The International Journal of

Educational Organization and Leadership

ThELEarnEr.cOm

VOLUME 19 ISSUE 4

The International Journal of Educational

Organization and Leadership

…………………………………

The Learner Collection

VOLUME 19 ISSUE 4 2012

THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND LEADERSHIP

www.thelearner.com

First published in 2013 in Champaign, Illinois, USA

by Common Ground Publishing LLC

www.commongroundpublishing.com

ISSN: 2329-1656

© 2012-2013 (individual papers), the author(s)

© 2012-2013 (selection and editorial matter) Common Ground

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The International Journal of Educational Organization and Leadership is

peer-reviewed, supported by rigorous processes of criterion-

referenced article ranking and qualitative commentary,

ensuring that only intellectual work of the greatest substance

and highest significance is published.

EDITOR(S)

…………………………………

Bill Cope, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, USA

Mary Kalantzis, University of Illinois, Urbana Champaign, USA

EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD

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Michael Apple, University of Wisconsin, Madison, USA

David Barton, Lancaster University, Milton Keynes, UK

Mario Bello, University of Science, Cuba

Manuela du Bois-Reymond, Universiteit Leiden, Leiden, The Netherlands

Bill Cope, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, USA

Robert Devillar, Kennesaw State University, Kennesaw, USA

Daniel Madrid Fernandez, University of Granada, Spain

Ruth Finnegan, Open University, Milton Keynes, UK

James Paul Gee, University of Wisconsin, Madison, USA

Juana M. Sancho Gil, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain

Kris Gutierrez, University of California, Los Angeles, USA

Anne Hickling-Hudson, Queensland University of Technology, Kelvin Grove, Australia

Roz Ivanic, Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK

Paul James, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia

Carey Jewitt, Institute of Education, University of London, London, UK

Mary Kalantzis, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, USA

Andeas Kazamias, University of Wisconsin, Madison, USA

Peter Kell, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia

Michele Knobel, Montclair State University, Montclair, USA

Gunther Kress, Institute of Education, University of London, London, UK

Colin Lankshear, James Cook University, Cairns, Australia

Kimberly Lawless, University of Illinois, Chicago, USA

Sarah Michaels, Clark University, Worcester, USA

Jeffrey Mok, Miyazaki International College, Miyazaki, Japan

Denise Newfield, University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

Ernest O’Neil, Ministry of Education, Sana’a, Yemen

José-Luis Ortega, University of Granada, Granada, Spain

Francisco Fernandez Palomares, University of Granada, Granada, Spain

Ambigapathy Pandian, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia

Miguel A. Pereyra, University of Granada, Granada, Spain

Scott Poynting, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK

Angela Samuels, Montego Bay Community College, Montego Bay, Jamaica

Michel Singh, University of Western Sydney, Sydney, Australia

Helen Smith, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia

Richard Sohmer, Clark University, Worcester, USA

Brian Street, University of London, London, UK

Giorgos Tsiakalos, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece

Salim Vally, University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

Gella Varnava-Skoura, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece

Cecile Walden, Sam Sharpe Teachers College, Montego Bay, Jamaica

Nicola Yelland, Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia

Wang Yingjie, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China

Zhou Zuoyu, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

…………………………………

Kandy Dayaram

Svetlana Guseva

Kelly Hantak

Deirdré Krüger

Blandina Makina

Lex McDonald

Vadims Murasovs

Eugenia A. Panitsides

Johan van der Jagt

Sandra Watkins

Scope and Concerns

LEARNING AND EDUCATION: THEIR BREADTH AND DEPTH

…………………………………

‘Learning’ is bigger than education. Humans are born with an innate capacity to learn, and over

the span of a lifetime learning never stops. Learning simply happens as people engage with each

other, interact with the natural world and move about in the world they have constructed. Indeed,

one of the things that makes us distinctively human is our enormous capacity to learn.

Other species learn, too, from the tiniest of insects to the smartest of chimpanzees. But none has

practices of pedagogy or institutions of education. As a consequence, the main way in which

other species develop over time is through the incremental, biological adaptations of evolution.

Change is natural. It is slow.

Education makes human learning unlike the learning of any other creature. Learning allows

humans to escape the strict determinations of nature. It gives humans the resources with which to

understand themselves and their world, and to transform their conditions of living, for better or

for worse.

Education is a peculiarly human capacity to nurture learning in a conscious way, and to

create social contexts that have been specially designed for that purpose: the institutions of

education. Everyday learning happens naturally, everywhere and all the time. Education –

encompassing institutions, its curricula and its pedagogies – is learning by design.

THE ART AND SCIENCE OF TEACHING

…………………………………

Teaching happens everywhere. Many people are naturally quite good at teaching. They explain

things clearly. They are patient. And they have the knack of explaining just enough, but not too

much, so the learner gains a sense that they are gradually mastering something, albeit with a

more knowledgeable person’s support. You can find the practice of teaching in action

everywhere in everyday life. In fact, it is impossible to imagine everyday life without it.

Teaching and learning are integral to our nature as humans.

Teaching is also a vocation, a profession. People in the business of teaching are good at their

job when they have developed and apply the dispositions and sensibilities of the person who is a

good teacher in everyday life.

But there is much more to the teaching profession than having a natural knack, however well

practised. There is also a science to education, which adds method and reflexivity to the art of

teaching, and is backed up by a body of specialist knowledge. This science asks and attempts to

answer fundamental and searching questions. How does learning happen? How do we organize

teaching so it is most effective? What works for learners? And when it works, how do we know it

has worked? The science of education attempts to answer these questions in a well thought-

through and soundly analyzed way.

LEARNING PRACTICES

…………………………………

Learning is how a person or a group comes to know, and knowing consists of a variety of types

of action. In learning, a knower positions themselves in relation to the knowable, and engages.

Knowing entails doing—experiencing, conceptualizing, analysing or applying, for instance.

A learner brings their own person to the act of knowing, their subjectivity. When

engagement occurs, they become a more or less transformed person. Their horizons of knowing

and acting have been expanded.

Learning can be analyzed at three levels: ‘pedagogy’, or the microdynamics of moments of

teaching and learning; ‘curriculum ’, or the learning designs for particular areas of knowledge;

and ‘education’ or the overall institutional setting in which pedagogy and curriculum are located.

Pedagogy is a planned and deliberate process whereby one person helps another to learn.

This is what First Peoples did through various formalized rites of passage, from child to adult to

elder – learning law, spirituality and nature. It is also how teachers in the era of modern, mass,

institutionalized education have organized the learners in their classrooms and their learning.

Pedagogy is the science and practice of the dynamics of knowing. Assessment is the measure of

pedagogy: interpreting the shape and extent of the knower’s transformation.

Curriculum is the substantive content of learning and its organization into subjects and

topics – mathematics, history, physical education and the like. In places of formal and systematic

teaching and learning, pedagogy occurs within these larger frameworks in which the processes of

engagement are given structure and order. These often defined by specific contents and

methodologies, hence the distinctive ‘disciplines’. Well might we ask, what is the nature and

future of ‘literacy’, ‘numeracy’, ‘science’, ‘history’, ‘social studies’, ‘economics’, ‘physical

education’ and the like? How are they connected, with each other, and a world in a state of

dynamic transformation? And how do we evaluate their effectiveness as curriculum?

Education has traditionally been used with reference formal learning communities, the

institutions of school, college and university that first appeared along with the emergence of

writing as a tool for public administration (to train, for instance, ‘mandarins’ or public officials in

imperial China, or the writers of cuneiform in ancient Mesopotamia/Iraq); to support religions

founded on sacred texts (the Islamic madrasa , or the Christian monastery); and to transmit

formally developed knowledge and wisdom (the Academy of ancient Athens, or Confucian

teaching in China).

Learning happens everywhere and all the time. It is an intrinsic part of our human natures.

Education, however is learning by design, in community settings specially designed as such—the

institutions of early childhood, school, technical/vocational, university and adult education.

Education also sometimes takes informal or semiformal forms within settings whose primary

rationale is commercial or communal, including workplaces, community groups, households or

public places.

TOWARDS A SCIENCE OF EDUCATION

…………………………………

What is this overarching institution, ‘education’? In its most visible manifestation it consists of

its institutional forms: schools, colleges and universities. But, more broadly conceived, education

is a social process, a relationship of teaching and learning. As a professional practice, it is a

discipline.

The science of education analyzes pedagogy, curriculum and educational institutions. It is a

discipline or body of knowledge about learning and teaching – about how these practices are

conceived and realized

‘Science’ or ‘discipline’ refers to a privileged kind of knowledge, created by people with

special skills who mostly work in research, academic or teaching jobs. It involves careful

experimentation and focused observation. Scientists systematically explore phenomena, discover

facts and patterns and gradually build these into theories that describe the world. Over time, we

come to trust these and ascribe to them the authority of science.

In this spirit, we might create a science of education that focuses on the brain as a biological

entity and the mind as a source of behaviors (cognitive science). Or we might set up experiments

in which we carefully explore the facts of learning in order to prove what works or doesn’t work.

Like the medical scientist, we might give some learners a dosage of a certain kind of educational

medicine and others a placebo, to see whether a particular intervention produces better test

results—such are the formal experimental methods of randomized, controlled trials.

Often, however, we need to know more. It is indeed helpful to know something of how the

mind works, but what of the cultural conditions that also form the thinking person? We need

good proofs of which kinds of educational interventions work, but what if the research questions

we are asking or the tests we are using to evaluate results can only measure a narrow range of

capacities and knowledge? What if the tests can prove that the intervention works – scores are

going up – but some learners are not engaged by a curriculum that has been retrofitted to the

tests? What if the tests only succeed in measuring recall of the facts that the tests expect the

learners to have acquired – simple, multiple-choice or yes/no answers? A critic of such

‘standardized testing’ may ask, what’s the use of this in a world in which facts can always be

looked up, but problem solving and creativity are now more sought-after capacities, and there

can be more than one valid and useful answer to most of the more important questions? For these

reasons, we also need to work with a broader understanding of the discipline of education, based

on a broader definition of science than experimental methods.

AN INTERDISCIPLINARY SCIENCE

…………………………………

The discipline of education is grounded in the science of learning, or how people come to know.

It is a science that explores what knowing is. It focuses on how babies, then young people, then

adults, learn. Education-as-science is a specially focused form of knowing: knowing how

knowing happens and how capacities to know develop. It is, in a sense, the science of all

sciences. It is also concerned with the organization of teaching that supports systematic, formal

learning and the institutions in which that learning occurs.

Too often, education is regarded as a poor cousin of other disciplines in the university – the

natural sciences, the humanities and the other professions, for instance. It is regarded as

something that enables other disciplines, rather than being a discipline in its own right. This is

often reflected in reduced levels of research funding, lower student entry requirements and the

destination salaries of graduates. Education seems to be less rigorous and derivative. Its

disciplinary base borrowed from other, apparently more foundational disciplines – sociology,

history, psychology, cognitive science, linguistics, philosophy – and the substantive knowledge

of various subject areas, such as literature, science and mathematics.

For sure, education is broader-ranging and more eclectic than other disciplines. Education

draws on a number of disciplinary strands – the philosophy of knowledge (epistemology), the

cognitive science of perception and learning, developmental psychology, the history of modern

institutions, the sociology of diverse communities, the linguistics and semiotics of meaning – to

name just a few of education’s disciplinary perspectives. These and other strands come together

to make the discipline of education. In this sense, education is more than a discipline – it is an

extraordinarily interdisciplinary endeavor.

EDUCATION AS THE SCIENCE OF SCIENCES

…………………………………

Education is also the soil in which all the other disciplines grow. You can’t do any of the other

disciplines in a university or college except through the medium of education. No other discipline

exists except through its learning. A novice can only enter a discipline – physics, or law, or

history, or literature – through education, learning the accumulated knowledge that has become

that discipline. In this sense, education is more than just interdisciplinary. It does more than just

stitch together other disciplines. It is a metadiscipline, essential as the practical grounding of all

disciplines. Education is the discipline of disciplines.

Education is the systematic investigation of how humans come to know. It focuses on

formal, institutionalized learning at all its levels from preschool to school, college and university.

Education is also concerned with the processes of informal learning – how babies learn to speak

at home, or how children and adults learn to use an interface or play a game. It is concerned with

how organizations and groups learn, collecting and acquiring knowledge that is applied in their

communities, professions and workplaces. In fact, as knowledge is needed and used everywhere,

learning happens everywhere. There is no part of our lives to where the discipline of education

cannot provide a useful perspective.

Maybe, then, education is more than just an interdisciplinary place that ties together shreds

and patches from other disciplines – a bit of psychology here, a bit of sociology there, a bit of

management there. Education should be regarded as the metadisciplinary foundation of all

disciplines. Its focus is the science of knowing, no less.

The metadiscipline of education inquires into learning, or how we come to know and be.

Education-as-metadiscipline explores knowing and being. It analyzes how people and groups

learn and come to be what they are. As such, it is a specially expansive exploration of knowing.

It is interested to know how knowing happens and how capacities to know develop.

EDUCATION IS THE NEW PHILOSOPHY

…………………………………

What if we were to think of education in these more expansive and more ambitious ways? If we

are to think in these terms, then the intellectual and practical agenda of education is no less than

to explore the bases and pragmatics of human knowledge, becoming and identity. Education asks

this ur -disciplinary question: How is it that we come to know and be, as individuals and

collectively? If this is education’s central question, surely, then, we can argue that it is the source

of all other disciplines? It is the means by which all other disciplines come into being.

Philosophy used to claim a metadisciplinary position like this. It was the discipline where

students not only thought, but thought about thinking. However, for decades, philosophy has

been making itself less relevant. It has become too word-bound, too obscure, too formal and too

disconnected from practical, lived experience.

But philosophy’s metaquestions still need to be asked. Education should perhaps take the

former position of philosophy as the discipline of disciplines, and do it more engagingly and

relevantly than philosophy ever did. Education is the new philosophy.

INVESTING IN EDUCATION FOR A ‘KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY’

…………………………………

Add to these expanded intellectual ambitions, widened ambitions for education in public

discourse and everyday social reality—and these should be good times to be an educator.

Politicians and captains of industry alike tell us that knowledge is now a key factor of

production, a fundamental basis of competitiveness – at the personal, enterprise and national

levels. And as knowledge is a product of learning, education is more important than ever. This is

why education has become such a prominent topic in the public discourse of social promise.

The expectations of education have been ratcheted up. More than ever before, people are

saying that education is pivotal to social and economic progress. This does not necessarily

translate immediately into greater public investment in education (a businesslike approach, one

would think). But today’s rhetoric about the importance of education does give educators greater

leverage in the public discourse than we had until recently.

Stated simply, in a knowledge economy in which more and more jobs require greater depths

of knowledge, schools must do what they can to bridge the knowledge gaps. If they can achieve

this, they are at least doing something to ameliorate the worst systemic material inequalities.

Schools, in other words, have a new opportunity, a new responsibility and a new challenge to

build societies that are more inclusive of social classes whose access to material resources was

historically limited.

Despite this, educators struggle to find the resources to meet increasing expectations, despite

all talk of a ‘knowledge society’ and ‘new economy’. We may have listened to this rhetoric with

a great deal of skepticism given the struggles we educators face.

