The Husband’s Message and The Wife’s Lament:an interpretation and a comparison

Silvia Geremia

The Husband’s Message and The Wife’s Lament:

an interpretation and a comparison

Cover illustration:

Published with the contribution of………………

© Ibis, Como – Pavia 2014www.ibisedizioni.itFirst edition: December 2014ISBN 978-88-7164-485-1

9 Foreword by Maria Grazia Saibene13 Acknowledgements

19 The Husband’s Message and The Wife’s Lament:an interpretation and a comparison

21 1. Introduction

21 1. Critical review of the state of the art22 1.1. The Wife’s Lament26 1.2. The Husband’s Message30 2. The theoretical framework of this research30 2.1. Intertextuality and ‘transitional texts’34 2.2. The centrality of the handwritten text36 3. The Exeter Book: origin and structure40 3.1. Some codicological observations

45 2. The Wife’s Lament

45 1. Codicological Analysis45 1.1. The layout of the text46 1.1.1. The small capitals48 1.1.2. The punctuation marks51 1.2. The manuscript context 51 1.2.1. The proximity of Riddle 5954 1.2.2. The Wife’s Lament and Wulf and Eadwacer56 2. Textual analysis56 2.1. Text and translation60 2.2. The cruces64 2.3. The narrative chronology

67 2.4. The integrity of the text: structure and intratextual connections71 2.4.1. Elegiac themes and formulas: suffering and loneliness74 2.4.2. Exile places: some clarifications77 2.4.3. Stylistic aspects: formal beginnings and endings79 2.5. The gnomic conclusion of The Wife’s Lament82 2.5.1. A translation of the gnomic passage (ll. 42-47a)86 3. Conclusion

87 3. The Husband’s Message

87 1. Codicological Analysis87 1.1.The layout of the text89 1.1.1. Punctuation marks at the end of the sections90 1.1.2. Treatment of the space and wrap-mark92 1.1.3. The capital letters95 1.2. The manuscript context96 1.2.1. The position of Riddle 30b and Riddle 6099 1.2.2. The relation with Riddle 60

102 1.2.3. The Ruin103 1.2.4. The section of homiletic poems105 2. Text and translation109 2.1. The pact and the sea journey: an allegorical interpretation112 2.2. The message and the third section113 2.3. The interaction between The Husband’s Message and the homiletic section

of texts118 3. Textual analysis119 3.1. Identity of the narrator121 3.1.1. The personified object122 3.1.2. Change of narrator?123 3.2. The runes and a crux126 3.2.1. Traditional interpretations127 3.2.2. A new reading of the runic message132 3.3. The first section: content, structure and style133 3.3.1. Formulas (ll. 1-12) 135 3.3.2. An interpretation of ll. 1-12137 3.4. The second and third sections: content and structure139 3.4.1. Style140 3.4.2. Themes and formulas145 3.4.3. Temporal dimension146 3.4.4. L. 23: elegiac detail or topos?148 4. Conclusion

149 4. The Wife’s Lament and The Husband’s Message: a conclusion

155 Bibliography

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Forewordby Maria Grazia Saibene

The two texts examined in this study, The Wife’s Lament and The Husband’sMessage, exhibit some correspondences in terms of content and style, but also someproblems regarding genre classification, and in the interpretation of some passagesand of the message they convey. The medieval recipient of the texts would certain-ly have been able to interpret the references and symbols contained in them moreclearly than the modern scholar, who must analyse the text in the light of uses andtraditions that depart from modern compositional canons. For this reason, researchon the codicological aspects and the context of these poems has been important totheir interpretation: it makes it possible to reconstruct, at least in part, both thecompositional strategies and the purposes of the works so as to cast light on theaudience and reception of these texts, which share characteristics with both oraland written traditions.

Critics have almost unanimously defined these two anonymous poems as ‘ele-gies’ due to the motifs and themes that recur in them (suffering, exile, first-personlament) and to their ‘elegiac’ tone. Thorough analysis reveals differences, however,such as the prospect of redemption and happiness in The Husband’s Message, wherethe wife is invited by her husband to be re-united with him because the situationhas changed: after their separation and suffering, the prospect of a happy futureand life together arises. This poem therefore poses the question of defining itsstructure, genre and message also in comparison with The Wife’s Lament, whosecharacteristics are instead typical of Anglo-Saxon elegiac texts. On the one hand,Silvia Geremia has thus chosen to carry out an in-depth study of the Exeter Book,the manuscript that has transmitted these poems to us, in order to highlight thestructure and the codicological characteristics according to the guidelines ofMaterial Philology; on the other hand, she has considered these texts in the contextof the codex and in relation to other texts close to them. The Wife’s Lament doesnot pose problems regarding the structure because, through intra-textual refer-ences, its components are closely interconnected, thereby creating an elegy. Thesame cannot be said of The Husband’s Message, which presents three sections dis-

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tinguished by three upper-case letters that grow in size, thereby posing the problemof defining its characteristics in terms of genre and the connections between thesedifferent parts. Geremia proposes an interesting and convincing theory that linksthe first section of the poem with the riddle that precedes it (Riddle 60), given thecharacteristics of the content and the use of expressions that recur in riddles. At thesame time, the actual poem is considered as composed of the other two parts, withthe largest upper-case letter evidencing the last section, which contains the highlyenigmatic runic message and which critics have interpreted in different ways.

As remarked earlier, the problems posed by these poetic texts are due to the factthat, unlike authored texts, they are anonymous, are open and can be interpretedon several levels. Therefore, only by paying close attention to possible references,and the reuse of formulas and expressions, can the interpreter disambiguate the textand propose his/her interpretation, which will thus not be the only, and only pos-sible, one. In the case of The Husband’s Message, her investigation of the runic mes-sage has led Geremia to provide her own interpretation, which then connects withan interpretation of the text on an allegorical level and relates to the Christian mes-sage of man’s salvation through Christ at the end of time. This result has beenachieved also by considering the common thread linking the many texts that arepresent in the Exeter Book and that can be identified in the theme of the transienceof earthly life and man’s need to gain salvation in the afterlife; in particular, thetexts that precede The Husband’s Message are homiletic, and they form the contexton which the interpretation of this poem can be based and secure its foundation.

Returning to The Wife’s Lament, it can be noted that this elegy, which does notshare particular themes or messages with the other texts close to it, presents the ele-giac lament of a wife who has been sent away and forced to be separated from herhusband, whose predicament is also one of exile. In the end, the text proposes somereflections upon man’s suffering on earth, but references to symbols or elementsthat may suggest an allegorical interpretation seem to be excluded. This elegy –along with Wulf and Eadwacer, which is similar because its protagonist is also awoman – thus remains at a more worldly level, and the various obscure points ofthe text do not require an allegorical interpretation but rather careful analysis ofthe allusive expressions and of the ever-shifting temporal levels. These characteris-tics are also found in other Anglo-Saxon elegiac texts.

Despite the differences highlighted between the two poems, Geremia in con-clusion identifies a connection between them, for The Wife’s Lament presents a sit-uation of suffering between husband and wife, who are forced to live separated andsubject to restrictions. This predicament is also envisaged in The Husband’sMessage, although here it is ultimately turned around with the prospect of a happyfuture and the reunion of the two protagonists. The homiletic section that links

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the two poems thus gradually shifts the focus from the earthly condition contin-gent on the separated and suffering spouses towards a transcendent vision in TheHusband’s Message through a spiritual path of conversion with the aim of gainingsalvation in the afterlife. In fact, the allegorical interpretation of The Husband’sMessage leads one to interpret the figure of the husband as Christ and that of thewife as the Church: the Church is to be reunited with Christ at the end of timethrough repentance from sins and observance of old pacts. This subtle interpreta-tion also makes it possible to reveal the meanings that underlie the obscure runicmessage, which continues to be the subject of new and possible interpretations onthe part of critics.

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Acknowledgements

I would like to thank my supervisor, Prof. Maria Grazia Saibene (Dipartimentodi Studi Umanistici, Pavia), for her constant assistance during my Ph.D. thesis andfor her help in bringing this book to completion. Her unwavering support, feed-back and attention to detail enabled me to turn a single idea into a complete study.

I am also enormously indebted to my co-supervisor, Prof. Marina Buzzoni(Dipartimento di Studi Linguistici e Culturali Comparati, Università Ca’ Foscari,Venezia), for selflessly giving me her time and many opportunities for discussionthat helped me to focus on several sections of this work. Her guidance has beeninvaluable.

My deepest gratitude also goes to Prof. Lia Guerra and Dr. Elena CottaRamusino (Dipartimento di Studi Umanistici, Pavia) for their all-important sup-port and helpfulness during my Ph.D. and throughout the following years.

Special thanks go to Dr. Francis Leneghan (English Faculty, Oxford) and Dr.Alice Jorgensen (School of English, Trinity College Dublin), who gave me encour-agement and inspiration, and generously shared time and ideas with me.

Maria Tirelli proofread this book efficiently and professionally, and I am verygrateful for her hard work and advice.

My colleagues and friends at the Dipartimento di Studi Umanistici, Pavia, pro-vided much-needed encouragement and invaluable companionship over the years:Silvia Granata, Caterina Viola, Antonella Calaresu, Vera Cantoni, Cristina Marelliand Mirko Brizi, thank you ever so much for the enjoyable time we spent together.

Finally, my warmest thanks go to my family for the unconditional supportshown to me throughout the writing of this book.

The Husband’s Message and The Wife’s Lament:an interpretation and a comparison

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INTRODUCTION

1. Critical review of the state of the art

The present study is devoted to two short Anglo-Saxon poems, both transmit-ted only by the Exeter Book (ff. 115r-115v, 123r-123v) and labelled over time bythe critics as ‘elegies’: The Wife’s Lament and The Husband’s Message.1

The apparent complementarity of these two texts on a thematic level – oneexpressing the lament of a woman abandoned by her husband and forced to live inexile, the other conveying the message of hope and consolation of a man far awayfrom his wife – sometimes led critics to deal with both together, assuming, or see-king to point out, a possible, strict correlation. The purpose of this work is not onlyto verify whether an actual connection between The Husband’s Message and TheWife’s Lament is possible but, first of all, to consider these two texts individually.The analysis will approach their codicological and textual complexities, providingpossible explanations which may help us come to an interpretation of each poem.

Numerous textual problems have attracted critics’ interest in these poems for along time. In The Wife’s Lament most of the difficulties relate to content. The gene-ral sense of the narration is quite clear; nevertheless, the development of the story,which moves forward through brief hints, presents some unclear points.Consequently, some of the details – such as the number of the characters involved– lend themselves to more than a single interpretation, and images such as theunderground cavern, in particular, appear to some extent mysterious. In addition,

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1 The edition adopted here for both poems is Klinck’s (1992: 93-94, 100-102).

2 There have been critics supporting an unconventional reading, a male narrator lamentingthe loss of his lord; see Bambas (1963: 305), Stevens (1968), Rissanen (1969: 103-104) and,later, Pope (20013: 121) and Lee (2007). This interpretation was soon superseded by Lucas’(1969: 285-289) and Mitchell’s (1972) studies, which proved the presence of a female narratoron linguistic grounds.

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the final passage (ll. 42-53) represents the most crucial textual problem, as the syn-tax and the use of verbal tenses lead to several ambiguities: these lines have in factbeen interpreted both as a gnomic reflection and as a curse. In contrast, TheHusband’s Message presents a peculiar structure, as on the manuscript it is unexpec-tedly divided into three sections, each introduced by a capital letter. The content isimmediately understandable, as are the syntax and the vocabulary. However, thepresence of runic signs in the final lines (ll. 49-54) represents a relevant textual pro-blem; besides, the narrator’s identity appears ambiguous because of an extensivelacuna in the first part of the poem (due to a hole in the folio).

At this stage, an overview of the studies and research works published so far onThe Wife’s Lament and The Husband’s Message is due.

1.1. The Wife’s Lament

The allusiveness of certain references in the narration of The Wife’s Lament,especially those concerning the woman’s past, led the critics of the 1960s and 1970sin particular (who all classified the text as an elegy) to devote a great effort to thereconstruction of the plot in all its passages. Ward (1960), Bouman (1962) andDavis (1965), for example, based their reading exclusively on textual data such asthe temporal conjunctions (ærest and đa) and terms they considered ambiguous(for example fæhđu, meaning both «feud» and «enmity», and morþor, «mur-der» and «great wickedness»); therefore, their interpretations differed in somedetails. According to Ward (1960: 28, 32) the woman was sent into exile by herhusband, who, already banished, wanted to protect her from his kinsmen, andgeong mon «a young man» would be the leader of the forces which overthrew him,whereas in Bouman (1962: 60) he was the woman’s second husband, who cruellybanished her. In Davis’ reading (1965: 302-303) the woman, left alone by her hus-band’s family, was forced into exile to escape the kinsmen of the man whom herhusband had killed in a blood feud, and geong mon would represent a universal fig-ure included in a gnomic expression. Among the critics in general, there were dif-ferent opinions about the relationships between the characters,2 because the pres-

3 For example, according to Short (1970: 600-602) geong mon would be the woman’s lover,and Krapp and Dobbie (1936: lviii) also considered the possibility that this figure may representthe character who separated the spouses.

4 Although Doane’s (1966: 87 and fn. 22) reading remained isolated, it influenced other crit-ics’ interpretation of the crux her heard (l. 15b): he was one of the first who considered thisexpression as a compound, herheard, which he translated as «dwelling by a (heathen) sanctu-ary» or «grove dwelling»; see Ch. 2 (2.2.).

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ence of a seemingly new male figure at the end of the text, geong mon, led somescholars to assume that a second man was involved in the story.3 However, over theyears two main contrasting positions emerged. According to Malone (1962: 115),Straus (1981: 277-278) and Klinck (1992: 54), inter alia, there are only the womanand her husband, who would be indicated as geong mon in the final passage dealingwith a general truth; by contrast, other scholars, including Wentersdorf (1981:515), Böker (1982: 426), and Niles (2003a: 1144), saw in geong mon a universalfigure who does not take part in the woman’s story and does not necessarily corre-late with the husband. All the studies focusing mainly on the narrative aspects ofthe text showed a general tendency to justify every single detail of the poem in thelight of a precise narrative scheme, and this ‘reconstructive’ approach often gaverise to more than one risky hypothesis – such as Doane’s (1966: 87-89), accordingto which The Wife’s Lament is the lament of a pagan god abandoned by a followerafter his conversion to Christianity.4 A somewhat different approach was adoptedin studies which tried to establish the chronology of the events on linguisticgrounds, and thus considered the linguistic value of some of the verbs. Some critics,among whom Greenfield (1966:166), proposed to translate the preterit ongunnonas a pluperfect, as if this action were a flashback in the narration. However, this pro-posal gave rise to some criticism and was in the end rejected by Short (1970: 588)and Mitchell (1975: 17-23).

Besides research dealing with the story of the narrator of The Wife’s Lament,some alternative overtures in the methodological approach already began to emergein the 1960s: for example, Stevick (1960) and Curry (1966) left the narrative detailsaside to focus on other aspects, such as the style and the lexicon related to the themeof suffering. These studies, which pointed out some typically elegiac characteristicsof The Wife’s Lament, lay the foundations for ensuing research, such as in Renoir(1977a), Böker (1982) and Green (1983), where the text is analysed in the light offeatures characterising the ‘Anglo-Saxon elegies’. Therefore, the allusive elements inthe narration are no longer considered the main textual problem because they arenot exclusive features of this text but rather typical of the elegiac genre.

5 See Ch. 2 (2.2.).6 Davidson (1975: 455-460), Bragg (1989) and Klinck (2003).7 The definition Frauenlied identifies a typology within different literary genres and is appli-

cable to medieval love poems of various origins: some love poems in Latin dating back to theeighth-tenth century, the Mozarabic kharjas, the Portuguese cantigos de amigo from the 13th cen-tury, the Occitan love poetry. See Davidson (1975: 451-453).

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As far as the content of The Wife’s Lament is concerned, there has also been aseries of articles, dating back to the 1980s in particular, which sought parallelsbetween this poem and other works presenting similar themes or images, some-times belonging to different literary traditions. The various comparisons led toresults which were seldom pursued, as the analogies found were never sufficient toshow a direct influence on The Wife’s Lament from other genres or texts (or viceversa). Among many, Bray’s (1995: 151) article, based on previous research on thestylistic similarities between The Wife’s Lament and Celtic poetry [Pilch (1964)],pointed out a possible relation with the Heledd poems in the Llywarch Hen cycle(mid-ninth century). The Old English elegy shares with the Welsh cycle images ofnature, a woman’s lament in the first person and the theme of the loss of a lord andstatus in society. These aspects and the allusive narration in The Wife’s Lament sug-gested that the poem might originally belong to a now lost heroic cycle similar tothe Celtic one, in which a heroic society and its values were represented. Instead,Orton (1989) found other correspondences comparing the Anglo-Saxon text withan Eddic poem, Skírnismál, about Freyr’s love for Gerđr, the daughter of a giant,and with Gylfaginning (the first part of Snorri’s prose Edda), which relates themyth of Freya suffering for the absence of her spouse, Ođr. Orton’s observationsgenerated interest even more recently, when Luyster (1999: 244-245, 260) detect-ed a relation between elements of Norse mythology and the expressions herheardand under actreo «under the oak-tree», which in The Wife’s Lament would evokea heathen context; the figures of the wife and her lord would thus recall theScandinavian gods of a fertility ritual.5

A comparative approach was also adopted by those critics whose research effortswere devoted only on a theme or an image in particular. Malone (1962) was the firstwho included The Wife’s Lament in the Frauenlieder, and after him more than onescholar6 adopted this label, characterized by the presence of a feminine voicelamenting the separation from her beloved.7 These studies do not really questionthe elegiac nature of The Wife’s Lament or consider possible influences from othertraditions; instead, they approach the poem through theoretical frameworks bor-rowed from semiotics and anthropology. For example, Straus (1981) focused on the

8 Among numerous studies, most of which are influenced by Gender Studies, see Hansen(1976: 117), Belanoff (1990: 197) and (2002: 32-42), Desmond (1990: 590), Bennet (1994: 47,53), Morrison (2000), Berit (2002), Klein (2006). Horner (2002), Schweighauser (2002) andKlinck (2003) also considered the possibility of a female author.

9 In particular, Lench (1970) grounded her hypothesis of an adulterous woman murdered byher husband on the presence of the ambiguous expression Ða ic me feran gewat folgađ secan(“Then I departed on a journey to search for service”, l. 9), besides historical and cultural ele-ments – which, however, were questioned and dismissed by Berit (1999: 25-26).

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symbolism lying behind the female lament and took into account the language usedhere and in Wulf and Eadwacer – also characterized by a female narrator – in oppo-sition to the male narrators’ language in The Wanderer and The Seafarer.8 As regardsthe images in the text, eorđscræf «earth-cavern» (l. 28b, l. 36b) in particular wasconstrued in various ways because of its semantic ambiguity: some critics interpret-ed this compound as «tomb», some as «underground shelter». The first reading,supported in particular by W. C. Johnson (1983), favoured the comparison betweenThe Wife’s Lament and the Norse ‘death-songs’ (such as Helgakviđa) or ballads,already proposed by Lench (1970) and adopted by Tripp (1972: 356-361) on thegrounds of some expressions (among which, l. 33b frynd sind on eorþan «friends areon earth», in contrast with the narrator’s condition ‘underground’) apparently rem-iniscent of the atmosphere found in death-songs and suggesting that the narrator iscomplaining from the tomb.9 The definition of The Wife’s Lament as a ‘death song’was the only alternative to the traditional classification as an elegy; however, it wasnot successful. As a matter of fact later studies, including those by Harris (1977) andBattles (1994), analysed the recurrence of the compound eorđscræf in different textsand contexts, seeking to show instead the clear connection between this term andthe concept of shelter (as the place where the woman would be compelled to live).

The final passage of The Wife’s Lament deserves a separate discussion, as it rep-resents the major textual problem. The difficulties of these lines depend on theabrupt switch to the subjunctive mood, which may either bear an optative value orexpress a possibility. As both meanings seem to be possible on a grammatical andsyntactic level, the choice of one of them often depended on the interpretation ofthe content of the text. Those who highlighted the woman’s possible desire forrevenge, such as Doane (1966: 80, 88) and Straus (1981: 278), considered the pas-sage as a curse addressed to her husband or, more probably, to the whole ofmankind. Only Niles (2003a: 1120-1150) sought to provide documentary evidencefor this reading through textual comparison, showing the recurrence of the curse asa literary theme in medieval Europe. Instead, the arguments of those who chose to

10 Krapp and Dobbie (1936: lix, lxxv, lxxxi), Muir (20062: Footnotes / The Husband’s

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interpret these lines as a gnomic passage (the majority of the critics) were mainlybased on the premise that The Wife’s Lament is an elegiac text: a moralizing, univer-sal conclusion thus seemed more consistent with the genre of the poem than a curse.

The number of studies of The Wife’s Lament is quite large and, as already point-ed out, their focus has been especially on the content – plot, themes, images – inrelation to the elegiac genre, to other genres and to other texts. In general, howev-er, none of the critical approaches has favoured an examination of the codicologicaldata, which has not been considered structurally relevant in view of the textualinterpretation. Only Klinck (1992: 22) signalled the presence, in The Wife’sLament, of some small capitals which would deserve to be analysed, as their recur-rence, only in the first part of the text, may bear a particular structural function.Moreover, the relation of The Wife’s Lament with the preceding and following textsin the manuscript was not taken into consideration. Only Renoir (1977b: 23)briefly referred to the proximity of a section of homiletic works and, accordingly,suggested the possibility of a non-literal level of meaning in The Wife’s Lament, inconnection with the Christian contents expressed by the adjacent texts.

