The ILO/UNESCO Recommendations on Status of Teachers Fifty years On!

The ILO/UNESCO Recommendations on Status of Teachers Fifty years On!

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Friend-Pereira, J., UNESCO-APEID Conference, October 2014

Abstract:

The ILO/UNESCO Recommendations concerning the Status of Teachers were adopted by the Special

Intergovernmental Conference on the Status of Teachers, on the 5th of October 1966, almost fifty years

ago. The Recommendations set forth the rights and responsibilities of teachers and the international

standards for their selection, pre-service and in-service training, recruitment, employment and

participation in educational decision making through the established formal mechanisms for consultations

and negotiations between teachers and other key stakeholders.

In short, the Recommendations are an international frame of reference with regard to a range of issues

impacting the professional and labour rights of teachers. As such they are designed to provide a basis for

national laws or practices concerning teachers within national cultural contexts. While the

Recommendations are not legally binding, all member states of the ILO and UNESCO are obliged to be

familiar with the provisions and are encouraged to apply the Recommendations in their country through

implementing appropriate legislation, policy and practices which reflect the Recommendations. It is

against this context that this paper will focus on reviewing several thematic provisions and their

application in the Royal Kingdom of Cambodia ahead of the Joint ILO/UNESCO Committee of Experts

on the Application of the Recommendations concerning Teaching Personnel (CEART) meeting to be held

in April 2015.

Introduction:

Director-General of UNESCO, Irina Bokova, has highlighted that an education system is only as good as

its teachers, supported by evidence that the quality of education improved when teachers are supported,

and it deteriorates when they are not1. The research clearly supports her assertion that the quality of an

education system in terms of the outcomes for students is significantly impacted on by the quality of the

teachers2; indeed some studies assert that the quality of the education system cannot exceed the quality of

its teachers3. It is against this background that this paper will review the implementation of the

Recommendations in Cambodia with an overarching focus on teacher agency4 while also addressing some

specific issues.

After several years of the continuous erosion of the professional status of teachers, research is now

highlighting that quality of teachers and their active engagement is critical in any discussion as to how to

improve educational performance. In any education system it is the quality of teachers and what they do

that makes all the difference5. Within the ongoing debate on education and on improving learning

outcomes it has become clear that there is one non-negotiable ‘input’ and that is appropriately qualified,

well-supported and remunerated, highly motivated teachers working in a stimulating teaching and

learning environment6.

1 EFA/GMR, Teaching and learning: Achieving quality for all, 2013/4 2 Hattie, J, Teachers Make a Difference: What is the Research Evidence? Paper presented at the Australian Council for

Educational Research Annual Conference 2003 3 McKinsey & Company, How the World’s Best-performing School Systems Come Out on Top, OECD 2007 hereafter

McKinsey 2007 4 The definition of ‘Teacher Agency’ describes an educator who has both the ability and opportunity to act upon a set of

circumstances that presents itself within that individual’s leadership, curricular or instructional role. This concept is based on

the iterational element, the projective element and the practical-evaluative element of agency as developed by Emirbayer and

Mische cited in Biesta G. & Tedder M, How is agency possible? Towards an ecological understanding of agency-as-

achievement. The Learning Lives Research Project 2006 5 OECD, Building a High Quality Teaching Profession-Lessons from Around the World. Background Report for the

International Summit on the Teaching Profession, OECD 2011. Hereafter OECD 2011 6 ILO, Handbook of good human resource practices in the teaching profession, International Labour Office, ILO, 2012.


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According to the Teaching and Learning International Survey7, less than one in three teachers feel that the

teaching profession is valued by society. It is therefore time to revisit the ILO/UNESCO

Recommendations of the Status of Teachers which were established almost fifty years ago and ensure that

they are being applied with vigour as key methods of improving the quality of education and of learning

outcomes.

The Relationship Between Teachers’ Agency and Quality Education:

A lot of recent rhetoric in education reform has focused on the supposedly negative impact of teacher

agency especially through their representative groups. Some reforms have sought to eliminate or side-line

the organized voice of teachers as a component for creating improvement. However the advocates of side-

lining teachers would do well to consider that virtually all the top-performing countries, on the basis of

international education measures, have strong teacher unions8.

“Such a relationship does not imply causation but it does suggest that there is no

necessary conflict between strong teacher unions and good outcomes. Moreover, some

countries or sub-national units that took steps to weaken the influence of their unions did

not demonstrate any subsequent improvements and, in some cases, such as England, later

had to take many measures to improve the situation of teachers to get an adequate supply

and, thus, improve student results.”9

It is important for the well-being of teachers that they experience an enhancement of their agency, but it is

particularly crucial when considering what is needed from these professionals. Some reformers argue that

giving primacy to teachers’ agency is at odds with the goal of improving teaching and learning. The

OECD however has clearly stated that the teaching profession and its organisation are vital for education

reform.

‘The chances for success in reform can improve through effective consultation, a

willingness to compromise and, above all, through the involvement of teachers in the

planning and implementation of reform…the fact is that many of the countries with the

strongest student performance also have strong teachers’ unions and the better a country’s

education system performs, the more likely that country is working constructively with its

unions and treating its unions as trusted professional partners.10’

In addition to this collaborative approach between reformers and teacher organizations advocated for by

the OECD to ensure the education policy reforms are in fact successfully implemented, promoting the

‘agency’ of teachers has a far more direct impact by enabling teachers to develop their practice rather than

be defeated by the challenges of their working lives, thus promoting the ideal set of conditions in which

their students can be supported to achieve better learning outcomes.

7 OECD, TALIS 2013 Results: An International Perspective on Teaching and Learning, 2013 8 Characteristics of ‘strong’ teachers’ union include: Resources and Membership Mobilization, influence on policy, scope of

bargaining power, ability to shape professional practice, and build professional status. 9 Levin, B., Education This Week-Canadian Edition, ‘Let’s Stop Blaming Teacher’, 2010 10 OECD, 2011


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CASE STUDY: Cambodia

Cambodian Education System

Cambodia, unlike several other Southeast Asian nations that have achieved transformative economic

progress over the past several decades, remains mired in poverty. Its GDP per capita was US$1,007 in

201311 and more than one-quarter (26.1%) of the population of 14.52 million were living below the

national poverty line in 201112. While there is no doubt that Cambodia is better off in an absolute sense

than it was in 1970, 1979, or even 1993, a fundamental uncertainty exists beneath the current perception

of political and economic stability13.

