined time and discuss what hashappened since the plan was putinto action.. After giving studentsa chance to initially talk abouttheir feelings and thoughtsconcerning the problem situation,helpers can begin asking ques­tions to help students processwhat has been accomplished sincethe last time they met.

This step gives students achance to review the situation andhow it compares to the presentconcern. Helpers should makeuse of listening and questioningskills and continue to let studentsprocess and control the situation. ,They should discuss how the planhas been carried out. Theyshould discuss how successful theplan was in improving theproblem situation. They shoulddiscuss the problem situation nowthat the student has had time tobegin working on it.

STEP NINE: RECYCLINGExplore new actions. If the

plan has worked well for studentsand the problem is under control,they may feel comfortablecontinuing on their own. At thistime helpers switch roles andkeep in touch with studentsmainly as friends.

If students wish for helpers toremain involved in the situationand feel uncomfortable with theoutcomes from the plan of actionthe next step will be Recycling.Recycling takes the action ofgoing back to other steps in thehelping process and attempting toattack the problem from another

angle. Recycling may start at justabout any of the previous stepsdepending on the individual andthe current problem situation.The student and helper mustredefine the problem and pinpointhow it differs from the originalconcern. The student may need toredefine the goals that the studentand helper hope to reach to clearup the problem situation. Thestudent and the helper need tolook at the options, review whathas been tried, what else can betried, and what possible conse­quences both positive andnegative, may occur. The studentneeds to put together a new planwith the assistance of the helperand make the commitment neededto follow through with it. Thestudent needs to put the new planinto action.

STEP TEN: CONTINUATIONNever give up. Helper goals

for the process may be slightlydifferent from those of students,and the helper needs to make thecommitment to continue assistingas long as students are in need ofhelp. While students mainly wishto solve the problem at hand andlessen pain, helpers hope to teacha problem solving techniquewhich will help students developthe skills to problem solve ontheir own, and learn to takeresponsibility for their actions andsituations.

Students may catch on veryquickly, but in some cases helpersmay need to be prepared to gothrough the Recycling process asmany times as it takes for students

to either solve the problem, gethelp elsewhere, or refuse to seethe helper any longer. Thesituation can't get better if thestudent refuses to do the work andfollow the plan. The helper mayhave to be willing at some pointto call a halt to talk sessions if thestudent isn't following through.They must let the student knowthat they will be available whenthe student is truly ready to worktoward making things better.

TRAINING STUDENT STAFFIN HELPING SKILLS

In setting up a program toteach basic helping skills tostudent staff members, there aresome important factors that mustbe taken into consideration.Carkoffs (1983) techniques forteaching skills in listening andreflection of feelings have beenwidely used in university settings.

The following are the goalsfor this training program:

A. The training must not tryto push too much into one sessionand overwhelm the student staffwith an excess of information.

B. The process must be easyto understand and make sense tothe student staff so they willcommit to learning and using it.

C. The training must followa logical sequence of presentationso staff can start a foundation andlater add information tocompletely understand and usethe helping process.

D. The training must be on­going and build upon the base of

7

8

infolDlation to increase skills andeffectiveness, and to providefeedback.

E. The training must bespecific so that student staff knowwhat to do, when to do it, what towork toward, where to go forhelp, and what outcomes toaccomplish.

The following areas must beoffered in training to help thestudent staff confidently andsuccessfully approach the helpingrole:Role Expectations

Student Staff must under­stand the helping role. As helpersin the residence ball setting, whatare Student Assistants expected todo when working one on one withstudents? What are their responsi­bilities, goals, and limitations?Iwl

The training must provide atool for the student staff membersto use while helping students. AsStudent Assistants increase theirskill level, The Ten Steps to UsingBasic Helping Skills will helpthem accomplish the goal ofteaching students the life skills ofproblem solving for their ownproblems and concerns.~

The training must incorporateteaching basic skills essential tothe helping role. Included skillsare attending behavior, listeningand reflecting feelings, andquestioning techniques.Practice

The more staff members getthe opportunity to practice withthe tool provided in training, themore confident and successful

they will be as helpers. Helping,like basketball dribbling, is a skill,and the more the individualspractice, the more successful theybecome at the skill.Infonnation

Student Assistants must beequipped with information aboutservices available and contactpeople. It is important that theyunderstand the referral proceduresfor helping resources such as theUniversity Counseling Center,and what their role would becomein crisis management situationswhere professionals are beingcalled in.Eyaluation ,

Follow-up opportunities mustbe available so that after workingin the helping role for a period oftime Student Assistants can meetwith the facilitator and other staffmembers to review, question,process, and evaluate theirpersonal approach to the helpingrole. This is a time to share ideas,talk about experiences andsituations, and get help.

Housing departments havetraditionally overlooked theirstrongest resources when attempt­ing to teach residents new ways todeal with the transitions to collegelife. They have hired some of theUniversity's outstanding studentleaders, but have backed awayfrom training and empoweringthose staff members to teach theskills of problem solving. It'stime to change from those doubtsof ability to action; train staff tobe listeners, and teachers ofproblem solving skills.

ReferencesCarkoff, R. (1983). The art of~ (5th Edition). Amherst:Human Resource DevelopmentPress, Inc.

Glasser, W. (1965). Reality therapy:A new awroach to psychiatry.New York: Harper & Row.

9

Burnout and ResidentAssistants

Jodi Berman

10

The undergraduate residentassistant (RA) position is one ofgreat value in any Department ofResidence Life. The RA servesmany roles, primarily serving asthe main link to the studentsliving on individual floors. Thestudents who fill these roles areasked to build community amongthe residents of the floor, maintainorder, provide interactive andeducational opportunities, andrespond to crises; among a myriadof other aspects which areincluded in the job description. Itis not uncommon for a contract toend with the responsibility of"other duties as assigned," after alengthy and exhaustive list hasalready been detailed. This createsa work environment such thatseveral students who occupy thesepositions are lost to burnout eachyear.

"Maslach (1978b) defmed'burnout' as 'the gradual loss ofcaring about the people withwhom one works,'" (Fuehrer andMcGonagle, 1988). There are

Jodi Berman ('93) is a Hall Directorat Western Washington University.

several theories which address thestages and aspects of burnout andhow it can take its toll on theseundergraduate resident assistants.Numerous studies have beenconducted which attempt tocorrelate burnout with various 'demographic, situational, andpersonality characteristics.

There are several compo­nents which contribute to howand whether one will experienceburnout, and it is of consequencethat residence life administratorsattempt to assist the staff inpreventing bumout from occur­ring. In order to do this effec­tively, it is of consequence todiscover what aspects of theorganization contribute to theexperience of burnout amongstaff members. Once identified,change can be made throughmore effective supervision andtraining.

In order to understand theburnout syndrome in residentassistants, it is imperative that areview of the many defmitions beexamined. According to Garden(1989), "[b]urnout is a conceptthat may be understood as a formof psychological distress arising

from overextension of the self thatmanifests as a severe loss ofenergy and a deterioration ofperformance" (p. 223). It is nowonder that these students have apredisposition for burnout since,

RAs are expected to explainand enforce policies, performadministrative tasks, imple­ment educational programs,establish a healthy commu­nity living environment,provide information, andassist students with personalproblems. They are facedwith a myriad of personalproblems presented byresidents including roommateconflicts, dating, isolation,academic problems, racialconflicts, birth control andabortion, sexual identity,alcohol abuse, rape andassault, death and suicide.(Heatherington & Kerr, 1988,p.26)Heatherington, Oliver, and

Phelps (1989, p. 266) contend thatburnout is a response to thechronic emotional stress ofcontinued work with other humanbeings. Maslach (1982) hasadded that"... the burnoutsyndrome appears to be a re­sponse to the chronic, everydaystress (rather than to occasionalcrises)... what changes over timeis one's tolerance for this con­tinual stress, a tolerance thatgradually wears away under thenever ending onslaught ofemotional tensions"(p. 11).

There are several models ofthe burnout syndrome (Maslach,1982; Golembiewski &

Munzenrider, 1988; Leiter, 1989).Ash (1990) adds his defmition inwhich there are three stages:

The 'Gung-Ho' stage [inwhich] the potential victimsregard their careers as all­important, and they areconfident that an all-outeffort will insure theirsuccess... they push them­selves too hard, and setunrealistic standards that aredifficult to meet. The 'Guilt'stage of burnout [in which]they blame themselves fortheir disappointment, feelthat, somehow, they havedone all the wrong things.To compensate, they pushthemselves even harder,growing more and more tiredin the process. [Finally, t]he'Chronic Fatigue andDisillusionment' [phase inwhich they feel that] 'nobodyout there will ever appreciatewhat I do'. (p. 2)There are several recommen­

dations for resident assistants,supervisors, and organizationswho hope to avoid the experienceof burnout Heatherington,Oliver, and Phelps (1989) say that"RAs will profit from a self-focusthat includes greater attention tofeelings and acceptance ofpersonal limits. Training, rolemodels, staff support, andknowledge about balancing ahealthy lifestyle can be the fuststeps in helping RAs decrease selfneglect and potential burnout" (p.269).

continued11

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RECOMMENDATIONS FORRESIDENT ASSISTANTS:

1. Recognize personal limits,and adbere to them."...[I]gnorance of your personallimits means you are likely toexceed them. The emotionaloverload that precipitates burnoutis more likely to occur if you donot know when it is time to stop,say no, or to make changes"(Maslach, 1982, p. 65).

2. Develop a strict wellnessprogram that meets your needs,and make sure to take time out foryourself. It is important thatresident assistants take time forthemselves both for mental andphysical rejuvination. Positivehealth habits, including exercise,hygiene, and good eating habitshelp to maintain a balancedattitude, and allows the RA tospend some time nurturing his!herself. '''The chance to get awayfrom it all can be particularlyhelpful for someone who isstruggling with the stress ofburnout" (Maslach, 1982, p. 125).

3. Develop and utilize socialsupport networks to help alleviatethe stress of their position. Socialsupport can come from supervi­sors, peers on staff, and friendsoutside of residence life. Supervi­sors can provide needed respite, ifnecessary, and fellow staffmembers can share similarexperiences. Friends outside ofthe ball and/or residence life willprovide the opportunity to discussissues that do not pertain at all tothe position, and this can be awelcome relief.

4. Discover new and exciting

ways to carry out the duties of theposition. Maslach (1982) statesthat, "(b)y choosing to do thingsin different ways and varying yourwork routine, you can get out ofthat rut and feel more in control ofyour job" (p. 90). It is easy to feelas though one knows the ins andouts of the position in a fewmonths, and this feeling createsthe opportunity to stop changingand growing. The greatest valueof the resident assistant position isthat its excitement comes from theconstant learning and growingchallenge given to the individualin the job.

RECOMMENDATIONS FORSUPERVISORS:

1. Build social supportamong staff members. Thecommtmity that is built among thestaff will often be left to theindividual hall directors. Gettingwork accomplished is importantduring staff training andthroughout the year, but it isimperative that accomplishmentsdo not override the necessity forstaff development.

2. Check with the staffmembers periodically to makesure that they feel a sense ofaccomplishment. Recognize allpositive achievements. It is keythat staff feel as though they areaccomplishing good things.Recognition from supervisors maybe crucial to a student's self­esteem which can increase thesense of personal accomplishmentin the position.

3. Continue to incorporatestress management and time

management discussionsthroughout the year during staffdevelopment activities. As thesemester progresses, it becomeseasier to assume that the staff ismaintaining a balanced andhealthy lifestyle. Continueddiscussion is imperative tohelping staff avoid burnout.

RECOMMENDATIONS FORDEPARTMENTS OFRESIDENCE LIFE:

1. Develop a comprehensivestaff training program thatincludes discussion aboutwellness and burnout. "Trainingtopics to assist RAs in copingskills may include stress manage­ment, knowing one's limits, groupmanagement and leadership,career development, and balan­cing the RA job with academicand personal life. A self-careapproach can be integrated intothe training sessions that focus ontaking care of other people andtasks" (Heatherington & Kerr,1988, p. 27). Other topics caninclude coping skills,assertiveness, mental and physicalrelaxation, and minimizing poorhealth habits.

2. Role model positivebehaviors throughout the systemfrom the Director of Housingdown to the hall directors andresident assistants. Very often,residence life professionals willpreach wellness and will worktwelve hour days. It is importantthat all members of theorganization are maintainingbalanced behaviors, and recogniz­ing personal limits. This is

especially important for peoplewho supervise RAs.

3. Continue to examine thedemands of the resident assistantposition, and make changes andadjustments, as necessary.Residence life administratorscontinue to change the demandsof the RA position, usually byadding more responsibilities.While this does provide anatmosphere in which students feelvalued and intrinsic to themission of the department, ittends to expand the job beyondthe limits of being reasonable. Asresponsibilities are added, it isimportant that others are lessenedor eliminated.

4. Question the motives ofstudents who would like to returnto their positions. Students whoare burned out need to have theorganization help them to makethe decision to leave the position.Very often, it is difficult to tell astudent who has done a good jobthat he/she is not welcome toreturn. However, students thatare quickly approaching theburnout syndrome must receiveguidance from the system so thatthey can truly consider whether ornot returning is in their bestinterests.

It is certainly not alwayspossible to prevent the experienceof burnout, even if every recom­mendation is followed. It is mostimportant that students and staffcontinue to discuss the issuesaround burnout, and remain ever­vigilant about its prevention. Theeffort must come from students,supervisors, and organizations as

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a group in ooJer for any preven­tion program to be effective.

Re(erepcesAsh, S. (1990, March). Burnout:

Causes and cures. MJDw. p. 2­3.

Fuerhrer, A. and McGonagle, K.(1988). Individual and situ­ational factors as predictors ofburnout among residentassistants. Journal of Colle&eStudent Develol1ment, 22, 244­249.

Garden, A. 1989). Bmnout: Theeffect of psychological type onresearch findings. Journal ofOgcuLAAonal Psycholo&y,~,223-234.

Golembiewski, R. and Munseorider,R. (1988). Phases of bumout:Developments in consca>ts andIPl1lications. New Yorlc: PraegerPublishers.

Heatherington, C. and Kerr, B.(1988). Co-dependencyandresident assistants. Journal ofCollen and University StudentllmWni, n(2), 25-28.

Heatherington, C., Phelps, C., andOliver, M.K. (1989). Residentassistants: Training to dermepersonal boundaries. Journal ofColle&e Student Development.12. 274-275.

Leiter, M. (1989). Conceptualimplications of two models ofburnout Groaw and or&anization studies, H(1), 15-22.

Maslach, C. (1982). Burnout: Thecost of carinI. New Jersey:Prentice Hall Inc.

Political Correctness: AStudent Development

PerspectiveRandy Chittum & Kristen Uden

Political correctness was fustused by the Marxists as a term ofself-criticism mindlessly adheringto the party line (Forney, 1993).The term was used as satire in the1980s as a way to describe a"mindless adherence" to a newliberal set of beliefs such aswomen's rights, afftrmativeaction, and diversity. Morerecently, conservatives have usedthe term to ridicule any ideaswhich they oppose. This histori­cal confusion has left manyuncertain as to whether the term"political correctness" is acompliment or an insult.

A 1990 Newsweek (Adler,Starr, Chideya, Wright, & Haac)article reported on a student at theUniversity of Connecticut whowas banned from campus univer­sity residence halls and cafeteriasafter charges of violating thestudent behavior code. Thisstudent put a sign on her roomdoor naming a list of people thatwould be 'shot on sight' - in-

Randy Chittum is the Assistant to theDirector ofResidence Life. KristenUden ('94) is the Assistant to theDirector ofthe SAHE program

cluded were 'preppies,' 'bimbos,''men without chest hair,' and'homos.' Formal charges werebrought against the student afteran outraged gay, lesbian, bisexualcommunity protested. Conform­ing to higher standards of theFirst Amendment, the universitywas forced to let her return to theresidence halls.

At Colorado State Univer­sity, evidence of similar phenom­ena is not hard to find. ~ColleKian, Colorado State'sschool newspaper, has beeninundated with recent editoriaIsregarding politically correcttopics including gay, lesbian,bisexual rights, animal rights, andthe celebration of Columbus Day.The power of political correctnesson this campus is apparentthrough the prevailing campusculture which socializes studentsto the campus community. Thepolitically correct "answers" areobvious to most members of thiscommunity.

Forney (1993) posits thefollowing definition for politicalcorrectness as suggested byMackenzie (1991):

Political Correctness is apejorative term for a pattern

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of behaviors in whichdiscourse, argument, andgood sense are stifled by animposed conformity thatplaces maximum values ongiving no offense to such'marginalized' groups aswomen, people of color, gaysand lesbians, Jews, Muslims,and the poor. (p. 5)

Any societal consideration ofpolitical correctness necessarilyrequires a value based response.Seldom are people's opinionsevaluated on the merit of the ideaswhich support them, but areinstead evaluated in light ofpolitically correct dogmaHowever, the premise of thisarticle is that a developmentalunderstanding of studentsprovides a more value free arenain which to contemplate politicalcorrectness. The developmentalapproach suggests that studentsmove from a blind acceptance ofpolitically correct values to aplace where they are trulycommitted to their own set ofvalues.

The remainder of this articlewill detail three developmentalapproaches to understandingpolitical correctness: cognitive,moral, and psychosocial. Thefinal section will invite the readerto consider various implicationsfor student affairs practice.