1.2. The Husband’s Message

In The Husband’s Message the division of the text into three sections, eachsignalled by a capital letter and an end-punctuation, is particularly relevant as itquestions the unity of the poem and its integrity. The first editors of The Husband’sMessage took this aspect into consideration, underlining the resemblance betweenthe narrator in ll. 1-12 and the narrators of the two preceding riddles (Riddle 30band Riddle 60), all apparently identified with personified wooden objects. Thorpe(1842: 472-475) considered ll. 1-12 of The Husband’s Message as a separate riddleindependent from the following lines, which would instead represent a ‘fragment;’only with Grein (1857-1859) was the beginning of the text placed at l. 1. Later on,Blackburn (1901: 7-11) once again questioned the structure of the poem, interpre-ting Riddle 60 as the initial part of The Husband’s Message, given the scarcely enig-matic quality of the riddle and the apparent continuity between the two texts.From that moment on, research has been focused in particular on the relation bet-ween The Husband’s Message and Riddle 60, and it has been conducted mainly ontextual data. Because of the scarce attention devoted to codicological aspects, thetripartite structure of the poem has been a little neglected. Most of the editions10

Message / F1, F12, F26).11 For example Elliott (1955: 1-2) and Goldsmith (1975: 243-244).12 To compare The Husband’s Message with Riddle 60, Pope (1978: 55-59) sought to recon-

struct the lost parts of The Husband’s Message through a procedure described by Muir (20062:Commentary / The Husband’s Message) as «a cut-and-paste technique to insert contextuallyappropriate words found elsewhere in the manuscript into the gaps on the [present] folio». Pope(1978: 48-52, 55) hypothesized that Riddle 60 and The Husband’s Message both present thespeech of a yew tree narrating its origin and transformation into a stick, on which a runic mes-sage will be carved (at l. 3a Pope reconstructs i[w] instead of the commonly accepted i[n]); how-ever, this reconstruction does not find real evidence).

13 Leslie (1968: 458) also took into consideration the possible influence of the author ofLatin riddles Symphosius (fourth or fifth century): Riddle 60 seems to share with the riddleHarundo the presence of a reed which eventually becomes an object.

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simply signal the presence of the capital letters, and only Klinck (1992: 25-27)attempted an explanation (according to which the presence of sections might bedue to a misunderstanding on the part of the copyist).

As regards the possible link between Riddle 60 and The Husband’s Message,some other critics after Blackburn adopted his interpretation,11 among whom onlyPope (1978: 55-59) gave a further contribution, endeavouring to show the corre-spondence between the narrators of the two texts through a praiseworthy but riskyattempt to reconstruct what is now missing in ll. 1-12.12 Most of the critics, howe-ver, accepted Leslie’s (1968) conclusions, which proved in a quite convincing waythe integrity of Riddle 60 as a riddle, and its autonomy from The Husband’sMessage.13 Instead, the investigation of the identity of the narrator, conductedmainly on textual data, has been partly hindered by a large lacuna which is in thefirst section of The Husband’s Message. There was a division between the propo-nents of a theoretical human messenger, suggested by Leslie (1961: 13-14) andadopted by Greenfield (1966: 170), and the proponents of a hypothetical personi-fied object, usually identified with the rune-staff hinted at in the text [EricksenSchrunk (1998: 31-33), Orton (1981: 43-49), Fiocco (1999: 179-180)]. A diffe-rent and noteworthy study is E.R. Anderson’s (1973: 242-245), which underlinedthat The Husband’s Message does not appear as a unitary text and, considering thepresence of some sections, hypothesized a change of narrator from the first to thesecond section, as suggested by the capital letter introducing Hwæt. However, thisview was not examined by other critics. Other hypotheses were elaborated by Kaske(1967: 53) and Goldsmith (1975: 254), who recognized in the narrator not somuch a rune-staff, as a sacred object made of wood: the Cross, or a stick symboli-zing Christ’s sceptre. The identification of Christian symbols in the poem is justi-

14 See Nicholson (1982), Fiocco (1999), Niles (2003b).15 This reading was supported by Hicketier (1889) and Trautmann (1894) and is now quite

dated.

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fied by the presence of an open invitation to restore an old union, which on the lite-ral level corresponds to the spouses’ union but, at the same time, lends itself to fur-ther interpretations. The research highlighted possible correspondences betweensome details in The Husband’s Message and elements in Biblical and exegetical texts.However, the allegorical reading was based on comparison with passages fromworks such as Psalmus 44, but it did not prove to be completely convincing, as aprecise source for The Husband’s Message was not found. Moreover, in view of aChristian interpretation of the poem, the closeness of the whole section of homile-tic works (which precedes The Husband’s Message) was not taken into considera-tion. From the Christian reading of The Husband’s Message another allegoricalinterpretation arose, based on the complementarity of this poem and The Wife’sLament. According to Swanton (1964: 275-277) and Bolton (1969: 338-339),both texts would represent a re-elaboration of some of the motifs in CanticumCanticorum: the lament of the Church on earth, complaining about her separationfrom Christ, and the consequent answer from her spouse, the Saviour, who sendsher a message of hope and comfort. This reading, which suggests that the two textsmay have been composed together or as one in response to the other, represents thedevelopment of Grein’s (1880) and Trautmann’s (1894) views, readopted in parti-cular by the critics in the 1960s and 1970s. Howlett’s (1978) research, for example,aimed at showing the possible relation between the two poems both on a thematicand on a lexical level. Perhaps as a result of these comparisons with The Wife’sLament, the inclusion of The Husband’s Message in the elegiac genre was confirmedinsomuch as, afterwards, it was no longer called into question.

From the 1980s onwards, both comparative studies and allegorical interpreta-tions were abandoned; the critics chose not to go beyond the literal sense of TheHusband’s Message and focused mainly on the identity of the narrator and the runicmessage.14 As regards the reading of the runes − the most controversial aspect ofThe Husband’s Message −, part of the problem depends on the presence of a lacunain the verb introducing the message (ge[h]yre, l. 50a), which made an editorialintervention necessary. To interpret the runic signs the critics compared them withthe runes of other poems (for example, the Riddles). The first solution suggested −reading the runes as alphabetic signs and anagrammatizing them − was later setaside as it did not give satisfactory results15 [although J.E. Anderson (1974: 406)and Fiocco (1999: 175), later, took it into consideration again]. Instead, the inter-

16 Elliott (1955: 3-7), Kaske (1964), Nicholson (1982: 317-318), Ericksen Schrunk (1998:34), Niles (2003b: 206-212).

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pretation that prevailed over all the others was Kock’s (1921: 122-123), which con-sidered the semantic value of the symbols and read the first two couples of runes astwo compounds (Sigel-Rad «sun’s path», Ear-Wyn «joy of the earth»), interpret-ing them as ‘sky’ and ‘earth’, and the last rune (Mon «man») as ‘man’. Otherefforts16 were devoted to seeking further confirmation for this reading, to whichonly some very slight changes were made, but no innovative proposal was offered.

It is thus possible to conclude that aspects such as the identity of the narratorand the runic message absorbed the critics almost completely, diverting their atten-tion from other possible fields of research into The Husband’s Message. In fact,there was no detailed analysis of the unusual layout of the text, and no conclusiveexplanation was given of it. The relatively limited consideration attached to codi-cological and palaeographical data is also accompanied by a relatively limited inter-est in the position of the text in the Exeter Book – none of those who saw TheHusband’s Message and The Wife’s Lament as the two parts of a diptych endeav-oured to define the ways according to which the two poems may ‘interact’ in themanuscript. The only studies that took the position of The Husband’s Message intoaccount were those that compared the poem with the preceding riddles. This com-parison, supported by some stylistic features and by the tripartite layout of TheHusband’s Message, is particularly relevant as it challenged the classification of thepoem as an elegy. Therefore, new, in-depth examination of the genre is due, as TheHusband’s Message presents more than one element that diverge from the typicalfeatures of other Old English elegiac texts.

Some of the most important editions of The Wife’s Lament and The Husband’sMessage certainly deserve special mention. Krapp and Dobbie’s edition (1936) ofthe Exeter Book, in a basic and concise introduction, focuses in particular on thetextual cruces and the different solutions proposed by the critics. A similar treat-ment of the texts also characterizes Leslie’s edition (1961) of The Wife’s Lament,The Husband’s Message and The Ruin, although the introduction is much longerand more detailed as far as textual data are concerned. Here The Husband’s Messageis regarded as an elegy because its content resembles that of The Wife’s Lament,even if the tone is very different. Klinck’s edition (1992) of the Anglo-Saxon ele-gies presents a very detailed study both of the elegiac genre and of the single poems,highlighting in its extensive introduction and commentary the stylistic and narra-tive features of every single elegy. Klinck also offers information on the codicologi-

17 Critics such as Doane (1998), O’Brien O’Keeffe (1990) and Pasternack (1995) rely ontheories connected to the notion of ‘intertextuality’ in their investigations of medieval Englishliterary production.

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cal aspects, but this part of her research appears mainly descriptive. Finally, Muir’sedition of the Exeter Book (20062), the only one including a CD Rom which con-tains the images of all the folios of the codex, provides invaluable assistance ininspecting the manuscript’s texts and their palaeographical and codicological data,although no definite interpretation seems to be suggested for the graphic cues thatcharacterise The Husband’s Message.

2. The theoretical framework of this research

Before getting to the heart of the analysis of The Wife’s Lament and TheHusband’s Message, a few words will be devoted to the description of the theoreti-cal approaches. The notion of intertextuality firstly needs to be introduced, togeth-er with the definition of ‘transitional texts’, which seems to be the most suitable fortexts such as the Old English elegies. Further thematic and stylistic investigationwill thus be carried out in the light of the possible relations between the two poemsand the broader literary context of the Old English texts.

An analysis of the thematic context of the Exeter Book collection of poems as awhole, as well as a codicological examination of the manuscript’s folios, are alsonecessary in order to address some difficulties that are presented by the layout ofthe two poems, and to interpret some peculiar graphic cues. Therefore, MaterialPhilology will be included as part of the methodological framework.

2.1. Intertextuality and ‘transitional texts’

Some of the Anglo-Saxon texts, including in particular the elegies, do not seemto have originated from specific sources but rather represent the original re-elabo-ration of well-known themes attached to formulaic expressions and images whichbelong to a shared knowledge. This is also true for The Wife’s Lament and TheHusband’s Message, which show neither dependence nor a punctual influence fromother works but still seem to echo a broader literary context. The notion of ‘inter-textuality’ can help describe the relation between these two poems and the contextin which they arose.17

18 Allen (2000: 14-30, 35-46).19 Doane (1991: 102): «[…] the relation of productive speech to this precedent material is

of something generated, not something to be referred to. Rather than intertextual relations to apre-text, we might rather conceive of an infratext, the invisible structuration that organizes anyactual manifestation of speech, the pre-spoken […]».

20 Foley (1991: 38). 21 Pasternack (1995: 89).22 See Doane (1991: 95) and Creed (1961: 100).23 Riffaterre (1986: 374).24 Pasternack (1995: 175): «[the] meaning is generated ambiguously, both from the present

context of a word or phrase and from the other contexts that the reader brings into play».25 Pasternack (1995: 25, 121).

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In general, a literary text may be seen as an entity composed by a number of dif-ferent elements (motifs, images, themes, expressions, stylistic features) all belong-ing to pre-existing traditional material in relation to which they acquire their ownmeaning in a new context.18 As far as Anglo-Saxon literature is concerned, thisbackground, defined by Doane as ‘infratext’,19 is strictly connected to the oraldimension – as the poetry clearly shows with its formularity and conventionalityboth in style and themes. Recalling characters, situations, stories and contexts froma shared knowledge, themes and formulas create intertextual connections with thepre-existing corpus of (oral and written) texts;20 at the same time all these tradition-al elements, adopted and re-organized into a new structure, contribute to an origi-nal meaning and a new message.21 An example of this process may be the theme ofthe sea-journey in The Husband’s Message which, echoing similar images in differ-ent works, also reminds us of all of the symbolism connected to this motif beyondits literal meaning, which still seems to fit with the poem [see Ch. 3 (2.1., 3.3.,3.4.)]. To define the relationship with the literary tradition is to get closer to theessence of The Husband’s Message because the construction of the meaning of a textcorresponds to the reaffirmation of its continuity in respect to the tradition.

The medieval audience, in the light of their shared, traditional knowledge, wasguided by intertextual connections and played an active role in the process of thecomprehension of a text22 by decoding ‘textual anomalies’23 (elements and struc-tures whose meaning was not immediately obvious without a comparison with the‘infratext’). However, the interpretation, depending largely on the personal abilityto connect new texts to the cultural background, is related to a variable number ofboth oral and written intertexts and cannot thus be univocal.24 From this ‘textualdialogicity’ derives the potential ‘openness’ or ‘plurality of entrances’25 which char-acterizes a part of Old English poetical works, which some critics define as ‘transi-

26 Bäuml (1984: 37) and Doane (1991: 82).27 As regards Anglo-Saxon poetry in particular, decades ago criticism dismissed Parry and

Lord’s distinction between ‘oral text’ and ‘literary text’, two separate origins of poetic works (aneat and ideal contrast between oral compositions characterized by a high number of formulas,and literary compositions belonging to a written tradition). The application of these concepts tomedieval texts is not only unsuitable but even misleading, as they oversimplify the relationbetween orality and literacy, marking the concept of formula as an element exclusively belongingto the oral tradition.

28 Magennis (1991: 95).29 Fry (1968a: 49) also highlighted how the different definitions elaborated for ‘theme’ tes-

tify to the confusion involving other textual elements such as the ‘motif ’ and the ‘type-scene’.30 Parry (1928: 16). See also O’Neil’s (1960: 32, 36) definition: «a semantic unit identified

with a metric situation and satisfying the alliterative need appropriate to its environment». 31 Doane (1991: 96).32 Foley (1991: 38).33 Fry (1968b: 517-518) defines the formula as «a group of half-lines usually related metri-

cally and semantically, which are related in form by the identical relative placement of two ele-ments, one a variable word or element of a compound usually supplying the alliteration, and theother a constant word or element of a compound, with approximately the same distribution ofnon-stressed elements».

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tional texts’,26 meaning born as written texts but still presenting many features con-nected to orality.27 Their strict relation to the oral dimension can thus be exempli-fied not only by their ‘aural features’ such as alliteration and ‘pronounced rhythm’,28

but also by their two founding elements: themes and formulas. Fry’s definition oftheme is one of the most widely accepted: «a recurring concatenation of detailsand ideas not restricted to a specific event, verbatim repetition, or certain formulas,which forms an underlying structure for an action or description».29 The theme’sstructural function is underlined by Pasternack (1995: 11), according to whom itrepresents «[a] structural unit […] which present[s] a narrative scene or expositionof wisdom according to a conventional set of elements and structure». Formulasare instead «group[s] of words which [are] regularly employed under the samemetric conditions to express a given essential idea»30 and present combinations ofterms originated from a poetic use31 and to which conventional meanings are con-sequently attached.32 An interesting contribution was made by Riedinger (1985)who, as Fry (1968b) before her,33 considered the formula as an element producedby a system. Basing her observations on the theory of intertextuality, Riedingerexamined the formulaic expression in a given context and explained the interactionwith other possible contexts, showing how the topic and the function attached to aformula are not always obvious, as further semantic implications may emerge by

34 In this case, Riedinger (1985: 295-296, 304) referred to the ‘thematic formulas’, formula-ic expressions sharing the same sense and function, therefore conveying the same, specific mean-ing in two different contexts. For example, the comparison between the contexts where the for-mula nihtlangne fyrst «a night-long space» recurs (Beowulf l. 528a, Exodus l. 208b, Elene l. 67b,Andreas ll. 834b and 1309b) reveals that the meaning of this expression always includes a well-defined hint: the idea of the time lapse and the moments of fear preceding a battle. However, thesame expression appearing in different contexts does not always represent a ‘thematic formula’.For example, the expression rume under roderum «spacious under the sky» in The Phoenix l.14a, where it describes the forests in heaven, and in Genesis A l. 1243a, where it refers to the wayNoah’s descendants multiplied, does not share the same contextual meaning in the two occur-rences, therefore does not represent a formula. The editions adopted hereafter are: Fulk, Bjorkand Niles’ (2008: 3-109) for Beowulf, Krapp’s (19692: 3-87; 91-107) for Genesis and Exodus,Krapp’s (1969: 3-51; 66-102) for Andreas and Elene, Muir’s (20062: The Phoenix) for ThePhoenix.

35 Schaefer (1991: 123).36 See Schaefer (1991: 132) and, with specific reference to the Anglo-Saxon elegies, Schaefer

(1988: 42-45).

37 Parks (1987: 51).

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comparing the given context with other contexts in which the formula recurs. As aresult, even when formulaic expressions appear to be used as fillers, they recall infact specific themes.34 For example, the formulas in þam eorđscræfe and geond þaseorđscrafu (The Wife’s Lament l. 28b and l. 36b) compared with other occurrencesof the compound eorđscræf, or the formulaic expression sealte streamas (TheHusband’s Message l. 5a) related to other formulas thus constructed may reveal pos-sible, hidden implications which may in turn cast a different light on the meaningsof the poems [see. Ch. 2 (2.4.2.), Ch. 3 (3.3.1.)].

In light of the above, orality (or ‘vocality’)35 clearly influenced the compositionof the ‘transitional texts’ in particular, but it also came into play as far as theirreception is concerned. In fact, works copied in manuscripts were often intendedto be performed orally or read aloud, and the use of formulas contributed to re-create the ‘mode of reception’ of the oral transmission36 by recalling the same con-text and milieu.37 The formulaic language, being conventional, implied theabsence of a subjective voice and thus of an orientation, in terms of narrative devel-opment, from the beginning to the end of the text. This often seems to be alsoreflected by the textual layout, where the scriptio continua and the lack of titlesshow that poems sometimes were arranged on the folios just as they were con-ceived: without an ‘official’ beginning and conclusion. In fact, the ‘transitionaltexts’ often do not seem to represent indissoluble unities but rather compositeentities originated from the juxtaposition of different ‘textual blocks’. These textu-

38 Conner (2012: 120) adopts the definition ‘inorganic structure’ when he talks about thetextual blocks characterising Anglo-Saxon poetry, which he describes as «discrete, juxtaposedunits». He comments: «This sort of agglutinative and compounding tendency […] allows us toread these poems in shifting contexts, making them much richer for the critic, perhaps, thanmore uncomplicated structures are likely to be. What is rich fare for critics can be a nightmarefor editors, of course, as well as for uninitiated readers, for both of those groups have to be ableto set the boundaries of a poem in order to work with it».

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al blocks, transcribed on the manuscript, develop a relation of interdependence onthe level of the meaning and become a textual sequence. This peculiar mode ofcomposition is revealed, for instance, by the continuous narrative shifts and thelack of a linear chronological development, together with shifts in theme and stylefrom one passage to another in the same textual sequence. The Husband’s Messageis a good example of this kind of text, showing an unexpected division into sec-tions whose interconnection should not be taken for granted [see Ch. 3 (1.1.3.,3.3.2.)]. Texts constructed in this way show a potential openness to a multiplicityof interpretations, first of all as regards the very juxtaposition of the textual blocks:what represents a textual sequence may potentially be restructured, and its textualblocks may be moved, put in relation with other blocks in order to create a differ-ent sequence.38 In this respect, the active role of those – copyists or readers – whoapproach the text in the creation of meaning, is central. On the one hand thescribe, copying from one or more manuscripts and organizing various texts into anew codex, had a margin of interpretation and therefore the possibility torearrange new textual sequences. On the other hand, the reader, who had to definethe structure and borders of the texts by observing their layout, had to ‘recon-struct’ the textual meaning. The transmission and reception of this type of textsdeserves to be treated separately, and the theoretical approach which appears to bemore appropriate is Material Philology.

2.2. The centrality of the handwritten text

Part of the difficulties presented in The Husband’s Message are connected to thelayout of the text because, besides some runes whose interpretation is not obvious,it also contains three capital letters and other graphic cues which suggest an appar-ently obscure textual division. As regards The Wife’s Lament, which instead repre-sents a unitary poem, the occurrence of some dots in the first lines still needs to beconstrued. The present analysis will take into account all these codicological

39 Many critics, underlining the importance of the codicological data, seem to adopt theMaterial Philology framework: for instance, Liuzza (1988), O’Brien O’Keeffe (1990) Doane(1991), Dagenais (1991), Pasternack (1995).

40 With this regard Liuzza (1990: 10) pointed out that in a manuscript, works of very differ-ent styles and genres are frequently juxtaposed, because compilers applied a thematic criterion inthe choice and arrangement of the texts.

41 For example, Soul and Body is transmitted by two manuscripts that are rather different intheir compilation and contents: whereas in the Exeter Book the work belongs to a section of textswhose shared theme is the transience of earthly life, in the Vercelli Book the message is connect-ed to the Resurrection theme instead.

42 Pasternack (1995: 12).43 Pasternack (1995: 15). Also Doane (1991), O’Brien O’Keeffe (1990) and Liuzza (1988:

10-15) consider the copyist as a figure quite close to an ‘editor’, because he can potentially inter-vene at any level of the text. The interventions could be of various kinds: from the insertion of

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aspects in view of an interpretation of these two works, relying on the assumptionthat a manuscript contains a unique document: the transcription of a text in a giv-en time, space and context, addressed to a certain audience.

Material Philology deals with the manuscript as a source of information on theprocess of transmission and reception of the text.39 Firstly, before approaching a lit-erary work, the story of the manuscript(s) deserves to be investigated because itmay give access to some elements about the origin of its transcription. Secondly, theposition of the work in the manuscript and the possible connections with the clos-est texts may also be relevant, because they contribute to casting a different light onthe textual meaning by underlining some given aspects; in fact, frequently codiceswere structured according to thematic sequences, which created contexts convey-ing certain topics.40 The works transmitted in more than one codex confirm that atext, thanks to its formulaic and conventional nature, could integrate in differentcontexts, thus contributing to the transmission of diverse messages.41

Codicological data such as capital letters, punctuation, layout and any visualsigns is of seminal importance, both because it may suggest the ‘formal limits’ of atextual sequence and because it provides us with information on the reception –therefore on the audience possibly being addressed. The copyist had a central rolein this process as, while transcribing the text, he simultaneously became the audi-ence of it and, as such, he had to construe it. The scribe’s interpretation is reflectedin scribal interventions which, on his initiative, tend to eliminate the ambiguitiesin the text’s structure and phrases,42 and contribute to guiding a future reading.43

The presence and frequency of the graphic cues only depended on the scribe’s per-

dots and punctuation (to highlight the syntax or metrical aspects, or to create pauses) to thealteration of the text itself (such as the substitution of a term or the insertion of words, conjunc-tions for example, to clarify some passages). The changes a scribe could make would thus alterthe style of the text, if not the very sense of it.