Nevertheless, we need to grasp what is rhetorically or genuinely new in our times. We must

seize the drift of contemporary public discourse, and position ourselves centrally. Here is our

chance: the stuff of knowledge is no more and no less than the stuff of learning. Surely too, this

new kind of society requires a new kind of learning and that a new social status is ascribed to

education. It is our role as educators to advocate for education, to make a claim for the allocation

of the social resources required in order to meet expanding expectations.

DESIGNS FOR SOCIAL FUTURES: TOWARDS ‘NEW LEARNING’

…………………………………

How might we imagine a better society which locates education at the heart of things? This heart

may well be economic in the sense that it is bound to material self-improvement or personal

ambition. Equally, however, education is a space to re-imagine and try out a new and better

world which delivers improved material, environmental and cultural outcomes for all. Education

must surely be a place of open possibilities, for personal growth, for social transformation and for

the deepening of democracy. Such is the agenda of ‘New Learning’, explicitly or implicitly. This

agenda holds whether our work and thinking is expansive and philosophical or local and finely

grained.

If we were to choose a single word to characterize the agenda of the New Learning, it is to

be ‘transformative’. New Learning is thus not simply based on a reading of change. It is also

grounded in an optimistic agenda in which we educators can constructively contribute to change.

If knowledge is indeed as pivotal in contemporary society as the ‘new economy’ commentators

and politicians claim, then educators should seize the agenda and position themselves as forces of

change. We have a professional responsibility to be change agents who design the education for

the future and who, in so doing, also help design the future.

You might see this as a sensible conservatism, sensible for being realistic about the

contemporary forces of technology, globalization and cultural change. Or you could see it to be

an emancipatory agenda that aspires to make a future that is different from the present by

addressing its many crises – of poverty, environment, cultural difference and existential meaning,

for instance. In other words, the transformation may be pragmatic (enabling learners to do their

best in the given social conditions) or it may be emancipatory (making the world a better place)

or it may be both.

At its best, transformative New Learning embodies a realistic view of contemporary society,

or the kinds of knowledge and capacities for knowing that children need to develop in order to be

good workers in a ‘knowledge economy’; participating citizens in a globalized, cosmopolitan

society; and balanced personalities in a society that affords a range of life choices that at times

feels overwhelming. It nurtures the social sensibilities of a kind of person who understands that

they determine the world by their actions as much as they are determined by that world. It creates

a person who understands how their individual needs are inextricably linked with their

responsibility to work for the common good as we become more and more closely connected into

ever-expanding and overlapping social networks.

The issue is not merely one of quantity. It is not simply a matter of providing more education

for more people. While many nations persevere with educational structures founded in the 19th

century or earlier, the knowledge economy demands different and creative approaches to

learning. Schools, at least in their traditional form, may not dominate the educational landscape

of the 21st century. Neat segregations of the past may crumble. Givens may give.

LEARNER DIVERSITY

…………………………………

No learning exists without learners, in all their diversity. It is a distinctive feature of the New

Learning to recognize the enormous variability of lifeworld circumstances that learners bring to

learning. The demographics are insistent: material (class, locale, family circumstances),

corporeal (age, race, sex and sexuality, and physical and mental characteristics) and symbolic

(culture, language, gender, affinity and persona). This conceptual starting point helps explain the

telling patterns of educational and social outcomes.

Behind these demographics are real people, who have always already learned and whose

range of learning possibilities are both boundless and circumscribed by what they have learned

already and what they have become through that learning. Here we encounter the raw material

diversity – of human experiences, dispositions, sensibilities, epistemologies and world views.

These are always far more varied and complex than the raw demographics would at first glance

suggest. Learning succeeds or fails to the extent that it engages the varied identities and

subjectivities of learners. Engagement produces opportunity, equity and participation. Failure to

engage produces failure, disadvantage and inequality.

The questions we face as educators today are big, the challenges sometimes daunting. How

do we, for instance, ensure that education fulfills its democratic mission, through quality

teaching, a transformative curriculum and dedicated programs that address inequality? Targeting

groups who are disadvantaged and ‘at risk’ is an essential responsibility of educators, not on the

basis of moral arguments alone but also because of the economic and social dangers of allowing

individuals and groups to be excluded.

EDUCATION’S AGENDAS

…………………………………

In this time of extraordinary social transformation and uncertainty, educators need to consider

themselves to be designers of social futures, to search out new ways to address the learning needs

of our society, and in so doing to position education at an inarguably central place in society.

Professional educators of tomorrow will not be people who simply enact received systems,

standards, organizational structures and professional ethics.

Indeed, powerful educational ideas – about how people act and build knowledge in context

and in collaboration with others, for instance – could well become leading social ideas in

currently more privileged areas of endeavor, such as business and technology. Perhaps, if we can

succeed at putting education at the heart of the designs for society’s future, we might even be

able to succeed in our various campaigns to ensure that education is innovative, empowering, just

and adequately resourced.

Education in all its aspects is in a moment of transition today. The idea of ‘New Learning’

contrasts what education has been like in the past, with the changes we are experiencing today,

with an imaginative view of the possible features of learning environments in the near future.

What will learning be like, and what will teachers’ jobs be like? Are we educators well enough

equipped to answer the questions we encounter and address the challenges we face? Does our

discipline provide us with the intellectual wherewithal to face changes of these proportions? It

could, but only if we conceive education to be a science as rigorous in its methods and as

ambitious in its scope as any other.

Education’s agenda is intellectually expansive and practically ambitious. It is learner-

transformative, enabling productive workers, participating citizens and fulfilled persons. And it is

world-transformative as we interrogate the human nature of learning and its role in imagining

and enacting new ways of being human and living socially: shaping our identities, framing our

ways of belonging, using technologies, representing meanings in new ways and through new

media, building participatory spaces and collaborating to build and rebuild the world. These are

enormous intellectual and practical challenges.

Transformative education is an act of imagination for the future of learning and an attempt to

find practical ways to develop aspects of this future in the educational practices of the present. It

is an open-ended struggle rather than a clear destination, a process rather than a formula for

action. It is a work-in-progress.

The science of education is a domain of social imagination, experimentation, invention and

action. It’s big. It’s ambitious. And it’s determinedly practical.

The Learning Conference, journals, book imprint and online community provide a forum for

dialogue about the nature and future of learning. They are places for presenting research and

reflections on education both in general terms and through the minutiae of practice. They attempt

to build an agenda for a new learning, and more ambitiously an agenda for a knowledge society

which is as good as the promise of its name.

The International Journal of Organizational Education and Leadership

Volume 19, 2013, www.thelearner.com, ISSN: 2329-1656 © Common Ground, Author(s) Name(s), All Rights Reserved, Permissions:

cg-support@commongroundpublishing.com

Table of Contents

Co-teaching: Putting Theory into Practice .................................................................. 1

Ellen O’Keefe and Dawn Behan

Teaching Communication Skills to Students with Autism while Maintaining Senior

Citizens' Cognition by Utilizing School-Community Business Collaboration ........... 9

Johan W. van der Jagt

Creating Educational Equity for Indigenous Students through Significant

Organisational Change ................................................................................................. 27

David Blair Rhodes and Helen Spiers

Linking Treatment Integrity with Transfer of Training: A Framework for

Achieving Imporved Outcomes in Collaborative Consultation................................. 39

Lex McDonald

Co-teaching: Putting Theory into Practice Ellen O’Keefe, Mount Mercy University, USA Dawn Behan, Mount Mercy University, USA

Abstract: This article will present descriptions of the six co-teaching models: one teach, one assist; one teach, one observe; parallel teaching; station teaching; team teaching; and alternative teaching. Also identified within the article are elements for effective co-teaching based on feedback from current graduate students as well as analysis of previously completed studies.

Keywords: Co-teaching, Parallel Teaching, Station Teaching, Alternative Teaching, Team Teaching, Delivery Models

Introduction o-teaching was called team teaching in the 1970s as well as collaborative teaching and cooperative teaching. This model of teaching emphasizes communication and collaboration among all teachers and members of the team to meet the needs of all students

in any given classroom (Dieker 2001). Research has highlighted the benefits of this model of teaching to include the exchange of collegial strategies and ideas by teachers, the support for teachers by administration, and the acceptance of students with disabilities by their peers (Dieker 2001). This model is seen as the current venue to provide the special education services students with disabilities require to be successfully included in the general education classroom (Hepner and Newman 2010). Furthermore, this model may allow students with disabilities the ability to make progress in and actively participate in the general education curriculum (Magiera and Zigmond 2005).

All licensed teachers should demonstrate competency—in instruction and pedagogy—in all subject areas they teach. This standard in state accredited k-12 schools in the United States may be difficult, if not impossible, to master in an inclusive classroom where the needs of all students must be met. One way to meet the needs of all students in an inclusive classroom (i.e., the general education classroom) is by creating collaborative partnerships between general and special education teachers. The philosophy behind this collaboration is these two types of teachers have expertise albeit different learning strategies, pedagogy, and content skills to bring to the inclusive classroom setting. In a co-taught classroom model, the general education teacher and the special education teacher share the responsibility for the delivery of instruction (Shepherd, 2010) and the behavioral management of all students. According to Thousand, Villa, and Nevin (2006) and Vaughn, Bos, and Shumm (2007), each teacher brings his/her own strengths to the general education classroom and contributes to the co-teaching partnership. The increase in positive outcomes for all students includes increased student performance on high-stakes assessments. Since there continues to be an increase in the number of students with disabilities included in the general education classroom, as well as increased pressure from legal mandates like No Child Left Behind and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 for increased teacher accountability, co-teaching is thought to be a practical way to meet the needs of students with disabilities in these inclusive settings (Dieker 1998; Murawshi and Dieker 2004; Thousand, Villa, and Nevin 2006).

In recent years, school administrators and k-12 teachers have turned to the model of co-teaching to assist them in meeting the needs of students identified with disabilities as legislators push for the full inclusion of these students in the general education classroom. Co-teaching, as defined by Friend and Cook (2010), is a service delivery model that involves the use of two teachers—one general educator and one special educator or other licensed educator—who teach together in the same classroom. This teaching model merits further study as teachers and students

C

The International Journal of Educational Organization and Leadership Volume 19, 2013, thelearner.com, ISSN: 2329-1656 © Common Ground, Ellen O’Keefe and Dawn Behan, All Rights Reserved Permissions: cg-support@commongroundpublishing.com

THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND LEADERSHIP

with disabilities and their parent(s) view co-teaching as a teaching strategy that may lead to positive academic, behavioral, and/or social results for these students. However, few studies have been conducted with a focus on student outcomes as a result of utilizing co-teaching strategies. As researchers explore this focus area, more teachers will need to participate in studies that provide more data on the validity of this approach. The purpose of this article is to briefly define the various models of co-teaching and subsequently detail steps which can be taken to facilitate the effectiveness of co-teaching. It is hypothesized these steps may then lead to more positive outcomes in terms of students' success in the general education setting. This hypothesis is based on previous research the authors have completed as well as information gathered anecdotally from colleagues participating in the co-teaching model in various formats.

Co-teaching Models Cook and Friend (1995) detailed six models of co-teaching that provide teachers with a framework for utilizing one or more co-teaching methods in their classroom: 1) one teach, one observe; 2) one teach, one assist; 3) station teaching; 4) parallel teaching; 5) alternative teaching; and 6) team teaching. The first model, one teach, one observe, should be used sparingly and is best utilized when teachers want to collect specific data on either an individual student or whole class data. While one teacher instructs the lesson, the other teacher observes one or more students in the classroom and is responsible for data collection which may involve the academic, behavioral, and/or social skills of an individual or group of students. In the one teach, one assist co-teaching model, one teacher leads the lesson while the other teacher monitors the students for their understanding of the lesson and assists individual students as needed. Zigmond and Magiera (2001) noted this model is “often preferred in the initial phases of co-teaching when the special education teacher may be unsure of the rhythm, pacing, and content of the general education curriculum and/or the special education teacher does not feel confident to take on a substantive instructional role.” (p. 1) This may be due to a lack of content knowledge. During station teaching the class is divided into two or more groups. Each teacher provides instruction at a station or center in the classroom. The instruction provided by the teachers is independent: two different lessons are taught in no specific order. Station teaching usually involves two groups of students (Cook and Friend 1995) but can incorporate three groups with one group of students working independently (Zigmond and Magiera 2001). Station teaching allows teachers to have equal status in the classroom when delivering instruction (Cook and Friend 1995). Parallel teaching requires that co-teachers divide the class into two mixed ability groups. The teachers then each present a co-planned lesson to their assigned half of the class (Cook and Friend 1995; Zigmond and Magiera 2001). The content remains the same, but the method of instruction may differ. Alternative teaching provides extensions, pre-teaching, or the re-teaching of information in a small group by one co-teacher while the other co-teacher instructs the rest of the class. A general education teacher or a special education teacher can assume either role (Zigmond and Magiera 2001). This model can be used to provide more individualized instruction to students with special learning needs. Finally, team teaching (also called teaming) requires the co-teachers equally share instruction of the whole class and present the lesson together. Although all co-teaching models require trust, respect, commitment, and experience (Cook and Friend 1995), these conditions are especially important during team teaching because this model requires a higher level of confidence and comfort on the part of both co-teachers primarily due to the spontaneity and ad-libbing frequently involved during the lesson presentation.

Critical Elements for Effective Co-teaching In order for co-teaching to be effective, there are several critical elements that must be addressed. Some of these elements include considerations relating to the selection of co-teachers,

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instructional strategies and models to be implemented, promotion of success for all students, and the on-going assessment of student learning in the co-taught classroom.

Choosing Co-teachers

It was recommended by Scruggs, Mastropieri, and McDuffie (2007) that teachers involved in co-teaching volunteer for such an assignment. Then the two teachers have chosen to work with each other and are more likely to work through any differences to develop quality teaching practices for all the students in the classroom. Additionally, this arrangement allows the two teachers to collaborate in a positive manner as they share ownership of both the decision-making and instructional practices. In one study conducted by Simmons and Magiera (2007), teachers were selected to participate in co-teaching, and the survey findings were mixed. Positive responses from the participants related to the experience of co-teaching and the learning that ensued. However, negative responses from the co-teachers noted personality conflicts and negative issues relating to differences in teaching styles and classroom management approaches when they did not have a voice in the selection of their co-teacher.

Once teams of co-teachers have been determined, it is suggested co-teachers meet to discuss personal styles of communication, personality strengths, collaborative styles of instruction, and classroom expectations for the shared classroom experience (Hepner and Newman 2010). If rapport had not been previously established by the co-teachers, this discussion time provides an opportunity for it to be developed. Once these understandings and expectations have been discussed, decisions can be made about how to communicate and how to select the best approaches for co-teaching. Following this, the two co-teachers can plan in more detail about the instructional strategies and sequence of events of each lesson.

Strategies and Models

Relying on the teacher preparation and expertise each partner brings to the co-teaching experience is often the best practice. Secondary general education teachers, those typically licensed to teach grades 7 through 12, often have specific knowledge in only one content area of the curriculum (i.e., English, history, or biology). Elementary teachers, those who are typically licensed to teach in kindergarten through grade 6, however, can instruct in content areas of the curriculum- language arts, reading, math, science, and social studies. While general education teachers may be well prepared to teach their content, they often have little to no teacher preparation in special education strategies. A co-teacher who has been prepared in special education may be able to fill this gap, as these teachers typically have more specialized knowledge of instructional strategies needed by students with various learning and/or behavioral problems (Murawski and Dieker 2004). When the co-teachers decide which part of a lesson’s content and strategies each will teach, an agreed upon co-teaching model needs to be chosen and decisions need to be made about the sequencing of each teacher’s involvement. For example, teachers may rotate roles during lessons each day or day by day, but emphasis must be on providing the most beneficial instruction that improves student learning outcomes.