A COGNITIVE DEVELOP­MENT APPROACH TOUNDERSTANDING POLITI­CAL CORRECTNESS

Perry's (1970) theory ofcognitive student development

will be used as the primary toolfor considering the cognitiveapproach to understandingpolitical correctness. Perry offersfour primary stages of cognitivegrowth. A traditional age collegelearner will likely begin theircollege experience reasoning at adualistic level. Dualism is simplydermed as a preoccupation withthe right facts and the rightinfolUlation. All knowledge isknown and the job of the learneris to learn as much as possible.The next stage, multiplicity, ischaracterized by a broadeningworld in which alternatives canbe considered. In this stage alearner still believes all knowl­edge is knowable, but now theprocess for learning the rightanswers is all important. Theperson reasoning multiplisticallybelieves that if there are alternateideas and knowledge, then allideas must be valid. In the thirdstage of contextual relativism, thelearner accepts the fact that allideas are not valid and can bejudged using rules of adequacysuch as support and logic.Finally, the fourth stage ofcommitted relativism requires thelearner to not only judge ideas,but also begin to choose amongthem. The themes that tie thesechoices together then become oursense of self.

Relating political correctnessto Perry is probably most easilydemonstrated by using theextreme stages of dualism andcommitted relativism. In thecontext of dualism, politicalcorrectness is seen as the right

way to be. A student in this stagelooks to good authority figures forthe right answers. The studentthen mimics what has beenmodeled by these authorityfigures. For example, if a teachertalks about the equality of allpeople the student then takes thisopinion on as his or her own. Thereasoning behind this belief is notconsidered by the student. Thefact that the teacher believes thisis all that is needed.

Political correctness consid­ered in terms of someone in thecommitted relativism stage isquite different. A person in thisstage is not just politically correctbecause they think it is the "right"thing to do, they have exploredand chosen from alternatives.These choices are founded onwhat Perry describes as a person'ssense of self. This suggests that aperson committed in relativismhas certain beliefs because theyare a part of that person's sense ofself instead of an externallyconstructed reality.

A MORAL DEVELOPMENTAPPROACH TO UNDER·STANDING POLITICALCORRECTNESS

Kohlberg's (1972) theory ofmoral development is commonlyused as a way to understandethical and moral decisionmaking. It is also a useful contextin which to consider politicalcorrectness. A very brief descrip­tion of Kohlberg's theory in laytenns is offered below:

• fear of punishment - aperson makes a choice based on

fear of consequences or punish­ment

• instrumental- I'll scratchyour back if you'll scratch mine

• peer group - the person'speer group defmes morality

• law and order - law is theguide for moral decision making

• social contract - each of ushas certain obligations as mem­bers of society

• principled reasoning ­certain moral principles areconsidered higher than anythingelse

A person in fear of thepunishment stage might bepolitically correct in order toavoid "punishment" in tenns ofdisapproval from friends, peers,and lor family. The "I'll scratchyour back if you'll scratch mine"stage may be played out bysomeone who thinks that beingpolitically correct pleases some­one he or she knows and thereforeimplies reciprocity. In Kohlberg'snext stage, a person's values aredefmed by the standards of her orhis peer group and therefore maybe considered politically correctbecause values are provided bythe peer group. In the fourthstage, law, or maintaining thesocial nonn, is the guide to aperson's set of values. Similar inprocess to the peer group stage, atthis stage values are dictated byan external source and may bethought of as politically correctAffumative Action, for example,has become a social norm that aperson may choose to upholdregardless of his or her personalviews. A person proceeding

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through the social contract stagehas become more personallycommitted to an internallyconstructed set of values as theyrelate to societal obligations. Thefinal stage of principled reasoningsuggests a set of values that arealso internally constructed but nolonger related to social contracts.Therefore, the fmal two levels ofcommibnent imply that a personis no longer just politicallycorrect

Carol Gilligan (1982)approached morality less from thejustice perspective offered byKohlberg and more from a careand relationship orientation. It isthis philosophical orientation,which is attributed in greaternumbers to women, which hasbeen her major contribution tounderstanding moral develop­ment. She suggests that people gothrough three orientations inmoral decision making. A personmay reason at a selfish orientationand be primarily concerned withbow a particular decision willaffect themselves. She believesthe next orientation is one of selfsacrifice where the decisionmaker does not consider his/herown needs. Finally, some balancebetween these is found when careis thought of as a universalobligation. From this perspective,self and others are equal contribu­tors in the decision makingprocess.

A gay, lesbian, or bisexualperson might be politically correctfor selfish reasons if she or he isreasoning from the flfSt level ofGilligan's theory. As shown in

Kohlberg's fourth stage, someoneat Gilligan's second level mightsupport and encourage MflfDla­tive Action policies regardless ofwhat that might mean to theirown chances of employmentThe "care and universal obliga­tion" orientation is marked by anemphasis on relationships.Unlike a person with the previousperspective, support for AtrlfDla­tive Action would not be thoughtof as a sacrifice, but rather as aresponsibility to historicallyoppressed groups.

A PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVEL­OPMENT APPROACH TOUNDERSTANDING POLITI­CAL CORRECTNESS

Chickering postulated thefollowing developmental tasks,which he called vectors. They arecalled vectors because "eachseems to have a direction and amagnitude - even though thedirection may be expressed moreappropriately by a spiral or bysteps than by a straight line"(1969, p. 8). Developmentthrough the vectors was seen as aprocess of differentiation andintegration. This concept is inlarge part what makes the theorya psychosocial one. Chickeringwrote that development in thevectors was a process of encoun­tering more complexity thateventually will not fit into one'scurrent frame of reference. Thisrequired the person to grow anddevelop a new frame in order tointegrate new infolUlation,feedback, and feelings. The roleof the environment in providing

stimuli for differentiation wascritical. Following is a briefdescription of Chickering's sevenvectors.

Achieving Competenceinvolves "a three tine pitchfork"(p. 8). The three areas of focusare on achieving intellectualcompeteoce, physical and manualskills, and social and interpersonalcompeteoce. A traditional agestudent, new to the collegiateenvironment, must resolve thecompeteoce task early in order tobe successful.

Managing Emotions involvesfrrst learning about feelings andthen learning to trust them. As aperson experiences this develop­mental area, she or he willleam touse feelings as a viable compo­nent of behavior and decisionmaking. This area is in agreementwith Erikson's (1968) writingabout the hormonal changes andsubsequent feelings that accom­pany adolescence.

Becoming Autonomousrequires some work in theprevious two areas as it necessi­tates both instrumental andemotional independence. Theautonomous person also recog­nizes their interdependencies andis able to work without constantreassurance from others.

Establishing Identity is thehub around which the othervectors revolve. There must besome resolution of the frrst threedevelopmental tasks in order toestablish identity. Chickeringwrote that an establishment ofidentity involved a sense of innerconsistency and a strong sense of

self. Some sense of identity mustbe established in order for thefinal three vectors to receiveappropriate attention.

Freeing InterpersonalRelationships involves bothdeveloping a tolerance for a widerange of people as well asunderstanding how trust andinterdependence can make onewarmer, friendlier, and morerespectful. These types ofrelationships are called freeingbecause they supposedly bringless anxiety and inappropriateneeds to the relationship.

Clarifying Purpose involvesmaking plans and commitmentsabout occupation, avocations, andinterests.

Developing Integrityprimarily involves the humaniz­ing of values, personalizing ofvalues and then making one'svalues and behaviors congruent.Integrity carries a sense ofinternal consistency about whatone believes.

It is more likely that a personwho has developed a sense of hisor her own identity, a sense oftolerance and interdependence inrelationships with others, and asense of purpose will be commit­ted to the values often associatedwith political correctness. Inaddition, the development ofintegrity, along with the congru­ence between values and behav­iors, will allow the person toclearly demonstrate thoseassociated values. Unfortunately,the development of a sense ofidentity is contingent upon thesuccessful resolution of earlier

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vectors such as competence,autonomy, and managing emo­tions. We must realize that thisdevelopment through the fmtthree vectors will take time.

SUMMARY AND CONCLU­SIONS

Political correctness iscurrently thought of as a socialand political phenomenon. Thisoften leaves people confusedabout a person's real values asopposed to the regurgitation ofaccepted dogma. This article hasintroduced a new paradigm whichsuggests that political correctnesscan be considered from a develop­mental perspective. This articleuses three families of develop­mental theories to demonstrate thedevelopmental nature of politicalcorrectness versus committedvalues. What does this mean forthe Student Affairs practitioner?

Perhaps the most importantimplication is that the StudentAffairs practitioner is looked to asan important authority figure bystudents. They will accept ourdogma if we allow them to do so.It is crucial that the StudentAffairs Professional understandthis phenomenon. In order forstudents to eventually developtheir own sense of values, theymust be encouraged to debate andexplore alternatives. This will nothappen in an environment wherethe focus is providing studentswith the "right answers." Admin­istrators and programmers have aspecial obligation to createenvironments that support the freeexchange of different points of

view.A second important question

is about being a value freeorganization. The authors do notsuggest that the environmentdescribed above does not allowroom for institutional values.Instead, those values may well bethe source of dissonance anddifferentiation for students whichleads to growth and development.It is crucial, however, thatstudents be encouraged todevelop their own set of commit­ments.

Finally, the Student Affairsprofession is built around thenotion of the development of thewhole student Student Affairsadministrators inherently valueprocess over content in efforts tosupport and challenge students.The value of those efforts are bestevaluated in terms of develop­mental change, not how manystudents accept a preconceivedway of seeing the world.

In closing, this article doesnot intend to suggest that StudentAffairs professionals should notbe value based in their practice.However, creating PoliticallyCorrect students who are notnecessarily committed to thosevalues associated with politicalcorrectness is a small accomplish­ment when compared to develop­ing students who are committedto those values which we holddear.

ReferencesAdler, J., Starr, M., Chideya, F.,

Wright, L., & Haac, L. (1990,December). Taking offense: Is

this the new enlightenment ornew M<.£arthyism?Newsweek. pp. 48-54.

Chickering, A. (1969). Education and~. San Francisco: Jossey­Bass Publishers, Inc.

Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity youthand crisis. New York: W. W.Norton & Company, Inc.

Forney, D. (1993, March). Politicalcorrectness: Background,opinion and implications forstudent affairs professionals.American Colle&e PersonnelAssociation Annual Convention.Kansas City, MO.

Gilligan, C. (1982). In a differentvoice: Psycbolo&ical theory andwomen's development. Cam­bridge, MA: Harvard UniversityPress.

Kohlberg, L. (1972). A cognitivedevelopmental approach to moraleducation. Humanist. Q, 13-16.

Mackenzie, G. C. (1991, September4). Fallacies of politicalcorrectness. Chronicle of Hi&herEducation. pp. B I-B2.

Perry, W. G. Jr. (1970). Forms ofintellectual and ethical develop­ment in the collUe years. NewYork: Holt, Rinehart andWinston.

21

A Study of the Effects of aMentoring Program on

Mjnority Students'Perceptions and Retention

Rosanna Duester

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This research study investigatesthe correlation ofminoritystudents' participation in astudent1aculty/staffmentoringprogram with (a) the students'perceptions oftheir satisfactionwith their collegiate experiences,(b) their perceptions oftheirpersonal growth and develop­ment, and (c) their retention asmeasured by perceptions oftheirmentors' influences on decisionsto continue their college educa­tion and their academic perfor­mances, and by their cumulativeGPAs. Specifically, the studysurveyed all minority studentswho were participating inColorado State University'sCenterfor Educational Accessand Outreach Mentoring Programduring Fall Semester 1992. Out ofthe 68 minority students partici­pating in the program, 59 studentsreturned the survey in usableform.

The studyfindings indicatedthat overall the students partici­pating in the mentoring programwere "generally satisfied" with

Rosanna DueSler received her Ph.D.in Occupational Therapy fromColorado State University in 1993.

their collegiate experiences. Yetthe correlational analysisbetween "quantity ofmentoring"and "overall satisfaction withcollegiate experience" was foundto be not significant. The findingin relationship to "quantity ofmentoring" and the students'overall "perceived personalgrowth and development" alsowas found to be nonsignificant.The variable examining the"quantity ofstudent-mentorexperience" with "the influenceofthe students' decision tocontinue the college education"was found to be significant.Therefore, the quantity ofmentoring was fOund to bepositively related to influencingthe students' decisions to remainin school and their academicperformances. However, the thirdaspect ofthis question onretention, 14quantity ofmentoring" and the students''4cumulative GPAs, " was foundnot to be significant.

INTRODUCTIONDramatic demographic

changes are occurring in theUnited States today. One such

change is the significant increasein the minority population ascompared to whites. Presentlythere are approximately 29.9million African-Americans, 22.3million Hispanics, 7.3 millionAsian-Americans, and 1.9 millionNative Americans in the UnitedStates (U.S. Census Bureau,1992). By the year 2000, one-thirdof the nation's population will benonwhites, and by the year 2056,there will be an estimated 115million people of ethnic origin(Henry, 1990). This growth ofminority population suggestsmajor changes in our nation'seducational future.

To understand better howminority population growth willaffect our education system, it isimportant to examine the presentstatus of our public educationalsystem. Presently, 18 states haveminority public school enrollmentabove 25 percent, and seven statesare above 35 percent. By the year2000, 42 percent of all publicschool students in the UnitedStates will be from minoritypopulace (American Council onEducation and Education Com­mission of the States, 1988).Research has indicated that oureducation system is failing toeducate its minority population(Christoffel, 1986; Finn, 1989;Jaschik, 1988). The literaturedocuments a substantial loss ofminority student enrollmentoccurring at each educationallevel (Roueche, Baker &Roueche, 1987). There is a higherpercentage of African-American,Hispanics, and Native American

youth who discontinue theirformal education earlier than dotheir white counterparts (Carter &Wilson, 1991). An even lowerproportion of them continue theirformal education beyond thesecondary school level.

Throughout the literature,there is a constant theme ofdisparity in regard to minoritystudent education or lack of itwithin the United States. Ethnicminority students are not beingretained in the educational systemat an equitable rate as comparedto the non-minority students(Astin, 1982). The AmericanCouncil of Education and Educa­tion Commission of the States(1988) urges colleges andWliversities to improve theprosperity for minority studentsand address the core problem offinding ways to motivate andprovide more incentives forminority students to participate inpost secondary education. Thechallenge is to fmd new and betterways to motivate' and inspireyoung minority students tocontinue their education at thepost secondary and graduatelevel. One such way to motivateand inspire minority students tocontinue their education isthrough mentorship. Since thechallenge is to inspire youngminority students to continue theireducation and mentorship isknown as a means of helpingyoung inexperienced individualsadvance into the adult world,mentorship is one vehicle whichshould be examined to determinewhether such an alliance between

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faculty and minority students canplay a role in influencing the latterto stay in college.

Student-Faculty RelationshipThe philosophy is that a

close, informal student-facultyinteraction outside the classroombas been both theoretically andempirically justified when linkedwith minority student retention.Sedlacek (1983) reports that theoverall single, most importantthing for graduating seniors wasnot what they learned, but thespecial relationships they devel­oped with particular facultymembers. Pascarella andTerenzini (1980) report thatstudents' infoonal interactionswith faculty members are posi­tively related not only to theiracademic performances but alsoto other personal and educationalbenefits. The authors furtherconclude that the students'perceptions of the informalstudent-faculty interactionprincipally impact their educa­tional aspirations and careerdecisions. The authors found thatin addition to achieving greateracademic and personal develop­ment, students also reported agreater satisfaction with theircollege experiences.

Pascarella and Terenzini(1980) f01md evidence that theinformal student-faculty interac­tion or "mentor relationship" isbeneficial as early as the freshmanyear. The "critical timing" factoris supported by another researcherwho not only believes it isimportant to the outcome of the

relationship between students andfaculty but also identified "tim­ing" as a factor related to studentattrition or retention (Noel,Levitz, Saluri, et al., 1986). Thestudy also discovered that thegreatest percentage of attritionoccurs between the freshman andsophomore year. The "criticaltime" period was identified asbeing the flfSt few weeks in thefreshman semester for establish­ing one-on-one contact betweenthe students and their facultyadvisors. Regardless of when thestudent-faculty mentor relation­ship begins, there are consistentfindings (Astin, 1977; Pascarella& Terenzini, 1980) that demon­strate a significant relationshipbetween faculty-studentmentorship, informal interaction,and a positive measure of astudent's intellectual and personaldevelopment. Noel et al. (1986)believe this type of relationshipcontributes to the students'academic success as well asenhances their learning anddevelopment, and can be affectedby the quality of the relationshipbetween student and faculty. Inaddition, Sedlacek (1983) andNettles and Johnson (1987)believe that a student-facultymentor relationship is an impor­tant factor in minority studentretention.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDYThe purpose of this investiga­

tion was to study the correlationbetween students' extent ofparticipation in mentoringrelationships and their perceptions

of their collegiate experiences,personal growth and development,and decisions to continue theircollege education. This investiga­tion sought to examine thefollowing three major researchquestions:

1. To determine the correla­tion between participation in astudent-faculty mentor experienceand the minority students'perceived satisfactions with theircollegiate experiences. 2. Todetermine the correlation betweenParticipation in a student-facultymentor experience and thestudents' perceived progress intheir personal growth and devel­opment. 3. To determine thecorrelation between participationin a student-faculty mentorexperience and minority studentretention as measured by (a)students' perceptions of theinfluence of their mentors on theirdecisions to continue their collegeeducation, (b) perceptions ofinfluence of mentors on theiracademic perfOlmances, and (c)their cumulative GPAs.