44 The instability of the graphic cues is particularly visible if we observe the multiplicity ofgraphic conventions adopted in different manuscripts which contain the same text.

45 Pasternack (1995: 167).46 That is what Pasternack (1995: 121) defined as a ‘plurality of entrances’ on a codicologi-

cal level.

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sonal choice and, because of their ‘instability’ (there was no official coding of theiruse),44 they are considered by O’Brien O’Keeffe (1990: x, 13) as a trace of ‘residualorality’ in the process of reading and copying of the texts. Sure enough, visual signscaught the reader’s attention, involving him in the construction of the textualmeaning, thus making him an active part of the reception process.45 O’BrienO’Keeffe (1990: 15-16) again observed that there was no official ‘mode of reading’– such as the application of codified syntactic and semantic rules – to which onecould refer. Considering that, and because of the scriptio continua, in Anglo-Saxonmanuscripts even word-boundaries had to be construed: the reader had to rely oninferences and predictions on more than one level (on the graph, on the group ofgraphs or on the word, on the phrase, etc.) and verify his hypotheses, in order toabstract the meaning.

In a manuscript such as the Exeter Book, besides the fact that texts were copiedsometimes without a clear separation, in some cases graphic cues unexpectedlyappear within a textual sequence and seem to isolate or mark some passages (seebelow 3.1.). These visual signs may thus suggest the possibility of reading a text onlypartially, or in a non-linear way, inviting the reader to recompose different textualsequences and give new interpretations. These characteristics on a codicological lev-el46 further strengthen the idea of a particular ‘openness’, the possibility of con-structing new texts and meanings, attached to Anglo-Saxon poetry. Since the man-uscript represents the very first means of tracing information about the receptionand use of a text, thus about its possible audience, codicological analysis is essential.

3. The Exeter Book: origin and structure

The Exeter Book (Exeter, Cathedral Library, MS 3501) is the only manuscripttransmitting The Wife’s Lament and The Husband’s Message. One of the few sure

47 This list exists in two copies: in the Exeter Book ff. 1-2 (originally part of Cambridge,University Library, MS. Ii.2.11) and in Oxford, Bodleian Library, Auct. D.2.16, ff. 1-2. Gameson(1996a: 135).

48 Among them, Muir (1989) and Gameson (1996a: 135).49 Chambers, Förster and Flower (1933: 83-84, 89).50 The Exeter Book looks like a copy of another manuscript: a certain uniformity in the writ-

ing would suggest a copyist’s intervention of correction and normalization; moreover, evidenceof a mechanic copying is also visible (in certain types of mistakes, for instance), see Liuzza (1988:3 fn. 10). That is why Sisam (1953: 106-108) pointed out that the compilation of the exemplarmay date back even to Alfred’s time (ninth century). However, as the phases of this processremain unknown, Sisam’s theory cannot be confirmed and remains a hypothesis.51 The hand-writing of the manuscript seems to be related to the style of other codices produced in south-western England’s scriptoria. See Gameson (1996a: 166-169).

52 According to Zimmermann (1995: 94) this hypothesis is unlikely, as in that case theExeter Book would be the first Anglo-Saxon manuscript which, over the centuries, was nevermoved from its place of origin.

53 This note is in one of the two copies of Leofric’s inventory: Oxford, Bodleian Library,Auct. D.2.16: 7 he ne funde on þam mynstre þa he tofeng boca na ma buton ane capitularie 7 .i.forealdodne nihtsang 7 .i. pistelboc 7 .ii. forealdode rædingbec swiđe wake «and in the monastery

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data we have is that Leofric gave this codex to Exeter Cathedral as a present in thesecond half of the 11th century, when he was bishop there (between 1050 and1072). A list of Leofric’s donations (dating 1069-72)47 seems to refer to the ExeterBook with the expression .i. mycel englisc boc be gehwilcum þingum on leođwisangeworht («a large English book about many things composed in poetry»). Asregards the origin of the manuscript, many critics48 have accepted Flower’s opin-ion49 according to which it was produced in the second half of the 10th century, c.a.970.50

The place of transcription of the Exeter Book is also unknown, and informationon the manuscript’s movements over time is scarce. However, critics’ hypothesesseem to have varying degrees of probability. Usually critics considered as most like-ly the monastic centres of south-western England:51 Krapp and Dobbie (1936: ix),for example, proposed Crediton, where Leofric lived before he became Exeter’sbishop. Conner (1993), instead, sought to connect the manuscript’s graphic fea-tures to the Exeter scriptorium, hypothesizing that the Exeter Book was alreadythere on Leofric’s arrival. This theory was debated52 in particular by Gameson(1996a: 138), who first of all underlined the historical value of a note on Leofric’sinventory, which deemed Exeter’s collection of books to be poor before the bishoparrived there.53 The Exeter Book is a big, large manuscript of good craftsmanship;

that he had taken he did not find any book except one liber capitularis, one old antiphonal, onecontaining letters and two very poor, old lectionaries». If not otherwise stated, from here on allthe translations from Anglo-Saxon are mine.

54 The London, Lambeth Palace, MS. 149, the Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS. Bodley 319and the Exeter Book are ascribed to one hand, whereas the Exeter, Cathedral Library, MS. 3507,the Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS. Bodley 718 and the Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale, MS. latin943 are ascribed to another hand, apparently more expert and perhaps slightly later. Of all thesemanuscripts the Lambeth Palace 149, the Bodley 319, the Exeter Book and the Exeter Cathedral3507, at different times, were acquired by Exeter Cathedral. For an overview of the relationbetween the two groups of manuscripts, see Gameson (1996a: 172-176).

55 Ff. 1-8, which present the list of Leofric’s donations and some legal documents, have beenadded later and, according to Krapp and Dobbie (1936: x), date back to the 11th or the 12thcen-tury.

56 Conner’s theory of the three booklets is based on palaeographical and codicological datashowing that, from one booklet to the following, the thickness of the parchment changes, as wellas the binding techniques and the distribution of the dry-point drawings, which is not regular as

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therefore, had it already been in Exeter, it would at least have been mentioned inthis document. Instead, in all probability it corresponds to the mycel englisc bocacquired afterwards. As regards the place of origin, Gameson (1996a: 166) pro-posed Canterbury because of the correlations between the Exeter Book and fiveother coeval codices transcribed by two copyists who had very similar handwritingsand were both certainly connected to the Canterbury scriptorium.54 As a secondoption, Gameson (1996a: 166) did not exclude another south-western centre,active in the second half of the tenth century and in contact with Canterbury:Glastonbury. This view was shared by Butler (2004: 200-201), who underlined thepresence of the poems Life of Saint Guthlac A and Life of Saint Guthlac B in theExeter Book as meaningful because Guthlac of Crowland, a saint coming fromeastern Anglia, was one of the three saints worshipped by the monastic order inGlastonbury.

As regards the content of the Exeter Book, the 131 folios55 contain more than100 poetic texts in the late West Saxon dialect, of various genres and length, whichform a very heterogeneous anthology (most of them dealing with an openlyChristian content; some semi-secular, like the elegies; a few apparently secular, suchas the riddles). Because of this variety, the structure of the manuscript and the cri-teria which led to the compiler’s choice of the texts and their order do not appearobvious. Conner suggested a fascinating hypothesis, according to which the manu-script is a collection of three separate and independent booklets produced in differ-ent periods by the same copyist, and reflecting tastes and interests of differenttimes.56 Booklet I (ff. 8r-52v), whose texts follow a principle of chronological order

they would all be concentrated in Booklet I [Conner (1986: 237)]. Moreover, there would be adifferent treatment of some graphs (such as Ð, long s and long y) and of the ligatures of someconsonantal groups (st, sp, sw). Finally, the first folio of each booklet, dirtier and more ruinedthan the others, would testify to the circulation of each booklet independently from the others,before they were collected and bound together. The first folio of Booklet III is not darker thanthe following because the first page was lost: the end of the poem at f. 98r would thus not be theend of The Partridge (which starts on f. 97v) but the end of another text. Conner (1986: 233).

57 The titles here adopted for these poems are those from the consulted edition: Muir’s(20062).

58 Conner (1986: 241). At the beginning and end of Booklet II there are allegorical poems(The Phoenix and the group composed by The Panther, The Whale and The Partridge). Elegies(The Wanderer, The Seafarer) and didactic poems (Precepts, Maxims I), some of which in theform of catalogue poems (God’s Gifts to Humankind and The Fates of Mortals), appear in a scat-tered order.

59 The edition of the Anglo-Saxon Riddles adopted here is Muir’s (20062: Riddles 1-59,Riddle 30b; Riddles 61-94) and, only for Riddle 60, Klinck’s (1992: 99).

60 According to Muir (1989), the differences in the thickness of the parchment may dependon its quality, which was not excellent, as the best parchments were kept for collections contain-ing Latin works. Furthermore, Muir spotted other dry-point drawings scattered in the codexbesides those in Booklet I. On the level of the shapes of graphs and ligatures, Muir did not detectmany differences in the manuscript and, through punctual comparisons, contested the idea thatthe capital letters in Booklet I (the last one produced, according to Conner) appear more deco-rated and better drawn than those in Booklet II (the first one).

61 The idea of a single scribe was soon shared by almost everyone [see also Sisam (1953) andKer (1957)], also in the light of Gameson’s observations concerning the relation between theExeter Book handwriting and the handwriting in Lambeth Palace 149 and Bodley 319. Flower’sopinion [Chambers, Förster and Flower (1933: 83)], according to which many copyists hadworked on the Exeter Book, is thus completely outdated.

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and present exemplary figures who lived in righteousness (The Advent Lyrics 1-12,The Ascension, Christ in Judgement, Life of Saint Guthlac (A) and (B)),57 wouldhave been transcribed after the Benedictine Revival. Booklet II (ff. 53r-97v) wouldhave been produced immediately before, and it is a more heterogeneous collection,although exile appears as a recurring theme.58 Booklet III (ff. 98r-130v) wouldhave been copied during the Benedictine Revival, and is based on the presence ofthree groups of riddles (Riddles 1-59, Riddles 30b and 60 and Riddles 61-94)59 butalso includes various elegies (Deor, The Wife’s Lament) and a section of Christianpoems (Judgement Day I and The Descent into Hell).

Over the years Conner’s theory was contested by Muir (1989) in particular,who quite convincingly refuted almost every aspect of the tripartite structure of theExeter Book,60 concluding that the Exeter Book must be the work of one scribe,61

62 Muir (1989: 283-284).63 Investigating the principle underlying the collection of poems in the Exeter Book in rela-

tion to the manuscript’s historical context, recently Conner (2012) and (2005: 31-43) suggest-ed that some of the elegies and the section of texts including Homiletic Fragment III, Sould andBody II, Deor and Wulf and Eadwacer might have been read during the parish guilds.

64 Zimmermann (1995: 91-182).65 See Fell (1991: 172).66 The presence of three collections of riddles in this manuscript can be justified in light of

the fact that the genre of the riddles can be included in the didactic poetry, as it transmits wis-dom and knowledge; see Borysławski (2002) and Drout (2007: 447).

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who copied it as a unitary codex. However, he did not dismiss the possibility thatthe scribe might have been copying from two, three or more booklets as exemplarsbecause the sequence of texts suggests that the poems were not collected in a ran-dom order but create thematic sections.62 Therefore, Conner’s theory of the threebooklets, which seeks a main theme for each booklet, represents the first attempt todetect an underlying principle in a wide and heterogeneous collection of texts suchas the Exeter Book,63 and deserves thus to be mentioned.

From a broader and more general perspective, the poems in the Exeter Book allcontribute to transmitting a Christian message about the transience of earthly life,and the importance of behaving according to Christian principles in order to gaineternal salvation.64 From many intertextual connections between the poems a the-matic path emerges, focused on conversion, which should underlie the relationbetween man and God, earthly life and eternal life. The religious poems aboutChrist, St. Guthlac, Azarias, the Phoenix and St. Juliana, at the beginning of themanuscript, immediately underline God’s centrality in everyone’s life and suggestexemplar models to imitate, whereas the didactic works scattered in the manuscriptprovide Christian precepts. Elegies, such as The Wife’s Lament, remind us of howephemeral human life and human joy are,65 and show that man will have to gothrough painful conditions like loneliness and exile, but all this suffering can beendured in light of the prospect of an otherworldly life. God comes to representthe only reference and source of stability for mankind.66

3.1. Some codicological observations

Before examining the dots that unexpectedly appear in the first part of TheWife’s Lament or the graphic cues that mark the division into three sections of The

67 The observation of the codicological features of the Exeter Book was conducted by exam-ining the facsimile edition by Chambers, Förster and Flower (1933) and Muir’s (20062) edition,which reproduces every single folio in a digital format.

68 Considerations about palaeographical and codicological aspects appear in Krapp andDobbie (1936: xvi-xxv, lxviii-lxxxviii), Dunning and Bliss (1969: 4-11), Williamson (1977: 12-19), Klinck (1992: 21-23), O’Brien O’Keeffe (1990: 138-143, 155-164).

69 End-punctuations are, for example, :- am :7 (combined with the word Amen, in TheAdvent Lyric 12), :- :7 :7 :7 (in The Ascension), :- :7 (in Christ in Judgement).

70 Muir (20062: Commentary / Maxims I (A)) defines Maxims I as «three poems collective-ly known as Maxims (I)» and indicates them as Maxims I (A), Maxims I (B) e Maxims I (C);however, here they will be considered as a single poem.

71 Cf. the sections of Canticles of the 3 Youths (f. 54r), The Phoenix (ff. 58v and 59v) andPassion of Saint Juliana (f. 74v), ending with :-:7 .

72 Cf. God’s Gifts to Humankind (f. 80r), The Fates of Mortals (f. 88v), Maxims I (B) (f. 91r),Maxims I (C) (f. 92v), The Order of the World (f. 94r), The Riming Poem (f. 95v).

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Husband’s Message, it is important to draw some conclusions concerning the gener-al scribal habits in the Exeter Book,67 in particular regarding the separation of thetexts and the treatment of textual sections.68 A certain regularity in the use of capi-tal letters, spaces and punctuation can be observed from the beginning of the codexup to f. 76r (more than half of the manuscript): texts are introduced by a whole MSline of capital letters (the first is the biggest and most decorated of all) and conclud-ed by an end-punctuation composed of various signs,69 followed by two blank MSlines. The long poems in the first part of the manuscript are divided into sectionswhose first word, all in capital letters, is copied on a new MS line; a section is sepa-rated from the following by a combination of :7 (colon and positura). Only some-times are there blank MS lines between the sections of the same poem. At f. 76v, incorrespondence to The Wanderer, new scribal criteria seem to be adopted, as thebeginning of this elegy is only marked by the first word in capital letters, and thetext (of only 115 lines) is not separated by a blank MS line from the preceding poem(Passion of Saint Juliana). From The Wanderer on, all the texts (none of whichexceeds 150 lines or is divided into sections, save Maxims I)70 are introduced onlyby the first word in capital letters. For no apparent reason, God’s Gifts to Humankind(f. 78r, immediately after The Wanderer) and Widsith (f. 84v) are two exceptions:they start with a whole MS line of capital letters, like the long poems.

As regards the end-punctuation of the texts, from Canticles of the 3 Youths toThe Partridge, long poems – and sometimes also their sections –71 present a com-bination of at least four signs. Many shorter texts, instead, only end with colon andpositura.72 The treatment of the spaces appears more random than in correspon-

73 For example, for their genre and themes The Panther, The Whale and The Partridge recall,at least ideally, an independent textual section in the manuscript (ff. 95v-97v). However, where-as the three poems of the ‘Anglo-Saxon Physiologus’ all end with :-:7 and are separated by a blankMS line, the beginning of The Panther (f. 95v) is in no way marked, as it is not separated fromthe preceding text (The Riming Poem) by any blank space. The Riming Poem ends with the usualend-punctuation :7 , and the incipit of The Panther consists of only the first word in capital let-ters (as also the incipit of The Whale and The Partridge).

74 The only exception is Soul and Body II which, for no apparent reason, starts after a blankMS line and with a whole MS line of capital letters. Riddle 40, although much longer than all theother riddles (108 lines), begins instead after a blank MS line probably because of a hole in theparchment just in correspondence to its beginning (f. 110r).

75 The only exceptions are the end-punctuations of Riddles 5, 12, 17 and 18 ( :-:7 ), andRiddle 11 and 27 ( :- ).

76 Riddles 1-3 were treated by Williamson (1977: 67-70 e 127-133) as a single riddle divid-ed into two sections, whereas Krapp and Dobbie (1936: 180-181) and other editors saw threeseparate riddles.

77 The only exception is Deor, where the sections correspond to stanzas and, sometimes, endwith a punctuation composed of more than two signs.

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dence to the long poems at the beginning of the manuscript (for example, a blankMS line separates some of the sections of The Phoenix). Among the short poemsthat follow, sometimes randomly, a blank MS line separates the end of one textfrom the beginning of another; this suggests a lack of precise scribal norms.73

From Homiletic Fragment III until the end of the manuscript apparently thecopyist tried to save space, probably because he had to insert a large number ofshort texts of different genres: these seem to follow without any blank space andwith capital letters of smaller size,74 only corresponding to the very first graph ofthe initial word. The end-punctuation is the usual colon and positura, or sometimespositura alone.75 The only texts containing sections are quite short: Deor,Judgement Day I, The Husband’s Message, and perhaps also Riddles 1-3.76 Theirsections, exactly like the end of the texts in this part of the manuscript, are usuallymarked by :7 or :- .77

In conclusion, comparing the scribal habits of this last part of the codex, towhich both The Wife’s Lament and The Husband’s Message belong, with the rest ofthe manuscript, what emerges is that here, indiscriminately, sections and texts areoften separated with the same punctuation, and there is no difference in size or dec-orations between the capital letters that introduce sections and those that beginnew texts. The lack of a blank space between poems also adds to the confusion: theboundaries of the texts are sometimes ambiguous – as in Riddles 1-3, Riddle 68 and

78 Riddle 68, which presents two capital letters, is considered as two separate riddles byKrapp and Dobbie (1936: 231). Riddles 78-79 represent one text in Williamson (1977: 111;359-360); in Porter (20032: 108-109; 136) they are separated but the scholar did not dismiss thepossibility that Riddle 78 (ic eom æþelinges æht ond willa) may simply represent an opening for-mula alternative to the one at the beginning of Riddle 79.

79 The numerous opinions expressed especially on the punctuation in the Exeter Book showthe complexity of the problem. Förster [Chambers, Förster and Flower (1933: 61)] consideredthe dots of the manuscript as metric, whereas Krapp and Dobbie (1936: xxii) because of theirscarce frequency considered them neither metrical, nor syntactical, nor structural. Dunning andBliss (1969: 11), after recognizing three different functions in the dots of The Wanderer (mark-ing the different sections of a text, underlining parallel phrases and signaling passages where thesyntax is complex), concluded that the punctuation in the Exeter Book, although not entirelysystematic, is anything but random. Williamson (1977: 15), agreeing with Dunning and Bliss,considered that, in general, only rarely do dots have an exclusively metrical meaning.

80 O’Brien O’Keeffe (1990: 152, 163) noted that, in many cases, it is difficult to understandwhether the dots mark the metrical or the syntactical structure of the texts, both because of theirirregularity and because a half-line tended to correspond to a syntactical unit: therefore, a dot atthe end of a half-line may acquire a syntactical meaning, besides the metrical one. As regards thepunctuation in the Exeter Book, there does not seem to be a clear norm either on the metrical oron the syntactical level.

81 O’Brien O’Keeffe (1990: 163). An example of lack of consistency in the punctuation ofthe Exeter Book is in God’s Gifts to Humankind (ff. 78r-80r) and The Fates of Mortals (ff. 87r-88v), two gnomic catalogue poems where the lists presenting the syntactic structure sum… sum…are accompanied by very different uses of punctuation. In God’s Gifts to Humankind a dot pre-cedes sum only when it is in the nominative case, whereas in The Fates of Mortals this happensalso when sum is in an oblique case. Moreover, the presence of the small capitals is not consis-tent, as in God’s Gifts to Humankind they are absent; in The Fates of Mortals, instead, they mark16 out of the 25 occurrences of sum.

82 O’Brien O’Keeffe (1990: 147).

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Riddles 78-79,78 or in The Husband’s Message. It is therefore legitimate not to takefor granted the assumption that The Husband’s Message is a unitary text and inves-tigate its graphic cues [see Ch. 3 (1.1.-1.1.3.)].

The inconsistencies in the scribal uses of the Exeter Book necessarily raise theproblem of the exemplars of the manuscript, on which the lack of uniformity maydepend – above all, the apparent absence of norms in the punctuation.79 For exam-ple, it has been noted by O’Brien O’Keeffe (1990: 155-157) that it is difficult todetect the norms that govern the dots in particular, and their function:80 the fre-quency and the position of the dots vary even when comparing a text with the fol-lowing one, but this aspect does not seem to depend on the genre, theme or posi-tion in the codex.81 Punctuation appears to a certain extent ‘stratified’,82 as if it had

83 O’Brien O’Keeffe (1990: 164). This hypothesis would explain the occasional mid-word ormid-half-line-points, which perhaps reproduce dots which, in the exemplars, were at the end ofthe folios; see O’Brien O’Keeffe (1990: 150).

84 The few critics’ opinions on the exemplars of the Exeter Book appear to be highly conjec-tural, although thought-provoking. Conner (1993: 148-164) assumed that each of the suppos-edly three booklets must have had its own exemplar. Instead, according to Muir (20062:Introduction / The Anthologist, The Texts and their Sectional Divisions) the existence of morethan one exemplar would be proven by the very fact that the riddles have not been copied in onlyone group: Riddles 61-94 may have been inserted at the end of the Exeter Book because thescribe might have obtained the manuscript containing them only later, after he had alreadycopied the elegies and the homiletic poems which follow Riddle 59.