Success for All Students

An important element of effective co-teaching involves the preparation of both teachers to share in instruction that is engaging and leads to the success of all students in the classroom. Therefore, it is suggested co-teachers share a planning time, ideas for co-teaching, and the instructional strategies most beneficial for students with and without disabilities. Planning needs to include a mixture of whole class instruction, small group work, and individualized instruction so there is a range of learning opportunities for all students. Therefore, co-teachers must determine curricular outcomes for the whole class including individuals with specific needs as outlined by the

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student’s Individualized Education Plan (IEP) or 504 plan. Outcomes for student learning must be reasonable, appropriate for the student’s age and/or grade level, and realistic, but they should also take into account each student’s individual needs (Dieker 2001), including any accommodation or modification as stated on these specialized plans. Another element of effective co-teaching is the linking of the general education curriculum to special education standards and goals (outcomes). Both teachers need to work to combine their best teaching techniques so they can teach all students in the class. An appropriate mix of general education content and pedagogy combined with special education instructional strategies may enable all students to be the most successful in the inclusive classroom. The ultimate goal is each co-teacher supports the other by his/her instruction, not one superseding the other (Scruggs and Mastropieri 1995).

On-going Assessment

Another important element of co-teaching is ongoing assessment of student learning to assist all students to reach the desired curricular outcomes of the general education classroom. Therefore, the teachers need to work together to assess student performance and share the assessment data. Also, the teachers must evaluate their role in the co-teaching model to maximize student achievement of planned outcomes. This evaluation can be done by the co-teachers themselves or by the administrator through observation evaluation and assessment (Walther-Thomas, Bryant, and Land 1996).

Administrative Support for Co-teaching

In addition to the elements critical for effective co-teaching, there are elements at the building level which facilitate this delivery system. Administrators must first be willing to allow teachers in their buildings the opportunity to volunteer for partnering to co-teach and then to select only those participants who are willing to be co-teachers. Too often administrators decide who will co-teach based on building needs rather than the willingness of the teacher pairs. Like that reported in an earlier study (see Simmons & Magiera 2007), this may create teaching situations that often have negative outcomes (Huggins, Huyghe, and Iljkoski 2011).

Administrators must provide ongoing professional development to allow co-teachers opportunities for continued success and growth in their co-teaching experience so there is a continued benefit for not only the partners but also the students in their shared classroom. This professional development should address the teaching methods used by the general educator (i.e., the content teacher) in the co-teaching pair, the strategy instruction used by the special educator, and the best practices for effective co-teaching by the co-teachers (Walther-Thomas, Bryant, and Land 1996).

When administrators establish annual class sizes and rosters, they need to consider the overall load of the general education teacher not only for the number of students placed in the co-taught class but also the number of students with IEPs. It is recommended there be no more than 15 students in a co-taught classroom, and no more than one-third of those students should have an IEP (Walther-Thomas, Bryant, and Land 1996).

Research findings indicate that common planning time is an important variable and, therefore, the building administrator should plan for this to occur (Hepner and Newman 2010; Ploessl, Rock, Schoenfeld, and Blanks 2009; Simmons and Magiera 2007). This time is critical to the parity of the co-teaching roles and the effectiveness of the co-teaching model chosen. Common planning time allows the co-teachers to effectively communicate and determine the best co-teaching model(s) for daily instruction based on weekly schedules (Walther-Thomas, Bryant, and Land 1996). Common planning time is recommended at a rate of no less than one hour per week (Hepner and Newman 2010), but often more time is needed to maximize student outcomes. Planning time should be used to discuss the effectiveness of the co-teaching model(s) chosen, the content being 4

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delivered, and the assessment method(s) for this content. Additionally, the co-teachers should plan how differentiation will occur in the class during the week.

To facilitate effective co-teaching for students with disabilities, IEPs need to be considered and the goals assessed via regular monitoring. Furthermore, appropriate accommodations and modifications need to be provided for these students according to the guidelines listed within each student’s IEP (Hepner and Newman 2010). The Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA)(2004) mandates the needs of students with disabilities be met in a co-teaching setting, including access to the general education curriculum (Conderman 2011). This implies all students must be able to interact with the content and concepts taught in the general education curriculum with the use of proven inclusive education-instructional strategies “to the greatest extent possible” (IDEA 2004). Finally, alternative assessments must be given to students who qualify for these annual assessments (Ploessl,et al. 2009). Administrative support in this area is crucial, but few administrators have knowledge of special education law and the energy and time required for co-teachers to meet the needs of students with disabilities in the general education setting.

It is recommended by Walther-Thomas, Bryant, and Land (1996) that pilot testing be conducted and the data gathered from the pilot be used for the implementation of co-teaching. Administrators can then recruit future pairs of co-teachers for upcoming terms or academic years. A pilot test may provide an opportunity to fine tune the co-teaching process and set the stage for positive outcomes as more teams of teachers are recruited to implement co-teaching service delivery models.

Conclusion Co-teaching has several models that may benefit all students in the general education classroom. However, there have also been problems in the implementation of these models in schools (Shepherd 2010). Too often co-teaching is implemented to solve the problem of inclusion and not because it is an effective method of instructional delivery for all students in the general education classroom (Weiss 2004). Furthermore, general education teachers have varying levels of preparation for working with students who have more severe disabilities and needs. Their preparation may not have included specific instructional strategies for teaching and managing student with the severity of needs these students may present. Additionally, students with severe disabilities may perform at academic and behavioral levels far below expected performance in the general education classroom, making the inclusion of such students difficult without major modifications (Vaughn & Bos 2012). Effective co-teaching programs must be well-planned, but too often co-teachers do not have a shared planning period. Without administrative support for adequate planning time and a shared planning period in which to plan a co-taught curriculum, many special education teachers end up as nothing more than classroom assistants who work only with students with disabilities and thus create a situation in which there is a squandering of both professional talent and school resources (Shepherd 2010). The overall effect undermines a key standard of professional practice-- the collaboration between special and general educators--yet maintains special education teachers in environments where neither professional collaboration nor administrative support is readily experienced at the necessary levels.

One of the main roles of the special education teacher has been to provide collaboration and consultation to general education teachers who have students with disabilities included in their classrooms. Special education teachers must rely on support from their administrators when collaborating with general education teachers, and this support should be expected in a co-taught situation as well. Administrative support is a key element to the effectiveness of the co-teaching model. Research indicates administrators who provide support to both general and special education teachers improve the work environment of both teachers in the co-teaching setting which may reduce the attrition among special education teachers (Shepherd 2010).

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The purpose of this paper was to identify the models of co-teaching and the necessary steps to be taken to facilitate the effectiveness of co-teaching. If co-teaching is to be used in inclusive settings, it should be implemented effectively. To improve the current state of this model, administrators must be willing to provide the support necessary for teachers to have shared planning time. Shared planning time must then be used to plan for the curricular content and instructional strategies that are needed to optimize the learning of all students—those with and without disabilities—in the inclusive classroom.

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REFERENCES

Conderman, Greg. 2011."Middle School Co-Teaching: Effective Practices and Student Reflections." Middle School Journal 42(4): 24-31.

Cook, Lynne, and Marilyn Friend. 1995. "Co-Teaching: Guidelines for Creating Effective Practices." Focus on Exceptional Children 28(3): 1-16.

Dieker, Lisa A. 1998. "Rationale for Co-Teaching." Social Studies Review 37(2): 62-65. ---. 2001. "What are the Characteristics of 'Effective' Middle and High School Co-Taught Teams

for Students with Disabilities?" Preventing School Failure 46(1): 14-23. Friend, Marilyn P. and Lynne Cook. 2010. Interactions: Collaboration Skills for School

Professionals 6th ed. Boston: Pearson. Hepner, Stephanie, and Sarah Newman. 2010. "Teaching is Teamwork: Preparing for, Planning,

and Implementing Effective Co-Teaching Practice." International Schools Journal 29(2): 67-81.

Huggins, Marie, Jennifer Huyghe, and Elizabeth Iljkoski. 2011. “Co-Teaching 101: Lessons from the Trenches,” Council for Exceptional Children. http://oldsite.cec.sped.org/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Support_for_Teachers&ContentID=11473&template=/CM/ContentDisplay.cfm.

Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 (IDEA), Pub. L. No. 108-446, 20 U.S.C. § 1400 (2004).

Magiera, Kathleen and Naomi Zigmond. 2005. “Co-teaching in Middle School Classrooms under Routine Conditions: Does the Instructional Experience Differ for Students with Disabilities in Co-taught and Solo-taught Classes?” Learning Disabilities Research and Practice 20(2): 79-85.

Murawski, Wendy W., and Lisa A. Dieker. 2004. "Tips and Strategies for Co-Teaching at the Secondary Level." Teaching Exceptional Children 36(5): 52-58.

No Child Left Behind ((NCLB) Act of 2001, Pub. L. No. 107-110, § 115, Stat. 1425(2002). Ploessl, Donna M., Marcia L. Rock, Naomi Schoenfeld and Brooke Blanks. 2010. "On the Same

Page: Practical Techniques to Enhance Co-Teaching Interactions." Intervention in School and Clinic 45(3): 158-168.

Scruggs, Thomas E., and Margo A. Mastropieri. 1996. "Teacher Perceptions of Mainstreaming/Inclusion, 1958-1995: A Research Synthesis." Exceptional Children 63(1):59-74.

Scruggs, Thomas E., Margo A. Mastropieri, and Kimberly A. McDuffie. 2007. "Co-Teaching in Inclusive Classrooms: A Metasynthesis of Qualitative Research." Exceptional Children 73(4): 392-416.

Shepherd, Terry L. 2010. Working with Students with Emotional and Behavior Disorders: Characteristics and Teaching Strategies. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.

Simmons, Rhea J., and Kathleen Magiera. 2007. "Evaluation of Co-Teaching in Three High Schools Within One School District: How Do You Know When You Are Truly Co-Teaching?" Teaching Exceptional Children Plus 3(3): Article 4.

Thousand, Jacqueline S., Richard A. Villa, and Ann I. Nevin. 2006. "The Many Faces of Collaborative Planning and Teaching." Theory into Practice 45(3): 239-248.

Vaughn, Sharon, and Candace S. Bos. 2012. Strategies for Teaching Students with Learning and Behavior Problems. 8th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Vaughn, Sharon, Candace S. Bos, and Jeanne Shay Schumm. 2007. Teaching Exceptional, Diverse, and At-Risk Students in the General Education Classroom. 4th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.

Walther-Thomas, Chriss, Mimi Bryant, and Sue Land. 1996. "Planning for Effective Co-Teaching." Remedial and Special Education 17(4): 255-264.

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Weiss, Margaret P. 2004. "Co-Teaching as Science in the Schoolhouse: More Questions Than Answers." Journal of Learning Disabilities 37(3): 218-223.

Zigmond, Naomi, and Kathleen Magiera, K. 2011. “A Focus on Co-Teaching: Use Caution.” Current Practice Alerts 6 (Autumn), http://s3.amazonaws.com/cmi-teaching-ld/alerts/13/uploaded_files/original_Alert6.pdf?1301001449.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Ellen O’Keefe: I have been teaching at Mount Mercy University since 1998, after teaching special education in the public schools for twenty years. My teaching career included teaching in both resource and self-contained programs for grades K - 12. Areas that have received my undivided attention during my teaching career include Attention Deficit Disorder and Attention Deficit with Hyperactivity Disorder, self-advocacy, self-determination, and social skills. In addition, I keep current with research and information on adults with disabilities. I provide in-service training for local schools in accommodations for special needs and for dealing with those identified with ADD / ADHD.

Dr. Dawn Behan: Associate Professor of Education Dawn Behan is the newest member of Mount Mercy’s Education Department, joining the faculty in 2008. She also serves as the director of graduate programs in education. Before coming to Mount Mercy, she served as a professor at Upper Iowa University, where she taught special education. For 16 years she served students in grades 5 - 12 at the Mental Health Institute in Independence. She holds a Bachelor of Arts degree from the University of Northern Iowa, and a Master of Arts and Ph.D. from the University of Iowa, with emphasis in special education - behavior disorders. She belongs to the international service sorority Beta Sigma Phi, as well as the honor society in higher education Phi Beta Lambda, a community service organization. She is a member of the Council for Exceptional Children and Behavior Disorders. She has presented at national and international conferences over the past 12 years, highlighting such topics as educating students with emotional or behavioral disorders.

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Volume 19, 2013, thelearner.com, ISSN: 2329-1656

© Common Ground, Johan van der Jagt, All Rights Reserved

Permissions: cg-support@commongroundpublishing.com

Teaching Communication Skills to Students with

Autism while Maintaining Senior Citizens’

Cognition by Utilizing School-Community

Business Collaboration

Johan W. van der Jagt, Ph.D., Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania, USA

Abstract: The purpose of this article is to assist principals to develop a vision of linking the school and the community

with emphasis on students with autism using iPads to learn social skills and connecting especially with the elderly and

thus closing the intergenerational gap using a progressive business enterprise model. The business enterprise/school

store is integrated with inclusive teaching, a Resource and Materials Center including a vocational area, and school

volunteers. Students with autism go into the school and community to receive orders and sell store items with iPads.

Improved cognitive skills result for both the students and the elderly. Implications are presented.

Keywords: School-Based Store, Autism, iPads, Cognition, Elderly, Volunteers

ndividuals with disabilities have been treated in a variety of ways internationally throughout

history. The variety of ways has been dependent on each country’s progress. In some

countries much progress has occurred in distinguishing the type of disability and assisting the

individual in maximizing her/his potential. In other countries progress has not been as rapid

although more awareness of the causes of exceptionalities, their characteristics, and survival

interventions continue to develop. Global technology has opened up a wealth of information and

possibilities of creating this awareness.

Because everyone has a purpose in life and must reflect honor, humility and respect to

everything and everyone in the environment according to Portman and Garrett (2006), a

foundational trusting attitude between school and the community needs to develop. This can

occur by using a principal-envisioned integrated school enterprise linked with the community by

means of primarily students with autism using iPads as a method to help teach them social skills

while simultaneously closing an intergenerational gap.

The purpose of this article is to describe a progressive model in which a principal-

envisioned unique school-based enterprise/store links with the community using individuals with

autism with iPads as prime technological tools to teach social skills through community

interaction, especially with the elderly. The elderly, in turn, will maintain cognition through a

more positive lifestyle. The article is divided into the following general sections:1) role of the

principal, 2) characteristics of individuals with autism; 3) interventions and use of iPad

technology, 4) school store model with associated links, 5) and elderly cognition maintenance

and enhancement. Implications are presented.

Role of the Principal

Principals must have a vision that is disseminated to the teachers and the community. They

provide the leadership and supports necessary to achieve the vision. This helps the teachers to

become innovative and the community to become more involved with each other (Balyer 2012).