What is most striking and unique about the Cambodian context is the manner in which the education

sector has historically impacted on Cambodia’s political and economic developments14. Despite recent

reforms and investment, the education system still remains one of the weakest in South East Asia. This

continued systemic fragility has a negative impact on the country’s potential economic and social

development. Many teachers live in relative poverty, and suffer poor working conditions in which their

professional rights are undermined,15 that contributes to the failure to embed education reforms and the

continuing poor quality of the sector.

The current strategies used by the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport (MoEYS) to develop and

implement education policies offer hope that this situation can be improved, but addressing the lack of

power held by individual teachers and their associations to engage constructively with the MoEYS in

policy reform16 will be key to embedding future reforms.

The Education Law (2007) provides a legal framework for the education system. It seeks to:

“determine the national measures and criteria for establishing the completely

comprehensive and uniform education system ensuring the principles of freedoms of

studies in compliance with the constitution of the Kingdom of Cambodia”.17

MoEYS has implemented a long-term Education for All National Plan for 2003–2015 to ensure increased

equal educational opportunity access to students of all ethnicities, socio-economic, and geographical

backgrounds, and abilities. In the short term, the government’s Education Strategic Plan 2014–201818

outlines three main educational policy areas devoted to capacity building and human resources

development:

11 World Bank http://databank.worldbank.org/data/views/reports/tableview.aspx accessed on 29/09/14 . This figure is adjusted

according to Purchase Power Parity (PPP) 12 UNDP, Human Development Report 2011: Sustainability and Equity An Better future for All, UNDP, 2011 and ASEAN,

ASEAN State of Education Report, 2013 13 UNESCO/IIEP, Education and Fragility, 2011 hereafter UNESCO/IIEP 2011 14 Tan, C., ‘Education reforms in Cambodia: issues and Concerns’, Education Research Policy 2007 & Dy, S.S., ‘Strategies

and Policies for Basic Education in Cambodia: Historical Perspectives’ International Education Journal 2004 hereafter Tan

2004 15 ILO/UNESCO, Joint ILO/UNESCO Committee of Experts on the Application of the Recommendations Concerning

Teaching Personnel: Report Ninth Session. Geneva, 30 October-3 November 2006 UNESCO hereafter ILO/UNESCO 9th

session 2006 16 Knight K. & Macleod K., ‘Integration of Teacher's Voices into Education for All in Cambodia: Teacher status, social

dialogue and the education sector’, PACT January 2004 hereafter PACT 2004 17 Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport, Education Law, Article 1, 2007 See: http://www.moeys.gov.kh/en/policies-and-

strategies/73-policies/97-education-law.html Hereafter Education Law. 18 MoEYS, Education Strategic Plan 2014-2018, MoEYS 2014 hereafter ESP 2014-2018

http://databank.worldbank.org/data/views/reports/tableview.aspx%20accessed%20on%2029/09/14

http://www.moeys.gov.kh/en/policies-and-strategies/73-policies/97-education-law.html

http://www.moeys.gov.kh/en/policies-and-strategies/73-policies/97-education-law.html


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Policy 1: Ensuring equitable access for all to education services

Policy 2: Enhancing the quality and relevance of learning

Policy 3: Ensuring effective leadership and management of education staff at all levels19

At first glance, education in Cambodia has made incredible progress over the past two decades; it is now

accessed by more children than ever in terms of enrolment rates. Significant improvements have been

made in reducing the levels of uneducated populations as reflected in literacy rates and completion rates

for primary education. A major success has been the impressive improvements on gender equality which

has been achieved within the sector20. Upon closer analysis, however, the system continues to be

hampered by a lack of quality, high dropout and repetition rates. Based on EMIS 2010 data the net

enrolment ratio at the primary level was estimated at 94.8% and 31.9% at lower secondary level. Based

on EMIS 2009 data there the overall repetition rate was 8.9% at primary level and 2.3% in lower

secondary. Drop-out rates were 8.3% and 18.8% in primary and lower secondary respectively and the

completion rate is 83.2% and rate 48.7% for primary and lower secondary respectively21. Major

systematic shortcomings continue to limit progress; well-designed policies are often hamstrung by

inadequate implementation at the school and provincial level.

In terms of learning, students are not exploring subjects in the necessary depth and quality. Critical and

creative thinking learning techniques are also under-utilized in the classroom practice. This is

characterized by the pervasiveness of rote teaching and learning throughout the system with the exception

of schools which have successfully implemented the child friendly schools policy. This contributes to the

concern that reading habits are severely absent in Cambodia, due in part as a result of passive learning

methods reinforced in schools22.

Cambodian Teachers:

Any discussion of education must consider the role of teachers as one of the fundamental factors in

contributing to the progress that can be made in education quality. Through addressing the following key

challenges: disregard for teachers’ professional rights, limited teacher capacity and a low remuneration

place which limits the capacity for reform within the system as it is currently structured,23 significant

improvement can be brought about.

It is important to recognize that the education sector is still recovering from the damaging legacy of the

Khmer Rouge period and that recent policies have set about increasing the number of teachers but still

leave a lot to be done in terms of teacher quality. During the reconstruction period, the number of trained

primary and lower secondary school staff increased consistently, with an increased share of the teaching

force holding upper secondary education or graduate qualifications. Four fifths of primary school teachers

have completed teacher training, while practically all lower secondary school teachers have graduated

from teacher training colleges. While MoEYS has developed specific goals towards eliminating

unqualified ‘contract’ teachers, their services are sometimes still necessary24.

19 The objectives of the pervious ESP 2009-13 were: Equitable access to educational services; Quality and efficiency of

education services; and Institutional development and capacity building for decentralization. 20 UNESCO Institute for Statistics, UIS Statistics in Brief – Education in Cambodia 2009, hereafter UIS 2009 21 UNESCO/IBE, World Data on Education, VII ED 2010/11

http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/Publications/WDE/2010/pdf-versions/Cambodia.pdf accessed 20/09/14 22 Locard, H. & Tha, L.A. Higher education in Cambodia and the atypical example of the History Department at RUPP, 2008 23 Bascia, N. "Pushing on the Paradigm." Handbook of Education Policy Research. Routledge 2009. Hereafter Bascia 2009&

McKinsey 2007 24 VSO, 2008, recent EMIS data also indicates that contract teachers are still required in certain geographic areas.

http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/Publications/WDE/2010/pdf-versions/Cambodia.pdf


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Despite numerous policies designed to strengthen teaching quality, in-service training has remained

largely insufficient and professional development opportunities have been relatively scant. Only fifteen

per cent of lower secondary school teachers reported having attended an in-service training session during

the 2005/06 academic year25. The lack of quality teacher trainers also presents another major impediment

to progress. Cambodia currently suffers a serious shortage of experienced and thoroughly qualified

teacher trainers.