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been added by more than one hand, and this may mean that the manuscript wascopied mechanically from the different exemplars used.83 However, we cannot relyon any consideration concerning the exemplar(s) of the Exeter Book because of thealmost complete absence of data about their number and origin. Therefore, eachconjecture as regards the codicological examination of the Exeter Book will neces-sarily be based only on its visible graphic cues.84

1 The only difference is that <c> in Ic (The Wife’s Lament) is in square Caroline handwriting,while in the Riddles it is always in rounded, uncial handwriting.

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2

THE WIFE’S LAMENT

1. Codicological Analysis

As previously stated, the study of medieval texts must begin from the manu-script itself; therefore, an in-depth investigation of the codicological data of TheWife’s Lament will firstly be carried out. The layout of the text in the Exeter Book,the only manuscript transmitting this poem, does not seem to present any particu-lar anomaly. However, some graphic cues deserve further attention, and this analy-sis will highlight a possible structural function that is relevant in view of the textualinterpretation (see below 1.1-1.1.2.).

The relation between The Wife’s Lament and the texts surrounding it in themanuscript will also be considered. Special attention will be devoted to the possi-ble connections with Wulf and Eadwacer, which, because of its similarities withThe Wife’s Lament and its position in the codex, may play a role in the study of theelegy (see below 1.2.-1.2.2.).

1.1. The layout of the text

The layout of The Wife’s Lament clearly suggests that the text is unitary. In thefirst word, Ic, the initial <I> and the following small capital <C> have the same sizeas the incipits of most of the Riddles,1 and the end-punctuation, colon and positura,

2 See the list of all the small capitals in the Exeter Book in Krapp and Dobbie (1936: lxxvi-lxxxi).

3 Klinck (1992: 22) is not entirely sure about the <O> of Ongunnon.4 Krapp and Dobbie (1936: xviii).

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is the one marking the conclusion of most of the texts (and sections of texts) in thisfinal part of the manuscript. The integrity of The Wife’s Lament seems thus to bewithout question, at least on a codicological level. However, the poem presentssome graphic cues which so far have been slightly overlooked by critics: three (orpossibly seven) small capitals and nine dots, three of which precede three smallcapitals, while the others are scattered in the poem.

1.1.1. The small capitals

Small capitals, which are most frequent in the longest poems2 of the ExeterBook as O’Brien O’Keeffe (1990: 156) noted, do not seem to follow a rule, andtheir presence (or absence) and quantity varies from text to text. As regards TheWife’s Lament, only a few critics detected the presence of some small capitals, andoften there was no agreement as to their identification, which suggests that they arenot perfectly visible. Krapp and Dobbie (1936: lxxxi) identified the following smallcapitals:

f. 115r MS line 4: i (ic, l. 2b)f. 115r MS line 5: i (ic, l. 5a)f. 115r MS line 7: i (ic, l. 7b)f. 115r MS line 11: i (in, l. 13b)

Klinck (1993: 22) instead considered other graphs as small capitals:

f. 115r MS line 8: đ (đa, l. 9a)f. 115r MS line 9: o (ongunnon, l. 11a)3

f. 115r MS line 15: đ (đa, l. 18a)

As regards the graphs listed by Krapp and Dobbie, a first doubt arises, conside-ring that they are never preceded by a dot, while most of the small capitals in theExeter Book are.4 O’Brien O’Keeffe (1990: 156 fn. 5) pointed out that long ‘i’s inthe Exeter Book recur frequently to distinguish <i> from the following graph,

5 Krapp and Dobbie (1936: xviii) also recognize that initial i, when it is bigger than usual, isnot used as a capital letter but is only aimed at marking the graph, especially in words such as in,ic, iu.

6 Klinck (1992: 22) admitted that she expected a small capital preceded by a dot at thebeginning of the gnomic passage (immediately before l. 42a).

7 Dunning and Bliss (1969: 6) pointed out that the most common small capitals are <đ>,<s>, <n>, and <h>, which mark in particular connective elements such as đa, đonne, đær, đeah;swa, syđđan, sona; nu, ne, nalæs; hu, hwæt, hwær, etc.

8 According to Klinck (1992: 52) đa may be either an adverb or a conjunction, expressing themeanings «after» and «at the same time», but also a sense of causality. Admitting that themost natural translation for đa (l. 9a) would be «then», Klinck does not dismiss the possibletranslation «when», which «would make the plotting of the kin definitely subsequent to thewife’s search for folgaþ, protection in someone’s household». L. 9a may thus be translated«Then I departed on a journey to search for service».

9 L. 11: «That man’s relatives started plotting».10 L. 15: «My lord ordered me to take up a dwelling here». For the translation of this line,

which represents a crux, see below 2.2.

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especially when that is <n> or <m>.5 Examples of long ‘i’s in the word in are inde-ed very numerous in the manuscript, and this also seems to be the case of in («in»)in The Wife’s Lament l. 13b. Concerning the long ‘i’s in the personal pronoun ic,instead, Williamson (1977: 14) highlighted that it represents more than a half ofthe 800 small capitals in the manuscript (52 of them are in the Riddles). In TheWife’s Lament ll. 2b, 5a, 7b the pronoun ic does not seem to bear any syntactical ormetrical function (in fact, in l. 5a and l. 7b it is placed almost randomly within thehalf-lines); therefore, again, the conclusion seems to be that the long ‘i’s in ic can beascribed to a scribal habit aimed at distinguishing the initial <i> from the follo-wing graph.

The three initials that Klinck identified in The Wife’s Lament all follow a dot,thus they deserve some attention. Klinck (1992: 22) pointed out that, in general,small capitals in the elegies correspond to breaks in thought.6 As a matter of fact, inThe Wife’s Lament đa («then», l. 9a), ongunnon («they started», l. 11a) and đa(«as», l. 18a), all at the beginning of a text line, seem to coincide with three diffe-rent moments in the narration and mark sudden changes of action:7 shortly afterthe reference to the husband’s journey (l. 6a Ærest min hlaford gewat), the tempo-ral conjunction đa alludes ex abrupto to the woman’s journey (l. 9a Ða ic me ferangewat),8 also marking the structural parallelism between l. 6a and l. 9a. Afterwards,with ongunnon (l. 11a Ongunnon þæt þæs monnes magas hycgan)9 suddenly thehusband’s relatives appear and start plotting against the two spouses. After the lastevent at l. 15 (Het mec hlaford min her eard niman),10 the last small capital at l. 18a

11 L. 18a: «as I found a man fully equal to me». Klinck (1992: 179, 181) translated theadverb đa as «as, since», underlining the causal element of the conjunction in this instance, asthe meaning «after» shades into «because»; see Klinck (1992: 52).

12 Dunning and Bliss (1969: 6-7). However, there is a striking difference between the smallcapitals in The Wanderer and those in The Wife’s Lament. In The Wanderer the small capitalshave the same shape as the capital letters at the beginning of the texts but are much smaller insize, whereas in The Wife’s Lament they have the shape of the lowercase graphs but are slightlylarger – this is why it is harder to detect them.

13 Klinck (1992: 22). The edition of The Wanderer here adopted is Klinck’s (1992: 75-78).14 See Ch. 1 (3.1.), and Dunning and Bliss (1969: 11).

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(đa ic me ful gemæcne monnan funde)11 introduces a description of the husband’spersonality characterized by contrasting features: he is sad, mournful in his heart,and hides wicked thoughts behind a peaceful countenance. The two temporal con-nectors đa thus introduce the two parallel structures at l. 9a and l. 18a (Ða ic meferan gewat; đa ic me […] funde), both referring to the woman; at the same time,these lines frame the third initial (Ongunnon), which focuses on the husband’s rela-tives. In their function these three small capitals appear to be quite similar to thosein The Wanderer, which correspond to changes in the narrative pattern and conse-quently have a structural function. In fact, also in The Wanderer the small capitalsappear to mark short textual sections in correspondence to Swa (l. 6a), Oft (l. 8a),Se (l. 88), Stondeđ (l. 97a), Swa (l. 111a), or they signal parallel structures such asthose introduced by Ne (l. 15 and l. 66) and by Đonne (l. 39 and l. 45);12 they arethus relevant to the interpretation of the text.13 In particular, in The Wife’s Lamentthe three small capitals, which signal meaningful moments in the story, also seemto correspond to three of the main themes of the poem, all connected to thewoman: the exile (expressed in the woman’s departure from her land), the isolationand lack of friends (represented by the enmity of the people surrounding thewoman) and the pains of love (caused by the hostile attitude of her man).

1.1.2. The punctuation marks

As previously shown, in the Exeter Book the dots do not appear to have beeninserted in a systematic way,14 but their position is not completely accidental either.Williamson (1977: 16) underlined that in the Riddles most of the dots bear ametric as well as a syntactical function; this would suggest that the copyist tendedto place a dot where it was meaningful for more than one aspect. However, the

15 Williamson (1977: 16).16 Dunning and Bliss (1969: 8).17 Chambers, Förster and Flower (1933: 61).18 Förster [Chambers, Förster and Flower (1933: 61)] hypothesized that dots placed in unu-

sual positions (such as the dot in The Wife’s Lament l. 37b) have the function of signalling a

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number and position of the dots vary according to the text and, probably, to diffe-rent criteria. Klinck (1992: 26), speaking of the ‘scribal indications’ in The Wife’sLament and comparing them with those of other poems in the Exeter Book, notedthat:

[…] pointing and capitalization reflect transitions and rhetorical devices detected orcopied by the scribe, but he misses significant ones. In Deor, where sectional divi-sions follow the refrain, manuscript pointing and capitalization correspond to themajor divisions in the poem; so to a large extent in The Wanderer. But in TheSeafarer and in The Wife’s Lament these scribal indications are less adequate.

In The Wife’s Lament three out of nine dots precede the most important smallcapitals (đa, ongunnon and đa, f. 115r MS lines 8, 9 and 15), thus reflecting the scri-bal habits of the codex – in fact, most of the dots mark adverbs and coordinating orsubordinating conjunctions,15 and small capitals are usually preceded by a dot,which is considered an integral part of the initial.16 Instead, as regards the dot atthe end of the last MS line in f. 115r, it is also in a typical position on the page:according to Förster,17 it may depend on circumstances related to the transcriptionof the texts, such as the necessity of turning the page, which probably imposed ashort break that the scribe ended up signalling on the folio.

The last five dots of The Wife’s Lament all appear metrical because they markthe end of a half-line. The only non-metrical dot, on f. 115v MS line 6, separatesthe terms sumorlangne («summer-long») and dæg («day»), both in l. 37b and,together, representing a single expression. According to Muir (1989: 282), thecopyist of the Exeter Book probably knew the principles of Anglo-Saxon prosodywell because he rarely went wrong in inserting punctuation marks. In fact, a closestudy of the patterns of division revealed that, in the whole manuscript, only in tencases is the caesura not recognized; that is, there are words joined together wherethe caesura should occur. In light of these observations, the dot in The Wife’sLament l. 37b may be considered an addition by a later hand; this would alsoexplain the unexpected position of the dot, its different shape and smaller size, andthe fact that it is less visible than the other dots and is placed in a double space.18

pause by the copyist during the transcription of the poem. However, in this case it is unlikely thatthe scribe may have temporarily suspended the transcription before completing the half-line(and the formulaic expression); see Buzzoni (2008: 439-492).

19 Hall (2003: 13).20 Hall (2003: 13-14).21 L. 28: «under the oak-tree in the earth-cavern».22 L. 29a: «This earth-hall is old».23 Dunning and Bliss (1969: 8) listed the dots – all at the end of the poem lines – which,

according to critics, would correspond to full stops: ll. 16, 18, 33, 36, 48, 63, 69, 98, 107. Thedot at the end of l. 91 would correspond to a colon, instead, and the dots at the end of ll. 19, 24,40, 74 and perhaps also l. 73 would have the function of commas.

24 Vainglory ll. 64-65a: ond þonne gesettan on hyra sylfra dom · / wuldres wynlond; JudgementDay I ll. 1-2a: Ðæt gelimpan sceal, þætte lagu flowed, · / flod ofer foldan; The Seafarer ll. 79-80a:awa to ealdre, ecan lifes blæd, · / dream mid dugeþum. The editions adopted are Muir’s (20062:Vainglory) and Muir’s (20062: Judgement Day I) for Vainglory and Judgement Day I, Klinck’s(1992: 79-83) for The Seafarer.

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The function of this dot may thus be that of a space-filler, an element which visual-ly ‘reduces’ the space left by the copyist between sumorlangne and dæg.19

Among the four remaining dots, two are worth considering. In f. 115r one dotis in the middle of MS line 12, almost in the middle of the page; it creates a rheto-rical pause as it separates the phrase ending with longaþe (coinciding with the endof l. 14b) from the one starting with het (beginning of l. 15a).20 The other dot (f.115r) occurs at the end of l. 28 under actreo in þam eorđscræfe,21 as if marking theexpression which, similar to a refrain, is repeated almost identically at l. 36, andseparating it from l. 29a eald is þes eorđsele,22 which begins a description of thewoman’s place of exile. The two dots analysed seem to signal two narrativemoments and have the same function as the punctuation marks in The Wanderer,where some of the 42 dots – all at the end of the lines of the poem – introduce syn-tactical breaks in the text, just as punctuation in modern editions of texts.23 Otherdots in The Wanderer, some at the end of first half-lines and others at the end ofsecond half-lines, are placed in passages characterised by parallel phrases (ll. 66-69,ll. 92-95, ll. 108-109).

As regards the last two dots of The Wife’s Lament, the one on f. 115r MS line 18(between ana and ohwit, ll. 22-23) is, according to Hall (2003: 13-14), aimed atdistinguishing the parenthetical half-line owiht elles from the governing phrase, asit also occurs in Vainglory ll. 64-65a, in Judgement Day I ll. 1-2a and in The Seafarerll. 79-80a.24 The dot between gerestan and ne (ll. 40-41) on f. 115v MS line 8,instead, may simply introduce a rhetorical pause.

25 For an in-depth description of this section of homiletic poems see Ch. 3 (1.2.4.).26 Ed. Muir (20062: Riddle 59).27 Riddle 59 ll. 11b-12a don swa þæs beages / benne cwædon «do as the wounds / of the ring

said», and ll. 16-17a hu þæs wrætlican wunda cwæden / hringes to hæleþum «how the wounds ofthis wonderful ring / spoke to men». According to Williamson (1977: 313), (1982: 199) the«speaking wounds» represent a metaphor for some inscribed words (or icons), which enable theobject, otherwise dumb (dumba, l. 8b), to express a message about Christ to the faithful. Thisinterpretation was accepted by most critics.

28 Riddle 59 l. 1b hring gylddenne «a golden ring».29Riddle 59 ll. 3b-5a Friþospede bæd / god nergende gæste sinum / se þe wende wriþan «he pra-

yed God / the Saviour for peaceful prosperity for his soul, / the one who turned the ring»; seealso ll. 5b-7a and l. 11a.

30 Okasha (1993: 64), after an archaeological investigation, suggested other possible solu-tions (coin, bell, brooch, ring) and in the end chose ring. Williamson (1977: 287) believes thesolution is chalice, instead.

31 This riddle is associated with Riddle 48, which also describes a circular object (hring, l. 1b)

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1.2. The manuscript context

The Wife’s Lament, beginning on f. 115r MS line 3 and ending on f. 115v MSline 17, in the Exeter Book, is in a transitional position between the first group ofriddles (Riddles 1-59), which form a rather homogeneous group of works, and asection of eight homiletic poems, from Judgement Day I to Homiletic FragmentII.25 The critics did not particularly focus on the position of this elegy in the codex,perhaps because it does not seem to share much with the genre of the riddles or thetopics of Riddle 59, the closest riddle, and it does not show any thematic connec-tion with the group of homiletic poems introduced by Judgement Day I, conside-ring that The Wife’s Lament neither contains homiletic motifs, nor does it seem tolend itself to any allegorical interpretation. However, the context in which thepoem is inserted in the manuscript certainly deserves some consideration.

1.2.1. The proximity of Riddle 59

Riddle 5926 (ff. 114v-115v) is at the end of the first collection of riddles. Thesolution is an inscribed,27 golden object defined as «ring»28 probably because ofits shape; people pass it on from hand to hand and it seems to belong to a religiouscontext.29 It has been identified with the Eucharistic chalice or with the paten,30

two round objects used during Mass.31 The comparison between The Wife’s

that, despite being «tongueless» and «dumb» (l. 2a butan tungan, l. 4b swigende), intercedeswith God on men’s behalf. According to Williamson (1977: 287-288) the object’s plea Gehælemec, helpend gæsta («Save me, helper of souls», l. 5) may correspond to an inscription on thevery object, just as the «wounds» in Riddle 59 (ll. 11b-12a, ll. 16-17a); the scholar also sugge-sted «chalice» as a possible solution for Riddle 48.

32 For a possible connection of the poem to a Christian meaning, see below 2.4.2.33 Doane (1966: 86) underlined the recurrence of terms such as weox and giedd (The Wife’s

Lament l. 3b and l. 1a) which are also frequent in the riddles; however, these lexical similaritiesare not significant as the contexts described in the riddles have nothing in common with that ofthe elegy.

34 Walker-Pelkey (1992: 245) interpreted the whole elegy as a riddle: the solution would be«sword» because, according to the scholar, the narration represents the speech of a sword whocomplains of being buried far away from its lord’s tomb.

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Lament and Riddle 59 does not suggest any obvious thematic link that could justi-fy the juxtaposition of these two texts, not least because The Wife’s Lament, in spi-te of the context of homiletic works which follow, does not seem to express anyopenly religious meaning.32 Given the lack of connections between the elegy andthe riddle, only a few scholars – among whom Doane (1966: 86) and, in particular,Walker-Pelkey (1992) – searched for possible similarities in the lexicon33 and in thestylistic elements, hypothesizing an influence of the riddlic genre on The Wife’sLament. However, a closer look at the elegy reveals that such an influence is impos-sible to prove. The incipit ic is typical of more than a half of the riddles, but in TheWife’s Lament it only seems to depend on the highly personal focus of the narra-tion. The final expression Wa biđ þam þe sceal / of langoþe leofes abidan! («Woe tothe one who must / wait for the beloved one with longing!», ll. 52b-53) accordingto Walker-Pelkey (1992: 245) reminds us of the conclusion of many riddles, but thegnomic tone is not a prerogative exclusive to the riddles, in fact it is also quite fre-quent in elegies and other types of texts.34

On a structural level, the riddles follow a pattern consisting of the descriptionof a mysterious (and often inanimate) entity whose characteristics often lend them-selves to more than one interpretation; the true identity of the object hides behindtheir ambiguity. This type of narration is not visible in The Wife’s Lament, wherethe main topic is the hardship of a fictional figure. Some narrative passages appearenigmatic but the allusive style is not aimed at challenging the audience to guess ata solution: as in other Anglo-Saxon elegies, past events here are only alluded tobecause the main focus is on the present, painful, condition (see below 2.3.).

However, more recently the resemblance between the narrative style of TheWife’s Lament and that of the riddles has been underlined again: Fell (2002: 274)

35 See below 2.4.1.-2.4.2.36 See also Semple (1998: 122-123) and Hall (2003: 2-3).37 The right panel of the Franks Casket is also controversial; therefore, in order to investiga-

te its meaning, the critics compared the image with some famous German legends, among whichthe Norse myth of Sigurd; see Dobbie (1942: cxxviii). However, a conclusive interpretation hasnot been found.

38 Ll. 27-29 Heht mec mon wunian on wuda bearwe, / under actreo in þam eorđscræfe. / Ealdis þes eorđsele; eal ic eom oflongad «I was ordered to remain in a grove of trees, / under the oak-tree in the earth-cavern. / This earth-hall is old; I am all seized with longing». Ll. 32b-33a: Fuloft mec her wraþe begeat / fromsiþ frean «Very often here my lord’s absence / cruelly seized me».Ll. 35-36 þonne ic on uhtan ana gonge / under actreo geond þas eorđscrafu «while I go alone atdown / under the oak-tree through these earth-caverns».

39 Francovich Onesti (2001: 9) and Hall (2003: 2) highlighted some of the different, possi-ble interpretations so far suggested. For example, according to a traditional reading [Napier(1901: 362-281)] the inscription should be read as «Herh-os sits on the mound of misfortune;she brings troubles, as Ertae ordered to her. Grave of sorrow, anguish and torment of the soul»(according to Hall, Herh-os represents the ‘goddess of the tomb’; Ertae is Destiny).

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pointed out the conciseness and reticence of the first passage (ll. 6-15) and thepotential ambiguity of some references such as the expression Frynd sind on eorþan(l. 33b) and the term eorđscræfe (l. 28b).35 Gameson (1996b: 466-469), Fell (2002:268-277) and other critics,36 searching for an explanation for the conciseness of thenarrative, even hypothesized that the narrator’s story may have been based on a lost,popular theme or legend, perhaps the same which inspired the image and inscrip-tion carved on the right panel of the Franks Casket. In fact, in this panel there aresome elements which can be compared with elements in The Wife’s Lament;37 inparticular, the atmosphere of sorrow and loneliness described in several passages ofthe text (ll. 27-29, 32b-33a, 35-36)38 has been connected with the funeral scene onthe casket, where a hooded figure and a horse stand around a burial mound and, onthe left side, a creature with a horsehead and the body of a man sits on a tumulus.The image is accompanied by a very complex inscription which, according to cri-tics, seems to be based on the theme of sorrow and is expressed in a tone compara-ble to that of The Wife’s Lament: her hos sitæþ on hærmbergæ, agl[.] drigiþ, swæ hiriertae gisgraf sær den sorgæ and sefa tornæ.39 Hall also pointed out that in the middleof the panel, under the belly of the horse, the runes compose the word wudu, a termrecalling the context in which the woman in The Wife’s Lament lives (on wudabearwe, l. 27b).