High learner expectations for all students including those who have exceptionalities (CEC 2012)

are set by the school under principal leadership that are transferred to the community by building

trusting relationships and achieving confidence in the process. The community becomes integral

to the teaching-learning process through communication to achieve the vision. The two year

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investigation of school and community by Khalifa (2012) indicated that the principal was

significant in linking the school and community by acting on community concerns resulting in

the establishment of a strong relationship between them. In order to strengthen this relationship

there were “unrestricted, comfortable opportunities for parents to enter the school,” (Khalifa

2012, 441). In addition, the principal visited within the community and used this knowledge to

adapt to the community’s needs while the community used the school for a variety of their own

functions. Both school and community need to link with each other because it has been shown

that each can provide needed education skills for students and mutually shared resources (Hands

2010).

The development of new or futuristic ideas using students with autism and iPads as

communicative tools link the school and community by helping to close an intergenerational gap.

The progressive model as proposed in this article has never been considered in this form, written

about or researched, but has a possibility to become realized with a visionary principal leading in

its organization.

Characteristics of Individuals with Autism

Autism is a neuro-developmental disorder having varied ranges of intellectual capacities

including those similar to intellectual disabilities. This disorder is the fastest growing population

of individuals with exceptionalities having a variety of I.Q. ranges and a prevalence of

approximately 1 per cent (CFDCP-MMWR, 2012). One outstanding characteristics is called

Theory of Mind (ToM) in which individuals with autism have significant difficulties in

understanding their own as well as other people’s mental states with: a lack of pragmatic skills

(Brownlow and O’Dell, 2009); executive dysfunction resulting in deficiencies in problem-

solving and planning functions; and a lack of global thinking resulting in focusing on detail i.e.

Central Coherence theory (Rajendran and Mitchell, 2007; Levy 2007). They result in unique

needs ranging from deficiencies in cognition, social-emotional skills, to verbal and non-verbal

communication skills (Ryan et al. 2011). Matthews et al (2012) investigated the Theory of Mind

(ToM) using children with early-onset and regressive autism. The findings suggest that ToM is a

multi-faceted type of ability rather than an all or none process. Thus, interventions have been

developed that appear to work, but one really does not know if they work due to the deficiency

decreasing partially or completely. This may be the reason a social stories intervention is not

maintained over time (Karkhaneh et al. 2010). Therefore, it is important to give more practical

use of social skills both at school and in the community.

Other unique characteristics may include being very concretely oriented, have poor eye

contact, speak in third person only, and echolalia. Some individuals with autism are very strong

in a particular skill such as spelling or art. Sensory issues are a major characteristic such as being

over- or under- sensitive to touch, light, noise, and/or smells (Lane, Dennis and Geraghty, 2011).

Furthermore, individuals with autism demand consistency and structure at all times and may

become very anxious if this does not occur. These lesser strengths can become strengths through

the author’s proposed plan of using a school store as a central point of business and teaching

while incorporating iPad technology within the school and community under principal

leadership.

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Computer-Based Interventions and Individuals with Autism

Computer-based interventions through a variety of applications are developing rapidly with a

variety of touch surfaces for storytelling (Gal et al, as cited in Hourcade, Bullock-Rest and

Hansen, 2012). Mobile devices can classify emotions on human faces (Madsen et al in Hourcade,

Bullock-Rest and Hansen, 2012). VSked is replacing paper schedules used in classrooms for

students with autism (Hirano et al in Hourcade, Bullock-Rest and Hansen 2012). These

applications correspond to implementing teaching principles used for individuals with autism by

giving: 1) immersion in symbol-rich items with language acquisition, 2) visual support for

comprehension and expression, and 3) focus on many different types of communication

functioning (Shane et al. 2011).

Individuals with autism have shown excellence in the use of communication devices (Kay,

2012), to increase reading comprehension (Price, 2011), to improve speech using an iPod linked

with behavioral reinforcement (Kagohara et al. 2010), and maintenance of social skills such as

attention, varied settings and play stimuli (Bellini et al. 2007). Integrating technology such as

iPads, reinforcement and frequently used strategies may be able to assist individuals develop and

generalize better social skills if they are also used in natural settings such as the community.

Unfortunately, there is a dearth of literature regarding research studies and the use of iPads

and school stores. Very few valid studies have been published (Edyburn 2013) and therefore it is

difficult to evaluate progressive models involving the use of the iPad. This article is based on the

very few studies that the author could find. However, the use of iPads that came on the market in

2010 is growing in schools and industry. The numerous types of Applications (Apps) help the

viewer to focus on and make contact with a particular object. The touch pads are also colorful

and intuitive for greater use. Students prefer iPads in taking more active roles in their own

learning. Social interactions among students may increase as well (Ellis 2011).

Students with autism require scientifically-based interventions. Van der Jagt (2012)

investigated the most frequently used interventions throughout the state of Pennsylvania, U.S. A.

The results indicated that social stories and graphic organizers were most used in schools. The

results imply that the use of pictures via social stories and graphic organizers, and directions

placed in an organized manner on iPads can be successful interventions to enhance social skills

for students with autism. The pictures and words can be replicated using iPads as tools to be used

in school-community collaboration among the elderly and students with autism to generalize

skills and provide security through structure for the students. Therefore, iPads may make students

with autism more open to both a natural inside and outside world to develop social skills as well

as other professional skills.

Assisting in the learning of iPad skills by school students including those with autism,

community elderly can come in to both learn as well as teach these skills helping to close an

intergenerational gap. Intergenerational communication models have existed for many years.

Kaplan (2002) provides an overview of these models or programs. One purpose of these

programs is to provide assistance in learning of course content such as history, performing arts,

and language arts. Technological development through programs such as Computer Training

Corps” through Intergenerational Innovations located in Seattle, Washington, provides tutoring

to the elderly by students in the middle and high school similar to programs in Germany. Other

programs provide for elderly adults teaching elementary school students in the “Generations and

Innovations” project in Memphis, TN. By having the intergenerational interchanges, social skills

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develop in a naturalistic manner within the school to be embraced by the students with autism as

they go into the community using a school store as a starting point.

The School Store as Central Point of Activity

The typical school enterprise (store) consists of a showcase in which various items are displayed.

Two or three students are salesclerks during the lunch hours that the school store is open. Some

school stores are more complex and require many more skills. These skills include: determining

cost and profit, service by waiting on customers, making change, ordering and checking in

merchandise, record-keeping and accounting, sales tax, importance of advertising. School store

positions are similar to a regular store e.g., general manager, shift managers, order clerks,

receiving clerk, accountant, advertising representatives, sales clerks, (Geddes and Co., Inc.

2011), greeters, stockers and packers, security personnel who also keep items organized and neat

on the shelves. Many opportunities exist for students with varied exceptionalities including those

on the autism spectrum within this business enterprise. (See Table A.1.)

Broome and Preston-Grimes (2011) investigated the learning of economics concepts using a

non-exceptional student-operated business in a Montessori middle school located in a separate

building on the school campus. In this investigation, applications included: running a store

successfully to make profits; working in pairs in the store, holding store and community

meetings, and all students having specific roles. Results indicated that social interaction was

promoted while the students were learning economic principles and rules of operation. Surveys

were given by the students to fellow students at all grade levels to determine preferences. The

students also had opportunities to create and sell their own products successfully using invoices

and resources that they had to find. The social learning interactions assisted the students in

learning economic concepts that were then demonstrated at different knowledge levels.

An article in the Curriculum Review (1992) describes a student-run school supply shop at a

Chicago vocational school by 17 juniors as an entrepreneurship under the principal’s supervision

and sponsored by three agencies e.g., United Way. The activities in this business, similar to a

school-store, help to transfer the knowledge attained in school to the community and the

students’ own futures through the development of marketing techniques (Ross 2002) and how to

build their own business.

Communication in the teaching-learning process within a school store occurs as a natural

consequence similar to going shopping with the family. The school store can be used for

comparison shopping, learning social skills, counting and multiplying in order to develop

mathematics facts while contemplating stock quantities needed for the school store as well as the

resource and materials center. Accounting for resources, products bought and sold, materials

used as overhead costs is required. These processes become integral to in-school teaching-

learning processes as collaboration occurs.

Styles (2003) involves both non-exceptional as well as exceptional students, those with

learning disabilities, in the school store. She writes, “Unfortunately, a conflict exists between

advocates of an educational system designed to meet standards that simply produce high test

scores and those who support the far-reaching goal of preparing and equipping students with

deep understanding and lifelong learning skills needed to be productive citizens.”(Styles 2003,

23). Being an assistant principal at a middle school she envisioned and implemented a school

store with materials in different aisles including a section for classroom materials. Teachers came

from different classes to teach various mathematical and economics skills. The students managed

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VAN DER JAGT: TEACHING COMMUNICATION SKILLS TO STUDENTS WITH AUTISM

the store. Envisioning an inclusive community within the school, she also involved students with

learning disabilities into the store’s operation. They used computer skills to make graphs and

reports. The results of this experiential store project demonstrated increased effective social

interactions, team building, problem solving and decision-making for all students including those

with learning disabilities.

School store teaching-learning processes are not limited to the middle and high school.

Wolff and Wimer (2009) describe a project in which high school students help to build a

“Consumer Town” within the school for pre-school children and assisted them in learning about

money, counting and social skills to help develop real-life skills. Thus, school stores can occur at

all levels from simple to complex to improve social interactions.

Unique to this proposed model, however, is that three enterprise areas are associated with the

school-based enterprise (store), all involving the students with autism using iPads. (See Figure

A.1) These enterprise areas are: enhanced inclusive education opportunities, resource and

materials center, and volunteer services. All of these linked areas involve active engagement.

Active involvement is essential in learning and motivational processes. Mohr and Zoghi (2008)

investigated the relationship between work design and job satisfaction and found that the more

involved the workers were in e.g., task teams, feedback, higher job satisfaction existed. This can

also occur by using a school-based enterprise in conjunction with the community. Students will

attain experiential learning that results in and utilizes higher-order thinking skills, reflection and

problem-solving and is rewarding in its practicality (Styles, 2003).

School-Based Learning for General/Inclusive Education Using iPads

One way in which to enhance and maintain social interventions for students with autism is to

practice them in transitioning from school to community and vice versa. Community service has

shown to be successful where students with special needs worked in teacher-formed partnerships

with business, education and nonprofit organizations in order to enhance student skills and

community awareness of the capabilities of students with special needs (Rubio-Cortés and

McGrath, 2010). This model is unique in that students with autism using iPads become the

predominant mode of social communication to tie the people in the school as well as those in the

community together.

The school store can be the initial and central point of commerce. This offers security to the

students with autism prior to going into the community with iPads. IPads are efficient tools to use

within this commercial process, especially for individuals who have communication and social

problems such as individuals with autism. IPads can be uploaded with checklists, tables, forms,

and pricelists of items that can be bought in the school store. Examples of school furnishings and

supplies can be stored in the iPad memory. Students with autism go into the school and meet

with teachers needing materials and record orders that can be bought directly from the store,

ordered and/or created by the people in the resource center that may also be staffed with students

with exceptionalities including those with autism. A photograph and voice of the teacher can be

recorded. For example, if a bulletin board needs to be decorated, materials can be recorded using

both auditory and visual means. Costs are calculated using the iPad calculator application. Orders

are then taken to the school store and downloaded.

Students with autism need to initially learn basic mathematics using iPads to learn both

mathematics skills as well as communication skills. Teachers in the inclusive classrooms with

children with autism can help to prepare them with these skills while developing other skills

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THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND LEADERSHIP

using the school store. Students are taken to the store for price comparison, filling out order

forms or purchasing items. In addition, teachers can train students using the Method of Loci as to

the locations of the materials for memory training. The Method of Loci (Amiryousefi and Ketabi

2011) involves noting where materials are, labeling the materials and after walking through the

aisles or noting the places, they re-visualize the process of walking and seeing the items.

Photographs of the aisles can be stored in the iPad and provide security to the students. This

trains cognitive organization and sequencing skills through memory that is frequently lacking in

individuals who have autism and makes it easier to recall the items needed within the school or

asked for by the community with or without cueing.

Resource and Materials Center and Use of iPads

Unique to this model is the Resource and Materials Center linked to the school store. Students

with autism take orders on their iPads within the school from teachers to learn how to promote

items, show creative options, give cost estimates, fill out forms, and send or bring the orders to

the store. This is very beneficial since, due to low budgets, teachers are being forced to teach

with personally paid materials in order to maintain the quality of teaching desired. Manipulative

concrete materials are costly and not always able to be purchased with the few hundred dollars (if

so) given to each teacher. For example, charts need to be written, tables need to be made;

laminated materials need to be created, used and hung or given to students so that the answers

can be erased and the materials. If the store does not have the ordered materials, item requests

can be further developed and made in a Resource and Materials Center by other students with

autism and/or exceptionalities having strengths in the creative/artistic and spatiality intelligence

areas. This center would be staffed with a supervising teacher and students. It is a workshop that

teaches students self-discipline, self-determination, and persistency while learning how to

interact with others.

Orders on iPads for items from the community can be filled in the Resource and Materials

Center. Materials are produced for administrators, citizens and businesses in the community as

well as advertisements. Creative designs are advertised for creating store display windows,

display items and combinations of colors and patterns. Small wood working projects can be

planned and created for holidays and gifts, as well as small shelves or napkin holders for the

community. Small items for stores are developed, created or made, by students and sold both

locally and far away. These items are packed as well as flyers sent to a variety of consumers by

individuals with autism.

Community produced items can be brought to the school store, priced and then sold. During

certain times of the day the school store is open to the community since strong relationships are

developed with the principal heavily involved in this enterprise as leader between school and

community (Khalifa 2012). Consequently, stronger communication, social, and problem-solving

activities between the school and community can also assist students with a variety of disabilities

and the community to achieve improved relationships (Kleinert et al. 2004). Furthermore,

students with autism and the elderly can also work together on projects accomplishing a goal to

improve the community or as a service to another group such as constructing ramps, making

home modifications are two examples (Friedman 1999 as cited in Kaplan 2002). Thus, assisting

in these projects that require communication skills between the elderly and students with autism

using iPad technology becomes an excellent service both to the community and the school.

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VAN DER JAGT: TEACHING COMMUNICATION SKILLS TO STUDENTS WITH AUTISM

Cost may be a factor. The school, through the principal’s vision, may be able to donate

“seed” money to provide the materials needed. Funding may come through agencies. It may also

come from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (Gates 2013) that looks for problems in the

U.S. educational system, technology, and unusual projects; in this case, closing an

intergenerational gap using technology for improved communication between students with

autism and the elderly. This progressive model establishes enhanced relationships between the

school and community and can assist in meeting U.S. Common Core Standards (NGACBP,

2010) or similar.

Due to subsequent need, a small vocational shop in association with the Resource and

Materials Center can be established to repair small machinery e.g., lawn mowers, bicycles, or

make carpentry projects. Individuals with autism with or without intellectual disabilities can do

this very well when placed in teams of two. Clothing repair and alterations based on iPad orders

can be completed. The iPad documents explain the repairs needed as dictated by the person in the

community and interpreted by the individual with autism. These jobs are very rewarding since

they take much time, patience, and focus that are strengths for many students with autism. They

can now be completed with low set-prices and may be especially helpful for low socioeconomic

communities.

Community involvement with the school is important for all community members but

especially for the elderly. Students with autism with iPads functioning as liaisons between the

school and community will enhance this involvement. Involvement can consist of creating and

selling items to be sold. La Cour, Josephsson, and Luborsky (2005) investigated how creative

activity can have an impact on elderly with life-threatening illnesses. The results indicated that a

major benefit was an attitude of happiness of one’s own potential and achievement both in the

development of the idea as well as the product itself.