‘A professor of tertiary education with many years of experience in teaching and training

in Cambodia explained the legacy of the traditional Cambodian perception of education.

Its embedded model of hierarchical relationships between teacher and pupil, where the

focus is on teaching rather than learning, means that there has been no historical aim

towards developing a facility for lifelong learning. He suggested that good, relevant in-

service training would help to alleviate some of the demoralisation felt by teachers.

However, he felt that most training is poor and concerned with administration rather than

teaching methodology, and in most cases impractical because of lack of resources to

implement it.’26

While teacher capacity, as outlined above, is a major challenge, the significance of teacher remuneration

and the declining societal status conferred on teachers are also important considerations. In particular the

professional status of teachers is consistently undermined by the refusal of MoEYS to engage with

teachers as professional stakeholders. The deconcentration and decentralisation process has distributed

some responsibility to the local level, and to some extent engaged communities. At school level MoEYS

introduced block grants to schools and but failed to ensure that school support committees (SSC)27 were

given significant authority on spending decisions. However no provision was made to formally engage

teachers in this process and the success of the school support committee has varied greatly from school to

school.

Teachers’ Views: What do teachers themselves say about their present situation? In recent research on teacher motivation by NGO Education Partnership (NEP), over fifty percent

(50.5%) of teachers surveyed indicated that they were very motivated and over thirty-three percent

(33.7%) indicated that they were fairly motivated. The most common reasons for being motivated are that

they want to help students have knowledge and want to provide good education, and love teaching.

Overall, 67% felt that their career is interesting or very interesting.28

Research by VSO29 showed clearly that the most significant single de-motivating factor for teachers is

low salary. When the sources of dissatisfaction are accumulated as shown in Figure 1 (below), it becomes

evident that action by a wider range of stakeholders is required to address the full range of concerns.

25 Benveniste, L., Marshall, J. Araujo, M.C. Teaching in Cambodia. Human Development Sector East Asia and the Pacific

Region, World Bank, 2008 hereafter World Bank 2008 26 VSO, 2008 27 School Support Committees are formed by School Director, Parents from the school community and commune

representatives there is no guidelines on teacher participation although teachers do have role in many SSCs this is not

formalized. 28Ang, S., Friend-Pereira, J., Nsubuga, D., and Chhum, S., ‘Assessing the Impact of Incentives on Teacher Motivation’, NEP,

2012. Hereafter NEP 2012 29 VSO, 2008


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While MoEYS emerges as the greatest source of dissatisfaction for teachers, the management of the

schools themselves falls only three percentage points behind.

Figure 1 Attributed sources of dissatisfaction – accumulated30

The ILO/UNESCO Recommendations on Status of Teachers

Article III. Guiding Principles: ‘9. Teachers’ organizations should be recognized as a force which can contribute greatly

to educational advance and which therefore should be associated with the determination

of educational policy.’

Article IV. Education Objectives and policies:

‘(k) there should be close co-operation between the competent authorities, organizations

of teachers, of employers and workers, and of parents as well as cultural organizations

and institutions of learning and research, for the purpose of defining educational policy

and its precise objectives;’

The Education Law (2007) Article 29 states:

‘The state shall widely open participation of the relevant stakeholders…… in the process

of development, draft, monitoring and assessing implementation, the review and the

amendment of national education policies.’

Article 37 paragraph 4 states:

‘Educational Personnel have the right to actively and fully participate in developing

educational standards at local and national levels, directly or through their

representatives.’

As will be shown below the Education Law, however fails to compile with the recommendations and the

expectations of observes at the time of drafting, which noted that:

‘… in the draft Education Law indicate that the rights of learners, parents and

educational personnel (public civil servant educational personnel, contract educational

personnel and private educational personnel) will be based on international treaties,

30 Ibid


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Constitutional provisions, and standard-setting instruments and recommendations of

UNESCO and the ILO’.31

It is clear that MoEYS is aware of international best practice ensuring that teachers contribute to

development of education policies as illustrated in the drafting of the Education Law referenced above.

This has not informed current policies and best practice regarding engagement of teachers in policy

development and there is no framework for engagement between teachers and MoEYS in policy

development or implementation.

In analysing teacher participation at national policy level there is an overarching common theme across

all of the selected articles; that is the absence of any consultative framework for the engagement of

teachers’ associations in regard to the policies which impact on their members. This constitutes the most

pervasive failure of in the context of the Recommendations. Currently there are three teacher

organizations in Cambodia. There are two non-government teacher associations, Cambodian Independent

Teacher Association (CITA) and the National Educators Association for Development (NEAD), both of

which are members of Education International (EI) and are registered with the Ministry of Interior as

professional associations rather teacher unions. The Khmer Teachers Association (KTA)32 is a

government aligned association based in the Ministry and recognized by the Ministry of Education,

Youth and Sport. The KTA collects an annual membership from all public sector teachers which is used

to support a mutual beneficial fund. The KTA does not engage in teacher representation and advocacy

activities.

There is a well-developed format for engagement of NGOs and Donors with MoEYS through the

Education Sector Working Group (ESWG) and Joint Technical Working Group (JTWG) but neither of

these bodies includes any teacher representatives. In addition no teacher representatives participate at the

Education Congress at which policies are reviewed and planned on an annual basis. This is an

overarching theme and constitutes a most pervasive failure in the context of the Recommendations.

During the EFA, ESP and Teacher Policy33 planning stages, teachers were encouraged by MoEYS

through its provincial offices to participate. However, no formalised provisions for consultations, apart

from the school meetings, have been established. This means there is lack of a mechanism by which

teachers are informed about upcoming initiatives or are able to convene, discuss and make planning

recommendations as professionals might expect to. Most worryingly are the developments of policies

regarding teacher training, education management, teacher code of ethics, terms and conditions and the

teacher policy action plan. The exclusion of teachers from forums where these polices that impact directly

on them are developed causes a sense of disempowerment and disengagement. This impacts negatively on

teacher motivation and creates a scenario where teachers’ views are never considered when creating

national policy.