The comparison between some passages of The Wife’s Lament and the image onthe right side of the Franks Casket is certainly interesting; however, it is not possi-ble to prove an identification between the woman in the elegy and the mourning

40 Belanoff (2002) is one of the several studies dealing with The Wife’s Lament and Wulf andEadwacer together, underlying their similarities and, at the same time, the ways these two textsdiffer from the other Old English elegies. See also Berit’s (2002) study.

41 Considering the great differences between The Wife’s Lament and the following homile-tic poems as regards themes and genres, Conner (1993: 160) noted that the position of TheWife’s Lament in the codex should instead have been after Deor and Wulf and Eadwacer.

42 After Malone (1962), also Davidson (1975: 455-460), Belanoff (1990), Bragg (1999) andKlinck (2003) and (2004) adopted the classification ‘woman’s song’ for The Wife’s Lament.

43 For a long time Wulf and Eadwacer was considered ‘The First Riddle’, starting fromThorpe’s (1842: 380) edition of the Exeter Book. Fanagan (1976: 130) recalled that, over time,critics also took into consideration the dramatic soliloquy as a possible classification of the poem.Klinck (1992: 244) noted that it diverges from the other elegies in metre and vocabulary (it pre-sents varying line-lengths and a large number of unstressed syllables), and thus it «resembles thepopular poetry found in the Charms». However, at present most critics consider Wulf andEadwacer an elegy.

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figures carved on the panel, or to show that The Wife’s Lament tells a story thatderives from an old legend. We can thus conclude that the efforts to find a connec-tion between the elegy and Riddle 59 and, in general, the genre of the riddles, didnot give decisive results. However, as regards the position of The Wife’s Lament inthe codex, the similarities with Wulf and Eadwacer may be meaningful. This text (f.100v), which immediately precedes Riddle 1, together with The Wife’s Lament fra-mes the collection of riddles and has often been compared with the elegy, besideswith the riddles.

1.2.2. The Wife’s Lament and Wulf and Eadwacer

There is a close relation between The Wife’s Lament and Wulf and Eadwacer,40

also traditionally classified as an elegy.41 In the manuscript these two poems framethe first collection of riddles (Riddles 1-59), and we cannot exclude that their posi-tion may depend on a compiler’s choice. The Wife’s Lament, and Wulf andEadwacer are the only Old English elegies characterized by a female narrator anddealing with lovesickness; therefore, Malone (1962) was the first42 to includethem in the heterogeneous group of the Frauenlieder, poems where women, spea-king in the first person, complain about their love pangs. Whereas The Wife’sLament does not really seem to have much in common with the riddles, Wulf andEadwacer is characterized by a highly riddlic style and several enigmatic narrativepassages:43 for example, it is not clear how many characters are referred to in the

44 Usually critics distinguished three characters in the text: Wulf and Eadwacer (twomale figures) and one who is defined as Uncerne earmne hwelp «our poor whelp» (l. 16b),maybe a child born from the relationship between the female narrator and one of the two malecharacters. Considering the presence of proper names, Malone (1962: 108), as Krappand Dobbie (1936: lvi-lvii), hypothesized that the story may be based on a (lost) legendwith which the audience was familiar. The edition adopted here for Wulf and Eadwacer isKlinck’s (1992: 92).

45 Among these terms there are lac «offer» or «battle» (l. 1b), þreat «menace» or«troop» (l. 2b), and the hapax aþecgan «to receive» or «to dominate» (l. 2a). The actualnames Wulf and Eadwacer may represent common nouns, «wolf» and «guardian of the proper-ty» (this meaning is not attested elsewhere). See Bosworth and Toller (1972: 603; 1067; 58;1280; 225).

46 For example, in l. 10b reotugu «mournful», in l. 12b lađ «hateful thing» or «harmfulthing», in l. 14a seoce «sick», in l. 15a murnende mod «mourning heart». In l. 9b dogode «Isuffered» is a hapax which Muir (20062) emended in hogode «I thought».

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story and what the woman’s relationship with each of them is.44 Furthermore, the-re are many ambiguous terms that cannot be interpreted in light of the context;some are hapax and make even the literal meaning of the poem hard to construe.45

In spite of all, by now critics do not consider Wulf and Eadwacer’s textual pro-blems as evidence to classify this poem as a riddle because its allusive style does notseem to be aimed at hiding the identity of an object or a person. Wulf andEadwacer is rather considered an elegy for its melancholic tone, the large numberof terms linked to the semantic field of sorrow46 and the themes of exile and hear-tache, both shared with The Wife’s Lament. Zimmermann (1995: 151-152) alsounderlined that, in these two poems, both the feeling of loneliness and the absen-ce of the beloved seem to be caused in particular by the pressure of society on thewoman. In The Wife’s Lament the social context is represented by the husband’srelatives, who plotted to separate the spouses, in Wulf and Eadwacer by the peoplewho, hostile towards the woman’s relationship with Wulf, apparently exiled himon an island. In both cases the consequence is the destruction of the woman’s rela-tionship with her man and the loss of ties with her people; as a matter of fact, bothfemale figures are exiled.

In conclusion, even if The Wife’s Lament does not seem to be strictly connectedwith the texts which immediately precede and follow (the first collection of riddlesand the section of homiletic poems starting with Judgement Day I), its positionshould perhaps be considered in light of Wulf and Eadwacer, which occupies a spe-cular position (just before Riddles 1-59) besides sharing several narrative aspectsand stylistic features with The Wife’s Lament.

47 The edition of the text adopted is Klinck’s (1992: 93-94). On my own initiative, I havemarked in bold the small capitals in the text but I have maintained lowercase graphs in order toreproduce their original shape, and I have signalled the hapax legomena in the footnotes. Everyother intervention on the text is also indicated in the footnotes. The translation is mine and hasno literary pretensions but is meant to be a tool in approaching the poem; therefore, it is as lite-ral and respectful to the text as possible.

48 Uhtceare is a hapax.

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2. Textual analysis

This part of the chapter will mainly be dedicated to textual problems and featu-res of genre. The presence of some difficult expressions in the text needs to be con-sidered, as well as the issue related to the narrative chronology, on which the criticsoften expressed different opinions. Following analysis of the most relevant crucesand the complexities linked to the narrative development of The Wife’s Lament (seebelow 2.2.-2.3.), a description of the structure and the thematic pattern of thepoem will be aimed at a genre classification (see below 2.4.). The aspects highli-ghted, and in particular the numerous intratextual relations detected, will confirmthat The Wife’s Lament represents an integral text – as already suggested by the gra-phic cues – which can be labelled as ‘elegy’. These conclusions will also be suppor-ted by a study of the presence of an elegiac lexicon and style, and by analysis of the-mes and formulas, (see below 2.4.1.-2.4.3.), which create intertextual links with theother poems belonging to the group of ‘Anglo-Saxon elegies’. Furthermore, the gen-re classification finds more substantial support in the final gnomic passage, theinterpretation of which is of seminal importance to understanding in full the mea-ning of the poem (see below 2.5.-2.5.1.).

2.1. Text and translation47

1 Ic þis giedd wrece bi me ful geomorre,minre sylfre siđ. Ic þæt secgan mæg hwæt ic yrmþa gebad siþþan ic up weox, niwes oþþe ealdes, no ma þonne nu.

5 A ic wite wonn minra wræcsiþa. Ærest min hlaford gewat heonan of leodum ofer yþa gelac. Hæfde ic uhtceare48

hwær min leodfruma londes wære.

49 Ms: wręcca.50 Weaþearfe is a hapax.51 I have adopted Leslie’s (1961: 54) emendation, instead of Klinck’s reading (heard).52 Londstede is a hapax.53 I have adopted the almost unanimous emendation hycgende instead of Klinck’s reading

hycgende.54 Ms: seal.55 Felaleofan is a hapax.56 Burgtunas is a hapax.57 Fromsiþ is a hapax.

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đa ic me feran gewat folgađ secan, 10 wineleas wræcca,49 for minre weaþearfe.50

ongunnon þæt þæs monnes magas hycgan þurh dyrne geþoht þæt hy todælden unc, þæt wit gewidost in woruldrice lifdon lađlicost, ond mec longade.

15 Het mec hlaford min her eard51 niman. Ahte ic leofra lyt on þissum londstede,52

holdra freonda; forþon is min hyge geomor, đa ic me ful gemæcne monnan funde heardsæligne, hygegeomorne,

20 mod miþendne, morþor hycgendne53

bliþe gebæro. Ful oft wit beotedan þæt unc ne gedælde nemne deađ ana, owiht elles. Eft is þæt onhworfen. Is nu swa hit no wære

25 freondscipe uncer. Sceal54 ic feor ge neah mines felaleofan55 fæhđu dreogan. Heht mec mon wunian on wuda bearwe, under actreo in þam eorđscræfe. Eald is þes eorđsele; eal ic eom oflongad.

30 Sindon dena dimme, duna uphea, bitre burgtunas56 brerum beweaxne, wic wynna leas. Ful oft mec her wraþe begeat fromsiþ57 frean. Frynd sind on eorþan, leofe lifgende leger weardiađ,

35 þonne ic on uhtan ana gonge under actreo geond þas eorđscrafu,

58 Ms: sittam.59 In Klinck’s edition there is no comma before geomormod; it is added here in light of the

interpretation and translation suggested for ll. 42-45a (see below 2.5.1.).60 Sinsorgna is a hapax.61 Dreorsele is a hapax.

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þær ic sittan58 mot sumorlangne dæg, þær ic wepan mæg mine wræcsiþas, earfoþa fela, forþon ic æfre ne mæg

40 þære modceare minre gerestan, ne ealles þæs longaþes þe mec on þissum life begeat. A scyle geong mon wesan,59 geomormod, heard heortan geþoht, swylce habban sceal bliþe gebæro eac þon breostceare,

45 sinsorgna60 gedreag, sy æt him sylfum gelong eal his worulde wyn, sy ful wide fah feorres folclondes þæt min freond siteđ, under stanhliþe, storme behrimed, wine werigmod wætre beflowen,

50 on dreorsele;61 dreogeđ se min wine micle modceare; he gemon to oft wynlicran wic. Wa biđ þam þe sceal of langoþe leofes abidan!

1 I sing this song about me fully miserable,my own journey. I can say that:what woes I have endured since I grew up,new or old ones; no more than now.

5 I have always suffered for my peregrinations.First, my lord departed from here, from (his) peopleover the tossing waves. I had care at dawn(about) where on the land my prince might be. Then I departed on a journey to search for service,

10 exile without friends, because of my grievous need.That man’s relatives started thinkingwith an obscure mind, that they would separate usthat we, as far and widely as possible in the world,

62 The function of þæt (l. 47b) is not easy to define, being halfway between the causal («as,because») and the declarative («as»). Some of the critics did not translate it, for instance Curry

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would live most hatefully, and I suffered.15 My lord ordered me to take up a dwelling here.

I had few dear ones in this landloyal friends; and so my mind is sorrowful, as I found a man fully equal to me unfortunate, sad in mind,

20 concealing his spirit, plotting a wickedness,with a peaceful countenance. Very often we two vowedthat, except for death alone, nothing elsewould separate us. Then that has changed.Now it is as if it had never been,

25 our friendship. Far and near, I must bear my much beloved’s hostility. I was ordered to remain in a grove of trees, under the oak-tree in the earth-cavern.This earth-hall is old; I am all seized with longing.

30 There are dark valleys, high hills, harsh city-dwellings overgrown with briarsjoyless abode. Very often here my lord’s absence cruelly seized me. There are friends on earth, living like lovers they share a bed

35 while I go alone at dawnunder the oak-tree through these earth-caverns,there I can sit during the summer-long day, there I can weep my peregrinations,my many hardships, as I can never

40 rest from my mind’s sorrow, nor from all the longing that seized me in this life.Always a youth, (although) sad in his heart,must be with a resolute mind, so he must endure with a peaceful countenance, even with (this) suffering in his breast,

45 a quantity of sorrows, whether all his earthly joy belong to him, or he is outlawed very far away, in a distant land, as62 my friend is sitting,

(1966: 198), l. 47: «on far folk-land, my friend sits». Otherwise, there have been various differ-ent translations for þæt «now that, seeing that» in Bouman (1962: 58); «that» in Malone(1962: 113) (l. 47: «on far-off folk-land that my friend sits»); «so that» in Treharne (2000: 79)(l. 47: «in a distant country, so that my beloved sits»), «and so» in Fitzgerald (1963: 775) (l.47: «afar in a distant land, and so my husband sits»), «thus» in Jensen (1990: 454), (l. 47b:«thus my lover sits»). As far as my translation of þæt is concerned («as»), see below 2.5.1.

63 Malone (1962: 114), Doane (1966: 87), Wentersdorf (1981: 508), Orton (1989: 209) andLuyster (1999: 245).

64 See Malone (1962: 114) and Orton (1989: 209-210).65 See Wentersdorf (1981: 508).66 Orton (1989: 209-210).

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under a rocky slope, covered with rime because of the storm,friend weary in spirit overflowed by water

50 in a dreary hall; my friend bears a great sorrow in his heart; he remembers too often a happier abode. Woe to the one who must wait for the beloved one with longing!

2.2. The cruces

In The Wife’s Lament a female narrator complains about the loneliness and sor-row she has been suffering since she has been exiled in a wood, away from her spou-se. The presence of cruces makes some passages of the brief text rather complex andsometimes induced the editors to propose emendations.

Krapp and Dobbie (1936): l. 15 Het mec hlaford min herheard nimanKlinck (1992), Treharne (2000), Muir (20062): l. 15 Het mec hlaford min her heardnimanLeslie (1961): l. 15 Het mec hlaford min her eard niman

L. 15 appears particularly difficult because of the ambiguous syntactical fun-ction of the term heard. Krapp and Dobbie (1936: 210) and other scholars63 adop-ted Grein’s (1865: 422) interpretation and considered her (which appears at theend of a MS line) and heard (at the beginning of the following MS line) as the twoelements of a compound, herheard, that is, habitaculum in nemoribus «grove dwel-ling»,64 also interpreted as «dwelling in a (heathen) sanctuary».65 As herh is a rarevariant of hearh, hearg «temple, idol» and «grove»,66 these critics detected a refe-

67 Luyster (1999: 245), Doane (1966: 87). Wentersdorf (1981: 508-509), who adopted thereading herheard, recognized some pagan connotations in eorđscræfe and in the presence of awood (on wuda, l. 27b), besides the image of the oak-tree.

68 The translation of l. 15 would thus be «My lord ordered me to take a dwelling in the tem-ple» or «in the grove».

69 About the enigmatic elements of the woman’s story see below 2.3.70 Also in Beowulf ll. 375b-376a the adjective heard appears separated from the noun to

which it is referred, but only by one word: is his eafora nu / heard her cumen «now his son has, /brave, come here». As regards The Wife’s Lament, instead, Leslie (1961: 54) believed that twoelements (min and her) separating the adjective from the noun are too many.

71 Klinck’s (2004: 50-51) translation of l. 15 is «In his cruelty, my lord bade me to be seizedhere». The reading heard was also adopted by Treharne (2000: 76).

72 The reading eard niman was also adopted by Davis (1965: 301), Curry (1966: 197-198),Greenfield (1966: 166), Short (1970: 587).

73 See Psalm 119.5 l. 3a: sceal ic eard niman «I will take a dwelling», Psalm 131.15 l. 3a: þæric eard nime (which translates the Latin expression hic habitabo), The Advent Lyric 3 ll. 61b-63a[…] heofones cyning […] nimeđ eard in þe («[…] the King of Heaven […] takes a dwelling inyou»), Life of Saint Guthlac (B) l. 260a upeard niman «to take a dwelling on high» and l. 554bsomudeard niman «to dwell a common country». The edition consulted for Psalm 119 andPsalm 131 is Krapp’s (1933: 118-119, 126-127).

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rence to paganism;67 the temples of the heathen gods often were in woods and gro-ves.68 This reading appeared to Malone (1962: 114) to be coherent with the pre-sence of some passages where the place of the woman’s exile is described, such as ll.27-28 and 30-31. However, the compound herheard is a hapax in each variant(herh-, hearh- and hearg-); moreover, its presence does not seem to be fully confir-med by the context described because, apart from the presence of a forest (l. 27),there is no other textual data in support – unless we hypothesize that the elegy isbased on a legend unknown to modern readers.69

Greenfield (1953: 909) and, more recently, Klinck (1992: 181) and thenTreharne (2000: 77) interpreted heard as an adjective referring to hlaford: «cruel,hard». The issue arising from the distance between the adjective and the noun70

was solved by Klinck, who hypothesized that heard may have an adverbial value:«cruelly».71 This reading, which had found considerable favour among the cri-tics, is possible, but maybe not entirely satisfactory. Leslie (1961: 54) suggested analternative which seems to simplify the matter; that is, the emendation of heard ineard, which would give the formula eard niman «to take up a dwelling».72 Aneditor’s intervention on the text is here encouraged not only by the frequency ofthis and similar expressions in Old English poetry,73 but also by other aspects.First of all, if l. 15 corresponds to Het mec hlaford min her eard niman, the syntac-

74 About the construction ‘accusative + infinitive’ see Mitchell (1985: 873).75 As regards The Wife’s Lament l. 15, the critics who adopted the reading Het mec hlaford

min her heard niman often translated the verb niman as a passive infinitive; for example,Treharne (2000: 77) «my cruel lord commanded me to be taken here»; and Klinck (2004: 51)«In his cruelty, my lord bade me to be seized here». However, this reading is perhaps not themost suitable as, according to Callaway (1913: 120) «the passive infinitive with accusative sub-ject is very rare in Anglo-Saxon […] It is almost unknown in the poems […]».

76 Muir (20062: Introduction / Spelling and Language): «unstable h (often restored by a cor-rector when omitted by the scribe [… ]: h is both added and omitted in unexpected situations,and is occasionally substituted for g».

77 Maxims II ll. 65: «[nobody comes] again under the skies [to tell] here for sure». The edi-tion adopted for Maxims II is Dobbie’s (1942: 55-57).

78 In Anglo-Saxon lines nouns, adjectives, infinitives and participles usually alliterate; lessoften adverbs and verbs in finite tenses. See Cable (1991: 20).

79 In further support to this hypothesis, it should be noted that, in The Wife’s Lament l. 15,considering het as the first ‘lift’ of the on-verse, the presence of two alliterating ‘lifts’ in the off-verse (in this case, her and heard) would not be in accordance with Anglo-Saxon metrical rules,where the second ‘lift’ of an off-verse rarely takes part in the alliteration (it only happens in the‘crossed alliteration’). See Leslie (1979: 124), and Grose and McKenna (1973: 53).

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tic structure mirrors that of l. 27 Heht mec mon wunian on wuda bearwe whereheht is regularly followed by the construction ‘accusative + infinitive’,74 in whichmec represents the subject of the active infinitive wunian.75 According to Muir,who was faithful to the manuscript’s reading but specified that heard be understo-od for eard, the presence of a h before eard can easily be explained as a copyist’soversight, one of the numerous examples of ‘unstable h’ in the Exeter Book,76 per-haps due to the influence of the preceding word her. Furthermore, Leslie (1979:124) pointed out that, on the metrical level, the position of the adverb her in l. 15can be compared with that of her in Maxims II l. 65: hider under hrofas, þe þæt herfor sođ.77 Here, despite being an adverb, her is involved in the alliteration in placeof the noun sođ.78 Therefore, there is no reason to dismiss the possibility that inThe Wife’s Lament l. 15 alliteration may also involve the adverb her instead of(h)eard.79

Leslie (1961), Treharne (2000): ll. 17b-21 forþon is min hyge geomor. / Đa ic me fulgemæcne monnan funde, / heardsæligne, hygegeomorne, mod miþendne, morþor hyc-gend[n]e / bliþe gebæro. Ful oft wit beotedanKlinck (1992): ll. 17b-21 forþon is min hyge geomor, / đa ic me ful gemæcne monnanfunde / heardsæligne, hygegeomorne, / mod miþendne, morþor hycgende / bliþe gebæro.Ful oft wit beotedan

80 Klinck (1992: 183), ll. 20-21: «concealing his intention: a cheerful demeanour / contem-plating a crime. Full often we vowed».

81 Bosworth and Toller (1972: 370).82 More recently Klinck (2004: 50-51), while still maintaining hycgende, adopted Leslie’s

interpretation as regards bliþe gebæro, thus translating ll. 20-21 mod miþendne, morþor hycgende/ bliþe gebæro. Ful oft wit beotedan as «concealing his purpose, plotting a crime, / with cheerfullooks. Full often we vowed». Besides Leslie (1961: 55), nearly all the editors considered bliþegebæro as an instrumental.

83 See also Greenfield (1953: 910) and Pope (20013: 124-125).

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Krapp and Dobbie (1936), Muir (20062): ll. 17b-21 Forþon is min hyge geomor, / đaic me ful gemæcne monnan funde, / heardsæligne, hygegeomorne, / mod miþendne,morþor hycgendne. / Bliþe gebæro ful oft wit beotedan

Hycgende and bliþe gebæro (ll. 20b-21a), as we find them on the manuscriptfolio, gave rise to some problems in particular as regards their syntactical functionin ll. 17b-21. It is not clear why the present participle hycgende is in the nominati-ve form, as the expression morþor hycgende is syntactically parallel to mod miþendne(where the participle miþendne is an accusative) and both sentences refer to mon-nan in l. 18: đa ic me ful gemæcne monnan funde. In order to make hycgende agreewith the accusative monnan, Krapp and Dobbie (1936: 278-279), Leslie (1961:55) and almost all the editors emended the form to hycgendne. This solution stillappears to be the most popular, even if Klinck (1992: 182), in her edition of theAnglo-Saxon elegies, adopted an alternative reading: she did not emend the nomi-native hycgende because she hypothesized that it was in agreement with bliþe gebæ-ro which, according to her translation, would be the subject of a new sentence brea-king the parallelism of the phrases in ll. 19-20.80 However, this reading does notseem to take into consideration that morþor hycgende bliþe gebæro is syntacticallyreferred to monnan. Therefore, the present participle hycgende should be in theaccusative case, and should thus be emended. As regards bliþe gebæro, it is notimmediately clear as, from the point of view of the gender, the noun gebæro oscilla-tes between feminine (singular) and neuter (plural), but may also represent anindeclinable form.81 Nevertheless, the adjective bliþe, which is probably in theinstrumental case, allows us to identify the syntactical function of the wholeexpression, which should thus be translated as «with a peaceful countenance».82

The position of bliþe gebæro represents a crux because the expression is in ἀπὸκοινοῦ between ll. 17b-20 and ll. 21b-23a. According to Krapp and Dobbie (1936:278-279),83 and recently also to Muir (20062), bliþe gebæro forms part of the prin-

84 Lit., ll. 20-21: «hiding his thoughts, plotting a crime. / With happy countenances, veryoften we swore».

85 See Klinck (1992: 182). As regards juxtaposed images in contrast in The Wife’s Lament(and the contrastive style of Anglo-Saxon poetry), see Pope (20013: 126).