Community involvement using a store currently occurs in a retirement community in

Pennsylvania, U.S. The elderly and other members of the community make items at home for a

retirement community store where they are sold. Thousands of dollars are made in this business.

Handmade materials can not only be made in the homes of the elderly, parents at home, but also

by children in the homes as well. Possible item examples are: figurines, pot-holders, ribbons,

stone-inlaid jewelry, pencil grabbers, pencil holders, to small stools. Teachers can recommend

and request types of items to be used by their students from community members as well as items

that will sell at the school. These items are then listed on iPads with or without their photographs.

They can be shown by the students with autism to the community and school members. After the

community members produce the desired items, they can bring them to the school store and, in

turn will also buy materials. This implies that social interaction will evolve such as stated by

Styles as a result of her project (Styles, 2003).

Volunteer Services and Social Skills Using iPads

Students with autism need to constantly practice social skills using iPads. As another link to the

school store, elderly school volunteers can take the children to the school store for mathematics

practice of price comparison, use of money, introductions and making requests (Styles 2003).

The teachers give instructions and develop manuals/modules to be used in the process for

efficiency purposes and meeting state standards. The elderly thus function both as role models

and grandparents for students who may lack these in their extended families. They also feel

fulfilled by playing an important role for the children and in assisting teachers.

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Caldrella, Gomm, Shatzer and Wall (2010) investigated volunteer school-based mentoring

using adult participants from parent-teacher associations, university students, retirement

communities and senior volunteer groups. Their findings indicated that younger volunteers were

more motivated for career-type reasons while most volunteers were motivated to disseminate

values and understanding based on building relationships such as the elderly can preferably do.

The elderly can tell stories to build vocabulary and experiences. The students can reiterate parts

of or the complete story and listen to themselves (McClanahan 2012) as they work with the iPad

as a social teaching tool. The building of relationships and learning values with other people is a

social interaction goal for individuals with autism using iPads to assist in learning the

communication process.

Video modeling is a scientifically-based intervention to teach students with autism social

skills (Cardon and Wilcox, 2011). Volunteers can make video tapes of the social interactions

within the school, school store, and as students with autism go into the community to learn social

skills. These video tapes can introduce and reinforce skills in class that students with autism need

in learning how to approach, assist, and leave customers as they go into the community with their

iPads well as for security purposes.

Elderly Cognitive Skills and iPads

While building school-community relationships and social skills of students with autism as a

result of the process, the use of iPads to maintain the cognition of the elderly may also be a

result. Cognition is the ability to learn new things, intuition, judgment and remembering (Center

for Disease Control and Prevention, 2010 in Eckstein et al. 2010). Cognition generally decreases

over time in the elderly resulting in either mild cognitive impairment or Alzheimer’s Disease.

Cargin (2007) found that there was a decrease in word list learning, verbal fluency tasks, and

performance accuracy related to working memory in about 30% of their investigated sample.

Using the iPad as a creative tool helps to problem-solve and cope with life’s changes due to the

process of using and finding various items and apps on it. Moreover, it will help to motivate and

stimulate the mind. This may then also reduce the probability of depressive characteristics such

as poorer reading comprehension, defining concepts, object descriptions, relying on semantic

memory that are similar to the characteristics of Alzheimer’s disease (da Silva Novaretti 2011).

Many of these problems result from an interaction of word retrieval with poorer working

memory (Hummert et al. 1992). The iPad then becomes a substitute for working memory since

one can quickly access any verbal information that one cannot retrieve mentally at a particular

moment. The person who carries the iPad also becomes an essential part of a social network.

Social networks have been shown to be protective against functional losses in the elderly (d’Orsi,

Xavier, and Ramos 2011).

Mobile devices can be excellent for the elderly but the values must be realistic with

knowledge of existing limitations. Lam and Chung (2009) found: 1) that the elderly had

difficulty with small screen size and low resolution 2) small size of the buttons, 3) radiation

causes increases in blood pressure, and 4) focusing attention on the devices. IPads, however, with

the larger screen alleviates a major part of the negative physical aspects while helping to increase

attention to the screen if less icons are presented. The large size of the touch screen that is now

available alleviates problems with the button size. Overall, blood pressure due to the need to

focus less intensely may decrease.

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VAN DER JAGT: TEACHING COMMUNICATION SKILLS TO STUDENTS WITH AUTISM

This implies that the possibility of increased communication with a younger generation by

increasing the school-community relationships can now become a reality with technology such as

the iPad. Communication is essential but it will be at different levels. For example, individuals

who already have Alzheimer’s Disease at a moderate to severe level work best with less words

such as using one direction at a time in addition to encouraging remarks (Wilson 2013). The

limited use of words is excellent for students with autism who have trouble speaking or

conversing in sentences. Less fear would also occur on part of the students with autism who have

high anxiety as a major characteristic. As the student develops, the elderly also develop in

various ways. Luvmour’s (2011) study of parent-child development found that adults reported

more self-acceptance, greater connections with self and others and especially the achievement of

greater wisdom consisting of: service, presence, compassion, insight and gratitude. Learning

together in this way is the beginning of global integration of peoples and nations.

Closing the Generational Gap

The elderly often are not considered as essential to one’s life’s growth. Yet, they are of great

value to others and themselves in social interactions and therefore must not live in isolation. The

student with autism who is learning social skills by interacting with the elderly in various ways

plays a very important role in helping to change a current generally negative attitude of society

(including school students) that may cause depression to occur and a lack of motivation for the

elderly (Bekhet and Zauszniewski, 2008).

This negative attitude can be changed to a positive one as a result of this progressive model

led by a visionary principal using students with autism and iPads. Active involvement is needed

through real life experiences. Kai-Jo et al (2008) investigated increases in self-esteem and life

satisfaction of 75 Taiwanese male participants using a Life Review program in which life

experiences, accomplishments, family, and integration of life events were discussed. Increases in

self-esteem and life satisfaction occurred and were maintained for at least one month later.

Yamagami, Oosawa, and Yamagucchi (2007) also found that elderly with or without dementia

placed in groups who reminisced about tools they had used in life also improved communication,

interaction and behavior as well as memory. Active involvement with groups and individuals

while using life experiences encourages the elderly (Pillai and Vorghese 2009). Individuals with

autism, with preferences as listeners, are perfect as a listening social group for the elderly that

may include possible life’s recordings using iPads as they take their orders. Therefore, making

and handling things that the elderly have used in life and that can be made, bought or sold via a

school store can change the life attitudes and goals of both students and the elderly while

teaching social skills to students with autism within natural contexts.

Conclusion

The proposed uniquely progressive model of a school-based enterprise working in conjunction

with teachers, students with and without autism using technology can only occur with a

principal’s knowledgeable vision and organizational skills. Leading and organizing this type of

realistic enterprise in which volunteers, resource development, and vocational learning takes

place requires true caring for students, professionals, and community members of all ages so that

social and cognitive potentials can be maintained and achieved. Continued progress in

technology, new iPad applications, and interventions used to improve the learning of

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THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND LEADERSHIP

communication skills by students with autism can assist in decreasing the intergenerational gap

and link the school with the community that may expand to worldwide dimensions.

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VAN DER JAGT: TEACHING COMMUNICATION SKILLS TO STUDENTS WITH AUTISM

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APPENDIX A

Figure A.1 School-Based Enterprise Utilizing Collaboration among Teachers, Individuals with

Autism, and the Elderly

School-Based

Learning-

General/

Inclusive

Education

Volunteer

Services

Resource and

Materials

Creation Center

School-Based

Enterprise

-Store-

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VAN DER JAGT: TEACHING COMMUNICATION SKILLS TO STUDENTS WITH AUTISM

Table A.1 Possible Functions Associated with Faculty/Staff, General and Special Education

Students Based on Their Unique Characteristics

Function Faculty/Type of Student

with Exceptionality

-General Education Student-

Partner/ Leadership role

Notes

Supervisor-school store;

School and community areas

Faculty

Non-exceptional students

Supervisor-Volunteer Unit Faculty

Supervisor-Vocational Repair Faculty

Non-exceptional students

School Store-

Item listing and Accounting

Student with LD

Students with Autism

Non-exceptional students

School Store-Supply-Stock

taking and itemizing stock

sold

Students with LD

Students with Intellectual

Disabilities

Students with EBD

Students with ADD

Students with Autism

Non-exceptional students

Volunteer Services-Senior and

School students

Students with LD (El, Middle,

and High School)

Student with high functioning

ID (elementary)

Students with AD/HD (High,

middle, elementary)

Students with EBD all levels)

Non-exceptional students

Cashier Student with LD-High School

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Non-exceptional student

Stock ordering for store

Community sales

Students with LD

Students with AD/HD

Students with Autism

Non-exceptional student

(Filling out official forms)

Sending orders to companies

or entering ordering data into

computer for faculty approval

Stock ordering for vocational

and materials resource center

Students with LD

Students with EBD

Students with AD/HD

Non-exceptional student

Sending orders to companies

or entering ordering data into

computer for faculty approval

Writing up work order for

vocational unit

Listing and getting materials

to complete work order

Students with LD

Students with Autism

Students with AD/HD

Non-exceptional students

Community sales Students with Autism Take orders and sell items

Advertising Students with AD/HD

Students with ID

Student with Autism

Non-exceptional student

Make signs for promotions

and sales

May/may not involve

computer program for

creativity

Creating new ideas for

posters, signs, photos, for

teachers within their various

subject areas

Students with AD/HD

Students with EBD

Students with LD

Student with Autism

Non-exceptional student

Teachers explain content to

be covered in their units to be

taught; need websites as well

as concrete materials;

pictures; comics; designs

Resource materials-creation

and development

Students with LD

Students with AD/HD

Students with Autism

Students with EBD

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VAN DER JAGT: TEACHING COMMUNICATION SKILLS TO STUDENTS WITH AUTISM

Non-exceptional student

Sales item writer-duplicate

one for store and one for

customer);

Students with LD

Students with AD/HD

Students with high functioning

ID

Students with Autism

Students with EBD

Non-exceptional student

Sits with cashier as items are

sold-writes out the sales

ticket-item quantity-price

Financial opening and closing

of store by getting a certain

amount of money form office;

and counting money into cash

box; counting and taking

record and delivering money

to school office.

(Under supervision)

Students with LD

Students with Autism

Students with AD/HD

Non-exceptional student

*Adapted with permission: From www.raymondgeddes.com © Raymond Geddes and Co., Inc all

rights reserved.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Dr. Johan van der Jagt: Dr. Johan W. van der Jagt is an assistant professor in the Department of

Exceptionalities at Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania. After teaching individuals with

exceptionalities for 17 ½ years, he earned his Ph.D. (specialization - LD) and has been teaching

at the university level for 14 ½ years. His major interests are in the areas of severe dyslexia,

cognition and memory, and interventions for individuals with communication problems across

the life-span based on brain-based learning theory - cognition, memory, and development. He has

presented at local and international conferences on: storytelling, response to intervention,

principals’ perceptions on including foreign language courses in teacher education programs,

Alzheimer’s disease and similarities with individuals with exceptionalities, and teaching

methodology for students with low socio-economic status. His publications are in the areas of

brain hemisphericity, music, and language.

25

Creating Educational Equity for Indigenous Students through Significant Organisational

ChangeDavid Blair Rhodes, Edith Cowan University, Australia

Helen Spiers, Kormilda College, Darwin, Australia

Abstract: Kormilda College is a day and Boarding school located in Darwin, the capital city of Australia's Northern Territory. A significant percentage of the students come from over forty Indigenous remote communities across Australia's Top End. In an effort to increase Indigenous educational engagement through student leadership opportunities, a review of the pastoral care model was undertaken from a social justice perspective. Through quantitative and qualitative research analysis, incorporating a model of Change Theory, significant organisational change was implemented at the commencement of the 2012 school year. This paper will explore student experiences through a case study approach.

Keywords: Change Management, Social Justice, Social Equity

Introduction

he disparities between the social, political and economic outcomes for Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians are well documented. The educational arena is but one of a myriad of examples of Indigenous disadvantage due to repeated policy failures. This cycle of

educational disadvantage is not unique to Australia. Tough (2012; 2009), reports on research surrounding the educational disadvantage of socio-disadvantaged African-American, Hispanic and white students in the United States. He calls into question much of the research that has hitherto underlined and guided educational policy concerning socially disadvantaged students from ethnic minority backgrounds. This paper seeks to explore the unique educational context of Northern Australia, and the ways in which one secondary school, using a culturally appropriate model of Change Theory, implemented major organizational change to create an educational model that promoted social equity, and equality of opportunity.

Kormilda College – A Unique Context

Following successful operations since its inception as a combined Anglican and Uniting Church College in 1988/1989, the demographics of Kormilda College have changed considerably. The combination of contemporary circumstances and the development cycle have necessitated a new approach to the Pastoral Care structures at Kormilda College, in order to be prepared for the future. This paper will endeavour to discuss the circumstances that provided the catalyst for reform of the College pastoral structure and consider how Kormilda College may achieve strengthened outcomes for all members of the school community through increased opportunities for Indigenous student leadership. The aim of these College reforms are to develop a heightened sense of school community, strengthen ‘College Spirit’, and promote engagement in the College culture, whilst also providing meaningful leadership experiences for students throughout their time at Kormilda College. Within the context of Kormilda College, reconciliation is at the core of the mission and vision. Education is the key to providing opportunities and developing respectful multilateral relationships, and understanding.

For approximately 28 years, Kormilda College in Darwin has provided an opportunity for Indigenous students from remote communities to receive a high quality secondary education, and in some small way counter the educational gap that, to our shame, continues in remote Indigenous

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THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND LEADERSHIP

communities in Northern Australia (.Schwab & Sutherland, 2001). Kormilda College offers the opportunity for Indigenous students from remote, rural and urban communities, to study alongside non-Indigenous day students. The provision of the International Baccalaureate (IB), the Northern Territory Certificate of Education and Training (NTCET) and Vocational Education and Training (VET) courses should facilitate this joint learning experience. The educational opportunities at the College, however, have been of limited benefit to Indigenous students. Few, if any Indigenous students commence the IB Diploma, none have yet completed it, despite in being offered at the College since 1994. This international Year 12 accreditation has remained beyond the reach of Indigenous students.

The reality of lower literacy rates and frequently low levels of school-readiness amongst the Indigenous cohort, particularly from remote communities has meant however, that it is virtually impossible for the majority of Indigenous students from remote communities to study in the same classes as their non-Indigenous fellows. English as a Second Language (ESL) classes, life-skills and work-ready programs help to fill this gap, but unfortunately do not lead to formal qualifications. A very low percentage of Indigenous students make a successful transition to mainstream classes, (40% by Year 10) fewer still complete Yr 12 ( 3 -4 students per year) with an academic qualification such as the, and a negligible (one per year) amount of Indigenous students even consider, let alone commence the IB Diploma.

While in theory the opportunity is there, cultural, literacy and social inequalities, combined with historically low academic expectations of Indigenous students make such qualifications out of reach. Indeed, outside of mainstream classes, (ie Indigenous ESL classes), Science has not even been offered to students as a subject, until the recent introduction of the Junior Rangers programme, that builds on Indigenous knowledge’s to great effect. Additionally, outside of the classroom there are too few opportunities for cross-cultural understanding, relationship building and the development of sustainable community between Indigenous and non-Indigenous students.