METHOD

SubjectsThe theoretical population

chosen in this study consisted ofall undergraduate minoritystudents (Hispanics, African­Americans, Asian-Americans!Pacific Islanders, and NativeAmericans) at Colorado StateUniversity. The accessiblepopulation was those minoritystudents who had been involved

with the Center for EducationalAccess and Outreach MentoringProgram during Fall Semester1992. This entire population wasinvited to complete the surveyand, thus, constitutes the samplepopulation. No internationalstudents were used in this study.The Center for EducationalAccess and Outreach is a divisionof the University Student MfairsProgram. The various servicesoffered through the program aredesigned to help minoritystudents adjust to Colorado StateUniversjty. One of the programsoffered through the Center forEducational Access and Outreachis the University MentoringProgram called "Partnership forSuccess." This mentoringprogram pairs minority studentswith faculty and/or staff mentors.

PROCEDUREA questionnaire (coded for

identification of the respondents)and letter of transmittal explain­ing the purpose and potentialvalue of the study were mailed toeach student participating in theMinority Mentoring Program.The questionnaires were mailed atthe beginning of the 1993 Springsemester. A reminder letter wassent two weeks later to everyonewho had been sent a question­naire, either thanking them fortheir responses or reminding themto return their questionnaires. Tothose students who did notrespond within the following twoweeks, a phone follow-up wasconducted using the samequestionnaire as originally sent.

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DESIGNAn ex post facto design was

used to obtain data for answeringthe posed research questions. Thisstudy was a correlational stUdy toexamine the relationship betweenminority student participation in astudent-faculty mentor experienceand (a) their perceived satisfac­tions with their college experi­ences, (b) perceiVed progress intheir personal growth and devel­opment, and (c) college retention.Since no one particular instrumentwas found that could collect thedata for this study, an instrumentwas developed using a e<mbina­tion of otheJ' instruments. Faceand content validity was estab­lished using a panel of six expertsin the freld of hmnan develop­ment, minority student issues,instrument construction, andstatistics. The Cronbach alphaanalysis was used to determineinternal consistency reliability ofthe instrument scales. The internalconsistency reliability of theCollege Satisfaction section had ahigh alpha of .90, and the Per­sonal Growth and Developmentsection had a high alpha of .94.

RESULTS

Findinas ReJatrll to the ResearchQueStion One

Pearson product-momentcorrelations were done to deter­mine the relationship betweenquantity of mentoring and eachindividual satisfaction with acollegiate experience question.The data analysis shows a .30correlation between quantity of

mentoring and satisfaction withdiversity of minority faculty/staffmembers at a .05 significancelevel (two-tailed test) (S6). Thisimplies that students who spentmore time with their mentors feltmore satisfied with the ethnicdiversity of CSU faculty andstaff. No other questions werefound to be significantly corre­lated with the quantity ofmentoring. Pearson product­moment correlations werecomputed for the overal1 studentsatisfaction with their collegiateexperiences. The correlationbetween the independent variable(Quantity of Mentoring) and thedependent variable (OverallCollegiate Satisfaction) is .11(p<.05). This correlation wasfound to be not significant(p<.05). Therefore, the results ofthese findings indicate that theextent of the student-mentorrelationship is not significantlyrelated to how satisfied studentsare with their overal1 collegiateexperiences.

Findinas Related to ResearchQuestion Two

The Pearson product-momentdata analysis was computed foreach of the individual questionsin this section. The fmdingsdemonstrated that there was nosignificant correlation betweenthe quantity of mentoring andeach individual question about thestudents' perceived personalgrowth and development at eitherthe .05 or .01 significance level.Therefore, it would seem togeneralize that the students'

perceived personal growth anddevelopment was not related toand does not seem to be affectedby the amount of time spent withtheir mentors. The PearsonprOOuct-moment data analysis wasused to correlate the independentvariable (Quantity of Mentoring)with the dependent variable(Overall Personal Growth andDevelopment). The results ofthese findings at .10 (p>.05)indicate that there was no signifi­cant relationship between the twovariables.

Fmdinis Related 10 ResearchQuestion I1u:=

The quantity of mentoringhad a positive significant correla­tion with influencing the students'decisions to continue their collegeeducation, and the students'academic petformances at .51 and.56, respectively (.01 significancelevel). Thus, the more studentsmet with their mentors, the morethey said that their mentors hadpositive impacts on their decisionsto continue with their collegeeducation and the more influencethey felt their mentors had ontheir academic performances. Thefrequency of student-mentorinteractions and cumulative GPAshas correlation of .17, whichimplies there was not a significantrelationship between these twovariables.

DISCUSSION

Mentorini Experience withStudents' Satisfaction with theirColleiiate Experience

The fmdings correlating theindependent variable of quantityof mentoring and each of the 24satisfactory questions showedonly one factor to be significantlycorrelated. The only question thatwas significant was the dependentvariable related to diversity of thefaculty. What this seems to implyis that the students who spendmore time with their mentorswere more satisfied with thediversity of CSU's minorityfaculty-staff members perhapsbecause meeting frequently withtheir mentors exposed them tomore minority faculty and staff.None of the other 23 dependentvariables was found to besignificant Therefore, overall, itwould seem reasonable toconclude that the amount of timestudents spent with their mentorsreally had no impact on theirperceptions of their collegesatisfactions.

Mentorini Experience withStudents' Personal Growth andDeyelopment

The research fmdings on thecorrelational analysis between thetwo variables, "quantity ofmentoring" and the questions of"personal growth and develop­ment," showed no significantcorrelation with any of the 17items. Therefore, it would seemreasonable to conclude that theamount of time students spentwith their mentors bad noinfluence on the students'perceived personal growth anddevelopment.

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Mentorina Exgerience andStudent Retention as it Relates toThree Dependent Variables

The fJrSt relationship exam­ined in this section is between thequantity of the student mentorexperience and students' per­ceived influence of the mentors ontheir decisions to continue theircollege education. This dataanalysis demonstrated a signifi­cant positive correlation betweenthe two variables at r =.51(p<.OI). Thus, it seems that themore the students met with theirmentOrs, the more they felt theywere positively influenced tocontinue their college education.It only seems to make sense thatthe mentors would want theirstudents to continue their educa­tion and provi~ positive attitudesin regard to furthering theireducation. Another strong area ofpossible influence in a positivedirection to continue theireducation is the fact that they seetheir mentors as positive rolemodels who are educated,successful, and yet genuinelycaring about them as individuals.This point relates back toSedlacek's (1983) fmdings thatminority students are betterretained if they can develop asense of belonging and the senseof feeling cared about as individu­als by a significant person at theuniversity. This helps the studentsstay in school. This particularpoint seems to be supported bythis research since 72 percent ofthe surveyed students reportedthat the quality they valued mostabout their mentors, which added

to their relationships, was theattribute of "caring."

The second relationshipexamined in this section is theone between the quantity ofstudent-mentor relationship andits perceived influence on thestudents' academic performances.There was a correlation of .56(p<.OI ) between these twovariables. Therefore, it wouldseem that s~dents who met withtheir mentors more frequently arepositively influenced not only tocontinue their college education,but also to perform betteracademically. It would only standto reason that the more timestudents spend with their mentors,the more assistance they will getin whatever areas they needsuppott whether it be academicor boosting their sense of self­esteem and self-worth by receiv­ing positive feedback andemotional support According toSedlacek (1983), it is importantfor the students to have emotionalsupport through student-facultyrelationships in minority reten­tion. If the mentors instill the ideain the students that they arecapable individuals who canhandle the academic workstresses placed upon them, theresearcher believes they willdevelop higher levels of self­esteem and then become betterable to handle the situations. Thispoint again was supported bySedlacek's (1983) fmdings,whereby he believes that anincrease in minority students'self-esteems is a key to studentsperforming better; therefore, it is

indirectly related to retention. Thethird area of study was toexamine the independent variableof quantity of student mentorrelationship and the dependentvariable of student retention asdetermined by students' cumula­tive GPAs. This correlationshowed no significance, therebyconcluding that the more timestudents spend with their mentorshad no bearing on the students'cumulative GPAs in either apositive or negative manner. Itwould be expected that thestudents who spend more timewith their mentors and felt thatthe mentors have positiveinfluences on their academicperformances also would have asignificant correlation with GPAs.However, the majority of thestudents were freshmen, and mostonly had mentors for one or twosemesters. Thus it would seemuplikely that within that shortperiod of time the mentors couldhave made significant influenceson the students' actual cumulativeGPAs.

RECOMMENDATIONSBased on the findings of this

study, the following suggestionsare made for further research inthis area of student-facultymentor experience in the aca­demic setting.

F1rs~ further studies shouldbe done at this institution encom­passing other mentoring programsinvolving other departments thatinvolve ethnic minority studentsin mentoring programs. Anexpansion of this study on a large

scale which would generate alarger sample size may lead thefindings to be more accurate andpossibly demonstrate areas ofsignificance that this study misseddue to a relatively small samplesize.

Secondly, future studies ofthis type should assess student­faculty mentor relationships invarious universities around thecountry which may have a moreheterogeneous representation ofminority students. Colorado StateUniversity has a small representa­tion of minority students, wherebythey may not truly represent thenational minority student popu­lace. With several universitiesacross the country participating inan affl1iated study, the fmdingsthen could be cross-compared todetermine whether various factorswere significant. Thirdly, acontrol group following mentoredand unmentored minority studentswould provide valuable informa­tion which may uncover specificoutcome effects of collegesatisfaction, personal growth anddevelopmen~ and retention.

Lastly, a longitudinal studyfollowing students from theirfreshman to senior years may beuseful in investigating othervariables not examined in thisstudy such as student and facultypersonality characteristics, familyhistory, or other predisposedfactors or needs that may enhancea student's willingness to engagein the mentoring relationship. Alongitudinal study would allowthe researcher to track studentretention and dropout rates and

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30

possibly identify specific factorsthat lead students to drop outPreventive measures could thenbe taken that may be associatedwith the mentoring program.

ReferenmAmerican Council on Education and

Education Commission of theStates. (1988). One third of aIlIli2D.:. Commission on MinorityParticipation in Education andAmerican Life. Washington, DC.

Astin, A. W. (1977). Preventinestudents from dro.m>ine out. SanFrancisco: Jossey-Bass.

Astin, A. W. (1982). Minorities inAmerican hieber education. SanFrancisco: Jossey-Bass.

Carter, D. 1., & Wilson, R. (1991).Minorities in Hieher Education:Ninth Annual Status Report.Washington, DC: AmericanCouncil on Education.

Christoffel, P. (1986, October).Minority student access andretention: A review. Researchand Develo.pment Update. 1-9.

Finn, J. D. (1989). Withdrawing fromschool. Review of EducationalResearch, 59(2), 117-142.

Henry, W. A. (1990). Beyond themelting pot.~, 27-31.

Jaschik, S. (1988). The years ahead:College outlook grim for blacks25 years after barriers fell.~Chronicle of Hieher Education,34, A88-A9<)'

Nettles, M. T., & Johnson, J. R.(1987). Race, sex, and otherfactors as determinants ofcollege students' socialization.Journal of Colleee StudentPersonnel, 28,512-524.

Noel, L., Levitz, R., Saluri, D., et al.(1986). Inqeasine studentretention. San Francisco, CA:Jossey-Bass.

Pascarella, E. T., & Terenzini, P. T.

(1980). Predicting freshmanpersistence and voluntary drop­out from theoretical model.Journal of Hieher Education 51,61-73.

Roueche,1. E., Baker, G. A., &Roueche, S. E. (1987). Opendoor or revolving door?Community. Technical. andJunior Colleee Journal, 57(5),22-26.

Sedlacek, W. E. (1983). Teachineminority students. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

U.S. Census Bureau. (1992). Statisti­cal Abstract: April 1,1990.Washington, DC: U.S. Govern­ment Printing Office, 112, p. 17.

The Minority IdentityDevelopment Model

and Hispanic Students onCampusJeremy M. Eaves

The Minority Identity Develop­ment Model (MIDA) is one ofthefew models applicable to studentdevelopment theory whichaddresses the development ofstudents ofcolor. Although themodel faces several criticisms, itis one ofthe most effective andfrequently cited models to explainminority identity development.This journal anicle explores thedevelopment model and integratesfactors SPecific to HispanicexPeriences in the United Stateswhich contribute to the strugglesofdepreciation. This depreciationincludes altitudes that focus onthe externaVinternaI locus ofcontrol, as well as attitudestoward self, others ofthe sameminority group, other minoritygroups and the dominant culture.The Hispanic population isidentified because ofthe implica­tions this minority group has onhigher education in the nearfuture with the populationincreasing almost exponentially

Jeremy Eaves ('95) is currently theHall Director ofEllis Hall atColorado State University.

each year. These factors are usedto build afoundation for universi­ties to integrate multiculturalsuppon effons that can accom­modate the emerging Hispanicpopulation on campus. Sugges­tions also are offered to giveinstitutions ofhigher educationan opponunity to becomerecognized as systems supportingHispanic student success,retention and graduation rates.

Significant racial tension,emphasis on hierarchy overcultural contrast, antagonisticviews of the tmderclass, andviolence toward ethnic groupshave long plagued the Americansystem (Pedersen, 1988). Institu­tions of higher education acrossthe country have fallen victim tothese views influenced by aWestern cultural bias andindirectly send negative messagesto students of color pursuing post­secondary educations.

Rapid growth in the minoritypopulation suggests that Ameri­can colleges and universitiesshould consider revising the

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institutional focus to accommo­date this emerging population.Estimates suggest that in the next20 years, one-third of the entireUnited States population will beclassified as minorities (Jones,1990). This population growthalready has impacted colleges andmliversities. In the last ten years,minority student enrollmentincreased almost 15 percent whilewhite student enrollment in­creased only 5 percent (Shang &Moore, 1990).

Although Hispanics rankamong the lowest in terms of highschool completion, collegeentrance, and graduate andprofessional education degrees(Kitano, 1991), new patterns forcollege-bound Hispanics areemerging. The Hispanic Associa­tion of Colleges and Universitiesnoted that during a two yearperiod, Hispanic enrollment ininstitutions of higher educationincreased 11.5 percent, whileAnglo enrollment increased only3.8 percent. Approximately 120colleges and universities currentlyhave an Hispanic enrollment of atleast 25 percent and Hispanicenrollment at community collegesand large urban universities issteadily increasing (Puente &Diaz, 1992).

Interest in Hispanic groupsaccelerated in the 1960s becauseof ethnic awareness and self­enhancement interests within theculture (Newton, Olmedo, andPadilla, 1982). However, as oftoday, very little cultural orhistorical literature exists on theHispanic group as a whole (Jones,

1990). It is important for collegesand universities to start collectinginformation on this culturebecause statistics show that theHispanic population will doubleits size in the next few decades(Barry, 1991) making the His­panic population the fastestgrowing population in the UnitedStates (Jones, 1990).

Most institutions currentlyoperate under traditional theoriesof individual development that donot place emphasis on culturalidentity. Very few modelsconcentrate on cultural, racial andethnic identity, but the MinorityIdentity Development Model(MIDA) is the most widely citedof existing models (Jones, 1990).

It is difficult to assess thedegree of acculturation andassimilation on ethnic and culturalexperience since each minorityhas different cultural experiences(Shang & Moore, 1990). Anotherimportant component in under­standing the application of MIDAis that different minority groupshave different experiences whichseparate their development fromother ethnic groups (Pedersen,1988). Individuals do notprogress through the stages of themodel according to age, so it isvery possible that students ofcolor may enroll in colleges anduniversities at different stages ofthe development process.

The conformity stage is thefirst stage of the Minority IdentityDevelopment Model and ischaracterized by a preference fordominant culture values ratherthan those of their own culture.

Individuals in this stage have aself-depreciating view of theirculture and low self-esteem. Theym~mydi~IDryawwoos

toward others of different minor­ity status and view anything otherthan the dominant culture asunimportant and secondary(peOOrsen, 1988).

The second stage of theioontity model is represented bydissonance and the individualmsplays confusion and conflicttoward both the dominant andminority culwre. The minorityperson struggles with manyconflicts surrounding self­perception, and attitudes towardsothers of the same and differentcultures are varied. In addition,the individual finds conflict withthe dominant culture in attitudes,beliefs and values (Pedersen,1988).

Resistance and immersioninto one's own minority culturecharacterizes the third stage ofMIDA. During this stage, theminority person submerges intohis or her own culture anddevelops a negative attiwootoward the dominant group. Theindividual actively accepts his orher own cultural traditions andcustoms in response to thealleviation of the dominant culturefrom their lifestyle. There is stillsome conflict evident in theattiwde toward others from amfferent minority group. Feelingsof empathy for other minorityexperiences in combination withfeelings of cultural centrismcontributes to this attiwde ofmssonance (Pedersen, 1988).

The introspection stage ofminority ioontity developmentfinds the individual questioningvalues in both the minority andmajority culwre. Concerns overunequivocal group and self­appreciation are evident andquestions arise about judgingother minority groups. Minorityindividuals within this stage ofdevelopment also begin toquestion the appropriateness ofdevaluing another culwre(pedersen, 1988) and realize it is ahypocritical response to thedominant society.