86 See below 2.5.1.87 Treharne (2000: 77), translated ll. 18-21 as «because of that my mind is mournful. / Then

I found a very suited man to be / ill-fated, sad at heart, / having a concealing mind, intendingviolent crime, / but with a cheerful bearing. Very often, we two vowed».

88 For example, the function of the husband’s relatives in the woman’s departure does notappear clear at all: why do they plot to keep the spouses away from each other, if the man and thewoman were already apart, in exile (l. 6 and l. 9)? The «retinue» or the type of «service» (fol-gađ, l. 9b) and the «feud» or «enmity» (fæhđu, l. 26b) to which the woman alludes are not defi-ned; moreover, it is still puzzling whether the husband orders (l. 15 her) his wife to settle else-where to protect her or to turn her away (ll. 27-28).

89 L. 3b: siþþan «since», l. 4b and l. 24a: nu «now», l. 5a and l. 42a: a «always», l. 6a: ærest«first, before», l. 9a and l. 18a: đa «then; as», l. 21b and l. 32b: ful oft «very often», l. 23b: eft«then», l. 51b: to oft «too often».

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cipal phrase at l. 21b and refers to wit «we two».84 Even if this interpretation ispossible, Leslie (1961: 55) and most of the critics believe that bliþe gebæro dependsinstead on ll. 18-20 as, from a stylistic point of view, this expression seems morelikely to be in opposition to the negative feelings of the man in ll. 19-20. In this casebliþe gebæro would reflect the same function as at l. 44a,85 where it is in antithesiswith the suffering described before (geomormod «sad of mind», l. 42b).86 Also thecontext described by ll. 18-21a somehow seems to suggest this interpretation: theman has to show a peaceful face in order to hide what really lies in his heart, sorrowand wicked thoughts, which contrast with the woman’s image of him. She was con-vinced she had found a suitable man for her (gemæcne, l. 18a) but, as soon as she issent away (l. 15 and l. 27), she has to face the ambiguity of her man’s state of mind.A possible translation for ll. 18-21a may be: «as I found a man fully equal to me /unfortunate, sad in mind, / concealing his spirit, plotting a wickedness, / with apeaceful countenance. Very often we two vowed».87

2.3. The narrative chronology

The general meaning of The Wife’s Lament appears understandable; however,the chain of actions presented in the narration puzzled some of the critics88 becau-se, in spite of the presence of temporal connectors,89 it does not appear completelyclear. Leslie (1961: 5-6) underlined that the narration does not seem to follow a

90 Among many, Bouman (1962: 50) and Greenfield (1966: 166).91 See, recently, Shimomura (2007: 118).92 In a main clause a preterit can be translated as a pluperfect only in the presence of a tem-

poral adverb (for example, ær «before») or a contextual element clarifying the sequence ofactions. See Short (1970: 588-589) and Mitchell (1975: 17-23).

93 The first reconstructions of the story are due to Greenfield (1953), Ward (1960), Bouman(1962), L.A. Johnson (1971), and Mitchell (1975).

94 According to Ward (1960: 26) most critics devoted their efforts to «the construction ofhypothetical situations in order to unify the ostensibly irreconcilable elements». For example, inBouman’s (1962: 60) reading of the story geong mon (l. 42a) represents a third character, thewoman’s new husband; moreover, there have also been a few interpretations according to whichgeong mon would be a new lord or the third element of a ménage à trois lead by the woman, anadulterous wife. These readings are now considered outdated. In Malone’s (1962: 113) opinion,the husband leaves for a military expedition (ll. 6-7a) and his wife is left with his parents, whotreat her so badly that she is forced to seek shelter somewhere else (ll. 9-10). Bouman (1962: 60)assumes that afterwards the husband comes back. Then his parents start slandering his wife (ll.11-12) and the husband banishes her to the forest (l. 15). According to Ward (1960: 28), inste-ad, the husband is already far away, exiled because of his relatives (l. 6), when he orders his wifeto move away to protect her from these people (l. 15), who are plotting in order to punish him.

95 Among the studies dealing with the treatment of time in Anglo-Saxon texts, in particularin the elegies, there are Bately’s (1984) and Grosskopf ’s (2003).

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linear chronological order. He considered the husband’s command expressed at l.15a (het) as previous to his departure at l. 6a (Ærest min hlaford gewat), and hisdeparture as subsequent to and directly dependant on the kinsmen’s plot (l. 11ongunnon þæt þæs monnes magas hycgan). Other critics instead, such as Greenfield(1966: 166),90 detecting a cause-and-effect relation between the relatives’ plotting(ll. 11-12) and the husband’s exile (ll. 6-7a), and between the husband’s orders (l.15) and the woman’s departure (ll. 9-10), faced the translation of the preteritsongunnon (l. 11a) and, sometimes, het (l. 15a)91 as if they were two explanatory fla-shbacks, and suggested thus «[they] had begun» and «[he] had ordered». Thisreading of the two verbs was soon rejected by Short (1970: 588-589) and Mitchell(1975: 17-23), who underlined that only under certain circumstances may a prete-rit have a pluperfect meaning in Old English,92 and since then the translations«they started» (ongunnon) and he «[he] ordered» (het) were adopted by most ofthe critics.

Many reconstructions of the sequence of events have been suggested,93 but theeffort of fitting every detail into a coherent narrative scheme often produced highlysubjective readings.94 However, it should be considered that in Anglo-Saxon poe-try the absence of chronological development is not rare.95 Especially in the elegies

96 See Ch. 3 (3.4.3.). As regards The Ruin, see Cammarota (1997: 34).97 The Husband’s Message ll. 17-19a: þenden git moston on meoduburgum / eard weardigan,

an lond bugan, / freondscype fremman «when, in the stronghold of mead, / you two could keepa home, inhabit one land, / have a friendship».

98 The Husband’s Message ll. 19b-20a: Hine fæhþo adraf / of sigeþeode «A feud drove himaway / from the glorious people».

99 This reuse of legendary material is clearly evident by comparing the Deor’s stanzas withother sources of the same myths; for example, the Eddic poem Völundarkviđa, which presents adetailed narration of the myth of the smith to which stanzas 1 and 2 of Deor refer. In the elegythe stories are overshadowed by the expression of the characters’ feelings.

100 Green (1983: 124). Shimomura (2007: 125) describes the ‘temporality’ of The Wife’sLament as «[…] manipulation of time, memory, and the social space of the past».

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there seems to be limited narrative progress and a remarkable use of allusions, andpast and present tend to alternate constantly. In The Ruin, but also in TheHusband’s Message,96 an overlapping of different temporal spheres is particularlyclear to see: for example, in The Husband’s Message ll. 17-19a the preterits describea distant past,97 suddenly followed by the reference to a subsequent event introdu-ced by a preterit.98 Here, unlike in The Wife’s Lament ll. 6-17a, the context clarifiesperfectly the sequence of actions.

In the elegies the lack of narrative development seems to be strictly connectedto another typical elegiac aspect: the importance of the expression of distress. Asregards The Wife’s Lament, Davidson (1975: 457) underlined how «All the detailsdo not necessarily fit into a schematic program of meaning which is perfectly con-sistent within», and Böker (1982: 417-418) wrote:

[C]omplications have, to a certain degree, been caused by the assumption that thepoem is essentially a narrative. Most critics have […] read The Wife’s Lament as a sto-ry with a plot of action […]. They have in most cases failed to take into account thenon-narrative, predominantly lyric elements […]. [N]ot the ‘representation ofaction’ but the ‘presentation of vision’ [is] at the core of The Wife’s Lament.

Also in Deor the various stanzas are focused on the characters’ mood and recallthe Germanic legends only allusively.99 A certain «obscurity of situation andvaguety of identity» is thus consistent with the elegiac style, as Green (1983: 125)pointed out, and in the narration of The Wife’s Lament the cause-and-effect linkswhich connect the actions to the temporal sphere can only be interpreted as a‘complex of attitudes’ lacking linearity and a precise chronological develop-ment.100 The different temporal dimensions, according to a «subjective psycholo-

101 Green (1983: 130).102 Green (1983: 128): The past is «close behind the present, intensifying and illuminating

it». A similar effect can be seen in other elegies as well: Cammarota (1997: 34), speaking of thealternation between past and present which, in The Ruin ll. 1-2, is underlined by the chiasmusbetween the verbs, observed that the city in its splendour and the same city crumbling downbelong to two temporal spheres which are not neatly separate but rather interwoven: Wrætlic isþes wealstan! Wyrde gebræcon / burgstede burston, brosnađ enta geweorc «This wall-stone is won-derful! Fate destroyed, / broke the city, the work of giants decays».

103 See also Ch. 1 (2.1.-2.2.).104 See Pasternack (1995: 62, 76, 90, 121).

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gy of time»,101 are not perceived as clearly distinct from one another; therefore,the past is not strictly separated from the present but is still a part of it, as some-thing that has been immediately experienced.102

2.4. The integrity of the text: structure and intratextual connections

Pasternack (1995: 18), in her study concerning the ‘textuality’ of Old Englishpoetry, dealt in-depth with the formularity of the poetic language and the conven-tional use of narrative elements (such as images, themes and type–scenes), both cha-racteristics strictly related to the oral tradition. In her dissertation she explained howinternal coherence and interdependence in a ‘textual sequence’,103 between differentpassages of a text, also depend on ‘verbal echoes’, which create intratextual referencesand associations of thought, and mark especially important themes. These internalconnections can be represented on different levels: for example, by repetitions ofrhythmic, alliterative or syntactic patterns, by recurring formulas, by standard the-matic settings, by repeated phrases or ideas which create ‘envelopes’, refrains,‘panels’.104 As regards The Wife’s Lament, whose narration develops through themonologue of a woman who complains about her hardships and sorrow in exile, thetextual analysis confirms the impression given by the layout of the text, that is, thatof a unitary poem (see above 1.1.). Although the critics often pointed out the con-trast between the personal tone of the narrative-descriptive part (ll. 1-41) and thegnomic style of the conclusion (ll. 42-53), these two parts are in fact strictly linkedthrough shared themes and several recurring lexical and structural echoes. These ele-ments contribute to creating correspondences between the situations and feelings ofthe different characters – the woman and her husband, both suffering and exiled, butalso the man and geong mon – thus strengthening the integrity of the text.

105 The metrical accents seem to also involve me (l. 18a) and (the first syllables of ) uncer (l.25a), mines (l. 26a) and minre (l. 40b). It is not sure whether they also involve unc (l. 22a) and ic(l. 35a), because the lines where these pronouns appear present some metrical anomalies.

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The narration is thus structured: in the first passage (ll. 1-28), where referencesto the present situation alternate with brief allusions to the past, we learn that thewoman had to part from her husband and was finally forced to live alone in an iso-lated place. The following lines (ll. 29-41) describe the woman’s suffering and theplace of exile, until the last passage (ll. 42-53) introduces a new figure, geong mon,whose fate appears similar to that of the woman’s husband, who is represented atthe end of the text as sad and exiled.

The frequent repetition of ic throughout the text confirms the highly individualfocus of the narration. Only rarely do personal pronouns and possessive adjectivesbear a metrical stress here, but in these few cases – such as min in l. 8a hwær minleodfruma, or unc in l. 12b þæt hy todælden unc, or wit in l. 13a þæt wit gewidost – thestressed adjective or pronoun seems to underline the original union of the twomain characters (the wife and her husband), in contrast with their subsequent sepa-ration.105 There is a shift in the style after l. 41, so that, as previously mentioned,the text could virtually be divided into two different parts: ll. 1-41, describing thenarrator’s situation and expressing her complaint, and ll. 42-53, presenting a uni-versal, gnomic reflection about earthly suffering. We will see how structural andlexical echoes strictly connect these two main passages and, at the same time, intra-textual links strengthen the narrative coherence within each passage.

Ll. 1-5, which bear the function of a sort of prologue introducing the main the-mes of the poem, are characterized by a highly conventional language, as the formu-las at l. 1a and l. 2b show: ic þis giedd wrece and ic þæt secgan mæg (see below 2.4.3.).The expressions bi me ful geomorre (l. 1b) and minre sylfre siþ (l. 2a, where siþmeans «journey» but also «destiny), hinting at the woman’s misfortunes, sorrowand exile, also recur as geomor (l. 17b) and mine wræcsiþas (l. 38b) successively, whe-re these themes are developed, and strengthen the narrative continuity in the poem.In the following lines up to l. 41, the narration is structured in two parts: ll. 6-26,constantly alternating references to the woman’s mood with allusive hints at herpast (but, somehow, the story can be reconstructed through interpretation; seeabove 2.3.), and ll. 27-41, only referring to the hic et nunc-dimension and characte-rized by a mainly descriptive style. The syntactic similarity between l. 27a Het mecmon wunian and l. 15a Het mec hlaford min, both referring to the woman’s husbandordering her to live in isolation, immediately stands out as a clear link between the-se two short passages.

106 See Pasternack (1995: 91): «[…] in verse the verb may precede the subject or the objectmay precede the verb and even the subject, and this flexibility allows poets to control the typesof concept that carry the focus – person or thing, action, quality, manner. […] Hence by workingwith word order, […] poets can establish a pattern and a particular focus and way of understan-ding that distinguishes a passage from those that precede and follow it».

107 The striking resemblance between l. 24b swa hit no wære and The Wanderer l. 96b swa heono wære «as it [=that time] had never been» (referring to the passage of time) suggests that, inThe Wife’s Lament, l. 24 is much shorter than usual because the a-verse (l. 24a is nu) lacks a wholemetrical lift. That is why Leslie (1961: 47) proposed to add a participle form: l. 24a is nu fornu-men «is now destroyed».

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As regards ll. 6-26, different scenes seem to develop around and in connectionwith l. 15 Het mec hlaford min which, on a structural level, thus becomes of particu-lar relevance. Het mec hlaford min recalls, through a syntactical variation, l. 6 Ærestmin hlaford gewat (where the subject-verb order and the position of noun and adjec-tive are inverted),106 and l. 6 and l. 15 both introduce some lines concerning the the-mes of suffering and exile. The correspondence between these two groups of lines ishighlighted by further, symmetrical narrative and syntactical structures, such as Ðaic me (l. 9a) and đa ic me (l. 18a), which create a correspondence between the woma-n’s and the husband’s condition of sorrow and exile, as also suggested by the syntac-tical parallelism between l. 6a and l. 9a (Ærest min hlaford gewat; Ða ic me ferangewat). The husband’s state of mind is expressed through an accumulation of paral-lel expressions (ll. 19-20: heardsæligne, hygegeomorne, / mod miþendne, morþor hyc-gendne) contrasting with l. 21a bliþe gebæro, which also recurs in the final, gnomicpassage of the poem (see below). At ll. 21b-23a, after remembrance of the promisesmade by the spouses in the past, the allusion to a reversal of fortune (a typically ele-giac narrative element) causes a shift to the present condition of the characters (ll.23b-24: Eft is þæt onhworfen. / Is nu swa hit no wære). In particular l. 24, shorter thanusual,107 marks the end of the passage dealing with the memories and the woman’spast. Ll. 25-26, hinting at the woman’s exile and deprivation of love, introduce thetopic which is fully developed from l. 27 onwards: the description of the place ofexile and the woman’s feelings in the present.

Instead, as far as ll. 27-41 are concerned, the presence of a line repeated almostidentically like a refrain (l. 28 under actreo in þam eorđscræfe and l. 36 under actreogeond þas eorđscrafu) develops an ‘envelope-pattern’ which frames the descriptionsof the inaccessible place and the woman’s feelings (ll. 28-36). The landscape isrepresented through various juxtaposed images which provide an effect of accumu-lation also underlined by the presence of parallel syntactical structures (ll. 30-32aSindon dena dimme, duna uphea, / bitre burgtunas brerum beweaxne, / wic wynna

108 For the translation of geong mon as «young person, youth» instead of «young man», seebelow 2.5.1.

109 Gameson (1996b: 461).

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leas). The wife’s sorrow is described through the contrast between the lovers whocan be together (ll. 33b-34) and the woman who is alone at dawn (l. 35). Theexpression þonne ic on uhtan ana gonge, which associates the suffering to the firstmoments of the day, recalls uhtceare in l. 7b, which refers to the woman’s distressafter her husband left her. Instead, the syntactically parallel ll. 37-38 þær ic sittanmot sumorlangne dæg, / þær ic wepan mæg mine wræcsiþas introduce a long variationon the topic of suffering understood as a lasting and persistent condition (sumor-langne dæg «summer-long day» at l. 37b). The keywords wræcsiþas (l. 38b), mod-ceare (l. 40a) and longaþes (l. 41a) insist on the image of the woman’s torments andcreate an intratextual net which, as we will see, also involves the last passage of TheWife’s Lament (ll. 47b-52a), thus underlining the striking analogy between thewoman’s and the man’s condition (l. 51a modceare, l. 53a longaþes). The hyperme-trical l. 41 ne ealles þæs longaþes þe mec on þissum life begeat signals the end of thefirst part of the elegy and, at the same time, seals this narrative-descriptive passageby recalling l. 32b Ful oft mec her wraþe begeat with the verb begeat at the end of theline. The recurrence of begeat creates an envelope-pattern that frames the wholedescription of the woman’s painful condition (ll. 32b-41).

Ll. 42-53, the final passage of The Wife’s Lament, begin with the adverb a«always» and interrupt the narrative development, introducing a moral reflection.The condition of «a young person», geong mon,108 is expressed by ll. 42-44a A scy-le geong mon wesan, geomormod, / heard heortan geþoht, swylce habban sceal / bliþegebæro and the parallel phrases at ll. 45b-46 sy æt him sylfum gelong / eal his woruldewyn, sy ful wide fah. Just like the representation of the husband at ll. 19-21a, thedescription of geong mon lists various elements describing the man as miserable inopposition with the expression bliþe gebæro (l. 44a). The structural similarity betwe-en the two passages and the recurrence of bliþe gebæro suggest a correspondence bet-ween the «young person»’s and the husband’s condition,109 also strengthened bythe lexical echoes geomormod (l. 42b, referred to geong mon,) and hygegeomorne (l.19b, referred to the husband), breostceare (l. 44b, referred to geong mon) and mod-ceare (l. 51a, referred to the husband). A further element supporting the correspon-dence between the two male characters may be the position of ll. 45b-47a, syntacti-cally in ἀπὸ κοινοῦ with the preceding and the following lines: this passage may thusrefer to the «young person» (ll. 42-45a) as well as to the husband (ll. 47b-52a).

110 The «joyless abode» stands for a place of exile: the formula wynleasran wic in Genesis l.928a represents the earthly life Adam is condemned to live after committing original sin, inBeowulf l. 821a wynleas wic describes Grendel’s den. As regards the importance of the concept ofhome in The Wife’s Lament and in the Anglo-Saxon poetry, see Riedinger (1995: 54-55).

111 The adjective geomor also recurs in The Husband’s Message l. 23a and in The Seafarer l.53b, in both cases referred to a cuckoo; see Ch. 3 (3.4.4.).

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There also seems to be a clear correspondence between the husband’s and thewife’s fate; their situation is often described with the same expressions, such asmodceare (l. 51a and l. 40a) and the verbs dreogan (l. 50b dreogeđ, l. 26b dreogan)and sittan (l. 47b siteđ, l. 37a sittan mot). In the description of their physical isola-tion, the woman is forced to stay in a eorđsele (l. 29a) while her husband lives in adreorsele (l. 50a); she dwells a wic wynna leas (l. 32a),110 while he remembers a wyn-licran wic (l. 52a). The two expressions wic wynna leas and wynlicran wic, where theelements are in a chiastic order, strongly connect the situations of the spouses andunderline their common condition of exile. The process of identification betweenthe conditions of the spouses had already started in the first part of the poem, withthe lexical echoes between forþon is min hyge geomor referred to the woman (l. 17b)and hygegeomorne describing the husband (l. 19b), and continues until the end ofThe Wife’s Lament. Sure enough, the text ends with a gnomic sentence quite simi-lar to an omen, which reflects both the husband’s and the wife’s destiny: Wa biđþam þe sceal / of langoþe leofes abidan! (ll. 52b-53).

2.4.1. Elegiac themes and formulas: suffering and loneliness

The presence of themes and numerous images referring to suffering and exile isthe most strikingly ‘elegiac’ feature of The Wife’s Lament and, as previously under-lined, there are terms that recur more than once in the poem which create intratex-tual connections. Some of these expressions are worth analysing, as they lend them-selves to a comparison with similar expressions and contexts described in Anglo-Saxon elegies.

As regards the theme of suffering, geomorre («unhappy», l. 1b)111 and hygegeomor («sad heart», l. 17b) describe the woman’s state of mind and are bothechoed by the compound geomormod («sad in the heart», l. 42b) referring to«the young person», and hygegeomorne («sad in mind», l. 19b) referring to thehusband. In particular, the formula hyge geomor, modelled on the ‘x geomor’scheme, significantly recurs in Contrition B ll. 25b-27a as well: ond he þæt eal

112 Contrition B ll. 25b-27a: «and he suffers all that, / bitter words from men and his spiritis always sad / the spirit sick in the morning». The edition of Contrition B adopted here is Muir’s(20062: Contrition B).