A Broader Context of Disadvantage

In 2004, the NT Treasury identified two distinct populations in the Northern Territory, each with quite different characteristics, composition and growth patterns. The Indigenous population of the NT was identified as being considerably younger than the National average, less migratory, with higher fertility rates, higher mortality rates, lower life expectancy, higher growth rates and a more widely dispersed and permanently settled population. Taylor (2010) argues of this:

The message was simple – while the nation as a whole might be increasingly focused on the means to finance and service retirees and the aged in general, Indigenous people (not just in the Territory) barely reach retirement age. Their concerns are more firmly fixed at the opposite end of the social policy spectrum to do with child development, housing for new family formation, education, training, youth criminal justice, employment, and the means to securing asset accumulation and sustainable livelihoods (p 1).

The sources of Indigenous Australian’s social and educational disadvantage are complex, and arise from systemic neglect. The poor educational outcomes that exist in the Northern Territory, arise from a historical legacy of systemic inertia (Schwab & Sutherland, 2001), and are compounded by extreme difficulties in attracting and maintaining high quality teachers in remote communities (Taylor, 2010; Elliott, 2009; Elliott & Keenan, 2009; Slee & Keenan, 2008). Lack of consistency in teaching staff and administrative procedures over an extended period of time, has left a legacy of educational disparity.

The low levels of Indigenous participation in Higher Education cited previously in this paper, account for the small number of Indigenous professionals. Schools, medical and other professional services in remote Indigenous communities are therefore largely staffed almost exclusively by non-Indigenous people. These service providers are frequently young and/or inexperienced, and rarely

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stay in the communities longer than a year or two before leaving. This high staff turnover is exacerbated by a reluctance of experienced, mid-career teaching staff to live in these isolated, often poorly resourced and frequently linguistically and/or culturally distinct communities (Elliott, 2009). Given the status quo, local Indigenous people, many of whom are already working as unskilled assistants, are best placed to work as professionals in these communities. Therefore, ensuring continuity of education, policy and providing role-models for younger community members.

The opportunity for Indigenous students to engage in significant leadership opportunities, and to have other experiences which they may not previously have been available to them, enhances the educational experience. It also provides the potential for the creation of sustainable Indigenous leadership is problematic, and while it may have financial implications, is of paramount importance. According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), the Indigenous population of Australia in 2006 was 517,000 people, 2.5% of the total population. As of 30 June 2007 the Estimated Resident Population (ERP) of the Northern Territory was 210 627. It was estimated that 64 005 of this total were Indigenous; equalling 30.4% of all people in the Northern Territory. 41 003 of the Indigenous population were identified as living in very remote communities. 3760 of those identified as Indigenous reported having some form of post-secondary higher education/vocational training qualification. More than half (54%) of Indigenous respondents in the 2006 census were under 25 years of age. An Australian Indigenous language was spoken at home by 59% of Indigenous respondents (ABS, 2009).

The implications of these statistics cannot go unchallenged. Indigenous people while comprising almost one third of the total population of the NT, the most significant percentage of any state or territory population in Australia, are chronically under-represented in post-compulsory education qualifications. The majority of Indigenous people in the NT live in remote or very remote communities, and therefore have restricted access to educational opportunities available to the majority of Australians. Language and cultural contexts further disadvantage Indigenous people in the Northern Territory from access to education, and ensure the future for Indigenous people, ensuring that they have the educational standards to perform as equals in an increasingly global world and sustain their communities.

A Case for Change: The Importance of Reconciliation at Kormilda College

Kormilda College has a significant proportion of Indigenous students, the majority of them boarders. The College also attracts a large number of non-Indigenous day students. The campus had become very unstable with fights breaking out between different Indigenous community groups, and a significant proportion of non-Indigenous students felt unsafe on campus. Relatively high numbers of Indigenous students were being suspended or expelled for significant behavioural issues ranging from fighting, to intimidation and sexual harassment.

In 2010 the College Board of Directors, and the Principal, commissioned an external agency to survey the various components of the College community, staff, parents and students. The results were published in August 2011. The results were alarming: approximately 60% of students felt that there was not a culture of ‘respect’ on the campus. 34% of students believed that no-one was trying to make Kormilda College a better place; 39% students either didn’t feel safe at Kormilda College (or responded that they didn’t know); 53% of student respondents admired the student leadership; and 34% of student respondents believed that the College rules were unfair and positively discriminated in favour of Indigenous students. Comments included that “Boarders were treated differently”; that “all students should be treated equally and with respect” and there was a negative perception of the treatment of Indigenous students compared to Day students. At the time the pastoral structure provided a two tier system for managing student behavioural, emotional and pastoral concerns. This system had evolved over time and included Heads of House in the Boarding program and Indigenous Mentors in the Day school for the Indigenous students. Each of these

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pastoral support systems was vertical and operated independently from the mainstream Day School Heads of Year. Additionally, the Student Services Centre employed Restorative Justice Officers, who dealt exclusively with Indigenous students. Heads of Year handled the pastoral needs of the mainstream day students. This structure was further complicated by a division between Middle School (years 7-9) and Senior School (years 10-12). An almost defunct Sporting House system also existed, which was vertical by nature, organised around Indigenous communities, and only really used for sporting carnivals and physical education lessons. Communication was ineffective and there was an inconsistent approach to behaviour management, pastoral issues and discipline.

A Process of Change Management

Given the complexity of the pastoral structure at Kormilda College, and the inconsistencies that existed, a total restructure of the pastoral system was planned in 2011 and implemented in 2012. Change Theory was employed to develop a simpler, more equitable structure of pastoral care. A three-step model was used, based on Kurt Lewin’s (1947) model of change and Kubler-Ross’ (1969) Stages of Change. The model is depicted in the Diagrams 1.1 and 1.2 below. Diagram 2 depicts the anticipated responses from staff over time.

Diagram1.1 Diagram 1.2

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RHODES AND SPIERS: CREATING EDUCATIONAL EQUITY FOR INDIGENOUS STUDENTS

Diagram 2

The process of change management included the analysis of what was hoped to be achieved,

what was already in place that could be enhanced to achieve greater results, and what processes and structures were not working effectively, and needed to be adapted. The process was led by the Deputy Principal Pastoral, with the support of the Senior Management Team, including the Principal and Deputy Principal, and with the encouragement of the College Board.

Initial discussions with staff about general changes that were proposed were positive, although there was strong resistance by some teachers about the anticipated changes and the challenge to the status quo. The data that had been collected through the parent/staff and student surveys’ indicated that there was a clear interpretation that Indigenous students were treated differently to mainstream students. The behavioural and pastoral models in place emphasised difference and supported a not-so hidden curriculum that discouraged inclusivity (Figure 1). The desired model of a whole-of-school approach to pastoral care then could only be achieved through significant organisational change.

Figure 1: Horizontal Structure

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To achieve a model of pastoral care that was much more culturally appropriate, as many divisions within the College as possible were removed. Middle School and Senior School administrative structures were disbanded, the role of Head of Year was removed. A whole-of-school approach to pastoral care was adopted, which centred on the previously almost defunct Sporting Houses, which became known as Pastoral Houses. Six Heads of Year were replaced by 4 Heads of House. Kormilda College accepted its first enrolments for Year 6 in 2012 and all students from Year 6 to Year 12 are members of one of four vertical pastoral Houses (Figure 2).

The Pastoral Houses are each led by a House Master, and a team of tutors, who conduct roll call and a Pastoral Program lesson each week, based on a positive psychology framework. Positive psychology in schools has been defined as "education for both traditional skills and for happiness" (Seligman et al., 2009). The pastoral system aims to build on the strengths of the College community.

The vertical structure reflects the system that had previously existed for Indigenous boarding students, allowing for the building of relationships between students across year groups. As part of the change tutor groups are organized by House for Years 6-8 and Years 9 to 12. There is an intention is to make these fully vertical in 2014. All students are members of a Day House; all Indigenous boarding students are also members of a Boarding House. The lines of communication are kept open between the two programs and this allows for a flow of information to best support students.

Figure 2: Vertical Structure

Opportunities for Student Leadership The new vertical pastoral care structure allows many opportunities for student leadership. Having moved from a year-based structure with 6 year groups, to a vertical structure with 4 Houses, has meant that the many roles previously performed by the Head of Year have become unsustainable for the House Masters. Rather than daunting the College, this has provided the opportunity for House based student leadership. The Student Representative Council (SRC) is comprised of specific numbers of students, from each year group in each House. The position of House Captain (male and female) has become a much more significant role. Given the reduction in the number of pastoral staff, student leadership is an imperative support for the College, and pastoral programs have become much more student driven. The student leadership team therefore works closely with the pastoral staff to ensure that the College operates with respect for all.

Indigenous students are integral to this student leadership model. Currently the College has over forty Indigenous students in receipt of Indigenous Youth Leadership Program (IYLP) scholarships, through our partnership broker The Smith Family. The number of scholarships has 32

RHODES AND SPIERS: CREATING EDUCATIONAL EQUITY FOR INDIGENOUS STUDENTS

grown from five, in 2010. These are currently funded by the federal Department of Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations (DEEWR). Students in receipt of this scholarship are required to perform community service work, in the form of the Student Representative Council (SRC), House activities, Charity support and mentoring of younger students. Their performance is measured each year in a review by The Smith Family.

Breaking Away at a Cycle of Systemic Discrimination and Low Academic Expectations

Positive effects have occurred since the change has been implemented. The interesting aspect that has arisen from the change to a vertical structure is that there have been incremental changes to the tone and culture of the College. Indigenous and non-Indigenous students are shared members of a community working toward a common mission. Relationships have begun to develop between students that would have been previously unimaginable. IYLP student leaders are represented at SRC; they present at assemblies, they engage in fundraising for charity and they support the pastoral structure.

The campus has become far less volatile, and lunchtime House activities each week bring students together in a spirit of camaraderie and competition. This is not to say that we have achieved reconciliation. We are still moving in that direction. However, Indigenous students are becoming increasingly engaged in the wider community life of the College, and speaking-up for their rights. To our great shame, Kormilda College did not fly the ATSI (Aboriginal Torres Strait Islander) flag, until one of our Indigenous students asked why not. Why not indeed? Year 6 and 7 student now proudly raise the flags every day.

These symbols flutter in the tropical breeze and culturally appropriate pastoral structures support this symbolism. Consistent high expectations, academic opportunity, and literacy and numeracy assistance are now required to support the rhetoric and well intentioned organisational change. Teachers need specific techniques and strategies to create classrooms that are effective learning environments. “Great teaching is an art … Great art relies on the mastery and application of foundational skills, learned individually through diligent study” (Lemov, 2010).

Conclusions

The education of Indigenous Australian children across Northern Australia has presented enormous challenges for educational authorities and governments. Low standards of educational achievement and poor attendance reflect the web of disadvantage that pervades every aspect of the Indigenous experience in remote, rural, regional and indeed urban communities throughout Northern Australia. The myriad of health problems, unacceptably high levels of substance-abuse, suicide, unemployment, over-representation in the criminal justice system and housing disparity that exists, is inexorably linked to the educational under-achievement of Indigenous youth. (Need a number of references here to validate facts.) A wide range of research indicates that despite this reality:

Indigenous people, like all other Australians, expect their children to have a high quality education that meets their needs. They want it to be provided locally, to be inclusive of their cultures and to prepare them to be happy and productive citizens (Kroneman 2007, p4).

It is difficult to staff schools in remote, predominately Indigenous communities in the Northern Territory. There is frequently a high turn-over of staff, and many schools find it difficult to attract experienced, high quality teachers, who are prepared to commit to long-term teaching contracts. There can be close to a complete staff turnover within a year or even a semester. This difficulty

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results from a complex variety of causes. City-based teachers are reluctant to move to remote communities, many of which remain isolated during the wet-season; the distance from major services, which are usually located in town centres, many kilometres away; the cultural differences and the isolation from friends and family, ensure that a steady change in teaching (and auxiliary staff) remains, creating inconsistencies and a lack of continuity in schools. The incentives offered to teachers to work in remote communities can attract candidates who are using the school as a stepping-stone in their future career advancement. This situation ensures that Boarding schools in urban center’s such as Darwin, Adelaide and Perth become some of the few viable options for young Indigenous to achieve an education. Funding, cultural alienation and the loss of family associations are keenly felt by Indigenous students, and these opportunities, if they are indeed possible often deteriorate or terminate quickly.

The participation rate of Indigenous people from remote communities in higher education remains low, and the completion rate of tertiary education even lower. The result is that a small number of local Indigenous people from remote communities obtain higher education qualifications, and therefore few become teachers or other professionals in their communities, perpetuating the cycle of non-Indigenous servicing the communities. Therefore, schools, health facilities, and legal services are too frequently staffed exclusively by non-Indigenous people. Where Indigenous do work in these services it is frequently in low-paid, limited responsibility positions.

The Federal Government’s intervention in the NT emphasised the importance of Indigenous children of compulsory school age enrolling and regularly attending school. Limited achievements, however, have been made in resolving the serious disadvantage faced by remote Indigenous communities in the NT. In a 2007 report commissioned by the Australian Education Union (AEU) in 2007, it was argued that 7,500 Indigenous children in the NT did not attend school. Little has changed by 2012, with rates of irregular attendance in formal education remaining alarmingly high. The AEU argues that this is the result of “many years of neglect under the previous CLP Government” (p6). However, this is compounded by the failure of education systems and government to engage fully with the perceptions and beliefs of Indigenous people about education and quality teaching and learning.

The status quo makes little allowance for these pastoral issues, which have a significant impact on school attendance. Indeed, at the time that the school-aged population is most likely to avail themselves of school attendance, the opportunities are unavailable, alien or culturally inappropriate, and reflectwhat Schwab & Sutherland(2001) describe as “systemic inertia” (pp. 5-6).

Despite the claims of government and education systems at both a Territory, and Federal level, that school attendance is of paramount importance, there is little practical support of the political rhetoric. Enrolment and attendance figures are used to determine staffing and funding of schools. If all of the young people of school age in remote communities were to attend school, there would not be enough teachers to teach them, classrooms to house them, or furniture to seat them (Taylor, 2010). The policy of aiming for 100% school attendance rates appears to be a myth. Government census days at schools such as Kormilda College make few allowances for students travelling from remote communities, and the conflicting demands that community and family obligations that may delay travel to boarding school.

The initial success in cross-cultural understanding that has arisen since the development of the vertical pastoral structure and the promotion of student leadership opportunities, particularly for Indigenous students is very positive. It is essential that Indigenous students are provided with a quality education, where their unique individual gifts and qualities are nurtured and fostered, and where they are provided with opportunities to succeed.

While government funding of Indigenous Leadership programs remains uncertain, the challenge for schools like Kormilda College, is to continue to develop sustainable opportunities for Indigenous students to develop their leadership skills, value their educational opportunities and

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RHODES AND SPIERS: CREATING EDUCATIONAL EQUITY FOR INDIGENOUS STUDENTS

prepare for a future where they are the advocates and leaders for their communities and their people. Broader experiences beyond community life are essential, so that these young people have the opportunity to see how they can best serve themselves in their careers and serve their communities and Indigenous people throughout the nation. This is self-determination. However, it is determined by a level of wider community and government support. Educators have a responsibility to nurture and develop these students, and foster their talents. Academic credentials such as the NTCET and IB Diploma need to become realistic goals for Indigenous students and the possibility of attending university a viable option. Small steps in culturally appropriate organisational change, combined with meaningful Indigenous student leadership and high expectations may lead the way to such a reality.