The final stage of theMinority Ioontity DevelopmentMoOOl involves synergeticarticulation and awareness. It isin this stage that the individualdevelops to their fullest potentialand adopts a cultural identity thatselectively dispmys elements fromthe minority and dominantcultures. This stage of develop­ment is characterized by theindividuals appreciation for othersof the same minority group,mfferent minority groups and thedominant society. In admtion, theminority person has a positiveself-image (Pedersen, 1988).

THE mspANIC EXPERI­ENCE

Many factors contribute tothe self-depreciating views in theHispanic population under theMinority Identity DevelopmentModel. One factor directlyattributed to a self-depreciatingview is the reality of racism andpoverty experienced in the UnitedStates (Jones, 1990). Hispanics

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have been victims of "culturalpoverty" to a much higher extentthan the general population. Lowincomes, unemployment, pooreducations, inadequate housingand language barriers are charac­teristic of many Hispanics intoday's American society (Choon,Dunston, & Ross-Sheriff, 1983).The Hispanic poverty level is sobad in fact, that Hispanics receivethe worst health care, housing andeducation in the United States(Kitano, 1991). Drug abuse isrising ,to epidemic proportions inthe Hispanic community and canbe directly assessed to theeconomic, social and healthconditions of the population(Saba, Karrer, & Hardy, 1989).

Racism and discriminationare all too familiar for manyHispanics in today's society. Oncollege campuses alone, 25percent of minority studentsexperience some form of raciallymotivated attack during anacademic year (Shang & Moore,1990), and Hispanic studentsendure these conditions in astressful and exclusive educa­tional climate (Puente & Diaz,1992). Other factors whichindirectly contribute to the racismand discrimination experienced bythe Hispanic culture includessegregation, isolation and exclu­sive cmTicula (Kitano, 1991).

Biculturalism and the impactof the external environment onHispanics plays a large part in thelevel of acculturation and assimi­lation for the minority group(Jones, 1990). The Spanishlanguage is the dominant lan-

guage of the Hispanic culture andserves as a unifying fooction forall Hispanics to preserve cultureand communicate values (Chunnet al., 1983). Many Hispanicsspeak both Spanish and Englishin order to alleviate languagebarriers, but educators haveblamed bilingualism for educa­tion problems and say the Spanishlanguage should be abolishedboth in and out of the classroom(Kitano, 1991). As a direct result,many Hispanics feel the pressureto abandon characteristics of theirown cultural origin. Unfortu­nately, studies show that indi­viduals who migrate to biculturalcommunities have a tendency tobecome maladjusted when theybecome monocultural (Choon etal.,1983).

These indirect messagesinbred into the American systemleave many Hispanics in adifficult situation. The Protestantinfluence brought about bysettlers in early America hasdeveloped many achievement­oriented ethical beliefs. Theseethical achievement values forcemany Hispanics to go againsttheir cultural values and createconflict as well as a loss of self­esteem. Additionally, theAmerican belief in independencediffers from the Hispanic culturethat practices a family-centeredconcept. This paradigm shiftleaves the American society witha view of the Hispanic populationas overly dependent (Chunn et al.,1983). As a result, the UnitedStates has unintentionally createda system that perpemates racism

and oppression throughoutsociety.

AN INSTITUTIONAL RE­SPONSmILITY

To better lDlderstand racialidentity, institutions of highereducation need to develop newmodels and integrate existingmodels (Hardiman & Jackson,1992). Predominantly whitecolleges and universities do notintegrate many theories, Pr0­grams, cmricula or viewpointsrepresentative of the diversecultures on campus (Pedersen,1988). As a result, colleges andlDliversities exhibit a lack ofappreciation for cultural heritagesand fail to represent any valuesother than those indicative of adominant society (Shang &Moore,I990). Students of colorare forced to participate in aneducational system that neglectstheir heritage and forces them toconform to campus norms (Jones,1990).

This is not to say thatinstitutions of higher educationmake no efforts to accommodatetile minority population enroll­ment. University administrationand faculty have concentrated onincreasing interactions amongdiverse groups of students(Hardiman & Jackson, 1992) andintegrating multicultural cOlDlsel­ing, skill imPrOvement, newenvironment orientation andeconomic status compensation onlDliversity campuses (Shang &Moore,I990). Unfortooately,these efforts generally take theform of mere recommendations,

endorsements and guidelines(Jones, 1990). In addition, amajority of students whoparticipate in these programsoften are labeled high risk,regardless of the student's self­perception (Shang & Moore,1990).

Campus populations willcontinue to diversify. Therefore,it is important for institutions ofhigher education to design andimplement programs for studentsof color. Emphasis needs to beplaced on the recognition ofvarious social oppressions, suchas racism and ethnocentrism, andefforts must focus on creatingsupportive collegiate environ­ments (Hardiman & Jackson,1992). Institutions of highereducation must develop a modelthat accommodates the Hispanicstudent, as this population isincreasing at an extremely rapidrate. As mentioned earlier, asystem needs to be designed toaccommodate Hispanics at allidentity development levels toensure a supportive environment.By targeting this population inadvance and working with theHispanic student, the universityinevitably will make a positiveenvironment that creates a goodexperience for the students andthe university as a whole.

Hispanic students should begiven an opportunity to submitentrance exam test scores thatreflect attitudes and culturalexperiences more predictive ofcollege success for students ofcolor. Many researchers suggestthat the Noncognitive Question-

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naire (NCQ) is a better predictorof student success than theCollege Board's ScholasticAptitude Test (SA1) (Shang &Moore, 1990).

Financial aid offices arecritical to the success of aHispanic-serving institution.Many Hispanic-serving collegeswould shut down from lack ofattendance if financial aiddecreased or was simply notavailable (Barry, 1991). Institu­tions should take the responsibil­ity to locate, establish andcontribute to minority studentdevelopment projects that ensureproper funding to the Hispanicstudent.

Services need to be enhancedto aid students who did not haveproper preparation in high schooldue to poor incomes and educa­tional quality. It is important toapproach the Hispanic student as asuccessful student with potentialso as not to send an indirectmessage of a possible high riskprobability.

Since the Hispanic cultureusually reflects a strong familialrelationship, there is an increasingnumber of Hispanic commuterstudents who live at home.Institutions of higher educationhave a responsibility to target thiscommuting population and makethemfeel supported by theuniversity. Commuting oftenmakesthecolregeconnectionveryfragile for the Hispanic student(Barry, 1991) and should bestrengthened to ensure a positiveexperience with the universityenvironment for the student.

Finally, since the role offamily does play an importantrole in the lives of Hispanicstudents (Chunn et al., 1983), it isnecessary to ensure a clear line ofcommunication. Communicationshould consistently be exchangedbetween the Hispanic family unitand the university throughnewsletters and other means toencourage, support, personify andintegrate relationships betweenthe Hispanic family and theuniversity.

Multiculturalism should playa key role in the university'smission for all students of coloron campus. The campus environ­ment should reflect a greaterawareness of contributions madeby Black, Hispanic, Asian,American Indian and interna­tional cultures. In addition, thesecontributions must reflect andrespect the conditions underwhich people of color live and areeducated in today's society(Shang & Moore, 1990). Thistype of training and educationshould be implemented intofaculty, staff and administrativeroles at the university.

Student affairs professionalshave a responsibility to supportethnic groups on campuses soeach group can explore its owncultural heritage. Essentially,student affairs professionals,faculty and university staff needto evaluate their own tendenciesto perpetuate racism withininstitutions of higher education.Learning needs to take place byboth the student and the adminis­trator to develop multicultural

sensitivity and awareness (Jones,1990).

By continuing to concentrateon the Hispanic student develop­ment and implementing possibleaccommodations for this emerg­ing population, all students oncampus will benefit from theknowledge of racial and culturalsimilarities and differences.Every student also will have anopportunity to develop and sharean app-eciation for all cultures(Jones, 1990). Theories about thecampus environment confum theimportance of positive interactionbetween the student and theenvironment. By recognizingdiversity and celebrating indi­vidual differences in society, anenvironment is created in whichthe student can achieve theoptimum level of development

ReferencesBarry, P. (1991, Summer). A new

voice for Hispanics in highereducation. The ColleKe Board~,pp.2-7.

Chunn, J.C. n, Dunston, P.l, & Ross­Sheriff, F. (Eds.) (1983).Mental health and peQp1e ofcolor: curriculum developnentand chMKe. Washington, D.C.:Howard University Press.

Hardiman, R., & Jackson, B.W.(1992). Racial identity development: Understanding racialdynamics in college classroomsand on campus. Directions forteaching and learning, S2, 21­37.

Jones, W. T. (1990). Perspectives onethnicity. In L.V. Moore (Ed)Evolving theoreticalperspectives on students,~,

59-70.

Kitano, H.H.L. (1991). Racerelations. New Jersey: PrenticeHall.

Newton, F., Olmedo, E.L., & Padilla,A.M. (1982). Hispanic mentalhealth research: a reference~. California: University ofCalifornia Press.

Pedersen, P. (1988). A handbook fordeveloping multiculturalawareness. Virginia: AmericanAssociation for Counseling andDevelopment.

Puente, T., & Diaz, C. (1992,March). Special report:Hispanics on campus. Hispanic,pp.29-4O.

Saba, G.W., Karrer, B.M., & Hardy,K.V. (Eds.). (1989). Minoritiesand family therapy. New York:Haworth Press.

Shang, P., & Moore, L.V. (1990).Applying cultural theory: Theenvironmental variable. In L.V.Moore (Ed.) Evolving theoreti­cal pel]pectives on students, n,73-82.

37

Homosexual IdentityDevelopment: Challenges

for Student AffairsProfessionals

Mary J. Frank

38

Given the statistics from theKinsey report, minimally 10percent ofthe student populationin our institutions are lesbian,gay, or bisexual. The studentdevelopment model offered byVivian Cass gives Student Affairsprofessionals another theory tohelp themselves and studentsunderstand one ofthe issues thatstudents willface during theircollege years. The developmenttheory has six components thatdeal with a variety ofdevelopmental issues for studentsquestioning their sexualorientation. The challenge toStudent Affairs professionals is tointegrate these issues into theother theories ofstudentdevelopment.

According to Miller andWinston (1990), ttaditionalpsychosocial student developmenttheory "is concerned with thosepersonal, psychologically oriented

Mary Frank ('94) has a sharedassistantship in Judicial Affairs andApartment Life at Colorado StateUniversity.

aspects of self and the relation­ships that exist between the selfand society" (Creamer,l990, p.101). Because of the previousstatement and according to anarticle by Evans and Levine(Moore, 1990) a concern must beaddressed. This is the fact thatmost social, psychological,cognitive, or psychosocialtheories usually are basedexclusively on the experiences ofwhite heterosexual men. This canbecome a problem then for anygroup outside of this population.There are a number of otherstudies that have been doneapplying current theories to otherpopulations (Moore, 1990;Rodgers, 1990). The populationthat seems to be mostunderrepresented by these studiesis the lesbian, gay, and bisexualpopulation. This paper willattempt to explain thepsychosocial theory model byVivian Cass entitled "Homo­sexual Identity Formation." Thispaper will focus on the modeloffered by Cass and also willaddress issues within the model.These issues surround the gender

differences that affect gay menand lesbians, and the questionssurrounding bisexuals. Finally, itwill address how this theory canbe used by student affairs profes­sionals in meeting the needs of thehomosexual population on theircampuses.

The Cass model is based onDr. Cass's clinical observationsand on her research involving gayand lesbian subjects in WesternAustralia Although the theory isbased on the Australian popula­tions, many psychotherapists andsocial scientists in the UnitedStates find her observations andconclusions to be accurate indescribing American lesbians andgay men.

The Cass model consists ofsix stages of development. Casstheorizes that many of the othertheories apply to white men, but atthe same time if they are gay theywill be going through a paralleldevelopment with their sexuality.It is this parallel journey that addsa challenge to Student Affairsprofessionals as they try to reachthis particular segment of thepopulation.

Most psychosocial modelssuggest the following (Creamer,1990, p. 102):

1. Psychosocial developmentis continuous in nature.

2. Psychosocial developmentis cumulative in nature.

3. Psychosocial developmentprogresses along a continuumfrom simpler to more complexbehavior.

4. Psychosocial develop­ment tends to be orderly and stage

related.5. Psychosocial development

is reflected in developmentaltasks.

These characteristics arefound in some form in Cass'smodel. What does becomeevident is that although the abovepsychosocial models suggestlinear movement, identitydevelopment models wouldsuggest that it is not linear butmore circular or spiral.

mSTORYAs mentioned earlier, there

are many heterosexist assump­tions in all the traditional studentdevelopment theories. The firstdeparture from the traditionalwhite male study populations wasCarol Gilligan's work on women.Until this work was done most ofthe theories were applied towomen and the other subculturesof students without those groupsbeing represented in the researchpopulations. As indicated inMoore (1990), a few researchershave tried to apply traditionalpsychosocial theory to lesbian andgay populations. In their litera­ture review, Evans and Wall(1990) found very few definitivestudies, thus indicating the needfor more research. In order tounderstand the need for a specifictheory for lesbian, gay, andbisexual students, the StudentAffairs professional must under­stand why the current theories donot always apply.

A student is typicallyconfronted with many issues.Chickering suggests traditional

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age students sttuggle withdeveloping self-esteem and adistinct identity during the collegeyears (Widick, Parker andKnefelkamp, 1978). When astudent believes slbe may belesbian, gay, or bisexual, "Know­ing what many people in oursociety think of homsexuality, agay, lesbian or bisexual studentwould have an extremely difficulttime answering the question,'Who am I?"'(Wall & Evans,1990). Socially, the lesbian, gayor bisexual student may not havea social group, and so s/he isforced to either ''pass'' as aheterosexual or not participate inactivities that encourage thecommunity building so importantin the fIrSt months of theundergraduate experience.Another issue is that of religion.Many students during theirundergraduate experience areaway from home for the fIrSt timeand may be making decisionsconcerning religion andspirituality. Many of thearguments smrounding religionand being lesbian, gay or bisexualcan be very confusing for a youngperson. Many ask the question''Can I be lesbian, gay or bisexualand still have religious beliefs andbe accepted by my religiouscommunity?" (Wall & Evans,1990, p. 30). Finally, thecommunity in which the institu­tion is located can impact thedevelopment of the lesbian, gay orbisexual student. The studentmany times must function outsidethe walls of the institution. If thatcommunity is conservative and/or

heterosexist, the lesbian, gay orbisexual student will have anadded challenge in their develop­ment.

In looking at the lesbian, gay,and bisexual population, it isimportant not to group themaltogether. As with any popula­tion, White, Black, Hispanic,Asian, or lesbian, gay or bisexual,the people within the group maybe very diverse. Gender, age,cultural background, and experi­ence are four factors whencombined can create very distinctidentities and experiences. Also,as with any group, differencesbetween female and male mem­bers are prevalent. Being aninvisible minority is a verypowerful experience for a younglesbian, gay or bisexual person.The lack of community and peersupport can make having apositive undergraduate experiencedifficult.

CASS'S MODEL OFHOMOSEXUALITYIDENTITY FORMATION

Cass's model consists of sixstages. These stages are based ona person's perceptions of his/herbehaviors and the actions thatarise as a consequence of theseperceptions. The model assumesthat the person has an active rolein the acceptance of a homosexualidentity. Cass' s study alsoassumes that the person acceptshomosexuality as a positive status(Cass, 1979).

The first stage is IdentityConfusion. It is in this stage that aperson becomes aware of behav-

iors, thoughts, or feelings thatcould be defined as homosexual innature. For many, this is a time ofgreat confusion and challenge towhat is considered the nOtm.Most people in this stage have, upto this point, identified themselvesas heterosexual or non-homo­sexual. Cass suggests that aperson at this stage approachesthis issue in three ways: First,that this behavior is perfectlyacceptable and correct. At thispoint the person may seek to findmore information about homo­sexuality. Second, that thebehavior is correct but undesir­able. Many times denial and anattempt to ignore all feelings andthoughts is the action taken. Thethird possibility is that thebehavior is both incorrect andundesirable. If this is the case, theperson will, according to Cass, try

to redefine homosexual activity.For example, women may say thatit is perfectly natural for twoheterosexual women to kiss,touch, and feel a strong emotionalattachment to each other. Menmay suggest that it is just normaladolescent ~xual experimenta­tion. In this first stage it is veryseldom that the person discloseshow and what they are feeling toanyone (Cass, 1979; Wall &Evans, 1990; Evans & Levine,1990).

The second stage is IdentityComparison. This stage fmds theperson struggling with the lack ofsocial community. The feeling ofnot belonging becomes verystrong during this stage. Astudent at this stage, living in a

residence hall, may feel like the"only one" thus intensifying thefeelings of isolation. Many timesa student will start to recognizethe fact they have have feltdifferent much of their life. Asthe student starts to accept beingdifferent from everyone else, theywill continue to act as a hetero­sexual in their public life (Cass,1979; Wall &Evans, 1990; Evans& Levine, 1990).

In the Identity Tolerancestage of this model, the studentbegins to tolerate the idea thatindeed s1he is a homosexual andnot heterosexual. The studentmay start to ask questions ofpeople to fmd others that aresimilar to himlher. They mayseek out local hangouts such asbars, restaurants, bookstores, andmeetings of local organizations.Seeking and fmding others likethemselves will start the processof positive self-identity andempowetment (Cass, 1979; Wall& Evans, 1990; Evans & Levine,1990).