113 Also in other poems the dawn coincides with a time of special mystery, a moment inwhich something important or distressing is about to take place. At dawn the warriors awakenafter Grendel’s slaughter in Beowulf (see l. 2271a eald uhtsceada «the old robber at dawn»), afreezing cold wind comes to torture the fallen angels in Genesis (l. 315 þonne cymđ on uhtan east-erne wind «then an eastern wind comes at dawn»), God takes revenge and defeats death inChrist and Satan (l. 404 open on uhtan, þa se egsa becom «[his revenge was] made clear at dawn,when the horror took place», l. 463 þis wæs on uhtan eall geworden «this was all made happenat dawn»). The edition adopted for Christ and Satan is Krapp’s (19692: 135-158).

114 The Wanderer ll. 8-9a: «Often I, alone at every dawn, had to / lament my care».115 See The Wanderer l. 20a oft earmcearig «often miserable and sad», l. 24a wod wintercea-

rig «I went sad from the gloom of winter», l. 55b: cearo biđ geniwad «the sorrow is renewed».There are many examples also in The Seafarer: l. 5: gecunnad in ceole cearselda fela «on the shipI knew many places of sorrow», l. 10b þær þa ceare seofedun «there the sorrows complained», l.14a: hu ic earmcearig «how I, miserable and sad». See also Contrition B l. 46b: me wæs a cearusymle «I have always had sorrow».

116 The Wanderer l. 2a: «even if he, anxious at heart».117 The Seafarer l. 4: «Bitter care of the heart I have experienced».

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þolađ, / sarcwide secga, ond him biđ a sefa geomor, / mod morgenseoc.112 The oneexiled here suffers the worst heartaches in the morning (mod morgenseoc); there-fore, to a certain extent this passage reminds us of the description of the woman inThe Wife’s Lament. Sure enough, the hapax uhtceare («care at dawn», l. 7b) indi-cates a connection between sorrow and the first hours of the day113 as l. 35 alsodoes (þonne ic on uhtan ana gonge), and this traditional theme also finds a refer-ence in The Wanderer, where loneliness and distress come at dawn: ll. 8-9a Oft icsceolde ana uhtna gehwylce / mine ceare cwiþan.114 As for the term cearu in general,it is extremely frequent in Anglo-Saxon elegies because it appears in many com-pounds.115 In addition to uhtceare, in The Wife’s Lament there are modceare («sor-row», l. 40a and l. 51a), describing both the wife’s and the husband’s condition,and breostceare («care of the heart», l. 44b), referring to the youth’s suffering.Both these compounds can also be found in The Wanderer l. 2a þeah þe he mod-cearig116 and in The Seafarer l. 4 Bitre breostceare gebiden hæbbe,117 where theydescribe the exiled one’s lonely mood. Finally, the verb begitan «seize» acquiresparticular interest. It recurs twice, at ll. 32b-33a Ful oft mec her wraþe begeat /fromsiþ frean and l. 41 ne ealles þæs longaþes þe mec on þissum life begeat, in bothcases expressing the idea of a sorrow which, almost personified, invades and takespossession of the person. This metaphorical use reminds us of The Seafarer ll. 6b-

118 The Seafarer ll. 6b-7a: «there often oppressive / night-wake seized me».119 Cucina (2008: 48) pointed out that this use of the verb begitan is usually in association

with particularly strong, oppressive or painful agents.120 In The Wife’s Lament the term siþ (and wræcsiþ) refers to the exile journey but, unlike in

other elegies, it does not imply a conversion or a spiritual path leading to God as in Contrition Bl. 4a, l. 28b, l. 34a, in The Seafarer l. 2a and l. 51a and in The Riming Poem l. 51b.

121 Ll. 16-17a: « I had few dear ones on this land / loyal friends».122 Contrition B ll. 33-34a: «surely no friend who assisted me / during the journey».123 The Wanderer ll. 108b-109: «here a friend is transient, / here a man is transient, here a

relative is transient ». See also ll. 106-107 Eall is earfođlic eorþan rice; / onwendeđ wyrda gesceaftweoruld under heofonum «the realm of earth is all troubled, / the destiny’s creation changes theworld under the sky».

124 The Wanderer ll. 37-38: «Therefore, the man who, for a long time, / must be deprived ofhis friendly lord’s precepts knows»; ll. 30-31: «how cruel is sorrow as fellow, / to the one whohas few dear protectors».

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7a þær mec oft bigeat / nearo nihtwaco,118 where begitan conveys the idea of anxietyoverwhelming the man’s spirit.119

The theme of exile, here strictly connected with the theme of suffering, makesthe narrator look very similar to the characters in other elegies, where they are oftendefined as wineleas wræcca «exile without friends» (Contrition B l. 22a, TheWanderer l. 45b in the variant wineleas guma). Besides a personal condition, thisformula also defines the social status of someone who has been forced to leave hisland and his people because he no longer belongs to his community; as a conse-quence, the exiled woman in The Wife’s Lament has to face wræcsiþa(s) («peregri-nations», l. 5b and l. 38b).120 There are various images focused on the motif ofloneliness, such as Ahte ic leofra lyt on þissum londstede, / holdra freonda (ll. 16-17a).121 The same motif is in Contrition B, where the narrator complains about theabsence of friends during the sea journey he is about to undertake (ll. 33-34a nehuru þæs freondes, þe me gefylste / to þam siđfate).122 In The Wanderer isolation is theunavoidable consequence of a change of fortune from joy and prosperity to miseryand isolation (ll. 108b-109 her biđ freond læne, / her biđ mon læne, her biđ mæglæne):123 the narrator has lost the affection of his beloved and, in particular, of hislord (ll. 37-38 Forþon wat se þe sceal his winedryhtnes / leofes larcwidum longe forþo-lian), and now his only company is sorrow (ll. 30-31 hu sliþen biđ sorg to geferan /þam þe him lyt hafađ leofra geholena).124

Solitude and pain are effectively described in The Wife’s Lament also at l. 37 þæric sittan mot sumorlangne dæg, which recalls the husband’s condition (l. 47b þæt minfreond siteđ) and, at the same time, other elegiac passages where suffering is associ-

125 Deor l. 24: «many men sit, bound by sorrow»; l. 28: «he sits sad in his heart, deprivedof the joy». The edition adopted is Klinck’s (1992: 90-91).

126 Wulf and Eadwacer l. 10: «when there was rainy weather, and I sat mournful».127 For example, Semple (1998: 113-118).128 In particular Tripp (1972: 356-361) and W.C. Johnson (1983), who hypothesized a sim-

ilarity between The Wife’s Lament and the Icelandic ‘death-songs’.129 According to Hough (2003: 7) the lexicon at ll. 33b-34 is deliberately polysemic.

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ated with physical staticity such as sitting and thinking about one’s miseries. Thistopos is visible in Deor both in the reaction of Eormanaric’s warriors – they sitbound by sorrow because of their king’s cruelty (l. 24 Sæt secg monig sorgum gebun-den) – and in the universal figure reflecting on his sufferings in the final stanza (l.28 Siteđ sorgcearig sælum bidæled).125 Also in Wulf and Eadwacer the woman, nar-rating her story, describes a similar situation at l. 10 þonne hit wæs renig weder, ondic reotugu sæt.126

2.4.2. Exile places: some clarifications

Focusing on the theme of places of exile, in The Wife’s Lament both the areawhere the woman is forced to live and the place where her husband is exiled aredescribed as surrounded by untamed nature: ll. 29-32a Eald is þes eorđsele; […]. /Sindon dena dimme, duna uphea, / bitre burgtunas brerum beweaxne, / wic wynnaleas; ll. 48-50a under stanhliþe, storme behrimed, / […] wætre beflowen, / on dreorse-le. In most of the Old English elegies there are descriptive passages underlininghow harsh and inhospitable places of exile are, and how they amplify the charac-ter’s affliction (see for example The Wanderer and The Seafarer), and The Wife’sLament reflects this narrative pattern. However, the image described by underactreo in þam eorđscræfe and under actreo geond þas eorđscrafu (l. 28 and l. 36) hasnot always been easy to interpret as, suggesting that the earth-cavern may representa sort of catacomb or barrow,127 it led some critics128 to hypothesize that the nar-rating voice may be that of a dead woman speaking from the grave. Some ambigu-ities detected at ll. 33b-34 Frynd sind on eorþan, / leofe lifgende leger weardiađ129

(see below) also contributed to raising uncertainties about the interpretation. Aclarification about the woman’s condition and place of exile is thus needed inorder to show how much closer The Wife’s Lament is to Old English elegies thanto other types of text where a dead narrator speaks and complains (such as theIcelandic ‘death-songs’).

130 The Wanderer l. 84: «[who] hid a warrior in a earth-cave».131 Genesis l. 2597a eorđscræf fundon «they found a cave»; Beowulf l. 3046 hæfde eorđscrafa

ende genyttod «he had enjoyed the last earth-cavern».132 Harris (1977: 206), Wentersdorf (1981: 501-503) and Lowe (2002: 127). According to

Jensen (1990: 452) in The Wife’s Lament a possible reference to the meaning «tomb» can onlybe taken as metaphorical to indicate the woman’s captivity. Semple (1998: 115-119) wonderedabout the shape, size and architectonic structure of the cave, seeking to come to a precise descrip-tion of the place also through historical and archaeological studies, besides literary analysis.

133 According to Wentersdorf (1981: 501), l. 29a Eald is đes eorđsele «this earth-hall is old»may imply either that the cave was used by men a long time ago, or that it is not a natural placebut rather a work of man, because the adjective eald «old» often refers to objects and weapons.

134 In Beowulf l. 2410a and l. 2515a the compound eorđsele «earth-hall» identifies the drag-on’s den, a hiding place.

135 Gameson (1996b: 464).

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First of all, the compound eorđscræf, which indicates a limited undergroundspace, often recurs with the meaning of «tomb» (in The Wanderer l. 84 ineorđscræfe eorl gehydde,130 and also in Soul and Body II l. 113b and in Andreas l.780a and l. 803a) but, as underlined by Battles (1994: 268), this meaning is notnecessarily the only possible one. There are cases in which eorđscræf seems insteadto refer to a shelter in the depths of the earth: in Genesis l. 2597a, where it identi-fies the cavern where Lot and his daughters hide from Zoar, and in Beowulf l.3046a, where it describes the dragon’s den.131 We can thus conclude that eorđscræfin The Wife’s Lament can be interpreted according to a general meaning as «cave»,as it does not necessarily imply any reference to death.132 In support of this reading,eorđsele «earth-hall» (l. 29a),133 a variation of eorđscræfe, also indicates an under-ground place similar to a crypt and used as a hiding place.134

The passage Frynd sind on eorþan, / leofe lifgende leger weardiađ (ll. 33b-34) wastranslated by most critics as «There are friends on earth / living lovers who occupya bed», whereas those who suggested that the woman may be dead considered thepresence of on eorþan («on earth») and lifgende («living») as evidence for theirtheory, as if the passage developed an antithesis between the woman and her (stillalive) friends. However, the passage in question more likely introduces the themeof individual sorrow and the loss of loved ones, through a contrast between thewoman’s loneliness and the different condition of her friends.135 Taking a closerlook at l. 34a leofe lifgende, it is possible to see an element in support of this inter-pretation. While the critics almost unanimously considered this expression a varia-tion of frynd (l. 33b) and translated it «living lovers», the participle lifgende, onthe right, should be considered as the regular ‘head of the phrase’, and leofe the

136 See Fischer (2000: 46). In Anglo-Saxon the head of a phrase is usually on the right. Thereare some cases in which the order is marked and the modifier appears after the modified element;the phrase must thus be translated as a relative phrase with a restrictive value. However, this doesnot seem to be the case for leofe lifgende, which makes perfect sense translated as «who live likelovers».

137 Lowe (2002: 137) translated ll. 33b-34 Frynd sind on eorþan / leofe lifgende leger wear-diađ as «there are friends / dear ones dwelling in the earth, they inhabit graves», thus represen-ting the woman’s friends as dead. According to his reading, on eorþan should be translated as «inthe earth» instead of «on the earth», and the translation of leger as «grave» would rely on itscommonest meaning «sickbed» or «deathbed» (see Christ in Judgement l. 795a, The Phoenixl. 56b, Elene l. 602a and l. 722a). However, in Old English there are other cases in which legerhas the meaning of «bed, couch» (for example Beowulf l. 3043a), and in Middle English, asT.D. Hill (2002: 2) pointed out, leger / leir no longer implies the concept of death and simplyidentifies a bed, a couch where one would take a rest.

138 For instance, Luyster (1999: 245), Doane (1966: 87). Wentersdorf (1981: 508-509).139 Iesaias Propheta 6:13: et adhuc in ea decimatio et convertetur et erit in ostensionem sicut tere-

binthus et sicuti quercus quae expandit ramos suos semen sanctum erit id quod steterit in ea; 61:3: utponerem lugentibus Sion et darem eis coronam pro cinere oleum gaudii pro luctu pallium laudis prospiritu maeroris et vocabuntur in ea fortes iustitiae plantatio Domini ad glorificandum. In this study,for any quotation from the Bible the edition adopted is Weber and Gryson’s (1994).

140 See for example the oak in Zaanannim (Liber Iosue 19:33), the Diviners Oak (LiberIudicium 9:37), the oak of Tabor (Liber Samuhelis 10:3), the oak in Jabesh (Verba Dierum10:12). In Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum 2.2 the expression Agustinus aac «Agustine’s

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‘modifier’, instead.136 Therefore, the correct translation of l. 34a leofe lifgendewould be «living like lovers». This interpretation highlights the contrast betweenthe woman, forced to live alone «in an underground cave» because her lover is faraway, and those who, «on earth», can freely live their relationship and share inti-macy. Leger here thus seems to acquire the meaning of «alcove»; thus «There arefriends on earth living like lovers, / they share a bed» would be the best reading forll. 33b-34.137

In the description of the places of exile in The Wife’s Lament a final problemat-ic element worth mentioning is the image of an oak over the cave, represented at l.28 and l. 36 (under actreo in þam eorđscræfe and under actreo geond þas eorđscrafu).The critics could not come to a conclusive interpretation regarding the presence ofthis tree, which is sacred in many European cultures, including the Germanic one.Textual data is not sufficient to prove which possible influence affected The Wife’sLament. Some critics138 detected pagan connotations in this image associated withthe term eorđscræfe (see above 2.2.), but in the Bible the oak instead represents aChristian symbol; in fact in the Old Testament it is a metaphor for the people ofIsrael139 and represents a geographical reference140 to the places where God

oak» designates a place (western England) where the missionary Augustine from Canterburymet the British bishops in 596, therefore it indicates the Christian conversion. The editionadopted for Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum is Colgrave and Mynors’ (1969: 134).

141 Liber Iosue 24:26: scripsitque omnia verba haec in volumine legis Dei et tulit lapidem per-grandem posuitque eum subter quercum quae erat in sanctuario Domini; Liber Genesis 12:7:apparuitque Dominus Abram et dixit ei semini tuo dabo terram hanc qui aedificavit ibi altareDomino qui apparuerat ei; 13:18: movens igitur Abram tabernaculum suum venit et habitavitiuxta convallem Mambre quod est in Hebron aedificavitque ibi altare Domino.

142 Blamires (2002: 117-126). A possible Celtic influence would be consistent with an inter-pretation of the story such as the one given by Ward (1960: 28) and Davis (1965: 299-300 andft. 22), in which the husband would order the woman to settle in the cave in order to rescue herfrom the dangers related to her condition of exile. Only in that case might the oak acquire thefunction of shelter rather than prison.

143 A ‘light verse’ is a half-line only containing one ‘lift’; see Bliss (1958: 61-68). Metric ana-lysis of The Wife’s Lament reveals that here the ‘light verses’ frequently correspond to present par-ticiples: ll. 5b, 10b, 15b (perhaps 16b), 19a, 19b, 20a, 28a, 36a, 38a, 38b, 39b, 50a, 52a, 53a.

144 The C-verses in the text are ll. 7b, 13b, 17b, 22b, 24b, 27a, 27b, 28b, 30a, 36b, 44b, 47b,48a. The only half-lines that can be classified with certainty as E-verses are ll. 37b, 45a, 52a. Afurther aspect characterizing the whole text is a general metrical complexity due to the frequen-cy of irregular half-lines (for example, ll. 1b, 3b, 14b, 21b, 38a, 39b, 41b, 52b).

145 As already pointed out, the unusual length of l. 24 is probably due to a lacuna. The exces-sive length of l. 41 may instead be interpreted as a signal of a sudden change in the style and con-

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appeared and altars were erected.141 Finally, this tree also bears special importancein Celtic culture as it symbolizes protection, in particular for warriors.142 Theimage of the oak tree, in its complexity, appears slightly detached from the contextdescribed in The Wife’s Lament, thus none of the hypotheses suggested can findfurther elements in the poem to support it.

2.4.3. Stylistic aspects: formal beginnings and endings

So far, this investigation of the content and structure of The Wife’s Lament con-firms the integrity of the poem: in the narration, which appears as a continuum onmany levels, the main themes are dealt with and developed throughout the wholetext, and a net of recurring expressions and structural correspondences makes thediscourse cohesive. Even on a metrical level there seems to be relative homogeneity:‘light verses’143 are frequent and C- and E-lines are uncommon;144 there are only afew lines of unusual length and these do not seem to emphasise any internal textualdivision.145 Similarities with Anglo-Saxon elegies have also been highlighted. In

tent, just before the beginning of the gnomic passage of the poem.146 The Seafarer ll. 1-2a: «I can tell the true story of myself / speak about the journeys».

Muir (20062: The Wife’s Lament / Commentary / C1) also points out the similarity withContrition B ll. 27b-28, even though this passage is not the beginning of the text: Ic bi me tylgust/ secge þis sarspel ond ymb siþ spræce «Especially about me I / tell this story and speak about a jour-ney».

147 The term giedd, «a relatively extended utterance, of an artistic kind, with a narrative con-tent and an instructive or exemplary value» [Klinck (1992: 245)], also recurs, alone or in com-pounds, in other elegies, such as The Wanderer l. 55a (cwidegiedda «songs»), Wulf andEadwacer l. 19 (giedd «story»).

148 The Seafarer ll. 2b-3: «how in labour-days / I often suffered a time of hardship».149 The Wanderer ll. 114b-115: «it is good to the one who seeks grace / consolation from

the Father in heaven; there stability stands for us all».150 Leslie (1961: 58). Wa biđ þam þe sceal is a formulaic expression, see Beowulf ll. 183b-184

Wa biđ þæm þe sceal […] sawle bescufan «Woe to the one who must […] thrust his soul» andGenesis ll. 634b-635 Biđ þam men full wa / þe hine ne warnađ þonne he his geweald hafađ! «Fullsorrow to the one who / does not put himself on guard / when he has his power!».

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addition to the scarcity of narrative elements and their allusive nature, which con-trasts with the detailed descriptions of the expressions of distress, other stylistic fea-tures, such as the formulas at the beginning and the end, seem to suggest the inclu-sion of this text in the elegiac genre.

First of all, the expression Ic þis giedd wrece bi me ful geomorre, / minre sylfre siđ.Ic þæt secgan mæg (ll. 1-2) reminds us of the incipit of The Seafarer, ll. 1-2a: Mæg icbe me sylfum sođgied wrecan, / siþas secgan.146 These two passages, besides having asimilar lexicon147 and syntactical structure, also show an analogous function, beingboth prologues to the description of the narrator’s mood which follows (The Wife’sLament l. 3a: hwæt ic yrmþa gebad; The Seafarer ll. 2b-3: hu ic geswincdagum / ear-fođhwile oft þrowade).148 The final sentence of The Wife’s Lament, ll. 52b-53 Wabiđ þam þe sceal / of langoþe leofes abidan!, lends itself to comparison with the endof another elegy, The Wanderer ll. 114b-115: Wel biđ þam þe him are seceđ, / frofreto fæder on heofonum, þær us eal seo fæstnung stondeđ.149 These two conclusions arestructurally quite similar but very different in content, as The Wanderer foreseessalvation in the hereafter while The Wife’s Lament, from a uniquely immanent per-spective, only prefigures sorrow to men. The expression Wa biđ þam þe sceal (l.52b) does not represent an omen but rather a gnomic sentence, as the verb biđintroduces a general truth.150 This pithy expression frames and concludes the pre-ceding wisdom passage (ll. 42-52a), whose gnomic message deserves special atten-tion as it appears consistent with an elegiac narrative scheme also shared by TheSeafarer, Deor and Contrition B (see below 2.5.1.).

151 As above (see 2.1.), and differently from Klinck’s edition, a comma has been added by mebefore geomormod, as the translation proposed here for ll. 42-47 is: «Always a youth, (although)sad in his heart, / must be resolute in his mind, so he must / endure with a peaceful face, evenwith (this) suffering in his breast, / a quantity of sorrows, whether all his earthly joy / belong tohim, or he is outlawed very far away, / in a distant land, as my friend is sitting». These lines arediscussed in detail below (2.5.1).

152 Lawrence (1907-1908: 389, 402-403), Greenfield (1953: 911), Wentersdorf (1981:515), Böker (1982: 424) and Niles (2003a: 1113).

153 Malone (1962: 114) and Straus (1981: 277), noting the similarity between the conceptsexpressed at ll. 18-21a and ll. 42-45a and the recurrence of the expression bliþe gebæro (l. 21a andl. 44a), identified in geong mon the woman’s husband. Treharne (2000: 79) also seemed to sharethis interpretation, translating l. 42a as «The young man may always». However, the husbandreappears at l. 50b (min wine); therefore, geong man more probably represents a different figure.Ward (1960: 31-32) and Short (1970: 599-600) hypothesized that this third character may beresponsible for the spouses’ separation, but this reading lacks textual data in support. In fact, thepresence of many dual pronouns (l. 12b unc, l. 13a wit, l. 21b wit, l. 22a unc, l. 25a uncer) suggeststhat the protagonists involved in the story alluded to at the beginning of the poem are only two.