However at school governance level many teachers said that they do contribute to school decision-

making, and have some say in how the school programme budget money is spent through technical

meetings34. It is well established that participation in school governance can boost morale and motivate

31 PACT 2004 32 The KTA is organised and managed by the MoEYS but does not act as representative organisation for teachers. See

appendix one. 33 Education for All and Education Strategic Plan 34 VSO 2008


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teachers35. Pastor36 found that teachers perceive their needs and measure their job satisfaction by factors

such as participation in decision-making, use of valued skills, freedom and independence, challenge,

expression of creativity, and opportunity for learning. Participatory governance approaches at a school

level can enhance teachers' professional status and their ‘agency’ in the development of the school and

create a vested interest in school improvement in terms of quality outcomes. As Scheerens notes:

When teachers have a high sense of self-efficacy they are more creative in their work,

intensify their efforts when their performances fall short of their goals and persist longer.

Teachers’ sense of self-efficacy can thus influence the learning and motivation of students,

even if students are unmotivated or considered difficult most studies have found a positive

relation between teachers’ efficacy beliefs and several student cognitive outcomes, such as

achievement in core academic subjects and performance and skills37.

If teacher ‘agency’ or self-efficacy as outlined by Scheerens is essential to embedding educational reform,

then the establishment of structural arrangements are an important prerequisite to enabling teachers’

voices to be heard. Whatever those arrangements might be, it is important that such arrangements are

owned by the profession itself38. Some education stakeholders will take a lot of convincing that teachers

have the appetite or the capability to embrace their capacity for agency. However, persuasive evidence is

provided by a recent study that supports the view that:

‘…teachers really can lead innovation; teachers really can build professional knowledge;

teachers really can develop the capacity for leadership, and teachers really can influence

their colleagues and the nature of professional practice in their schools. However, what is

abundantly clear is that teachers are only likely to do these things if they are provided with

appropriate support’39.

Article V. Preparation for the Profession

‘20. Fundamentally, a teacher- preparation programme should include:

(a) general studies;

(b) study of the main elements of philosophy, psychology, sociology as applied to

education, the theory and history of education , and of comparative education,

experimental pedagogy, school administration and methods of teaching the various

subjects;

(c) studies related to the student's intended field of teaching;

(d) practice in teaching and in conducting extra-curricular activities under the guidance of

fully qualified teachers

35 Ellis, T.L, Motivating Teachers for Excellence, ERIC, 1984 36 Pastor, M.C., A Study of Higher Order Need Strength and Job Satisfaction in Secondary Public School Teachers. Journal of

Educational Administration, 1982 and Bennell, P., Teacher motivation and Incentives in Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia.

Knowledge and Skills for Development, 2004, www.eldis.org/fulltext/dfidtea.pdf Hereafter Bennell 2004 37 Scheerens, J., Teachers’ Professional Development: Europe in international comparison. An analysis

of teachers’ professional development based on the OECD’s Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS), 2010 38 Bangs, J. & Frost, D., ‘Teacher self-efficacy, voice and leadership: towards a policy framework for Education

International’, Education International 2012 39 Frost, D., Supporting teacher leadership in 15 countries: the International Teacher Leadership

project, Phase 1 - A report, 2011

http://www.eldis.org/fulltext/dfidtea.pdf


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21 (1) All teachers should be prepared in general, special and pedagogical subjects in

universities, or in institutions on a level comparable to universities, or else in special

institutions for the preparation of teachers.’

Article 20 of the Education Law (2007) states:

‘The state has to train staff through both pre-service and in-service programs… education

personnel must complete pedagogical training which has been recognized by the Ministry

in charge of education. The Ministry… shall determine foundation programs for the

training of education personnel’

There are 26 teacher training centres including the National Institute of Education, six regional teacher

training centres, 18 provincial teacher training centres and one pre-school teacher training centre. Primary

school teachers receive two years’ full-time training at a provincial teacher training centre. Secondary

school trainees attend one of the regional teacher training centres or the National Institute of Education.

The educational requirement for entry into teacher training college for training at primary level is grade

12, or grade 9 if applying from identified remote areas. Secondary training requires grade 12 for lower

secondary, and grade 12 plus a university degree for upper secondary.

However Pre-Service education is not delivering the content mastery needed as indicated by the Training

Teacher Survey 2012 and Teacher Survey 2012 which was conducted by the TTD (see below).40 Based

on these survey results it is recommended that the standard of, and investment in, initial training should

continue to be raised so that teachers can begin their careers better prepared than at present.

To assess the gaps in preparation the TTD conducted a training needs assessment on teachers, which

involved a detailed self-assessment questionnaire designed to assess teachers’ professional learning,

40 World Bank, Cambodia’s Next Challenge: Educating the Next Generation (Presentation to the ESWG), 2013 Hereafter

World Bank Presentation 2013


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practice, knowledge and ethics. The report based on this training needs assessment recommends that

teachers should undergo assessments that:

‘…require the active construction of meaning rather than passive regurgitation of isolated

facts. These assessments engage teachers in learning and require thinking skills and thus

they are consistent with cognitive theories of learning and motivation as well as societal

needs to prepare students for an increasingly complex workplace’41.

The inclusion of teachers in the implementation of these reforms from the start could greatly increase the

likelihood of becoming embedded in classroom practice.

Article VI. Further education for teachers:

32. Authorities, in consultation with teachers’ organizations, should promote the

establishment of a wide system of in-service education, available free to all teachers. Such

a system should provide a variety of arrangements and should involve the participation of

teacher-preparation institutions, scientific and cultural institutions, and teachers’

organizations. Refresher courses should be provided, especially for teachers returning to

teaching after a break in service.

The amount of in-service training provided by the Ministry varies by province; it may be given by the

regional or provincial teacher training colleges or NGOs, but incomplete training is frequently cited by

teachers as an issue42. While VSO43 research found that eighty-five percent of respondents had received at

least one in-service since they entered the profession, a report by the International Institute for Education

Planning44 stated that in 2005/6 only fifteen percent of lower secondary teachers had attended an in-

service training session indicating a very low level of annual in-service training provision. Furthermore

there is anecdotal evidence to suggesting that at the school level a select number of teachers are

frequently accessing in-service training opportunities due to the client-patron45 system within the

education system46. This illustrates that there is a need for clear guidelines to be developed regarding the

allocation of in-service opportunities to ensure that all teachers have an opportunity to access professional

development based solely on criteria related to identified professional development needs.