The fourth stage is IdentityAcceptance. The positivecontacts with the lesbian, gay andbisexual community will serve tovalidate and help the student feel" a part of' instead of "a partfrom" again. It is in this stagethat the conflict between privateand public life tends to surface.The conflict often times centersaround questions like, "who issafe to 'come out' t01, who can Istill associate with from my'straight life1'." Many times aperson may stay in this stage for asignificant amount of time. If

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they are able to fmd a place inboth cooununities (gay andstraight) with little or no conflict,this can be a safe place to stay.However, if a person starts to feelsomewhat schizophrenic, that maypush them into the fifth stage(Cass, 1979; Wall & Evans, 1990;Evans & Levine, 1990).

Identity Pride is the fifthstage and is characterized by highlevels of conflict between astudent's private and public lifeperceptions. A desire to just "be"becomes a very high priority inthis stage. Many times theconflict is resolved by theindividual choosing in whichcommunity they wish to reside. Ifthe person ttuly is committed totheir gay identity most likely theywill gravitate towards the gaycommunity and ties may bebroken with the heterosexualcommunity. Negative responsesfrom the straight community willserve only to reinforce the brokenties. Ifhowever, the responsesfrom straight friends and organi­zations is positive, the individualwill most likely move to stage six(Cass, 1979; Wall & Evans, 1990;Evans & Levine, 1990).

Stage six is entitled IdentitySynthesis and is the last stage ofthis model. In this stage thepublic and personal lives now canbe merged. The recognition thatsexuality is just a part of one's lifeis now identified. Additionally, ifthe individual has found asupportive community withmembers of both the straight andgay community, the conflictwithin and outside diminishes.

Although that conflict doesdiminish, it will never completelydisappear given the homophobicnature of society in general (Cass,1979; Wall & Evans, 1991; Evans& Levine, 1990). Thus, thenecessity for acknowledging anon-linear indentity developmentmodel is demonstrated.

In these six stages Cass doesnot take into consideration thedifferences between gay men andlesbian women. As in basicallyall development theory, thetheory is assmned to be appli­cable for both genders. Previousresearchers (DeMonteflores andSchultz, 1978; Henderson, 1984;Marmor,1980) have found thatwomen tend to develop a lesbianidentity later than men develop agay identity. Evans and Levine(1990) stated the following:'1nany women identify lesbianidentities before becomingsexually involved, emotionalattachment is more important thansexual activity for women, theidea of homosexuality is lessthreatening for women than men,and sexuality tends to be morecontextual, relational, and fluidfor women than for men" (Moore,1990, p. 52). Even with thecomprehensive model that Casshas proposed there is still verylittle differentiation between theneeds of men and women withinthe model. Additionally, therehas been very little research doneon the bisexual community. Mostpeople who self indentifyexperience discrimination fromboth the heterosexual andhomosexual community, thus

creating an even created challengein their identity development

APPLICATIONS FORSTUDENT AFFAIRSADMINISTRATORS

It is clear to this author, thatin most of the traditional modelsof development for students, theissue of sexual orientation is notaddressed. The need for and thedevelopment of a comprehensivemodel for this population iscritical for Student Affairsprofessionals. Whether it ishelping students in the residencehalls, in the classroom, in thepublic sphere, or in their ownpersonal lives, Student Affairsprofessionals need to be able toidentify where they personally areon the issue before they helpstudents. Assuming that mini­mally ten percent of aninstitution' s student populationmay be gay, lesbian or bisexual,Student Mfairs professionals havea responsibility to address notonly the needs of that population,but also the needs of thehomophobic and/or heterosexualpopulation. The nature of theStudent Mfairs professiondemands this issue be challengedand developed.

It is the challenge and theresponsibility of Student Affairsprofessionals to provide lesbian,gay, bisexual and heterosexualstudents with accurate informationand a supportive environment inwhich to begin asking questionsand finding answers for thevariety of issues that surroundsexual orientation on campuses

today.One way of meeting the

challenge is to encourage topadministrators to not only write,but live by, non-discriminationpolicies that include sexualorientation in the institutionallanguage. Another way wouldbe to apply sexual orientationnon-discrimination statements toall student affairs policies,including those in the residencehalls, on-campus apartments,programming statements, andhiring practices for graduateassistants, professional staff andfaculty. Clear judicial policiesregarding crimes of violenceagainst lesbians, gays andbisexuals is another way StudentAffairs professional can be pro­active.

Lesbians, gay men andbisexuals traditionally have been"in the closet" for a number ofreasons, but primarily because ofdiscrimination. For StudentAffairs professionals to providesupport and recognition in aneducational environment iscritical. Lesbian, gay, andbisexual students need positiverole models. Students need to seelesbian, gay, and bisexual studentleaders, and lesbian, gay, andbisexual staff, and they need tosee those people being supportedand recognized just like everyoneelse.

Student Mfairs administra­tors can take a leadership role inthe educational community byproviding environments thatencourage and demand equalopportunities and support for

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lesbian, gay and bisexual peoplewithin their rommunities.

CONCLUSIONIn conclusion, Cass' s model

provides student affairs profes­sionals and paraprofessionalssome clear stages with which tointegrate other developmenttheories. To really help thelesbian, gay and bisexual student,Student Mfairs professionals willneed to go the next step andintegrate Cass's theory withChickering, Gilligan, Perry, Astinand others. Until this fJrSt step istaken, attempting to help lesbian,gay, and bisexual students, andheterosexual students is only aband-aid. Recognizing andworking with the various levels ofdevelopnent of all students,faculty and staff is critical to thecontinued success and growth ofthe Student Mfairs profession.

ReferencesCass,V. C. (1979b). Homosexual­

ity identity formation: atheoretical model. Jownal ofH(JDosexuality,4,219-235.

Evans N. J., and Wall, V. A.(1991). Using psychosocialdevelopment theories tounderstand and work withgay and lesbian persons.Beyoodtolerance·Kayslesbjam and bisexualS oncampus (pp. 25-38). Ameri­can College PersonnelAssociation.

Evans, N. J., and Levine, H.(1990). Perspectives onsexual orientations. In L. V.Moore (Ed.), EvolvjnK

theoretical perspectives onstudents· New directions forstudent services (pp.49-58)51. San Francisco: Jossey­Bass.

Miller, T. K., & Winston, R. B.,Jr.,. (1990). Assessingdevelopment from apsychosocial perspective. InD. G. Creamer & Associates(Eds.), CoileKe studentdevelOJ)lllent" theory andpractices for the 1990SAmerican College PersonnelAssociation.

Widick, C., Knefelkamp, L., &Parker, C. A. (1978). ArthurChickering's vectors ofdevelopment. InKnefelkamp, L, Widick, C.,& Parker, C. A. (Eds.)Am2b:.;inK new deve1OJ)IDentalfindinKS New directions forstudent services (pp.l9-34).San Francisco: Jossey-Bass

A Feminist Critique of theEthics of Care and Justice

Kelly E. W. Messick

The argument in moraldevelopment circles has, for twodecades, focused on the ethic ofcare versus the ethic ofjustice.These two camps have been split,in most cases along gender lines:women in the fOlmer and men inthe latter (Bell, 1993). We havedivided ourselves on the assump­tion that the natures of men andwomen are very different and thisdifference necessitates twodistinct, and often opposingviewpoints regarding moraldevelopment and ethical reason­ing. I propose that not only arethese two camps artificiallyconstructed by the dominantculture, but that there is a thirdview of ethical reasoning. It is theethic of freedom. This paper willdiscuss the two opposing ethicsand will critique both with theethic of freedom. In addition thispaper will offer some implicationsof its use in the student affairsprofession.

The basic principal ofKohlberg's ethic ofjustice (Smith,1978) is that moral reasoning, as astage theory, moves from egocen­tric judgment to universaljudgment. This means that tomove from one stage to the nextone must become more autono-

Kelly Messick ('95) is the currentAssociate Hall Director ofWestfallHall at Colorado State University

mous and less concerned forone's own needs. In the fIrStstage, or pre-conventional stage,a person is concerned, whenmaking moral decisions, whetherthis decision will result inpunishment. An example of thisis the boy who does not takecookies from the cookie jarbecause he fears he will becaught and sent to his room. Thesecond stage is the conventionalstage. At this level one makesmoral decisions based on theirlegality and bow their decisionwill look in society's eyes. In thisexample, the boy would not takethe cookies from the cookie jarbecause his father will tell him heis wrong and a bad boy. In thiscase, the legality of the situationrests in the authority of the boy'sfather. The highest stage ofKohlberg theory is the post­conventional stage. In it deci­sions are made based on whetherthey uphold or destroy the socialfabric of one's community. Inthis example, the boy would nottake the cookies because it isintrinsically wrong for him tosteal. In this stage a society'slaws may be broken if they goagainst one's own moral code ofconduct

The ethic ofjustice has beenattributed historically to moremen then women. In fact,

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Koblberg has stated that womendo riot have the ability to reason atthe post-conventionallevelbecause of their inability toseparate themselves from relation­ships with others (Gilligan, 1978).Koblberg, along with Ericksonand others, see men's ability toseparate themselves from others,to be rational and objective,signifies the highest stage ofdevelopment (Gilligan, 1990).Women who display the ethic ofjustice are most often those fewwomen who have succeeded inbecoming part of the dominantculture. In response to the voidleft by Kohlberg's ethic of justice,Gilligan (1977) constructed theethic of care.

The ethic of care is centeredaround relationships. Makingmoral decisions in this ethicentails looking at how yourdecisions will affect other peopleand your relationship with them.The fIrst level is the orientation toindividual survival. In this phaseone's own welfare is the solemotivation for decision making.Gilligan's (1978) example of thisis the woman, who discoveringshe is pregnant, makes thedecision to have an abortionbecause she "didn't want it" andshe, ''wasn't ready for it. " (p.492). This lack of awareness ofother relationships in this decisionis indicative of this phase of moralreasoning. In the transition fromthis stage, from selfishness toresponsibility, one becomes awarethat the actions of the self have aneffect on others. There is arealization that relationships are

critical to the decision makingprocesses. In the second phase,goodness as self-sacrifice, onetakes the opposite position. Theother in the relationship is notonly recognized, but also givenparamount importance. Theresponsibility to others' needsfirst is seen as making one a"good" person. The aboveexample of the pregnant woman'sdecision to abort her baby wouldhave a very different outcome inthis phase of moral development.The woman may decide to keepthe child for the sake of the personshe is involved with. In doing so,she is not considering her needs,but the need to be accepted andgood. She may also decide toabort the baby to keep therelationship with the person. Ineither case, her needs are not afactor in the decision. In thetransition from this stage to thenext, or from goodness to truth,Gilligan states that one begins tosee the relationship between selfand other and to begin to questionthe legitimacy of self-sacrifice.The third stage is the morality ofnon-violence. At this level one"fmds a way to reconcile theinitially disparate concepts ofselfishness and responsibilitythrough a transformed understand­ing of self and a correspondingredefinition of morality" (p. 5(4).This is the time when one blendsthe care for others with a care forself. Decisions made at this levelare weighed using the relation­ships involved. These decisionsare made in the context of bothself and other. Looking again at

the abortion example, the needs ofthe mother and the child areequally important. This decisionprocess is more complex becausethere are two parties involved, aswell as the relationship betweenthe two. At this level the decisionto have an abortion would belarger than just what the mother orchild needs. It would have toinclude how the decision wouldeffect both parties and how bothparties would benefit or beharmed by the decision. Moralityis based solely on the importanceof the relationship.

The ethic of freedom is not astage theory. Rather, it is a set ofprinciples by which one can createa new base of moral decisionmaking. Freedom is defined as theabsence of oppression and itsmeans: violence. There are fivemajor principles in the ethic offreedom.

The fIrSt principle is that alloppressions are interconnected(Bell, 1993). To only speak ofsexism"is misleading because notonly do you leave out the connec­tions with other oppression, youalso fail to communicate howsexism is perceived by thosewomen and men that are not ofthe dominant culture. This isbecause sexism is defined by thedominant culture. It is describedonly with white women in mind.Sexist oppression is seen verydifferently by Asian-Americanwomen because of the interactionof racism and classism. Thereforean Asian-American woman maybe damaged very differently thanwomen of other ethnicity's. To

see the connection of all oppres­sion is to see how their differ­ences are used to divide thosepersons not in power. The ethic offreedom requires us to see alloppression as the same and tofight oppression from all perspec­tives. This cannot be done in theethics of care or justice. The ethicof justice is the ethic of thedominant culture. This is theculture that creates and reinforcesthe status quo of oppression. Itleaves out all who are not rich,white, able-bodied, heterosexualmen. Care ethics are forged out ofthe prevailing roles that thedominant culture has socialized inwomen. Socialization intonurturing roles and the exclusionof the female perspective in thelarger society have moldedwomen to think in a connectedfashion. This is a generalization ofthe nature of womankind and it isthis very generalization, whilemaking a compelling argumentfor the ethic of care, underminesits effectiveness by reinforcing thestatus quo of oppression.The second principle is that allethics are constructed in anoppressive society (Bell, 1993).Justice ethics are grounded solidlyin the system of crime andpunishment. Care ethics can onlygo so far in a system that does notvalue the contribution of women'sperspective. The ethic of freedomcalls for close examination ofmoral principles and to ask notonly why they are, but who isbenefiting from them? This is notan easy task because all of us havebeen socialized to perpetuate

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oppression.The third principle is that

ethics are not just personal beliefs.It will take more than a personalcode of conduct to eradicateoppression (Bell, 1993). It is true,as well, that ethics are effectiveonly if all persons are ethical. Thisis clearly not the case in oursociety. The ethic of freedomkeeps the attention focused on a"larger cultural framework" (Bell,p. 27). Justice and care ethicsfocus on how ones personaldecisions are made, but there is nomention of how those decisionscould effect the larger society.The ethic of care is a verypersonal and connected way oflooking at the world. It is becauseof this individual perspective thatmakes this ethic impractical whendealing with problems on asocietal level. The ethic of justicealso calls for individual morals atthe highest level of ethicalreasoning. It is true of the feministaxiom that the personal ispolitical. Moral acts must be madepublic to affect change on asocietal level.

The fourth principle is that allacts of change are co-opted by thedominant system (Bell, 1993).This principle ties in directly withthe third principle. When wefocus on individual acts ofresistance they can easily bedismissed as the solution to thelarger problem of oppression. Anexample of this from the ethic ofjustice is statutory rape laws. Bypassing legislation forbiddingadults to have sex with minors wemistakenly believe we have

solved the sexual exploitation ofchildren problem. What we havedone in reality is to ignore theissue of male sexual access rightsto women and girls. We haveonly legislated that girls, and to alesser extent boys, are off-limitsuntil they reach adulthood. Careethics can also be co-opted.Women, because they have beensocialized into the care givingrole, have been unable to defendthemselves with anything otherthan the insanity plea when theykill their abusive partner in self­defense. It is inconceivable that awoman could be abused for yearsand "suddenly" decide to takejustice into her own hands. In thecase of Loreena Bobbitt, who cutoff her husband's penis while heslept, it is incredible that thepublic is outraged at her act, butfinds commonplace the fact thatshe withstood years of emotionaland physical torture. Violence,the tool of oppression, is sonormal that any resistance to it islabeled as insanity.

The fifth principle is theimportance of the struggle againstoppression (Bell, 1993). In thisstruggle we must keep in mindthe frrst four principles. The ethicof freedom suggests that tochange the dominant culture wemust be careful not to disconnectthe different forms of oppression.And we must realize that all ofour moral actions are constructedin oppression. We must realizethat any act we do must be aimedat the larger society and that all ofour actions will be co-opted andused against us. This is an uphill

battle. The solution to the percep­tion of futility is play. Play isdermed as the ability to recognizeand to not take seriously theoppression that we see around us.Furthermore, we must take anactive stance in playing. "Playbegins as soon as a [person)apprehends himself [herself] asfree and wishes to use his [her)freedom, a freedom by the way,which could just as well be hisanguish" (Bell, 1993, p. 239). It isthe realization that one has achoice whether to take part in thesystem or to oppose it This iscontrary to the status quo, whichwould have you believe that thereis no other way of being then itAnger at and separation from thedominant culture can be usedagainst us in a way that playcannot. Play directly confronts theseriousness of the dominantculture.

How can the student affairsprofession use the principles inthe ethic of freedom? We can startby educating ourselves and ourstudentS to see theinterconnectedness of oppression.This is a painful process becauseonce we see the oppression wecan never go back lDlder the coverof ignorance. In knowing theoppression in our community wemust act on it To not act whenone has the knowledge is to be anaccessory to the oppression.

Secondly, we must educateourselves and our students toquestion not only the accuracyinformation we receive, but alsowho benefits from the dissemina­tion of this information? Third, I

think we need to educate our­selves and our students to see ourplace in the dominant culture. Inwhich situations are we oppressedand in which situations are we theoppressors? Fourth, we need tolook at the policies we make asadministrators and determine whobenefits and who is harmed bythem. Are we oppressing otherswith our good intentions?

The combination of theethics of care and justice is asatisfactory one. But, we shouldnot be satisfied with principlesformed in an oppressive system.We must continually challengethem and change the society thatperpetuates the system thatoppresses all of us.ReferencesBell, L.A. (1993). Rethinkine ethics

in the midst of violence: Afeminist APproach to freedom.Maryland: Rowan & LittlefieldPublishers, Inc.