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REFERENCES

Carbines, R., Grieves, V., Robb, L,. & Wyatt, T. 2008. “National study into the successful transition of Indigenous children into school”. Erebus International & Minibah Consultants. NSW

Elliott, A. 2009. “Learning styles and curriculum customisation for higher education delivery in remote Australian communities”. In Z. Charlesworth, C. Evans & E. Cools (eds). Learning in higher education: How style matters. Pp 221-231, Tribuen EU, Gorkeho, Czech Republic.

Elliott, A. & Keenan, B. 2009. “Growing Our Own: Teacher Education for remote Indigenous communities in the Northern Territory”. ISFIRE Conference, Armidale, NSW, February 11 to 13, 2009.

Kronemann, M. 2007. “Education is the key: an education future for Indigenous communities in the Northern Territory”. Australian Education Union.

Rhodes, D., Giles, W., Prescott, D. 2010. “Travelling remote: training Indigenous teachers in remote communities in Australia’s Northern Territory”. The International Journal of Diversity in Organisations, Communities and Nations. Champaign, IL: Common Ground Pub. Vol. 10: No. 1.

Schwab, R.G. & Sutherland, D. 2001. Building Indigenous learning communities, Centre for Aboriginal Economic Research.

Slee, J. & Keenan, B. 2008. “Culturally responsive assessment strategies to inform a pilot program for Indigenous teacher education in remote communities of the Northern Territory of Australia”. Symposium on Tertiary Assessment and Higher Education Student Outcomes. Victoria University, NZ, 17-19 November 2008.

Seligman, M., Steen, T., Park, N., & Peterson, C. (2005). Positive psychology progress: Empirical validation of interventions. American Psychologist, 60, 410-421.

Taylor, J. 2010. Demography as Destiny: Schooling, work and Aboriginal population change at Wadeye. CAEPR Working Paper No. 64/2010

Thornton, S., Giles, W., Prescott, D. & Rhodes, D. 2011. “Exploring the mathematical confidence of Indigenous preservice teachers in a remote teacher education program”. Mathematics Education Research Journal DOI 10.1007/s13394-011-0013-4 Seligman, M., Ernst, R. Gillham, K. & Linkins, M. (2009). Positive Education: positive psychology and classroom interventions. Oxford Review of Education, 35(3), 293-311.

Weinstein, Joshua I. 2009. “The Market in Plato’s Republic.” Classical Philology 104:439–58.

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Dr. David Blair Rhodes: Dr. David Rhodes is a senior lecturer in the Faculty of Regional Professional Studies at Edith Cowan University, in Western Australia. He was previously Deputy Principal at Kormilda College, a day and boarding school in Darwin in Australia's Northern Territory, which educated both local mainstream students and Indigenous students from isolated remote communities across Northern Australia. David completed his doctorate through the Faculty of Education and Social Work at the University of Sydney, and has previously worked as a lecturer with the School of Education at the Charles Darwin University in Northern Australia.

Dr. Helen Spiers: Helen Spiers has worked at Kormilda College since July 2007, and brought with her more than twenty years’ experience as an educator in the Northern Territory. Helen Spiers has spent thirteen years managing VET programs across the Jabiru region. During this time, Helen completed a master’s degree in distance education, a graduate certificate in management development (education and training) and the certificate IV in assessment and workplace training. She remains active in professional associations for VET trainers and mathematics teachers.

37

Linking Treatment Integrity with Transfer of Training: A Framework for Achieving Improved

Outcomes in Collaborative Consultation Lex McDonald, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand

Abstract: Transfer is a central focus of educational endeavours. Whether it is a teacher in a class, administrator, parent consultant, management consultant, resource personnel or PD facilitator, all have objectives relating to the implementation of ideas, skills and attitudes in similar and new contexts. Parallel goals exist for collaborative consultation and yet, its key component, treatment integrity, does not adequately draw upon these related findings. It is postulated in this paper that transfer of training literature can inform treatment integrity so that improved outcomes are achieved. However, change and implementation of treatment plans are not always readily attained but it is suggested that transfer literature can promote treatment integrity by specifically considering the transfer literature on the learner’s characteristics, the teaching/training event, and the work environment. Therefore, this paper will consider how transfer of training could inform treatment integrity to become more focussed and effective. A formative model of explanation is outlined, but it is noted that further research is needed to confirm the ideas.

Keywords: Collaborative Consultation, Transfer of Training, Treatment Integrity, Implementation.

Introduction his paper is concerned with improving collaborative consultation (CC) outcomes. CC is an interactive process involving individuals with diverse knowledge and skills working together to solve agreed upon problems. Often it is a triadic relationship (e.g., specialist

teacher – teacher – student) with the aim being to plan, implement and evaluate behavioural interventions, and there is growing evidence of its value in facilitating effective change. However, knowledge concerning treatment integrity (one of the key components of CC) and its measurement of intervention occurrence and quality rests on minimal research. Accordingly, there are calls to increase CC validity and implementation effectiveness. It is speculated in this paper that the transfer of training (ToT) research can provide some guidance for increasing the facilitation of treatment integrity. The ToT models and research literature on trainee, training design and work environment characteristics will be related to integrity to demonstrate increased effectiveness of how the integrity process can be achieved.

The Relationship between Collaborative Consultation and PD Transfer of Training ToT is a broad concept that has different meanings in the various disciplines but, for the purposes of this paper, it refers to the influence of prior learning gained in a formal training/professional development (PD) context that impacts upon the performance of a later activity (i.e., which is often the job setting) (Broad 1997). Accordingly, in many respects, the concept treatment integrity in CC is encompassed by ToT as it refers to the extent to which the intervention is implemented and its effectiveness (Kampwirth and Powers 2012). The thesis of this paper is that much of what is known about ToT can be related to treatment integrity. Each emphasises a professional learning relationship designed to impact upon improved performance in a third party and both draw upon cognitive and behavioural theoretical foundations, although a wide range of disciplines have contributed to the development of each (Kampwirth and Powers 2012; Yamnill and McLean 2001). In the traditional CC problem solving process, the following steps are often employed: problem identification, problem analysis, intervention development and implementation, and intervention

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evaluation (Kampwirth and Powers 2012). A similar process has evolved for PD transfer centred learning: teacher needs are identified, workshop strategies are selected, a PD plan is created and put into practice, ideas are implemented in the classroom, analysis of the results is undertaken and adjustments for future implementations are noted (SEDL 2008). Thus, in both processes there is:

• the identification of a problem/issue;• interaction between at least two contributing key stakeholders;• a desire to change behaviour to impact on a third party/parties;• the identification of consultee/teacher needs;• identification of strategies to promote new skills and knowledge to meet these needs;• a planning of the implementation; and of the linkages and possible future research

endeavours;• a monitoring of the change, followed by an evaluation.

These two processes can therefore be readily aligned with one another, although in CC attention to specific problem solving is emphasised whereas in PD a more generic approach to achieving improved learning outcomes is the focus. Implied is the need for interventions to have positive outcomes and both have a number of key implementation issues. Does the consultee/teacher implement the plan? To what extent is the implementation consistent with the plan? How effectively is intervention implemented? In other words, is there treatment integrity or transfer of training? In CC there has been relatively limited research regarding treatment integrity, whereas in ToT, since the late 1980s, considerable research and development of practice have occurred and it is postulated in this paper that collaborative consultation practice could benefit from much of this knowledge. The following section outlines a formative model which provides a systematic framework outline for examining linkages and suggesting future research endeavours.

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Figure 1. Formative Transfer of Training – Treatment Integrity Model

A Formative Model of the Transfer of Training – Treatment Fidelty Although speculative, this section outlines a formative transfer of training-treatment integrity model (refer Figure 1) that links the two concepts together. It is formative because it is recognised that it is a model that requires further consideration. Treatment integrity is outlined as being dependent on the CC process implementation which in turn is related to the phases of before, during, and after X roles as is the ToT process. Each of these interactive phases has key ideas related to the trainee/consultee, training/intervention and work environment characteristics across the various time periods. CC future research directions could utilise this framework to investigate treatment integrity and identify key predictor and moderator variables that would assist with the effectiveness of the interaction between consultee and consultant.

The following sections discuss the key concepts outlined in the model, particularly as it relates to facilitating outcomes (via treatment integrity and implementation of training).

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Collaborative Consultation The CC approach has been increasingly used in a range of settings and occupations such as local and national government (e.g., Gatt Consulting 2011), interagency consultation (e.g., Darlington, Feeney, and Rixon 2005), school consultation (e.g., Kampwirth and Powers 2012), parent consultation (Boukydis 2012), medicine and public health (e.g., Lasker 1997), etc. However, most literature on CC revolves around consultation in educational settings and, in this paper, school consultation will be used as an example of the process. Since about the 1990s, most of this school-based literature has been concerned with consultation processes to deal with ‘difficult’ students (Idol, Nevin, and Paolucci-Whitcomb 1995). It has been based upon a multi-theoretical perspective and, although an often discussed educational domain, it draws upon behavioural, cognitive, social-cognitive systems and social interdependence approaches. It is “a process in which a trained, school-based consultant, working in an egalitarian, non-hierarchical relationship with a consultee, assists that person in her efforts to make decisions and carry out plans that will be in the best interests of her students” (Kampwirth and Powers 2012, 2). Fundamentally, it is a relationship based upon the shared expertise of parties, mutual assistance, and implementation of agreed ideas with the defining quality being the adoption of an ecological problem solving paradigm to improve the functioning of the student whilst facilitating the development of the consultee (Sheridan and Gutkin 2000). Mostly it is a triadic relationship with a direct service between the consultee and consultant, consultee and student, but indirect service between the consultant and student.

In this context, CC has become a preferred (but not necessarily more accepted) approach as there is an acknowledgement that the assessment driven expert consultation model (with top-down hierarchical approach features) has limits (Kampwirth and Powers 2012). For example, an expert consultant in a school setting cannot fully appreciate the local interpersonal, ecological and contextual elements, whereas in CC, the teacher can provide data about the local setting to assist with the problem solving. Furthermore, the importance of shared decision-making for change is preferred (Heron and Harris 2001) as it is likely to empower the consultee to work collaboratively (Erchul and Martens 2002). But given this, the collaborative consultation approach has been slow to emerge as an alternative (Kampwirth and Powers 2012). Not only is it acknowledged that CC is a change in practice and change in schools is considered to be difficult (Fullan 1991; Ysseldyke, Vanderwood, and Shriner 1997), but secondly, it is considered time-demanding and requires an intensity of involvement. Thirdly, because there is a range of diverse ideas about what consultation involves and a relative lack of research on effectiveness of approaches, it can become a bewildering and complex process often perceived as unnecessary by some individuals.. Indeed, these problematic features of CC are often highlighted as it is a common perception the alternative expert model can offer a seemingly speedier resolution of issues. Nevertheless, there is growing evidence (e.g., Kratochwill and Stoiber 2000; Marston et al. 2003) that consultation can have impact and success in solving complex issues.

One of the keys to achieving impact and success with CC revolves around the notion of treatment integrity (treatment fidelity, intervention fidelity, intervention integrity) which is the extent to which an intervention arising from a consultation is implemented as intended. This is the cornerstone of collaborative consultation and is a necessary prerequisite for determining treatment effectiveness (Truscott et al. 2003) and yet little research has been undertaken on this key concept. It is linked to internal and external validity of the treatment and therefore a central concern for CC, and although there have been some studies indicating a low or nil correlation between treatment fidelty and outcome, many others have located a direct or indirect relationship (Weck et al. 2011). Accordingly, if the integrity is poor then weak treatment effects can occur and vice versa. Integrity strength ranges from zero (i.e., no implementation) to complete and precise implementation of the treatment and this information becomes particularly important in determining the relationship between the treatment plan and behavioural change (Gresham 1989; Gutkin 1993). Integrity is then closely related to transfer; in integrity the key concern in CC is with the degree to which the

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consultant presentation faithfully represents the intervention and the degree to which the consultee implements as intended whilst in transfer the concern is with whether the ideas presented to the learner are demonstrated in changed (on-going) behaviour in other contexts (Hanover Research 2012). Integrity, therefore, impacts upon transfer and, as indicated, the achievement of integrity and transfer are closely related (Kampwirth and Powers 2012) – but as Hanover Research (2012) note, both can be examined independently.

Because of the importance of integrity, it is necessary to precisely define its qualities. In a broad sense, there are three inter-related components of treatment integrity – adherence to the consultation model, the degree to which consultation processes are implemented, and whether the actual intended implementation as designed is delivered (Sheridan 2007). Often, however, treatment integrity is identified in a more restricted manner – for example, Wilkinson (2007, 420) states that “Treatment integrity (or fidelity) reflects the accuracy and consistency with which each component of the treatment or intervention plan is implemented” and, as Gresham (1989, 137) noted, “Many failures in consultation and interventions probably can be attributed to the fact that intervention plans are not implemented as intended”. Adopting a wider integrity perspective is likely to have more promise, however, as faithfulness of intervention rests on more than the actual implementation but, as indicated, lack of research and documented practice has thwarted its development. For example, in school consultations, it has been largely overlooked with the consultee’s intentions simply informing the integrity with little monitoring undertaken (Bramlett et al. 2002). More research is needed to identify the most effective strategies that would monitor and sustain intervention integrity.

In response to this need to improve outcomes, limited investigations have identified a measure of the CC monitoring and sustaining strategies that could ensure a more robust integrity (Kampwirth and Powers 2012). To date, the most effective approaches include consultee self-reporting, permanent products, behavioural interviews, and feedback from consultants (Lane et al. 2004; Mortenson and Witt 1998; Noell et al. 2005). However, other possibilities have also been identified. Perepletchikova, Treat, and Kazdin (2007), for example, note that consultee capabilities and the degree of treatment differentiation (in comparison to other treatments) are important in integrity and adherence to the plan is an imperative. Further to this, Waltz, Addis, and Koerner (1993) identify that adherence is validated by the defining of specific essential behaviours, explicit description of the treatment, adequate training, and supervision of the consultee. Given that these strategies are implemented, treatment integrity is likely to be enhanced and the outcomes of the CC deemed more positive.

Ascertaining the level of integrity is more complex than simply identifying strategies to monitor and sustain development, however. It cannot always be readily assessed for it a function of the specific context/situation, a specific match between the plan and referral is required, there is the need to locate effective assessment tools, and there may be difficulty in assessing some interventions (Sheridan et al. 2009). It is not surprising then that in the literature treatment integrity is reported as being fraught with conceptual and methodological issues (Sheridan 2007). It is speculated that some of these concerns can be overcome by linking to the research findings and practices used to ensure transfer of training.

Transfer of Training One of the most important issues in education is the extent to which learning is transferred and used in similar or different settings. Indeed, some (e.g., Haskell 2001) believe that the concept of learning should be replaced by transfer of learning because without transfer learning is meaningless. Often the terms transfer of learning and transfer of training are used inter-changeably but the former is a more general term that embraces the latter; transfer of learning refers to all learning whilst transfer of training is referring to learning arising from a formal learning experience. According to Broad (1997, 2), transfer of training refers to the “effective and continuing application by learners – to their performance of jobs or other individual, organisational,

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or community responsibilities – of knowledge and skills gained in leaning activities.” Blume et al. (2010, 1067-1068) defined it as having “two major dimensions: (a) generalization—the extent to which the knowledge and skill acquired in a learning setting are applied to different settings, people, and/or situations from those trained, and (b) maintenance—the extent to which changes that result from a learning experience persist over time.” This is similar to the goals of CC and ensuring integrity, and this link is even more apparent when considering Foxon’s (1993, 1994) views which highlighted ToT as a process with outcomes. She indicated that that the stages of the transfer process (which can provide measurement points) include the intention to transfer, initiation, partial transfer, conscious maintenance, followed by unconscious maintenance. But similar to CC, ToT has been bedevilled by some operationalisation and assessment difficulties, although ToT has had a more significant theoretical and practice history.