The clear recommendation is that the provision of in-service training should be regular and the topics

covered in such training should relate to issues of practice pedagogy rather than thematic projects. In

conjunction with teachers, MoEYS should establish minimum standards for the provision of in-service

training by any organisations and MoEYS should take the role in the accreditation of such in-service

training which may then be linked to remuneration reforms. A short-term and immediately implemental

recommendation would be to ensure the effective use of the current technical Thursday meeting to

provide in-service training to teachers.

41 Oro, M. Training Needs Assessment of in-service primary and lower secondary teachers in six provinces in Cambodia,

MoEYS Department of Teacher Training, 2008. 42 VSO 2008 and NEP 2012 43 VSO, 2008 44 UNESCO/IIEP 2011 45 46 Ibid and CITA, National Survey of Teachers, 2011 hereafter CITA Survey 2011


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Article VII. Employment and career:

Entry into the teaching profession

38. In collaboration with teachers’ organizations, policy governing recruitment into

employment should be clearly defined at the appropriate level and rules should be

established laying down the teachers’ obligations and rights.

Since the early 2000’s policies governing the recruitment into the profession have been introduced along

with more recent reforms such as the Education Law (2007), Teachers’ Code of Ethics (2008), Teacher

Policy (2013) and Draft Teacher Policy Action Plan (2014). However none of these have included

consultation with teachers’ associations. This has led to a situation where policies which are crucial to

maintaining the professional standards in teaching and which outline the rights and responsibility of

teacher have been put into effect without any consultation. This top down approach to policy

development undermines the power of ‘agency’ of teachers and thus fundamentally prohibits the

successful embedding of these polices at school level.

In addition as the policies have not been properly disseminated and limited information awareness has

taken place many teachers and school directors are unaware of these policies and thus the implementation

has at best been piecemeal47. For example, despite the Education Law having been adopted in 2007, and

Teacher Code of Ethics in 2008, over forty-three percent48 of teachers surveyed had no knowledge of the

education law or policies. This is an area which highlights the massive potential for improved

implementation of policies which could take place if MoEYS engaged in dialogue and joint information

actives with the teachers’ associations.

Entry into the teaching Profession

39. A probationary period on entry to teaching should be recognized both by teachers and

by employers as the opportunity for the encouragement and helpful initiation of the entrant

and for the establishment and maintenance of proper professional standards as well as the

teacher's own development of his practical teaching proficiency. The normal duration of

probation should be known in advance and the conditions for its satisfactory completion

should be strictly related to professional competence. If the teacher is failing to complete

his probation satisfactorily, he should be informed of the reasons and should have the

right to make representations.

Newly qualified teachers are assigned by the relevant provincial office of education for their

initial one-year posting. In principle, this is based on merit; the score on a placement exam will

determine the priority given to a graduating teacher’s choice. Anecdotal evidence49 suggests that

high scores in the placement exams and changes in placements can be obtained by payment of a

‘fee’. Thus, for example, a teacher could pay not to be sent to a remote placement.

Devolving responsibility for local recruitment to school directors could solve problems like this

when there is a choice between teachers who live near or far from a school. It is also

recommended that the procedure for placement processes should be well defined and regulated

with built-in procedures to ensure transparency and objectivity in decisions.

47 CITA, Survey 2011 48 Ibid. 49 VSO, 2008


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Advancement and Promotion:

44. Promotion should be based on an objective assessment of the teacher’s qualifications

for the new post, by reference to strictly professional criteria laid down in consultation

with teachers’ organizations.

Many of the shortcomings at school level can be attributed to the awarding of promotions to school

directorships of candidates who do not have the required skills or experiences, for example new school

directors may not have any training in budget management or school planning. In addition it is commonly

believed that in order to receive promotion to school director or higher positions, candidates should be a

member of the CCP (the ruling political party). It would seem that school directors are often appointed

without any open advertisement or competition for the position having taking place.

The recommendation is that MoEYS provide suitable in-service training opportunities to those wishing to

become school directors and to engage with the teachers’ association to develop a suitable set of selection

criteria and transparent procedures for promotions and appointments. The prospect and chance of

promotion can be a good motivating factor and does not need to be on a grand scale. As Bennell puts it:

“Teacher job satisfaction is also improved by giving them wider responsibilities than just

class teaching, including supervision, professional development, and community

relations”.50

Security of tenure:

48. The authorities or bodies competent to propose or apply sanctions and penalties

should be clearly designated.

49. Teachers’ organizations should be consulted when the machinery to deal with

disciplinary matters is established.

50. Every teacher should enjoy equitable safeguards at each stage of any disciplinary

procedure, and in particular:

(a) the right to be informed in writing of the allegations and the grounds for them;

(b) the right to full access to the evidence in the case;

(c) the right to defend himself and to be defended by a representative of his choice,

adequate time being given to the teacher for the preparation of his defence;

(d) the right to be informed in writing of the decisions reached and the reasons for them;

(e) the right to appeal to clearly designated competent authorities or bodies.

This is an issue of grave concern as disciplinary actions have been taken against several teachers who

have raised concerns through their associations in recent years. The only guidelines on disciplinary

measures for professional misconduct are outlined in the Civil Servant Handbook51 and the Teacher Code

of Ethics52. Teachers have not been adequately informed of the procedures that should be in place to deal

with disciplinary matters. This has caused significant confusion regarding the correct procedures to be

followed in several cases.

There are several cases of teachers not being informed in writing of the allegations against them and often

only being informed of the sanction rather than the complaint. In addition there are cases of teachers not

50 Bennell, 2004 51 CAR, Civil Servants Handbook, Council of Administrative Reform, Royal Government of Cambodia, 2010 52 MoEYS, Sub-Decree on Ethics Code For the Teaching Profession, MoEYS 2008 Cambodian Ministry of Education Youth

and Sport, 2008 Hereafter Code of Ethics 2008


13


being provided with access to the evidence on which the complaint against them has been made. In one

high profile case the Provincial Office of Education conducted an investigation but failed to provide the

report to the teacher or to the court that was dealing with the case53.

It is also clear that there is an effective denial of the right to appeal. In several cases no formal procedures

were provided for appeal leading to the use of media and public campaigns to highlight the cases rather

than a formalised and independent appeals procedure. This generally causes teachers to become very

hesitant about exercising their rights or logging complaints against their superiors for fear of becoming

the targets of disciplinary actions. Thus, establishing an agreed system for dealing with complaints and

greater transparency in this area is recommended.