Gilligan, C. (1977). In a differentvoice: Women's conceptions ofself and of morality.~Educational Review. 17 (4). pp.481-517.

Gilligan, C., Lyons, N.P., & Hammer,T.J. (Eds.). (1990). M.Wnlconnections: The relationalworlds of adolescent eiris atEmma Willard School. Massachusetts: Harvard UniversityPress.

Smith, A.S. (1978). LawrenceKohlberg's cognitive stagetheory of the development ofmoral judgment. In L.Knefelkamp, C. Widick, andC.A. Parker (Eds.), NewDirections for student services:Ap.plyine new directionalfindines. 4th (pp. 53-68). SanFransisco: Jossey-Bass Inc.

49

Reading MaterialsPerceived to be Basic in theStudy of Higher Education

Michael T. MillerGlenn M. Nelson

50

A persistent problem within thestudy ofhigher education is thelack ofconsensus on a guidingknowledge base and theoreticalframeworlc. To assist scholarsand practitioners within thisframe ofreference, there exists areal need to determine what isexpeetedfrom higher educationpreparation programs. This studywas subsequently undenaken toexamine expectations ofreadingmaterials through the revisiting ofWeidman, Nelson, andRadzyminski's work at theUniversity ofPittsburgh in theearly 1980's.

Varying somewhat from theforecasts of early scholars, thestudy of higher education hasbecome an increasingly complexand dynamic field within thegeneral context of education. Aconsistent problem for highereducation as a field of study,

Michael T. Miller is an AssistantProfessor in the Department ofVocationDl and Adult Education at theUniversity ofNebraska-lincoln.Glenn M. Nelson is an AssociateProfessor ofAdministrative andPolicy Studies at the University ofPittsburgh.

however, is the inconsistency of aknowledge base for the field.Indeed, the field of highereducation draws upon a wideselection of theoretical frame­works and constructs. One of theforemost difficulties in embracingand developing consensus on aknowledge base for highereducation has been the disparityof thought over what is andshould be a required basiclUlderstanding of the field (Dresel& Mayhew, 1974; Cooper, 1980).Even the development of criteriafor identifying outstandinggraduate programs in the field hasmet with some difficulty (Keirn,1983).

In response to the challengeof identifying and building aknowledge base, seveml scholarshave turned to the understandingof books believed to be basicreading within the field of highereducation (Bender & Riegel,1973; Drew & Schuster, 1980;Weidman, Nelson, &Radzyminski,1984). In each ofthese research efforts, scores ofreading materials were identified,but little consensus was devel­oped. Only two books werecommon in all three investiga-

tions: Cardinal Newman's TheIdea of a University: Defined andDlustrated and Christopher Jencksand David Riesman's,~Academic Reyolution.

A very real need exists toclarify what the higher educationcommunity expects from graduatestudents. Additionally, currentchanges underway in highereducation administration andsystems provide a solid rationaleto examine if what is beingprescribed for our students haschanged from Weidman, Nelson,and Radzyminski' s work at theUniversity of Pittsburgh over adecade ago.METHODS

This current examination wasdesigned as a replicative follow­up to Bender and Reigel's (1973)work, based in part on theinterpretation of their work by thePittsburgh team in 1984. Thesample for the investigationincluded 419 members of theAssociation for the Study ofHigher Education (ASHE) andseveral additional faculty in thefield of higher educationidentified through professionalnetworks. The total sampleconsisted of 490 faculty andadministrators.

The survey instrument wasdeveloped to be consistent withthe earlier attempts to identifybooks considered basic to thestudy of higher education. Benderand Reigel's original classifica­tion of faculty areas of primaryspecialization were included onthe survey instrument, including:history of higher education;

higher education sociology andchange; administration andorganization; curriculum andinstruction; research, planning,assessment, and evaluation;student personnel work andstudent counseling; adult andcontinuing education; compara­tive higher education; gover­nance; finance; college teaching;community college; collegestudent and student development;and teacher education.

Respondents were asked toidentify their primary andsecondary areas of specializationon the listing developed byBender and Reigel. They wereasked to identify what theyconsidered to be books or readingmaterials basic for graduatestudents concentrating in theirareas of primary specialization.Respondents were also asked toidentify books or reading materi­als they considered "basicreading" for all students of highereducation. The survey instrumentwas administered in the springand summer of 1992.RESULTS

Of the surveys mailed, 23were returned for bad or incom­plete address information,resulting in a total of 467 possiblerespondents. A response rate of23% (n=107) was achieved.While this response was lowerthan desired for survey research,the majority of respondents werefull-time higher education facultymembers we wanted to reach.The response rate did represent an12.9 percent (n=38) increase fromthe 1984 effort at Pittsburgh.

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52

Respondents identified a totalof 695 different reading materials,ranging from periodicals andspecific articles to directories andbooks. The identification ofmaterialsmclu~331mareriah

for specific conrent areas and 364materials for all students of highereducation. In reporting results byarea of specialization, only thosereading marerials which werementioned by at least fiverespondents were mcluded. Twospecialization conrent areasincluded reading mareriah with atleast five mentions: administra­tion and organization and collegestudent development

Of the readmg materialspreviously identified for special­ists in administration and organi­zation of higher education, onlyone selection, Cohen and March's(1974), I cadershjp and Ambiau­jty' The American ColleiePresjdent, was mentioned morethan five times and qualified forthis cmrent list Other readingselections in this caregory were allconremporary, (publication datesranged form 1988 to 1991) withRobert Birnbaum's, How CoI­leies Work.. and Lee M. Bolmanand Terrence E. Deal's,RefrnmjDi Orianizations, headingthe list (See Table 1). Similarly,all four of the reading mareriahidentified for specialists m 'collegestudent development were of aconremporary nature, beingpublished between 1990 and 1992(See Table 2).

In Weidman, Nelson andRadzyminski's 1984 article, nomaterials received enough support

to be listed for specialists instudent development. The twoareas of specialization, curriculumand instruction and the commu­nity college, that did receiveenough support in 1984 did notqualify this time, although onecommunity college text, Cohenand Brawer's, The AmericanCommunity Col1eae, did makethis basic reading list In compar­ing these results with the Bibliog­raphy of ''Great Books" in StudentAffairs listed in the Fall 1992edition of the NASPA Journal,only two books, Delworth,Hanson and Associares', StudentServices and Creamer andAssociates', CoIleae StudentDeyelOJ)IDent; Theory andPractice for the 1990's were onboth lists. Neither the Kuh andSchuh book, nor the Pascarallaand Terenzini book included onthe current list were eligible forthe NASPA listing according tothe crlreria cited. StudentServjces was the second highest"rated" book on the NASPA listexceeded only by A. W.Chickering's, Education andIdentity. Ten other books in theNASPA compilation receivedmore support than D. W. Creamerand Associates' book.

Ten reading materials werementioned more than five timesfor all students of higher educa­tion, with Pascarella andTerenzini's (1991), How Col1eaeMfes;ts Students, being mentionedthe most ( See Table 3).Rudolph's, The American Colleaeand Ilniyersity' A History(mentioned 19 times) and

Brubacher and Rudy's,~Education in Transition' AHistoty Qf American CQlleKes and1Jniversities 1636-1976 (men­tiQned 13 times) were bothmentioned in studies by Benderand Riegel, Reid and Goetz, andWeidman, Nelson, andRadzyminski. Clark Kerr' s,~1Jses Qf the University, also wasmentioned by Bender and Riegeland Weidman and Associates, andwas identified as essential readingfor all students of higher educa­tion by 12 respondents.

On Weidman, Nelson andRadzyminski's (1984) basicreading list for students of highereducation, only one of the twelveStudy of Higher Education bookslisted was included on a specialistlisting. In contrast, the current listincludes three of the specialistbooks listed among the ten citedas basic reading for all students ofhigher education.

An addition to,the listing ofreading materials for all studentsof higher education, and the onlynon-book to be identified at leastfive times was The Chronicle QfHiKher Education. Other mono­graphs, papers, and articles wereidentified by respondents, but noconsensus was reached on thosematerials,DISCUSSION

This examination of what thehigher education communityexpects its students to readprovides both a clear and compel­ling portrait of expected knowl­edge. As illustrated in Table 3,students of higher education areexpected to be current and

knowledgeable of traditional andcontempo~studentdevclop­

ment issues, higher educationhistory, and the administrationand philosophy of higher educa­tion. Only one reference wasmade to the community college,and although it was on thereading list for all students, it wasnot included on the communitycollege specialist list contained inthe 1984 study by Weidman andAssociates.

In all, three reading materialscould be classified as "classics"based on the fact that they werepublished over twenty years ago,yet retain their importance in thefield of higher education. Thesetexts include Rudolph's,~American CQlleKe and Univer­sity· A Histoty (1962),Brubacher and Rudy's original(1958) HiKher Education inTransition' A History Qf Ameri­can CQIleKes and 1Jniversities,and Kerr's, The Uses Qf theUniversity (1963).

Additionally, several readingmaterials identified could beclassified as "contemporaryclassics" based on the strongdegree of consensus eachachieved. In particular, thecurrent data were interpreted toindicate both Pascarella andTerenzini's HOW ColIeKe AffectsStudents (1991) and Birnbaum'sHOW ColleKes Work (1988) to fitthe criteria of contemporaryclassic. As noted (See Table 3),both of these contemporaryclassics were published byJossey-Bass. Only two of theeight reading materials identified

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54

in the content areas were notpublished by Jossey-Bass.Consistent with Weidman andAssociates' comments a decadeago, Jossey-Bass continues to be amajor factor in the publication ofmaterials related to the study ofhigher education.

Ginn Press, however, appearsto be gaining strength in thepublication of materials related tohigher education. Ginn Presspublishes the ASHE ReaderSeries which was named to thebasic reading list for all studentsof higher education. Each "book"in this series is composed ofarticles and manuscripts relatingto a particular content area. Theefforts of Jossey-Bass and Ginnshould be applauded, as well asthose independent universitypresses who continue to recognizethe significance of the field ofhigher education.

In reviewing the content ofreading materials identifi~ fewdifferences were noted with thematerials identified by Weidman,Nelson, and Radzyminski. Ineach case, the history and func­tioning of higher educationinstitutions dominated thoughtabout what to expect of highereducation program graduates.

Three primary differencesexist between the 1984 work andthis study, the first of which is thestrength of college studentdevelopment reading materials.In 1984 this area of specializationdid not generate its own list ofbooks and Chickering's, Eduwl:tioo and Identity was the onlystudent development book to be

listed as basic reading forstudents of higher education. Theemergence of student develop­ment related readings in 1993may at least, in part, be due to thecurrent climate within highereducation which dictates oralludes to the quality of studentlife and the role and importanceof climate and culture in achiev­ing academic success.

The second difference wasthe identification of~Chronicle of Hieber Education asan expected reading for studentsin higher education. By citingthis as required reading material,respondents seem to be indicatingthat students have an obligation tobe aware and knowledgeable ofthe different current trends andissues which affect highereducation.

The third difference was theomission of books for 10 special­ists in both curriculum andinstruction as well as the commu­nity college. In fact, none of thetexts listed by Weidman, Nelson,and Radzyminski in 1984 onthose two lists were included onthe current lists. Also worthnoting is that the only two books,besides Cohen and March's text,that continue to be listed as basicreading for all higher educationstudents are both historical,Rudolph's, The AmericanColleee and 1Jniyersity: Alli.sl.w and Brubacher andRudy's, Hiaber FAucation inTransitioD' A History of Ameri­can Co1leees and Universities.

Respondents seem to beindicating that higher education

students should have a generalknowledge of the history of highereducation, an understanding ofwhat enhances and diminishesstudent success on campus, thefunctioning and purpose of ahigher education institution, and ageneral knowledge of currenttrends in higher education. Thesethemes add validation to the 1984work, but expand its base to abroader interpretation suggestingthat students must be not only anexpert in an area of specialization,but a well-rounded generalist.However, despite this broaderbase, these lists continue to have ahighly restricted national (USA)and temporal (all but two pub­lished in the last two decades)focus (Drew & Schuster, 1980;and Weidman, Nelson, &Radzyminski, 1984).

While this examination ofreading materials perceived to bebasic to the study of highereducation provides some frame­work for a better understanding ofthe expectations of highereducation program students, theneed continues to pursue afoundation of commonaltiesbetween programs to fullycomprehend what it is we expectof our students. Through acontinued examination of readingmaterials and other resources forstudent learning, we, as a commu­nity of scholars, can betterdecipher our roles and responsi­bilities within programs, institu­tions, and professional networks.

ReferepcesBender, R. L., & Riegel, P. S. (1973).

Who's reading what in highereducation. ASHFJERIC HieherEducation Research Currents.Washington: AmericanAssociation for Higher Educa­tion.

Crosson, P. H., & Nelson, G. M.(1986). A profile of highereducation doctoral programs.The Review of Hieber Educa­!iQn, 335-357.

Dressel, P., & Mayhew, L. (1974).Hieher education as a field of~. San Francisco: Jossey­Bass.

Grace, J. D., & Fife, J. D. (1986). Aproftle of student expectations of&faduate proerams in hi&hereducation: A marketin&lWm"Oacb. Paper presented at theAnnual Meeting of the Associa­tion for the study of HigherEducation, San Antonio, TIC

Newell, L. J., & Kuh, G. D. (1989)._Taking stock: The highereducation professoriate. ~Review of Hi&ber Education,63- 90.

Pascarella, T. and Terenzini, P. Howcollen affects students. SanFrancisco: Jossey-Bass, 1991.

Townsend, B. K., & Mason, S. o.(1990). Career paths of higbereducation doctoral programs.The Review of Hi&her Educa!iQn, 63 - 81.

Weidman, J., Nelson, G. M., &Radzyminski, W. J. (1984).Books perceived to be basicreading for students of highereducation. The Review ofHieber Education, 279 - 287.

55

Table 1.Reading Materials for Specialists In Administration

and Organization

Iotal Mentions

Birnbaum, Robert. How colle&es work.San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1988.

Bolman, Lee G. and Deal, Ierrence E.Reframio& ornnizations. San Francisco:Jossey-Bass, 1991.

Cohen, Michael D. and March, James G.Leadership and ambi&uUy: The Americancolle&e president. Second Edition.Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press,1986 (1974).

Peterson, M. W. and Mets, L.A. (Eds).Key resources on hi&her education&Overnance. maogement. and leadershiP.San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1989.

-Cited by Drew and Schuster (1980).bcited by Reid and Goetz (1982)CCited by Weidman, Nelson, and Radzyminski (1984).

9

9

6

Table 2.Reading Materials for Specialists In College Student

Development

Iotal Mentions

Delworth, Ursula, Hanson, G.R., andAssociates. Student Services. SecondEdition. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1990.

Kuh, George D. and Schuh, J. H. Involvin&mllwi. Washington: National Associationof Student Personnel Administrators, 1992.

Pascarella, I. and Ierenzini, P. How colle&eaffects students. San Francisco:Jossey-Bass, 1991.

8

7

7

56

Creamer, D. G., and Associates. 5Colle&e student development:Theoty and practice for the 1990's. Alexandria,VA: American College Personnel Association, 1990.

Table 3.Basic Reading Materials for All Students of Higher Education

Iilk Total Mentions

Pascarella, T. and Terenzini, P. How 21colle&e affects students. San Francisco:Jossey-Bass, 1991.

Rudolph, Frederick. The American colle&e l~

and university: A history. New York:Vintage Books, 1962.

Birnbaum, R. How col1eees work. 18San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1988.

Brubacher, John S. and Rudy, Willis. 13"b,cHi&her education in transition: Ahistory of American colleges anduniversities 1636-1976. 3rd Edition.New York: Harper and Row, 1976 (1958).

Association for the Study of Higher Education 13Reader Series. Lexington, MA: Ginn Press.

Kerr, Clark. The Uses of the university. 12"C

Revised Edition. Cambridge: Harvard UniversityPress, 1972 (1963).

Clark, Burton. The hi&her education system. 10Berkeley and Los Angeles: University ofCalifornia Press, 1983.

Delworth, Ursula, Hanson, G. and Associates. 10Student Services. Second Edition. SanFrancisco: Jossey-Bass, 1990.

Cohen, A. M. and Brawer, F. B.~ 10American community college. SanFrancisco: Jossey-Bass, 1972.

The Chronicle of Hi&her Education 10

llCited by Bender and Riegel (1973).bcited by Reid and Goetz (1982).CCited by Weidman, Nelson, and Radzyminski (1984).

57

Beyond the Dilemma ofPolitical Correctness:

Proactive Approaches toBattling Campus

IntoleranceTom Parent

58

A'ttend has emerged.Political correctness is a societalmovement that bas manifesteditself on many college campusesin recent years, and as a result, hasmade the desire to curb hatespeech among students apriority.For better or worse, this ttend hasstirred up several issues regardingFirst Amendment freedoms. Itsramifications are far reaching,leaving no public institution or itspolicies ootouched. How institu­tions respond to First Amendmentchallenges ooder the weight ofpolitical correctness, will defmehow effectively they can build anenvironment where differencesare appreciated and respect for allis honored.

Under any moniker, themovement Wlquestionably hadnoble beginnings. What reason­able institution would not want tohold students responsible for the

Tom Parent ('93) is the AreaCoordinator at Denison University inGranville, Ohio

negative impact their speech ortheir actions had on the campuscommunity? But despite thebenevokntintentionsofpoliticalcorrectness, legality dictates thatschools must tread carefully whenFirst Amendment issues areinvolved.