One of the earliest models of ToT was developed by Baldwin and Ford (1988) who identified that training inputs (i.e., trainee characteristics, training design, and work environment) impact upon learning and retention to facilitate generalisation and maintenance of attitudes, behaviour, and knowledge. Considerable research and practice development followed the development of this seminal model, one of the reasons being the on-going concern about the lack of performance improvement following training. This concern about minimal return in training (and CC) is ultimately a transfer issue – frequently it is observed in practice, and noted in the literature, that transfer has occurred (Daffron and North 2011).

Because of this lack of observed transfer, interest has developed in measuring what has been learned, what transfers, and identification of the causes of the low incidence of transfer. Similar to treatment integrity, efforts have been made to identify the best means of measuring and monitoring transfer – initially learning and short-term retention via self-report was used but this was found insufficient and in more recent times behavioural measures, supervisory and peer ratings and self-ratings have increasingly been used (Burke and Hutchins 2007). However, concern has been expressed about the exclusive use of self-report as perception can be distorted by social desirability, cognitive dissonance, and memory, and therefore there is a need to employ multiple measures and extend the transfer retention interval beyond 12 months. Overall, however, one of the issues not always been made clear is the extent to which a distinction in the measurement of transfer has been made between the use of a trained skill and the effectiveness of performing the trained skill (Blume et al. 2010). In collaborative consultation most emphasis has been upon monitoring the ongoing effectiveness of the intervention (Kampwirth and Powers 2012).

A number of models and approaches to explaining ToT have developed from the on-going research and it is likely that they could have potential for assisting with the integrity process. Different orientations (e.g., instructional/educational and management/organisational) have been adopted but each has the goal of delineating how best to achieve transfer of the training (and could have potential for promoting integrity). Table 1 provides a summary of the key features of a range of some of the approaches.

For many of the models, trainee characteristics (e.g, prior knowledge), the training programme (e.g., the instructional design and content) and impact of the work environment (e.g., expectations) are identified as significant factors (Burke and Hutchins 2007), although specific dimensions and interactions vary. For example, some models have specifically identified change procedures and change theory as important variables and there is consideration of transfer to the different levels of systems. A few models emphasise the importance of the external environment with societal and cultural factors being identified as contributory factors. Support and on-the-job social factors have also been recognised as important. The time dimension in terms of either course development (pre-, during and post-course) or the ToT process are also significant issues in a number of the models. Nevertheless, whilst there are different emphases and some conflicting findings, a pattern of results has emerged with regard to the importance of trainee characteristics, training design, and work environment in ToT. With regard to the integrity issue, few of these dimensions have been explored. In the following discussion, some of the key findings in transfer

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of training are outlined and it is postulated that many of these factors hold significance for the collaborative consultation process as a learning process with expectations of implementation.

Table 1: Significant features of Some Transfer of Training Models/Approaches

Model/Approach Significant Features Facilitating Transfer Transfer Process (Baldwin and Ford 1988) This re-ignited interest in ToT particularly trainee, training

and work environment factors. Professional Knowledge Use (Walberg and Genova 1982)

Participant background and psychological traits, school characteristics and training features.

Teaching for Transfer (Perkins, Barell, and Fogarty 1989)

Use of different somethings (e.g., knowledge, skills, concepts), somehows (mindful/ spontaneous transfer strategies) and somewheres (similar, different disciplines or real life) for transfer.

Framework for Instructional Transfer (Brooks and Dansereau 1987)

Prior learning plus the interaction between the task, learner’s knowledge and skills.

MASS (Yelon 1992)

Motivation of learners, awareness of the appropriate skills and ideas, application of skills with support.

Management Training Transfer (Huczynski and Lewis 1980)

Work environment factors, particularly support to learner.

Role X Time Transfer Strategies (Broad and Newstrom 2001)

Trainer, trainee and supervisor partnership before-during-after training.

Multilevel transfer (Kozlowski and Salas 1997)

Internal and external characteristics and congruence between individual, team and organisation to facilitate vertical transfer between these levels.

Transfer of Training (Gielen 1996) Technical learning and social competence Socio-technic transfer learning (Analoui 1993)

Acquisition of new technical skills and the interaction with other trainees during and after the programme.

International Transfer of Training (Lim and Wentling 1998)

Cultural factors.

Stages of Transfer (Foxon 1993, 1994) A process of inhibiting and supporting force fields. Transfer is a process with stages that can be tracked.

Transfer of Learning Factors (Caffarella 1994)

Participants, design, content, change, organisational context, community and societal factors.

Input-Process-Output (Richey 1992) Interactive training outcomes of knowledge retention, attitude change and on-the-job behaviour which relate to the inputs of trainee background, perceptions of the organisation, initial knowledge, attitudes, behaviour, and instructional design/delivery processes

Multi-level Transfer (Kirkpatrick 1994) An effective training evaluation can become a model for transfer: trainee satisfaction, learning, behaviour changes and organisational impacts.

PD Evaluation (Guskey 2000) PD evaluation as a model for transfer: participants’ reactions, learning and transfer, organisational support/change and student learning outcomes.

Transfer of Learning Principles (Haskell 2001)

Knowing theory and content of subject matter (and related areas) and the what, how and theory of transfer. Adoption of a spirit of transfer, transfer thinking and encoding skills. Support and opportunity to practice. Time for learning and using others’ experiences to model.

Transfer of Learning for Professional Practice (Daffron and North 2011)

Key interactive factors: planning, learner characteristics and motivation, design and delivery, learning context, immediate application, workplace environment, and eliminating barriers.

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A range of learner characteristics has been examined for impact upon transfer and although more research is needed to clarify or locate new information, there is at least some evidence to link the following factors with its occurrence: cognitive ability, self-efficacy, motivation (particularly pre-training and motivation to learn), affectivity, conscientiousness, openness to experience, extroversion, perceived utility, career planning, organisational commitment and locus of control (Blume et al. 2010). Neuroticism, voluntary participation, and a learning goal orientation are additional factors but they have only a moderate predictive quality. Burke and Hutchins (2007) added that additional research is needed to identify the interactive significance of these factors and the creation of a more definitive link with theoretical considerations. Furthermore, they reported that there is a need to gather more research data on the place of prior experience and the role of meta-cognition for transfer.

Cognition is one learner characteristic that has had only limited research undertaken. Some importance can therefore be attached to a study undertaken by Yelon et al. (2004) which examined physicians’ decision-making processes to identify how and why intentions to transfer were developed. It was an investigation considering how moderator variables interacted with the training strategies to inform the intention to transfer. A model of explanation, consisting of three components, was identified: the (i) memories and/or momentary observations of the participants interacting with (ii) their perceptions of the training variables which then impacted upon the (iii) decision criteria determining the intention to transfer. The memories and or observations consisted of the learner’s reflections of jobs/tasks, self-evaluations and values during training. These memories were juxtaposed against the experiences encountered in training and weighed up against the relevance, validity of the ideas, quality of trainee-trainer interaction, and affective considerations. The key finding was that the interaction between the memories and perception of training variables facilitated the physicians’ assessment of the credibility, practicality and need for the idea before committing to apply the idea in the work setting. It was believed that the findings could be generalised to a range of professionals and it is suggested that this has significant implications for integrity issues.

The second key area that has been researched is the training programme issue (particularly design), although it is recognised that considerably more investigations are needed. Overall, design has a strong to moderate relationship with transfer and it has been established that learning goals, practice and feedback, content relevance, behavioural modelling and error-based examples are important considerations (Burke and Hutchins 2007). Limited association exists with needs analysis, active learning and technological support but additional research is needed. The value of a range of other instructional methods (e.g., discovery learning, constructivist learning approaches, self-directed learning, action learning, and problem-based approaches) “requires investigation to determine impact on learning and transfer (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006). Mixed results exist for the significance of self-management (e.g., self-generated feedback) and additional research needs to be undertaken to establish what links may exist between over-learning, cognitive over-load, and technological support. Blume et al. (2010) caution that their findings found minimal relationships between some interventions (e.g., goal setting, relapse prevention, and optimistic previews) and ToT – perhaps because of the limited intervention time. Once again, parallels could be drawn with the integrity issue.

Some moderator effects were investigated in the Blume et al. (2010) ToT meta-analytic study. One significant finding was related to differences that emerged in the teaching of open (principles learning) and closed (replication learning) skills. When training for open skills, pretraining self-efficacy, motivation, and the environmental context were more important than for closed skills, although cognitive ability was more strongly related to closed skills (probably because such skills are more context dependent). Although this was a significant finding in itself, it highlights an important issue which has implications for the measurement of transfer and undoubtedly integrity.

The third key research area in transfer of training is the nature of the work environment and, although significant strides have been made, there remain some contradictory findings and further

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research is needed. However, considerable work has been undertaken on the transfer climate involving examination of the work environment (along with other factors). Holton et al. (1997), for example, used the transfer climate instrument, developed by Rouiller and Goldstein (1993), to study technician training and found five factors facilitated transfer: supervisor support, peer/task support, transfer design, positive personal outcomes, and negative personal outcomes. These types of studies generated further research to specify the relative importance of the varying work factors. The Brinkerhoff and Montesinos’ (1995) investigation into the role of pharmaceutical company management is a case in point – it concluded that when management supported the training of their workers, transfer was more likely to occur. They observed, “The trainees whose supervisors explicitly supported training found fewer factors in their environment to inhibit transfer than their counterparts whose supervisors did not explicitly support training” (p.270). But in a contradictory finding, Burke and Hutchins (2007) identified that peer support and opportunity to perform have a strong or at least moderate relationship with transfer while supervisory support had mixed findings, and additional research was needed to clarify that relationship. Nevertheless, this was not supported by the meta-analysis undertaken by Blume et al. (2010) which identified climate and support as important variables with supervisory support having a stronger relationship than peer support.

The three dimensions of learner, design, and work environment in ToT have mostly been based upon subsequent replication of learning; however, alternative approaches have been explored. Drawing upon cognitive explanations of learning and transfer and in a departure from the normative assumptions about ToT measurement, Bransford and Schwartz (2001) indicated that effectiveness of transfer has in the past been dictated by the need to gather evidence of replication following the training event – that is, the learner applies what has been learned to a new problem or situation. They advocate that this approach is often invalid being based upon sequestered problem solving (direct application) rather than a preparation for future learning (PFL). It is their argument that individuals need to be able to learn/transfer in a knowledge rich environment as well as demonstrating replication of learning. They need to know how to make use of resources in the new settings for successful adaptation, the important issue being to structure environments to lead to successful application of learning. Consequently, the training should be considered an attempt to place them on a trajectory toward expertise with expertise in the principles of how to learn and apply in the future. Hammer and Black (2009), for example, demonstrated how PFL was used when systems learning in games playing transcended to promote the development of formal learning in different contexts at a later date. This approach is consistent with the principles of learning embodied in the gestalt approach to transfer (Cox 1997) and promotes the benefit of teaching general principles to achieve transfer. In working with teachers, for example, the consultant would be likely to highlight the importance of a generic problem-solving approach to solve the current and future issues. Similarly, with regard to learning issues, knowledge and skills of general strategies (e.g., peer tutoring; cooperative learning) may be considered appropriate for future use as well as the student’s current learning needs. In relation to this, measurement revolves around a dynamic assessment of an individual’s new learning and the relating of this to previous experiences and future use.

As outlined, there has been considerable research undertaken into the trainee, training, and work environment factors that facilitate transfer and, although there are some contradictory findings and additional research is needed, a framework of understanding is emerging. It is proposed that the CC process could benefit from many of these findings. However, there are two over-riding implementation factors for consideration in the use of them. Firstly, there are the practical issues of sufficient resources, support and time – these need to be carefully planned for and delivered, for the lack of transfer can often be linked to the absence of such factors (Clarke 2002). At a more conceptual/theoretical level, a systematic and strategic application of transfer based upon what we know about learning should be contemplated, as the ad hoc use of strategies is likely to inhibit transfer (Haskell 2001). These factors need to be considered for integrity as well, although as indicated the applicability is somewhat speculative in the absence of research.

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The detailed formative model transfer of training – treatment integrity model (Fig. 1) is proposed as a means of conceptualising and furthering this discussion – that the key transfer of training findings and strategies can provide additional sources of support to enhance treatment integrity and therefore advance CC as an effective means of making changes.

Conclusion The key implication of this discussion is that ToT can inform the CC literature to facilitate higher levels of treatment integrity. In a more specific sense, where the processes are paralleled in CC and ToT, and an assessment of the contextual elements is undertaken, then ToT approaches and the learner characteristics, design and work environment can provide insight into potential ways of achieving improved CC outcomes. Another key implication is the need to undertake research – not only to validate the ideas presented in this paper but to identify the usefulness of specific ToT strategies for enhancing integrity. To some extent it is simply history and a difference in the disciplinary approaches that has maintained this separation.

As indicated, CC is a complex interactive process designed to solve problems – often in complex settings. Although research supports it as an effective strategy, there is little research on treatment integrity to validate its use. Consultee satisfaction is an insufficient means of legitimising CC and additional information is needed to lead to high treatment integrity. It is suggested that the transfer of training research literature can be utilised to further understand the concept, confirm its significance as a means of promoting more effective CC, and guide practice and treatment integrity research. By adopting an integrative approach and considering CC and ToT as somewhat complementary processes, it will be possible to further the legitimacy of CC as a vehicle for providing a valid problem solving framework in settings such as schools, parent consultation, interagency consultations and medical settings. The formative model outlined in this paper affords a means of promoting a valid relationship between these two key ideas.

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Dr. Lex McDonald: Lex has worked as a primary and special education teacher and was also an adviser on special education in the New Zealand Department of Education. He became a psychologist in 1977 and worked in educational and health agencies supporting children and their families in New Zealand and in the UK. In 1992 he became a lecturer at the Wellington College of Education and remained there until 1999 when he was contracted as a consultant to work in the Pacific as a teacher educator and policy adviser. He was appointed to Victoria University of Wellington in 2002 and in 2008 became Head of School in the School of Educational Psychology and Pedagogy and subsequently Associate Dean (Academic). He has lived and worked in various countries including New Zealand, United Kingdom, the Cook Islands and Samoa. Research and teaching interests include inclusive education, effective teaching strategies, educational psychology, adult education and training effectiveness. He has written a number of papers in these areas and in 2006 co-authored a book on transfer of learning in the tertiary education context. Lex has a particular interest in Pasifika education issues that relate to training.

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The International Journal of Educational Organization and Leadership is one of ten thematically focused journals in the collection of journals that support The Learner knowledge community—its journals, book series, conference and online community.

The journal inquires into the nature and processes of effective educational administration and leadership.

As well as papers of a traditional scholarly type, this journal invites presentations of practice—including documentation of organizational and leadership practices, and exegeses of the effects of those practices.

The International Journal of Educational Organization and Leadership is a peer-reviewed scholarly journal.

ISSN: 2329-1656