Article VIII. The rights and responsibilities of teachers:

Professional freedom

62. Teachers and their organizations should participate in the development of new

courses, textbooks and teaching aids.

The formal structures for the participation of individual senior/expert teachers or teacher associations in

the development of new courses, curriculum reforms or the associated textbooks and teaching aids is non-

existent. Furthermore it is widely believed that teachers should strictly follow the curriculum established

and should only use textbooks and teaching aids which have been approved by MoEYS. The consequence

of this is that teachers may be hesitant about using teaching aids and resources that are provided directly

by NGOs.

The lack of consultation between teacher associations and MoEYS in curriculum reform contributes to

situations in which teachers become mere functionaries of the education system rather active contributors

and agents within it as Kim and Rouse argue:

‘what is missing from current EFA-related strategies is the promotion of teachers’

awareness of, their agency in, and their active participation to address the social,

economic, and political challenges surrounding Cambodia, through a greater commitment

to their role as teachers.’54.

This slows the pace of curriculum reform and implementation of new pedagogical methods in the class-

room as teachers are so disempowered from the decision making and thus less likely to enthusiastically

implement new practices, thus changes in the system to engage teachers would be welcome to address

this issue.

Responsibilities of teachers:

71. Professional standards relating to teacher performance should be defined and

maintained with the participation of the teachers’ organizations.

72. Teachers and teachers’ organizations should seek to co-operate fully with authorities

in the interests of the pupils, of the education service and of society generally.

53In Mr. Chhin Rithy, a teacher at Neak Loeung Secondary School made a complaint against Mr. Yoeun Sovuthy the school

director alleging that Mr. Yoeun Sovuthy had sold some school land without authorization. Mr. Yoeun Sovuthy logged a case

of defamation against Mr. Chhin Rithy.The Provincial of Education which had reported that it had conducted an investigation

failed to produce an documents in court relating to its’ investigation the case is currently subject to appeal to Supreme Court.

See Case Study: Mr. Chhin Rithy cited in CITA, Submission to the Expert Committee on the Application of the 1966

ILO/UNESCO Recommendation on the Status of Teachers, 2012 54 Kim, C.Y, & Rouse, M., Reviewing the role of teachers in achieving Education for All in Cambodia, Prospects, 2011


14


73. Codes of ethics or of conduct should be established by the teachers’ organizations,

since such codes greatly contribute to ensuring the prestige of the profession and the

exercise of professional duties in accordance with agreed principles.

With regard to paragraphs 71 and 73, MoEYS has produced some professional standards for teachers.55

However this was developed without any consultation with teacher associations. Furthermore this

document has been poorly distributed and does not form a significant part of the pre-service or in-service

teacher training. In relation to paragraph 72, CITA has attempted to communicate with MoEYS especially

with regard to individual cases of mismanagement. This has been done through the transmission of letters

to MoEYS from which a response is rarely received.

Relations between teachers and the education service as a whole: 75. In order that teachers may discharge their responsibilities, authorities should establish

and regularly use recognized means of consultation with teachers’ organizations on such

matters as educational policy, school organization, and new developments in the

education service.

76. Authorities and teachers should recognize the importance of the participation of

teachers, through their organizations and in other ways, in steps designed to improve the

quality of the education service, in educational research, and in the development and

dissemination of new improved methods.

77. Authorities should facilitate the establishment and the work of panels designed, within

a school or within a broader framework, to promote the co-operation of teachers of the

same subject and should take due account of the opinions and suggestions of such panes.

Teacher organizations have been requesting the establishment of a formal national framework for

inclusive dialogue since 2009. Since 2011, they have requested that MoEYS extend an invitation for

representatives to attend the annual Education Congress in order to be involved in education reform but

have not been invited. At school level teachers are not included in the list of stakeholders in the guidelines

developed for school support committees and no teacher association is consulted by any district or

provincial office of education.

The Education Law (2007) lists the right of teachers to be accorded stakeholder status and to form

professional associations. MoEYS has failed to introduce legislative instruments giving effect to the

relevant articles of the Education Law. The ongoing exclusion of teachers associations for any

consultation or dialogue at all levels within the education system provides a major obstacle to success of

education reforms and undermines the professional capacity of teachers in shaping the education system

of which they are part.

Improved teacher participation would have the effect of ensuring that future education policies would be

more relevant to the situation in the classroom and that they would be more successfully embedded in the

future. There can be no doubt that teachers, as the frontline of the education system, can both identify

many of the problems with the system and propose many of the solutions.

55 Code of Ethics, 2008


15


Rights of teachers:

82. Both salaries and working conditions for teachers should be determined through the

process of negotiation between teachers’ organizations and the employers of teachers.

83. Statutory or voluntary machinery should be established whereby the right of teachers

to negotiate through their organizations with their employers, either public or private, is

assured.

84. Appropriate joint machinery should be set up to deal with the settlement of disputes

between the teachers and their employers arising out of terms and conditions of

employment. If the means and procedures established for these purposes should be

exhausted or if there should be a breakdown in negotiations between the parties, teachers’

organizations should have the right to take such other steps as are normally open to other

organizations in the defense of their legitimate interests.

Several existing pieces of legislation relate to the labour rights of teachers. The Cambodian Constitution

(1999) acknowledges the right to the freedom of association to all Cambodian citizens in Article 36,

‘Khmer citizens of either sex shall have the right to form and to be member of trade unions.’, Article 42

of the constitution supports freedom of association stating that ‘Khmer citizens may take part in mass

organizations for mutual benefit to protect national achievement and social order.’ These rights are

qualified by Article 36, which requires that regulatory laws on trade unions can be determined by national

law.

Teachers’ rights and duties are outlined under Article 37 of the Education Law (2007), which provides the

right to form associations, organize public meetings and participate in developing educational standards

in accordance with existing laws. Independent or opposition aligned teachers’ associations, however have

often had their meetings interfered with by commune and school authorities and there are no mechanisms

for the participation of teachers in collective bargaining discussions.

The author is of the opinion that the Common Statute of Civil Servants (1994) which primary legislation

covering Cambodian civil servants prevents teachers from forming unions or taking collective action,

hence it violates both ILO Conventions 87: Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to

Organize Convention and Convention 98: Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to

Organize. The ILO-CFA (see below) vindicated this opinion when calling on the RGC to bring the

Statute into compliance with these two ILO conventions.