Recently as many as threehundred institutions of highereducation have adopted codes thatin some way limit students' freespeech (O'Sullivan, 1992).Young and Gehring (1977) haveidentified the need for institutionsto enact and enforce necessaryrules and regulations to ensurethat a campus' educationalmission is upheld. Yet despite theHazelwood~DWW~

Knblrneier (1988) decision, thecourts have been reluctant inmany cases to freely allowinstitutions to limit their students'free speech solely on grounds thatthe speech is inconsistent with theschool's educational goals (Black,1991). According to the ruling inthat case, if a school can justifyregulation of students' speech on

the grounds that the speech nmscounter to the school's educa­tional mission, the court willuphold the regulation. Schoolofficials can control free expres­sion if, in the words of theSupreme Court, "their actions arereasonably related to legitimatepedagogical concerns" (cited inPrice, et al., 1988, p. lOa).Although Hazelwood dealtspecifically with secondaryschools, Price, et al., (1988) worrythat if the courts are willing to letthe high schools determine whichspeech is acceptable, thenadministrators at the post­secondary level might soon getthe chance as well.

As much as some schoolswould want to enact speech codesthat follow politically correctguidelines, thus disallowingpotentially hurtful speech, thisdoes not always pass constitu­tional muster. "Campuses wishingto attack intolerance through rulesand regulations must do so in amanner consistent with today'slegal standards" (Black, 1991,p.3). This dilemma has been asource of confusion and frustra­tion for student affairs.

The Supreme Court has setguidelines as to the degree andextent of First Amendmentfreedoms (Black, 1991). How­ever, colleges and universitieshave often gone beyond thoseguidelines in attempting to assurethe safety of one group, whilecurbing the freedoms of another.This dilemma is at the crux of thepolitical correctness movement.By discouraging some types of

speech, schools are curtailing thefree and open expression ofstudents. How far can post­secondary institutions go? Moreimportantly, how far will schoolsbe able to go in the future, giventhed~ccom~itesofthe

courts and the effect they have onConstitutional interpretation? Wealso cannot overlook the academicovertones of the political correct­ness movement. Some facultyhave noted that to stifle opendebate in the classroom and on thecampus is to stifle true learning(O'Sullivan, 1992; Henry, 1991).

BATTLING INTOLERANCEWITHOUT CENSORSHIP

In order to put weight behindtheir commitment to diversity andthe fight against intolerance oncampus, some instimtions haveattempted to curb smdent expres­sion by enacting hate speechregulations. On campus and in thecommunity, these regulationshave not fared well when juxta­posed against the First Amend­ment. In a recent court decision,the city of St. Paul, Minnesotawas blocked from enforcing amunicipal ordinance that placed ageneral ban on hate speech. TheU.S. Supreme Court said that thelaw was too broad, in that itimposed special restrictions onthose speakers who "expressviews on the disfavored subjectsof 'race, color, creed or gender.'At the same time, it permitsdisplays containing abusiveinvective if they are not addressedto those topics" <BAYY...Q1xmSL faul Minnesota. 1992).

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Additionally, the court ruled thatthe law went beyond the regula­tion of content; it in fact at­tempted to regulate a viewpointThe ordinance was declaredooconstitutional, in part because itprohibited otherwise permittedspeech solely on the basis of thesubjects the speech addresses.

Recently, the University ofWisconsin at Madison developeda strategy to deal with intolerance,insensitivity and harassment on itscampus. That plan too was struckdown by the courts, in essence, onthe grounds that it was overlyvague and unduly broad. Thecourt argued, and many scholarsagree, that the policy actuallydiscouraged rather than promoteddiversity by stifling the invigorat­ing exchange of ideas. "Anatmosphere of censorship inhibitshonest dialogue and legitimatescholarship" (Pavela, 1990, p. 97).

For post-secondary institu­tions, this means that whileregulations regarding hate speechand offensive language may beconsistent with the school'seducational mission, they may notbe consistent with the law ooderthe First Amendment. "Campusattempts to address intolerancethrough rules and regulationswithout a careful assessment oflegal risk and impact on academicfreedom are destined for failure"(Black, 1991).

The trend toward politicallyincorrect speech regulations havefocused attention on the dilemmabetween the right of students tospeak freely, and the right ofothers to have a safe haven from

hurtful environments. Thisdilemma also raises the philo­sophical question: Do institutionsof higher education have theobligation to create an atmo­sphere in which all students arerespected and free from abusiveverbal behavior? Or do they havethe obligation to create on theircampuses an atmosphere wherefree and open expression isembraced and the robust ex­change of ideas is paramount?Are the two mutually exclusive?Obviously, they do not have tobe. Institutions should worktowards creating an environmentin which free dialogue is encour­aged, while at the same time,respect for differences is honored.

There are effective ways tobattle intolerance withoutsignificant risk of running afoulof the First Amendment. Theinstitution must create an environ­ment in which people feel safefrom abusive speech, but at thesame time feel free to speak theirminds. For a campus tom apart byintolerance, this will not beaccomplished overnight. Onlythrough deliberate and thoughtfulstrategies can schools foster thiskind of accepting atmosphere.

Institutions should placeemphasis on education andstudent development, rather thanpunishment, when dealing withincidents of intolerance. When anincident occurs, faculty andstudent affairs staff shouldrespond by engaging the campusin discussion aroood any issuesthe event may have aroused. Thisis a slow, deliberate process and

should be done through as muchindividual contact as possible.Person-to-person conversations bystudent affairs staff at all levels,including greek leaders, residencehall directors, student governmentadvisors, etc., is essential. Thecampus will want to discuss theincident, and this is a greatopportunity for faculty and staff tobring the issues out into the open,where invigorating dialogue cantake place, rather than choosing tonot engage the community, thusrelegating the incident to thedarkened comers of the campusrumor mill.

li incidents of intolerance dooccur on campus, or ifhate groupscome to speak, the institutionshould embrace it as an educa­tional opportunity and programaround it. Institutions who havedealt with this very issue, such asFort Lewis College in Durango,Colorado, have found that turninga potentially explosive situationinto an educational one was aneffective response, which aided indefusing the heightened tensions.What better time to get thecampus talking about racerelations than when a hate groupis scheduled to appear? Afterhateful words have been uttered,after racial epithets have beenhurled, after controversialspeakers have visited the campus,that is when students and thecampus community are ripe todiscuss, argue, and ponder themeanings of these events.

Substantial emphasis shouldbe placed on multiculturalseminars and workshops. These

should be facilitated by personnellearned in student developmenttheory, and with multiculturaltraining and should be integralcomponents of areas such asstudent staff training, studentgovernment sessions, and studentleadership development pro­grams. These workshops shouldnot be seminars on politicalcorrectness; rather they shouldreflect the institutional commit­ment of respect for all campusgroups while embracing free andopen student expression.

Programs, such as freshmanorientation and tours of campusby the admissions office, can setthe standard by making it clearfrom the outset the institution'spolicies and commitment to freespeech and dissent. These areexcellent forums for discussion,and effective utilization couldmaximize their effectiveness. Avery clear and early messageshould be sent that the schoolactively promotes the differenceof opinions, under the auspices ofmutual respect for all students.Statements such as these, how­ever, are of little use if theinstitution does nothing to supporttheir rhetoric. Students will beable to tell, almost from the fIrStday they arrive on campus,whether or not the school really iscommitted to these ideals. Afterthe first incident of intolerance,students will watch to see how theschool reacts. If the institutiondoes nothing to address the issue,a very clear message is sent to thecampus community that intoler­ance will be tolerated. That is

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why discussions, programs andworkshops are so important. Theyreflect the institution's commit­ment to fighting intolerance in atangible way.

Institutions should developintegrated academic courseloadsthat reflect the school's commit­ment to diversity. Students shouldbe required, or strongly encour­aged, to take classes whichdiscuss multicultural issues. Ifthese classes do not exist, theyshould be developed and inte­grated into all segments ofacademic discourse. In alldisciplines, the institution'scommitment to these topicsshould be reflected.

Institutions should publicizetheir commitment to an environ­ment of diverse opinions in asmany ways as possible, repeatedlysending the message to thecampus community that intoler­ance is not acceptable in aneducational environment Allforms of media should be utilizedincluding campus publications,campus radio station, admissionsapplications, housing contracts,faculty recruitment information,etc. A continual onslaught ofinstitutional messages shouldmake clear exactly where theschool stands on these issues.

Lastly, and most importantly,it is essential that student affairsprofessionals role model appropri­ate behavior at all times. Theyshould not let acts of intolerancego tmchallenged, and theycertainly should not be involvedin any similar acts, on or offcampus. Students will be looking

to the student affairs professionalsas leaders in the fight to endintolerance. Absolute adherenceto positive role modeling iscritical.

The fight to end intoleranceon campus is by no means aneasy one. Nor is it something thatwill be accomplished withoutseveral potentially significantsetbacks, such as backlash bygroups opposed to theinstitution's message of mutualrespect But the commitment tothese issues must not falter.Respect for all and free and openexpression can exist at the sametime. An institution can and mustcreate an atmosphere where thesetwo ideals are fostered andembraced.

THE IMPORTANCE OFCREDmILITY AND STRONGLEADERSHIP IN STUDENTAFFAIRS

In order to effectivelyrespond to First Amendmentchallenges on campus, a studentaffairs division needs to havealready formed strong relation­ships with the many influentialsegments of the campus commu­nity. It is important that thestudent affairs staff establishtrust, respect, good communica­tion and a reputation of fairnessamong all components of theinstitution, including students,staff, faculty, and campus andadministrative leaders. It isimperative that when the school isfaced with these challenges,student affairs professionals havethe mechanisms in place to

respond with strong leadership.This can only be accomplishedthrough flfSt gaining the respectand influence of the campuscommunity. There should be noquestion in the eyes of the campusin times of crisis, that the studentaffairs department is a capableorganization ready to effectivelyand equitably handle the situation.This, obviously, cannot beachieved overnight. Rather, it is along-term accomplishment,coming to fruition in the day-to­day contact that student affairsleaders have with all segments ofthe campus community.

If the student affairs depart­ment has the reputation of beingan effective leader, its decisionswill be more easily accepted bythe campus community. Establish­ing this foundation of trust is noteasy, but strong student affairsleadership will serve to greatlyfacilitate this relationship, andthus the perception of effectivehandling of First Amendmentchallenges.

GENERALSTRATEG~

FOR FIRST AMENDMENTAWARENESS

Student affairs professionalsneed to understand the complexrole that the First Amendmentplays in regard to students' rights.As leaders in higher education,student affairs leaders mustbecome educated on the subject,and in tum, fmd avenues toeducate the campus about therights and privileges guaranteedby the First Amendment.

An extremely useful way to

educate student affairs profes­sionals about the intricacies of theFirst Amendment in highereducation is through graduatecoursework for students enteringthe field. New professionalclasses focus on virtually everyother area of the relationshipbetween higher education and thestudent. Academic emphasisneeds to be placed on the law andits effect on the student affairsprofession.

Student affairs, as a viableand vital entity in post-secondaryeducation, cannot afford to letnew professionals enter the fieldwho are blind to the responsibili­ties, rights, privileges, andobligations of the First Amend­ment. The resulting breach ofstudent faith, caused by ignoranceof those who work closely withthem, could seriously underminethe credibility of the profession.

Tying in closely with theacademic approach, is theimportance of frequent seminars,workshops and staff developmenttraining on the topic. Studentaffairs staff need to keep in touchwith the issues that could affecttheir relationships with students.As institutional policies react tochanges in the law, the professionneeds to effectively adapt.Perhaps annual student affairsconferences such as the NationalAssociation of Student PersonnelAdministtators (NASPA) or theAssociation of College PersonnelAdministrators (ACPA) would beappropriate forums for theseseminars.

While student affairs staff63

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should have a good worltingknowledge of the FirstAmendment's implications onhigher education, they cannot beexpected to be legal experts. Thatis why a strong relationship withthe institution's legal counseloffice is important Student affairsstaff should feel comfortable inutilizing the expertise of the staffattorneys.

The education of studentaffairs professionals on theintricacies of the law and the FirstAmendment in higher education isessential to an effective studentaffairs department Preparation,with emphasis on the resourcesavailable to student affairs, needsto start at the graduate level andcontinue throughout one's career.With a solid background in thelegal issues affecting education,student affairs administrators willbe able to more effectively adviseand educate students.

NEW CHALLENGES AWAITAs higher education ap­

proaches the 21st Century, onecan only speculate which issueswill be at the forefront of discus­sion on college campuses in theyears to come. Students, it seems,will always use the collegecampus as the sounding board fornew and controversial ideas. Thisshould continue to be encouraged.Student affairs professionals mustcontinue to clarify and enhancetheir role as leaders and educatorsdevoted to helping students grow,develop, and ask questions. Theywill need to be ready to meet thenew challenges awaiting the next

generation of campus officials.Through proactive preparationand purposeful leadership, studentaffairs professionals in highereducation can meet these chal­lenges.

The assurance of FirstAmendment rights to studentsmust not be circumvented. Ifstudent affairs professionalsintend to build a community oflearning, one which positivelysupports student development andgrowth, the right to question,dissent and speak. one's mindmust be guaranteed on collegecampuses. Institutions need torealize, however, that hurtfulspeech and degradation cannegatively affect students'development, learning, and senseof belonging. That is why schoolsmust battle intolerance, notthrough censorship, but throughfostering an environment inwhich differences are appreciated.Institutions of higher educationshould not tolerate intolerance.But, they also cannot advocatecensorship. A common groundmust be achieved, one in whichFirst Amendment rights areguaranteed, and respect for all isassured.

ReferencesBlack, D. (Ed.). (1991, January). First

Amendment on campus: Fourexceptions. Pellpective:The Campus Leeal Monthly.6(1),1-3. Henry, W. A., (1991,April 1). Upside down in thegroves of academe. Time.pp.66-69.

Hazelwood School District v.Kublmeier, 108 S. Ct. 562

(1988).O'Sullivan, J. (Ed.). (1992, April 18).

Sensitivity Fascism. NationalReview p. 19.

Pavela, G. (Ed.). (May, 1990). Is ittime to limit freedom of speechon campus? Synthesis: Law andPolicy in Hi&her Education 2,97-99,108-109.

Price, J. R., Levine, A H. & Cary, E.(1988).lM~2f students.Carbondale, IL: Southern IllinoisUniversity Press.

R.A.V. v. City of St. Paul, Minnesota,1992 WL 135564, June 22, 1992.

Young, D. P. & Gehring, D. D.(1977).JM~~~

~~ Asheville, NC:College AdministrationPublications.

65

Identity Development: IsOne Theory Enough?

Sue Reimondo

66

There is a great deal of argumentamong Student Mfairs profession­als concerning identity develop­ment theories. One debate I findparticularly troubling is whetherstudent affairs administratorsshould -develop and use onecomprehensive identity develop­ment theory for all students orshould a number of theories beemployed, each of which ad­dresses the unique needs andexperiences of a particularsubgroup of students.

This author believes it isWlI'ealistic to assume that oneidentity development theory couldever be comprehensive enough toincorporate all subgroups cur­rently populating our campuses.The theories of Erikson (1968),Chickering (1969), Kohlberg(1969), and Perry (1970), whichare the underpinnings of theprofession today are based on theassumption that all studentsdevelop according to modelsbased on an homogenous campuspopulation of eighteen-to-twenty­year-old, middle class whitemales. Theorists, such asGilligan (1982), have shownthat this traditional model is

Sue Reimondo ('94) is the Managerof University Village at ColoradoState University.

inadequate when attempting toexplain the moral development ofwomen. Evans, and Levine(1990) discuss numerous theorieswhich address the issue ofidentity development in gays,lesbians, and bisexuals. Ethnicinfluences create obviousdifferences in attitudes, values,learning styles and goals ofminority students. Jones (1990)compares and contrastsEurocentric, Afrocentric,Sinocentric, Hispanic, andAmerican Indian culturalidentities making a compellingargument for understanding thesedifferences in order to support thedevelopmental needs of manydifferent people. Cross (1987)and Schlossberg et al., (1989)have determined that adultlearners come to higher educationwith a unique set of issues andconcerns which are not addressedby traditional theories.

There is a danger in believingthat one identity developmenttheory can be developed whichwould provide adequate insightand understanding of all groupsof people. The thought itself maystem from a lack of culturalidentity in Euro-Americans. Theconcept of identity developmentis culture bound. Consider thefact most white Americans cannot

identify their cultural heritage,claiming instead to be "allAmerican" or part of the greatAmerican melting pot Thus, themajority population in our societyfind the concept of culturalidentity alien and, understand­ably, react with impatience oreven anger to minority groupswho identify strongly with theircultural heritage. Jones (1990)explains that for many whiteAmericans the concept of culturalidentity does not exist.

These whites have divorcedthemselves from their own

ethnic history...It is reason­able to assume that whiteswho deny their own ethnicitywill reject ethnic groups whowant to stress and celebratetheir own cultural uniqueness.Educational pursuits thatfocus on nonwhite culturescan frustrate white studentswho deny the value ofethnicity. They continue tobelieve that everyone couldor should assimilate. (pp.63-65)Student Mfairs is predomi­

nately a Eurocentric professiongrounded in Eurocentric theoriesof student development. There isa danger in insisting that allstudents conform to existingcampus norms with minoradjustments made to accommo­date primarily convenience needsof an increasingly heterogeneouspopulation. The belief that onecomprehensive theory can bedeveloped and used for eachsubgroup perpetuates notions ofcultural superiority, sexism,

racism, classism, ageism, andhomophobia.

There is no one theory largeenough to explain how the earthturns, why seasons come and go,or how new life is created.Instead, principles and theories ofbiology, chemistry, physics andphilosophy are drawn together toexplain the behaviors of ournatural world. Why is there notroom enough in identity develop­ment theory for thought andideas which may thoroughlyexplain the behaviors of only asubgroup of our campus popula­tions but when drawn togetheroffer a comprehensive anddynamic whole?

ReferencesChickering, A. (1969). Education

and identity. San Francisco:Jossey-Bass.

Cross, P.K. (1987). Adults as~. San Francisco:Jossey-Bass.

Erikson, E. H. t1968). Identity:Youth and crisis. New York:W. W. Norton and Co.

Evans, N. And Levine, H. (1990).Perspectives on sexualorientation. In L. V. Moore(Ed.) Evolving theoreticalperspectives on students (p. 49)

Gilligan, C. (1982). In a differentvoice. Cambridge, MA:Harvard University Press.

Jones, W.T. (1990). Perspectives onethnicity. In L. V. Moore(Ed.) Evolving theoreticalperspectives on students (p. 59).

Kohlberg, L. (1969). Stage andsequence: The cognitivedevelopment approach tosocialization. In D. Goslin(Ed.), Handbook of socialization

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theory and research. Chicago:Rand McNally.

Perry, W., Jr. (1970). Forms ofintellectual and ethicaldeve1o.pment in the colleeeyears: A scheme. New York:Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Schlossberg, N. K., Lynch, A. Q.,Chickering, A.W. (1989).Improvine bieher educationenvironments for adults. SanFrancisco: Jossey-Bass.

From Home to Hall:An Ecological Transition

Kym Wilsonand

James H. Banning

INTRODUCTIONSince over two-thirds of

students entering four-yearinstitutions of higher educationlive in residence halls during theirfreshman year (Boyer, 1987) andspend approximately 70 percentof their time in their residentialenvironments (Baum and Valins,1977), on-campus housingfacilities can be considered a"home away from home." Inaddition, the student's move from"home" to "hall" can be viewed asan ecological transition.Bronfenbrenneer (1979) dermesan ecological transition asoccuring "whenever a person'sposition in the ecological environ­ment is altered as the result of achange in role, setting or both."The general application of theconcept of ecological transition tofreshman year adjustment hasbeen suggested by Banning(1989). The purpose of thisarticle, however, is to lookspecially at the "home to hall"move as an ecological transition

Kym Wilson ['93J is currently livingin Oregon. James Banning is aProfessor with the School ofOccupa­tional and Educational Studies atColorado State University.

and to use the description of thestudent's room at "home" incomparsion to the students roomin the "hall"as a way to view thepotential stress of the tranistion.If the sending environment(home) is significantly differentfrom the receiving environment(residence hall), the degree ofstress on the student will be moresevere and perhaps the likelihoodof attrition will increase. Asnoted by Astin (1977), studentsatisfaction with campus housingis a critical factor of success andretention in the campus environ­ment.

THE PHYSICAL ENVIRON·MENT OF THE HOME

Three hundred forty-fivestudents returned a survey whichask them for a description of theirfurnishings in their room athome (See table 1).

THE SOCIAL ENVIRON·MENT OF THE HOME

Critical to understanding thehome bedroom social environ­ment is the question of occupancyor sharing of the room. Thesurvey results indicated that ofthe 345 students completing the

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swvey, 89 percent indicated thatthey did not share their room withany other family member. Elevenpercent shared their room with atleast one sibling. Thirty-threepercent indicated they did notshare a bathroom.

Other questions of impor­tance are the social issues ofautonomy and responsibility ofthe home bedroom. Several of thesurvey questions gatheredinformation in this area. Thestudy showed that 85.5 percent ofthe students were able to decoratetheir room (most of the time),44.9 percent purchased thedecorations (most of the time), butonly 16.5 percent indicated theyactually purchased the appliances.

TABLEt

Type of %y %NFurnishing

Television 42.6 57.4Bed 98.6 1.4Couch 8.4 91.6Table 29.0 71.0Chairs 64.9 35.1Mirror 75.9 24.1Closet 95.4 4.6Desk 75.4 24.6Refrigerator 4.3 95.7Microwave 2.0 98.0Toaster Oven 1.4 98.6Bookshelf 75.7 24.3Stereo 84.6 15.4Posters 89.6 10.4Lamp 90.1 9.9Air Conditioner 21.2 78.8Dresser 89.4 10.4

PHYSICALISOCIAL INTER­ACTIONS

Important to all ecologies isthe physicallsocial interaction.This relationship is also importantto understanding the home to halltransition. Most bedrooms inmiddle class homes in Americarun about 10' by 9' in size plus orminus a few square feet. On theother hand, most universityresidence hall rooms run aboutthe same size, but are most oftenoccupied by two persons ratherthan one. While the furnishingsprovided by most universities aresimilar to the home (bed, table,desk, chair, closet, dresser, andlamp) and most campuses allowamenities (television, stereos, andfans), they have to fit in half thespace of the home bedroom dueto the prevalent two per roompolicy on college campuses. Thisinteraction basically produces anincrease in social density and atthe same time produces anincrease in physical density (halfthe physical space for the typicalfurnishings). In the environmen­tal psychology literature, both ofthese conditions have long beenassociated with increased stress.

The bathroom environmentalso represents similar dynamics,in that social density is increasedfor nearly every student. Manystudents (one-third) had privatebathrooms and none shared theirbathroom facilities with 20 to 30students as would be the case inthe common "gang" bathroomarrangements in most college anduniversity residence halls. In

addition, no one in the homeenvironment will fmd the bath­room 30 to 40 feet down the hall!

These descriptive compari­sons show the contrast betweenthe sending environment and thereceiving environment in terms ofboth physical space, social space,and the interaction of physical andsocial density. Added to thesedifferences is the usual situationin which the roommate is assignedrather than chosen and is un­known in terms of personality andlife-style preferences.

The "implications" questionis whether the nature of thetransition from home to schoolproduces stress that is appropriate"grist" for the development ofstudents or whether the stress isanother piece to the attrition andfailure rates of students in highereducation.

IMPLICATIONS

New constructionThe majority of residential

buildings on college campusestoday were constructed in the late50s and 60s. Because of the rapidincrease of people returning touniversities during this time,many institutions were promptedto construct large facilitiesquickly to accommodate thesestudents. Most of these buildingswere designed with large commu­nity bathrooms and small roomswhere two students were expectedto live (Corbett, 1973). Thisarrangement is referred to as thetraditional double-loaded corridor.Riker (1956) notes that the

"rooms" of this arrangementcontain about the same spaceneeded to park two cars. (Maybethis fact holds a possible solutionto the campus parking problem!)The corridor arrangement appearsto be no longer satisfactory oracceptable to an increasingnwnberofmcomingsm~nts

(Sunstad, 1991). As summarizedby Einhorn (1988), the corridorsociety and shared facilities oftraditional residence halls leavemuch to be desired in terms ofaesthetics, privacy and opportuni­ties for social interaction. Theconcept of ecological transitionhelps to understand this increasinglevel of frustration with universityhousing. What informationshould new construction takeinto account? Several trends areclear. One, stu~nts have theirown bedrooms in their homes.Sharing a bedroom in the homehas decreased from 16 percent in1950 to only four percent in 1990according to the reports of theU.S. Census Bureau.

Second, students arrive oncampus with twice as manypersonal items as their predeces­sors (Donnelly, 1992). Third, thesocial trend of "cocooning"should be taken into accountPopcorn (1991) defines cocooningas "the impulse to go inside whenit just gets too tough and scaryoutside." It is a gathering ofpersonal items into a personalspace that is warm and safe. Shealso notes it is not about "home, tt

but it is a state of mind and we"want our cocoon to travel withus." How safe, cozy, and personal

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are current residence halls?Student residences in the future(not dorms nor halls) should bedesigned to house students insingle rooms that are larger andprovide more opportunity forpersonalization (bring morepersonal furniture and other itemsfrom home). How do you balancethis prescription with the issue ofcost? It seems that historically thebalance was on the side of cost,not on the side of student needand comfort. Despite the claimsfor the "grist" this imbalanceproduces for the "developmentalmill," it will probably be morecost effective in the long run totake into account student needsand the nature of the ecologicaltransition from home to hall.

PmKrammatic ImplicationsSeveral options are open to

housing personnel short ofdemolishing old buildings! Oneoption is to revisit room furniturepolicies. Heilweil (1973) slatesroom furniture is the single mostimportant factor in the student'sroom and is perhaps the leastunderstood. Many institutionsrequire the student use only theuniversity owned furniture, but toallow the student to bring theirown furniture from home wouldserve the dual purpose of easingthe ecological transition fromhome to hall and produce anenvironment more conducive tofeeling safe and at home(cocooning).

To accommodate the oppor­tunity for students to bring theirown furniture and to allow more

students to live by themselves, thesingle room programs recentlyimplemented by many institutionsmay need to be expanded evenmore. Again, there are cost issuesassociated with presentingtraditional double occupancyrooms as singles, but the studentmarket may demand such a move.

Finally, where new construc­tion is not an available option andthe policy changes of morepersonalization and increasedsingles are not viable options,then more staff and programmaticefforts will be needed to some­how make the "home" away from"home" more homelike.

SUMMARY

Indeed the home environ­ment of many of our currentstudents is quite different fromthe "hall" environment beingoffered by colleges and universi­ties. Viewing this differencefrom the concept of an ecologicaltransition highlights both thephysical and social aspects of the"home to hall" move. Theimportance of this transition iscaptured by Schlossberg (1989):

For an individual undergoinga transition, it is not the eventor nonevent that is mostimportant but its impact, thatis, the degree to which thetransition alters his or herdaily life ... we mayassume that the more thetransition alters theindividual's life, the morecoping resources it requires,

and the longer it will take forassimilation or adaption. Oneway of examining the impactof a transition is to assess thedegree of difference betweenthe pre-transition and thepost- transition environments.(p.52)Despite costs, despite

tradition, despite "grist" for thedevelopmental mill, it is far morelogical and feasible to makechanges in the post-transitionenvironment (the hall) than to askfamilies to make changes in thepretransition environment (thehome)!

ReferenqsAstin, A. (1977). Four critical yr.ars:

Effects of colle&e on beliefs.attitudes. and knowled&e. SanFransico: Jossey-Bass, Inc.

Banning, J. (1989). Impact of collegeenvironments on freshmanstudents. In M.L. Upcraft and 1Gardner (Eds.). The freshmanyear experience. San Francisco:Jossey-Bass.

Baum, A. and Valins, S. (1977).Architecture and social behavior;Psycholo&ical studies of density.Hillsdale, NJ: LawrenceErlbaum Associates.

Boyer, E. (1987). Colle&e: Theundeuraduate experience inAmerica New Yort: Harperand Row.

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). ~ecolo&y of human development.Cambridge, MA: HarvardUniversity Press.

Corbett, lA. (1973). Student builthousing as an alternative todormitories. Environmentand Behavior. 5(4),413-504.

Einhorn, S. (1988). Townhousesdraw students. American School

and University. 60, 44h-48d.Heilweil, M. (1973). The influence

of domritory architecture onresident behavior. Environmentand Behavior. 5(4),377-409.

Popcorn, F. (1991). The popcorn~. New York: HarperCollins.

73

What Matters in College:Four Critical Years

RevisitedAlexander Astin

Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1993482 pages, $30.95

Review by David A. McKelfresh

74

What Matters in Collegeextends the research about howstudents change in college andwhy they change as they do.Alexander Astin, foundingdirector of the CooperativeInstitutional Research Project(CIRP), provides a major contri­bution to the literature on college­effects. While What Matters inCollege is organized in a similarfashion to Astin's earlier work,Four Critical Years (1977) thisbook is an entirely new study.

In his latest book, Astinstudies the effects of college on24,847 freshmen in 1985 whocompleted a follow-up question­naire in 1989. What Matters inCollege provides 192 measures ofthe college environment whichcomprise five categories, three .relating to the institution and itsfaculty (Institutional characteris­tics, Curricular characteristics,and Faculty environment) and twopertaining to the student body

Dave McKelfresh ('76) is the DirectorofResidence Life at Colorado StateUniversity.

(Student environment andIndividual involvement). Al­though this book runs the risk ofsubjecting the reader to informa­tion overload, Astin's latest studyreports what Pascarella andTerenzini (1991) concluded intheir review of approximately3,000 studies - college hasstrong effects on students.Students develop a greater senseof interpersonal and intellectualcompetence and a greatercommitment to developing ameaningful philosophy of life.They report substantial increasesin knowledge and skills, with theexception of mathematical orquantitative ability. Collegestudents tend to become lessmaterialistic and more idealisticduring the college years.

Astin found that the facultyalso have a strong impact onstudents. Campuses on whichfaculty have a strong orientationtoward students have importanteffects. Students on such cam­puses are more satisfied with theinstitution, the curriculum, and

other aspects of the educationalexperience and are more likely todevelop academically.

Astin especially notes thefollowing three items: 1) Thatbeing in a particular type ofinstitution does not necessarilylimit the effectiveness of under­graduate education, and that whatreally matters is the environmentcreated by the faculty andstudents; 2) The kinds of collegesand college experiences thatfavorably affect the student'sperformance on standardized testsare quite different from those thatenhance retention and othercognitive and affective outcomes;and 3) The single most importantenvironmental influence onstudent development is the peergroup.

As in previous studies, Astinshows that students are the mostimportant influence on otherstudents' affective development.Students values, beliefs, andaspirations change in the directionof the dominant values, beliefs,and aspirations of other students.Astin suggests that a college'sjudicious and imaginative use ofpeer groups can substantiallystrengthen its impact on studentlearning and personal develop­ment.

Astin makes no pretense thatWhat Matters in College is acomprehensive review of theliterature on college impact. HeDOtes that his book focuses almostexclusively on the traditional-agecollege undergraduate who enterscollege soon after completinghigh school. Astin further

concedes his study is limited tostudents who begin their collegestudies on a full-time basis (eventhough many will become part­timers) .

As Four Critical Years hasbeen the single most frequentlycited work in the higher educationliterature (Budd, 1990), WhatMatters in College seemsdestined for similar appeal andinfluence with educators. Admin­istrators and policy makers willfind considerable interest in theeffects of different kinds ofinstitutions, patterns of resourceutilization, and the campus"climate" on students. Astin(1992) contends that "in choosinga college, students and theirparents may find many of theresults useful, especially thosehaving to do with type of collegeattended and patterns of studentinvolvement" (p. xii). For thefaculty or staff member interestedin how students change anddevelop in college and what canbe done to enhance that develop­ment, What Matters in Collegewill undoubtedly be popular foryears to come.

ReferencesAstin, A.W. (1977). Four critical

nm. San Francisco: Jossey­Bass.

Astin, A.W. (1993). What matters incolle&e: Four critical yearsrevisited. San Francisco:Jossey-Bass.

Budd, J.M. (1990). Higher educationliterature: Characteristics ofcitation patterns. Journal ofHi&her Education. Qj (1), 2 .

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Colorado State University Journal of Student AffairsGuidelines for Manuscript Preparation

Purpose: Manuscripts should be written for the student affairsgeneralist who has broad responsibility for educational leadership,policy, staff development and management. The Editorial Boardinvites submissions of the following types of articles:

• Quantitative to Qualitative Research Articles• Current Trends in Student MfairslHigher Education• Editorial Articles• Opinion Pieces• Book Reviews

In addition, the Editorial Board will include information on the state ofthe Student Affairs program and alumni updates.

Procedure: Manuscripts should not exceed 3,000 words (approxi­mately 12 pages of double-spaced, typewritten copy, including refer­ences, tables and figures), and should not be less than 1,000 words (orabout four pages). Exceptions should be discussed with the EditorialBoard prior to submission. Before submitting an article:

1. Prepare the manuscript in accordance with the PublicationManual of the American Psychological Association, 3rd Edition.

2. Send the original manuscript and three copies to the attentionof the Journal's Content Editors.

3. Place the name of the author(s), position(s), and institutionalafftliation(s) on a separate title page.

4. Double space all portions of the manuscript, includingreferences, tables, figures and quotations.

5. Avoid sexist terminology; see pp. 43-45 of thepublication manual.

6. Do not use footnotes; incorporate the information in the text.7. Use the APA reference style, using only references

cited in the text8. Use the active voice to the largest extent possible.9. Check subject and vern agreement; singular/plural.10. Use verb tense appropriately: past tense for literature review

and description of procedures, and present tense for the resultsand discussion.

11. Proofread and double check the references before submittingyour manuscript

12. Use Microsoft Word (5.0) or internet system wheneverpossible. Submit a "rough" hard-copy manuscript. Finaldrafts can then be submitted by disk or internet.

13. Submit only manuscripts not previously published or underconsideration by other journals with national distribution.

Updated 2/94

Student Affairs in Higher Education Graduate ProgramPalmer Center1005 West Laurel StreetFort Collins, CO 80523-0002