‘30. The Committee last examined this case, … … … at its June 2004 session. On that

occasion, the Committee made the following recommendations56:

…. …. …

34. The Committee regrets that the Government provides no information regarding the

complainant’s allegations that the Common Statute of Civil Servants has yet to be

56 “Para 226. In light of the foregoing conclusions, the Committee invites the Governing Body to approve the following

recommendations: (a) The Committee considers that the Government should take the necessary measures to amend the

Common Statute of Civil Servants so as to guarantee fully the right to organize and the right to collective bargaining of civil

servants, consistent with Conventions Nos. 87 and 98, and the principles of freedom of association recalled in paragraphs

206-212 above; once they have been adopted, the Government should diffuse widely these amendments in particular amongst

the local public authorities, including the local educational administration.” ILO-CFA, Report No 329, Case 2222, 2004

Recommendations of the Committee and the Governing Body


16


amended, … … recalling that nearly six years have elapsed since it first issued its

recommendations in the present case, the Committee urges the Government to

immediately take the necessary measures to amend the Common Statute of

Civil…’.[Bold added by Author].57

10 years have now elapsed since this case was first raised with ILO-CFA and the ILO-Committee of

Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations has repeatedly asked for government

reports. The most recent request being made in 201458. Yet no action to implement these

recommendations which continue to leave Cambodia in breach of ILO Conventions 87 and 98 has

occurred. Therefore is it recommended that immediate action should be taken to implement the ILO-CFA

recommendations.

Article IX. Conditions for effective teaching and learning:

86. Class size should be such as to permit the teacher to give the pupils individual

attention. From time to time provision may be made for small group or even individual

instruction for such purposes as remedial work, and on occasion for large group

instruction employing audio-visual aids;

(1) Authorities should provide teachers and pupils with modern aids to teaching. Such aids

should not be regarded as a substitute for the teacher but as a means of improving the

quality of teaching and extending to a larger number of pupils the benefits of education.

(2) Authorities should promote research into the use of such aids and encourage teachers

to participate actively in such research.

89. The hours teachers are required to work per day and per week should be established in

consultation with teachers’ organizations.

Article 21 of the Education Law (2007) states:

“In order to efficiently develop the country, the state has to place a high priority on the

quality of basic education in order that students master content and skills as well as

enhance both their capacity and ability. The state has to create sufficient modern facilities

for both teaching and learning in order to ensure the quality of education”.

Teachers identified large class sizes as a factor in demotivation. At the primary level, high pupil–teacher

ratios average 46:159 and are a result of the shortage of qualified teachers. Rural schools tend to have

higher ratios than urban schools.

57 ILO-CFA, Report No 356, Case 2222, Recommendations of the Committee and the Governing Body Effect given to the

recommendations of the committee and the Governing Body, 2010 hereafter ILO-CFA Report No. 356 58 In its 2014 report The ILO-CEARC With reference to ILO Convention 87: ‘notes with regret that the Government’s report

has not been received. The Committee urges the Government to provide its observations on all outstanding comments

submitted by the ITUC, CLC, EI, CITA and the FTUWKC.’

With Reference to ILO Convention 98 the Committee: ‘notes the comments made by Education International (EI) on 31

August 2011, indicating that teachers and civil servants were denied both the right to freedom of association and the right to

collective bargaining. The Committee urges the Government to send its observations on all the issues raised by the ITUC,

the CLC and EI, as well as the issues raised in the new EI communication dated 31 August 2012.’ 59 World Bank http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.PRM.ENRL.TC.ZS accessed 04/10/15.

http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.PRM.ENRL.TC.ZS


17


Cambodia’s teacher-student contact hours are below both the regional and international averages and this

requires urgent reform which if linked to improvements in remuneration for teachers could significantly

increase the quality of educational outcomes. One teacher association has set forth it proposals for

extending the school year, increasing working hours per week in its position paper60. Yet there has been

no response to this.

In research conducted in 200861 twenty-one percent of teachers found the state of the classroom or school

building a problem that prevented them being successful in their work, and this was especially the case in

rural areas, where the majority of primary schools do not have electricity. Another strong demotivating

factor is the lack of teaching and learning materials. No less than 76 per cent of respondents found the

lack of teaching and learning materials an obstacle to their work, and 63 per cent named this as a

demotivating factor62. Therefore urgent actions are required to address the quality of school buildings and

provision of learning materials.

Article X. Teachers’ Salaries (para 115-124):

115. Teachers’ salaries should :

(a) reflect the importance to society of the teaching function and hence the importance of

teachers as well as the responsibilities of all kinds which fall upon them from the time of

their entry into the service;

(b) compare favourably with salaries paid in other occupations requiring similar or

equivalent qualifications ;

(c) provide teachers with the means to ensure a reasonable standard of living for

themselves and their families as well as to invest in further education or in the pursuit of

cultural activities, thus enhancing their professional qualification;

(d) take account of the fact that certain posts require higher qualifications and experience

and carry greater responsibilities.

There are numerous international studies which highlight the importance of an adequate salary for

teachers not only as a motivational factor in attracting high quality teachers but ensuring they can commit

themselves to achieving and maintaining high quality teaching in practice.63 Low salaries are a major

contributor to low levels of teacher motivation64 and this impact is highlighted in a World Bank report

which stated that:

‘Salary reform has been on top of the Education Strategic Plan 2006-2010 agenda, as

well as its several predecessors, and it is considered a critical stumbling block for

improving educational quality.’65

60 CITA, Position Paper on Teachers’ Salaries, Terms and Conditions, 2011 61 VSO 2008 62 Ibid 63 Benveniste et al, Chhinh, S. Satisfaction Sources of Cambodian Urban Primary School Teachers. Paper presented at the

2003 International Council on Education for Teaching/Australian Teacher Education Association Conference in Melbourne,

Australia hereafter Chhinh 2003 & King, E. To what extent does culture affect teacher education and practice in Cambodia?

The Institute of Education University of London 2003 and Oliveira, J & Farrell J. Teachers in Developing Countries:

Improving Effectiveness and Managing Costs, World Bank 1993 64 NEP 2012 65 World Bank 2008


18


The Recommendations stating that that teachers’ salaries should compare favourably with salaries paid in

other occupations requiring similar or equivalent qualifications66 needs to be addressed in the context of a

World Bank presentation67 below:

World Bank, Cambodia’s Next Challenge: Education the Next Generation

Note: Bars display monthly income of teachers as percentage of monthly income of other professionals in

Cambodia, Vietnam and Thailand.

There is consensus among teachers’ leaders68, administrators, ministers69 and society in general70 that

further reform will require an overhaul of teacher pay. MoEYS has made several efforts to increase

teacher salary including an annual increase of 20% of the basic salary which has been implemented in

January each year since 2010. In addition, in August 2014, the Prime Minister confirmed that

“For Primary school teachers who used to receive 48 0000 riels ($120 USD) will increase

to 55 00000 riels ($137.50) by next month until the end of 2014. By April, they will receive

up to more than 64 0000 riels ($160 USD). Lower Secondary Teachers will receive up to

66 00000 ($165) riels by April 2015 while Upper Secondary Teachers’ Salary will

increase to 78 0000 ($195) riels71.

66 ILO/UNESCO (2006). Joint ILO/UNESCO Committee of Experts on the Application of the Recommendations Concerning

Teaching Personnel: Report Ninth Session. Geneva, 30 October – 3 November 2006. UNESCO hereafter ILO/UNESCO 9th

session 2006 67 World Bank, Cambodia’s Next Challenge: Education the Next Generation, 2013 68 CITA, Position Paper on Teachers’ Salaries, Terms and Conditions, 2011 69 Current Minister for Education Youth and Sport His Excellency Hang Chuon Naron has highlighted the issue of low teacher

salaries on several occasions.

http://www.cambodiadaily.com/archives/low-salaries-stifle-education-reform-efforts-56752/

http://www.opendevelopmentcambodia.net/news/hun-sen-announces-raises-for-teachers-nurses/ 70 NEP 2012 71 Reported in the Phnom Penh Post (Khmer Edition) 22/09/14. The Author is grateful for the support for key individuals in

confirming this information especially Mr. Soth Nimol and staff at NEP.

http://www.cambodiadaily.com/archives/low-salaries-stifle-education-reform-efforts-56752/

http://www.opendevelopmentcambodia.net/news/hun-sen-announces-raises-for-teachers-nurses/


19


The recent series of salary increases has meant that for the first time in over a decade that a primary

teachers’ basic salary is more than that of garment factory workers and this trend is set to continue as

MoEYS announced reforms are implemented. The commitment to further increases is crucial in order to

reflect the professional status of teachers and to attract quality candidates who have completed grade 12

to become a teacher in the future.

The author recommends that a base teacher salary should be $250 per month by end of 2015 into start of

201672. This figure is based on the following: A cost of living study in 2008, estimated that a minimum

salary for a garment worker of US$213 per month73 to support a typical Cambodian family with five

members74. It draws on a report by UNICEF75 highlighting that across Asia teachers’ pay was averaging

1.84 times per-capita GDP. According to the latest announcements cited above, for primary teachers’

salaries are 1.63 times per-capita GDP which represents a significant increase from 0.66 times per-capita

GDP in 2011 but is still short of regional average. Increases above inflation are required to ensure the

professional remains attractive for new recruits.

Recommendations: ‘Tork tork penh bampong’ (Drop by drop fills the container)

His Excellency Hang Chuon Naron, since becoming Minister for Education, Youth and Sport in

September 2013 has been driving a fast paced reform agenda which he has clearly articulated in a

presentation to stakeholders in August 2014 and which indicates that many of the conclusions of this

paprer are being currently considered or implemented:

Extracts of His Excellency Hang Chuon Naron Presentation:

‘Professional Development and Career path for teachers:

..........helping teachers to value themselves;

..........reforming teacher policy to positive incentives in order to attract the best and the

brightest into

..........the teaching profession, including competitive selection of school directors.

...........Strong emphasis on teacher education, engagement and teacher support mechanism

..........Teachers: incentive, qualification, career path’76

Further Recommendations:

• Implementation of the ILO-CFA recommendations regarding the amendment of the Common

Statute of Civil Servants in accordance with the ILO conventions77.

• Make social dialogue a central component of discussions about salaries, education reform and

engage teachers in the decision making process.

72 According to the estimated cited in a World Bank report in 2005, it was estimated that a teacher needs a minimum salary of

$150 to support a typical Cambodian family with five members. Linking this with inflation over the past five years we reach a

figure of $218.34 and have included addition $31.65 to provide for saving and other costs incurred. 73 Candararot K. & Dannet L. ‘Living Wage Survey for Cambodian Garment Workers Industry’ February 2009. The study

found the cost was $150 in 2008 and the author has adjusted the figure on the basis of an average inflation rate of 4.5%. 74 To put this into context, the cost of purchasing the absolute minimum food to meet basic calorie requirements for an

individual is $19.80 per month Figures based from Economic Institute of Cambodia survey in Phnom Penh June 2008 and set

to the UN World Food Programme basic food requirements for a relief operation. 75 Mehrotra, S. & Bucklan, P. Managing Teacher costs for Access and Quality, UNICEF 1998 76 Naron H.C., (Minister for Education), Reforming Institutions to Improve Education Service Delivery and Strengthen

Cambodia’s Competitiveness, Presentation August 2014. 77 ILO-CFA Report No. 356


20


• Continue to increase teacher base salaries ahead of inflation to ensure real in terms increase to

reach $250 per month salary by 2015.

• Carry out inspections of school buildings and ensure a better provision and distribution of

teaching and learning materials.

• MoEYS should ensure an increased access to CPD for teachers which is accredited and linked to

remuneration.


21


Bibliography:

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Bio-data:

John C. Friend-Pereira was born in Ireland, holds B.A in Liberal Arts (Mary Immaculate College,

Limerick) and LL.M in International Human Rights Law (Irish Center for Human Rights-NUI-Galway).

He has worked for more than 15 years in various aspects of education practice, policy and advocacy

including Higher Education (Bologna Process and Quality Assurance), Adult Education & Training, the

Right to Education and education management and reform. He has be living in Cambodia since 2010

where he worked with the Cambodian Independent Teachers’ Association (CITA) between 2010-12 as

Advocacy Adviser and with VSO-Cambodia from 2012-present as Programme Manager-Education and

more recently Head of Programmes.

VSO is the world’s leading independent international development organisation that works through

volunteers to fight poverty in developing countries. VSO's high-impact approach involves bringing

people together to share skills, build capabilities, promote international understanding and action, and

change lives to make the world a fairer place for all.

The ILO/UNESCO Recommendations on Status of Teachers Fifty years On!

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