154 Also in Beowulf a similar figure and formula appear: ll. 20-21 Swa sceal ge(ong) guma godegewyrcean / fromum feohgiftum on fæder (bea)rme «So a young man must obtain, by good deeds,/ by rich money gifts in the father’s bosom».

155 The edition adopted for The Riming Poem is Klinck’s (1992: 84-89).156 The Seafarer ll. 12b-13 Þæt se mon ne wat / þe him on foldan fægrost limpeđ «The man who

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2.5. The gnomic conclusion of The Wife’s Lament

ll. 42-47: A scyle geong mon wesan, geomormod,heard heortan geþoht, swylce habban sceal bliþe gebæro eac þon breostceare,sinsorgna gedreag, sy æt him sylfum gelong eal his worulde wyn, sy ful wide fah feorres folclondes þæt min freond siteđ,151

Ll. 42-47 present several problems regarding both their translation and theirsyntactical function in the text. Here a shift in the narrative focus takes place: thewoman speaks in the third person singular, hinting at geong mon’s painful fate (l.42a), and then describes the husband’s suffering (l. 47b: þæt min freond siteđ).

The critics recognized almost unanimously152 that these lines cast the woman’sstory from a personal to a universal level, as l. 42a a scyle geong mon introduces a fig-ure representative of humankind.153 Figures like geong mon often occur in ele-gies:154 in The Riming Poem l. 80a there is «the lucky one» (eadig),155 in TheSeafarer l. 12b-13 and ll. 27-29a the man who lives ashore,156 in The Wanderer l.

has / a better fate on earth doesn’t know that»; ll. 27-29a Forþon him gelyfeđ lyt, se þe ah lifes wyn,/ gebiden in burgum, bealosiþa hwon, / wlonc ond wingal «Therefore, the one who enjoys life’spleasures, who remained in the city / and had few terrible journeys, proud and wanton with wine/ little believes».

157 The Wanderer l. 17a Forđon domgeorne «Therefore, the one who is eager for glory»; l.29b Wat se þe cunnađ «the one who has experience knows».

158 Doane (1966: 88-89) and Niles (2003a: 1120-1135) are in favour of this interpretation.159 Niles’ (2003a: 1145) translation of ll. 42-47a is: «Ever may a young person [of that trea-

cherous kind] be wretched; ever may the thoughts of his heart be bitter! In like manner, may hewho maintains a blithe demeanor also experience grief that cuts to the heart, a tumult of con-stant sorrows. May all his worldly joy depend on himself alone! May he be hated far and wide insome distant land».

160 For instance, Leslie (1961: 57-58), Ward (1960: 32-33), Short (1970: 601), Wentersdorf(1981: 515), Jensen (1990: 455), Klinck (1992: 186), Gameson (1996b: 462), Hall (2003: 18).

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17a and l. 29b there are the warrior and the man who experienced sorrow.157 Asregards geong mon in The Wife’s Lament, Niles’ (2003a: 1144) hypothesis should betaken into consideration:

[T]he ‘geong mon’ in question can be any person at all, whether male or female. […]mon or mann is not gender-specific when used in a gnomic sense, and neither arethe correlative personal pronouns him and his.

The translation «a youth» appears more suitable than «a young man»because, on a rhetorical level, it implies an ambiguous referent, thus it allows thereader to link the gnomic conclusion to the woman’s condition previouslydescribed and, at the same time, to the husband’s fate, which is dealt with somelines below.

Critics often wondered about the function and tone of ll. 42-47a, and variousinterpretations have been proposed for the two parallel sentences containing theverb sculan (scyle… sceal, ll. 42-45a) and for the sy… sy…-structure (ll. 45b-47a). Thehortatory tone associated with a scyle geong mon […] swylce habban sceal […]«Always may a youth […] as well may he have […]» led some scholars to translatein an optative sense the subjunctives sy… sy…(«be…!, be…!»), and thus to considerthe whole passage as a sort of curse.158 Therefore, the narrator, that is, the exiledwoman, constantly forced to endure hardships, would be wishing all mankind(including her husband) the same distressing fate.159

Even if this reading of the passage was generally accepted, most critics160 detect-ed a moral precept rather than an auspice at the end of The Wife’s Lament. This

161 See The Wanderer ll. 65b-73: Wita sceal geþyldig; / ne sceal no to hatheort, ne to hrædwyrde,/ […] / Beorn sceal gebidan þonne he beot spriceđ / […] / Ongietan sceal gleaw hæle hu gæstlic biđ«The sage must be patient, / he must not be too passionate nor hasty of speech, […]. / The war-rior must await, when he speaks a boast […] / the wise man must understand / how terrible it willbe».

162 As regards the alternation scyle/sceal, Klinck (1992: 186) pointed out that «because ofthe sense of necessity or obligation inherent in the meaning of sculan, the functions of indicati-ve and subjunctive tend to overlap, as in The Seafarer ll. 109-111» (Stieran mon sceal strongummode, […] / […] / Scyle monna gehwylc mid gemete healdan «A man must steer a wilful heart, […]/ […] / everyone must behave with measure»).

163 The Order of the World ll. 17-22: «Therefore, the one who lives with courage, / thou-ghtful man, must experience unknown fates, / […]; / that must not keep a noble-minded manfrom behaving wisely in the world». The edition adopted for The Order of the World is Muir’s(20062: The Order of the World).

164 See Mitchell and Robinson (1982: 267), about The Wife’s Lament ll. 45b-47a: «The twosubjunctives are used correlatively to introduce alternative speculations: ‘Whether he is depen-dent (solely) upon himself for all his joy in the world, or whether he is outlawed far from hisremote inheritance […]’».

165 This expression recurs in Lacnunga 189 [Grattan and Singer’s (1952: 198) edition] inThe Book of Exodus 19.13 in the Anglo-Saxon Heptateuch [Crawford’s (19692: 260) edition],and in Tables of Lucky and Unlucky Days [Förster’s (1929: 271-273) edition].

166 See Greenfield (1953: 911), Rissanen (1969: 101), Lucas (1969: 294), L.A. Johnson(1971: 501).

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interpretation appears to be more suitable for different reasons. First of all, thereare other wisdom passages where sculan recurs in parallel phrases;161 see in particu-lar The Order of the World ll. 17-22, where the same subjunctive/indicative alterna-tion162 describes the qualities that a wise man should have: Forþon scyle ascian, se þeon elne leofađ, / deophydig mon, dygelra gesceafta, / […]; / ne sceal þæs aþreotan þegnmodigne, / þæt he wislice woruld fulgonge.163 Regarding the sy… sy…-structure, it ispossible to translate the two subjunctives in a potential164 rather than an optativemode, as two different hypotheses: «whether (it is)… or whether (it is)…». OtherAnglo-Saxon expressions, such as the formulaic sy hit man, sy hit nyten («Whetherit is a man, or it is an animal»),165 support this reading.

The presence of bliþe gebæro (l. 44a) in contrast with a series of elementsdescribing the husband’s sad mood (ll. 42-43, 44b-47) has lead critics166 to inter-pret the gnomic passage as an encouragement to endure sorrow tenaciously: who-ever is in a painful situation must show a peaceful countenance. This conclusionappears coherent with the content and structure of the poem. However, the syntaxof the gnomic passage presents several difficulties because it is coordinative: the

167 Klinck (2004: 51); also Treharne (2000: 79) translated «[…] may always be sad inmind».

168 Klinck (2004: 51). Treharne (2000: 79) translated «hard-hearted in thought».169 As regards the complexities related to the genre and grammatical case of gebæro, see above

2.2.170 The first translation is Klinck’s (2004: 51), the second is Treharne’s (2000: 79). Lawrence

(1907-1908: 16) considered both bliþe gebæro and eac þon breostceare as accusatives, translatingll. 43b-44 as «(he should have) a pleasant demeanor as well, also care».

171 See Deor l. 22a wylfenne geþoht «wolfish heart», The Wife’s Lament l. 12a þurh dyrnegeþoht «through obscure thought», Life of Saint Guthlac (A) l. 800b wisne geþoht «wisethought», Precepts l. 44a þurh bliþe geþoht «through joyful thought».

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half-lines appear juxtaposed and the different parts of the sentence lack any con-junctive element. As a consequence, to disambiguate their grammatical and syntac-tical relations a certain interpretative effort is required.

2.5.1. A translation of the gnomic passage (ll. 42-47a)

All the translations proposed for ll. 42-47a have some characteristics in com-mon. The adjective geomormod (l. 42b) is always considered dependent on the verbwesan (l. 42: a scyle […] wesan geomormod «ever must […] be sad of mind»).167

The expression heard heortan geþoht (l. 43a), syntactically disconnected from whatprecedes and what follows, is usually translated as a parenthetical sentence, «hardthe heart’s thought».168 Habban (l. 43b) governs either eac þon breostceare or bliþegebæro, depending on whether bliþe gebæro is considered an instrumental or anaccusative:169 ll. 43b-44 swylce habban sceal / bliþe gebæro eac þon breostceare «andmust have too, with cheerful looks, care in the breast» or «just as he must have ahappy appearance despite the grief in his breast».170

Although the general meaning of this passage can be understood, the precisesyntactical relations between the half-lines are more difficult to construe; hence,there is room for new interpretations and possibilities for translation. The paren-thetical expression heard heortan geþoht (l. 43a), translated as «painful thoughts inthe heart», does not appear elsewhere and here is traditionally considered as a vari-ation of geomormod (l. 42b). However, it is plausible to think that heard and heortanare not two separate words but rather a compound adjective: heardheortan. Thereading of l. 43a as heardheortan geþoht can be hypothesized because geþoht fre-quently appears preceded by an adjective (such as wylfenne, dyrne, wisne, bliþe)171 in

172 See other compounds of heard-, such as heardhicgende «thinking bravely» (Beowulf l.394a) and heardmode «(men) brave in the spirit» (Genesis l. 285a).

173 «This people is obstinate», in The Book of Exodus 33:3. See also Chronicle year 1086:Hwa is swa heardheort đæt ne mæg wepan swylces ungelympes? «Who is so hardhearted not to cryover those sufferings?» [The Laud Ms (E), Earle’s (1865: 219) edition].

174 Besides nominative, geþoht can also be accusative, while heardheortan could represent theaccusative of a weak adjective.

175 Geomormod can gain a concessive meaning because, supposing it does not depend direc-tly on wesan, as an adjective referred to mon it acquires a marked position in the sentence.

176 Þοn is the instrumental form of the adjective se «this». Leslie (1961: 57) consideredinstead þon and the conjunction which precedes it (eac) as a compound adverb and translated itas «moreover, besides», noting that eacþon is sometimes also used to gloss the Latin ceterum.

177 For the translation of l. 44b with a concessive sense, see also Bosworth and Toller (1972:385): «even when care of breast».

178 Wentersdorf (1981: 515), Curry (1966: 198) and Short (1970: 601).

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formulas structured as ‘x geþoht’. On a semantic level the adjective heardheort islinked to boldness and obstinacy,172 besides harshness of mind, as in the expressionÐis folc is hardheort (which refers to the Israelites).173 Therefore, it may be possibleto translate heardheortan geþoht as «with a resolute mind», in opposition to geo-mormod («sad in the heart», l. 42b). This contrast can be better rendered if we con-sider heardheortan geþoht as an accusative absolute depending on wesan174 and givegeomormod a concessive sense:175 «Always a youth, (although) sad in his heart, /must be with a resolute mind» (ll. 42-43b).

Similarly to ll. 42-43b, l. 44 shows a contraposition between bliþe gebæro andþon breostceare, two expressions linked by the conjunction eac «also». None of thenouns appearing in the passage at ll. 42-45a (geþoht, gebæro, gedreag) is preceded bythe article, except for breostceare: the unexpected presence of þon suggests that herethe article may have the function of disambiguating the noun case. Þon can only bean instrumental;176 as a consequence, breostceare must also be an instrumental, thesame case as bliþe gebæro (where it is the ending of the adjective bliþe which disam-biguates the case), and the expression eac þon breostceare can be rendered with aconcessive sense: «even with (this) suffering in his breast».177 The translation of ll.43b-45a would thus be: «so he must endure, / with a peaceful countenance, evenwith (this) suffering in his breast, / a quantity of sorrows».

The difficulties linked to the two subjunctives sy… sy… (ll. 45b-47a) depend ontheir position, in ἀπὸ κοινοῦ with what precedes and what follows. Only a fewscholars178 interpreted these two parallel phrases as both referring to the husband’ssituation (l. 47b min freond), whereas they should be considered as part of the pre-

179 The formula worulde wyn always recurs with the meaning «earthly joy», even when it isnot explicitly in opposition with the eternal joy of the Heavenly Kingdom; see worulde wynnumand worulde wynna in Life of Saint Guthlac (A) ll. 105a, 337, 498a and in Christ and Satan l.210a.

180 The function of þæt at l. 47b may be, as explained in Bosworth and Toller (1972: 1033),that of «introducing clauses expressing cause or reason», as in Hwæt þence ge betwux eow, þæt gehlafas nabbaþ, translated as «why reason ye among yourselves, because ye have brought nobread?», from Matthew’s Gospel 15:8 [Kemble’s (1858) edition], which corresponds to the Latinsciens autem Iesus dixit quid cogitatis inter vos modicae fidei quia panes non habetis. A furtherexample is Andreas ll. 275b-276: Biđ đe meorđ wiđ god, / þæt đu us on lade liđe weorđe «May youreceive a reward from God, / as you showed kindness to us on the ship way».

181 Contrition B ll. 5b-7a: «and for God I will endure all that / with a peaceful spirit, nowthat I am / firmly tied up in my mind».

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ceding gnomic passage, thus in connection with geong mon. This interpretation ismore suitable, as the structure sy… sy… develops two opposed hypotheses(«whether all his earthly joy179 / belong to him, or he is outlawed very far away, /in a distant land»). Moreover, at ll. 47b-52a the description of the unhappy fate ofthe husband seems to represent an exemplification only of the second hypothesis,the one dealing with the exile (l. 47b «as my friend is sitting»).180 This passage hasthe value of an exemplum which confirms the general precepts expressed in thewhole gnomic passage: the woman’s spouse is now in trouble, but even in a harshcondition he is able to maintain a calm demeanour, as the presence of bliþe gebærosuggests (also at l. 21a).

The spouses are tied by a common fate of sorrow and exile, as also the lexicalparallelisms confirm (see above 2.4.), and both figures acquire a universal valuebecause both come to represent «a youth». Therefore, the final passage of thepoem conveys a concept which corresponds to the main topic of the text: theimportance of facing hardships with resoluteness. Although the translation pro-posed for ll. 42-47a has to remain on a hypothetical level, it has the advantage ofunderlining the contrast between the elements of the couple’s geomormod / heard-heortan geþoht and sinsorgna gedreag / bliþe gebæro. The invitation, expressed in agnomic tone, to deal with sorrow by keeping it to oneself, with a clear mind and aspirit of endurance, favours a comparison with other Anglo-Saxon elegies. In par-ticular, the key to the interpretation of the whole passage comes from bliþe gebæro,which recalls Contrition B ll. 5b-7a: ond me þæt eal for gode þolian / bliþe mode, nuic gebunden eom / fæste in minum ferþe.181 The similarity is given by several ele-ments: the presence of bliþe mode («peaceful spirit»), the contrast between this

182 Davis (1965: 300).183 The Wanderer ll. 12-14a: «that in a man it is a noble habit / to tie firmly his soul’s enclo-

sure, / to preserve the treasury of his thoughts» [transl. Bosworth and Toller (1972: 552)]. Ll.17-18: «Therefore, those eager for glory often bind / tight the sorrowful thoughts in their bre-ast-chamber»; ll. 19-21: «so, miserable and sad, I often had to tie my mind, […] / […] with fet-ters».

184 Deor ll. 33-34: «to many warriors [he] shows honours, / a certain success, to some [peo-ple] a quantity of miseries».

185 The Seafarer l. 115b: «destiny is stronger»; The Wanderer l. 5b: «fate is completely utte-red», l. 15: «A sad spirit cannot stand against destiny». See also Maxims II l. 5a Wyrd biđswiđost «fate is the strongest thing» and Beowulf l. 455b Gæđ a wyrd swa hio scel «Destinyalways goes as it has to go».

186 Deor l. 32: «the wise lord constantly turns [the course of fate]».

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expression and eal… þolian («all … endure»), which refers to any obstacle destinymight bring to men during the ‘journey’, and the theme of keeping a firm mind,which implies the intention of facing any hardship with spiritual strength. Theonly difference with Contrition B is that this behaviour is explicitly aimed at gain-ing a place in Heaven; therefore, stoic resistance becomes endurance in a Christianspirit. In The Wife’s Lament, instead, the perspective only seems to be the worldlyone; however, the very possibility of contrasting sorrows and not letting them takeover represents a consolation in itself.182

As Rissanen (1969: 101) noted, the theme of concealing one’s suffering frompeople’s eyes recalls, in a broader sense, the passages referring to the warrior code inThe Wanderer, such as ll. 12-14a þæt biþ in eorle indryhten þeaw / þæt he his ferđlo-can fæste binde, / healde his hordcofan, ll. 17-18 Forđon domgeorne dreorigne oft / inhyra breostcofan bindađ fæste and ll. 19-21 Swa ic modsefan mine sceolde / oft earm-cearig, […] / […] feterum sælan.183

In The Wife’s Lament the exhortation to maintain a calm appearance whileenduring suffering is addressed not only to exiles (ll. 46b-47a), but also to thosewho will obtain as much joy as possible in life (ll. 45b-46a): this may look like aninconsistency, but it can be interpreted by looking at other Anglo-Saxon elegies.We learn that the amount of hardship varies from person to person (Deor ll. 33-34:eorle monegum are gesceawađ, / wislicne blæd, sumum weana dæl),184 and men can-not do anything to change their destiny (The Seafarer l. 115b: Wyrd biþ swiþre;The Wanderer l. 5b: wyrd biđ ful aræd; l. 15: Ne mæg werig mod wyrde wiđston-dan).185 Everyone must thus bear in mind that circumstances may change and afavourable situation may turn into an unfavourable one (see Deor l. 32 witig dryht-en wendeþ geneahhe, and the scop’s story at ll. 35-41).186 Perhaps it is in light of

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these teachings that, in The Wife’s Lament, the invitation to face hardships stoical-ly is addressed indiscriminately to anyone, including those who enjoy earthly pleas-ures. During life a certain amount of suffering is assigned to everyone, even thosewho experience joy on earth; therefore, destiny may change happiness into sorrowat any time.

3. Conclusion

This analysis of The Wife’s Lament has confirmed first of all the integrity of thistext, which is already suggested by the codicological investigation and furtherproved by several verbal echoes and intratextual connections linking the differentpassages. The classification of this text as an elegy has also been confirmed throughan in-depth study of the poem on thematic, structural and stylistic levels. The prin-cipal themes, exile and separation from the beloved one, form part of a narration inwhich the expression of the woman’s sorrow seems to be the main concern, andcoherently with the elegiac genre, the style appears quite allusive, as the narrator’sstory is only hinted at through brief references. Also the large number of wordsrelated to the semantic field of suffering, besides several images describing sadness,loneliness and the inhospitable nature of the place of exile, relate this poem withother Old English elegies. As far as the structure is concerned, the description ofthe woman’s miseries is aimed at teaching a universal concept, expressed in a gno-mic passage at the end of the text where the woman’s and her husband’s painfulexperiences are compared with that of a ‘youth’, and the dense network of lexicaland structural references creates parallels between the characters’ conditions. Thegnomic conclusion has the function of offering consolation, but the comfort is notrelated to the presence of God and the perspective of an afterlife in the Kingdom ofHeaven; it depends instead on the possibility of choosing stoic resistance to the suf-fering of earthly life.

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3

THE HUSBAND’S MESSAGE

1. Codicological Analysis

The Husband’s Message is transmitted in codex unicus and is characterized by anunusual, tripartite layout. This aspect deserves to be investigated by taking intoaccount every graphic cue; therefore, the first part of this chapter (see below 1.1.-1.1.3.) is devoted to codicological data and their interpretation. The relation bet-ween The Husband’s Message and the surrounding texts is also considered, as thecontext into which the poem is integrated may highlight important themes andintertextual connections, and provide a different perspective for the textual inter-pretation (see below 1.2.-1.2.4.).

The codicological analysis suggests a possible reading of The Husband’s Message(see below 2.1.-2.3.) that will be supported by the textual analysis in the secondpart of the chapter, which deals with structural, stylistic and thematic aspects besi-des the issues connected to the identity of the narrator and the meaning of therunic message (see below 3.1.-3.2.2.).

1.1. The layout of the text

On the manuscript, The Husband’s Message is divided into three sections (ll. 1-12, ll. 13-25, ll. 26-54) by three capital letters and other graphic cues which seemto question the assumed unity of the poem. This layout caused doubts to ariseespecially in the first editions of the text. For example, Thorpe (1842: 472-475)noted that the structural ambiguity of The Husband’s Message is problematic notleast because of a thematic connection with the two preceding poems, Riddle 30band Riddle 60, which, as the first section of The Husband’s Message, describe woo-

1 See below 1.2.2.2 See The Ascension (ff. 14r-20v) and Christ in Judgement (ff. 20v-32r), respectively 5 and 7

sections, Life of Saint Guthlac (A) and (B) (ff. 32v-44v and ff. 44v-52v), respectively 8 and 7 sec-tions, Canticles of the 3 Youths (ff. 53r-55v), 2 sections, The Phoenix (ff. 55v-65v), 8 sections,Passion of Saint Juliana (ff. ff. 65v-76r), 6 sections.

3 See Ch. 1 (3.).

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den objects. Thorpe considered Riddle 30b, Riddle 60 and ll. 1-12 of TheHusband’s Message as three different riddles, and the ensuing lines of TheHusband’s Message (ll. 13-54) as a ‘fragment’. In general, the thematic similaritiesbetween Riddle 60 and The Husband’s Message prompted a debate about their rela-tion, concerning in particular the possibility that the riddle might be the begin-ning of The Husband’s Message.1 Instead, later editors – among them Krapp andDobbie (1936: lix), Klinck (1992: 25-27) and Leslie (1961: 13) – while detectingand describing the tripartite structure of The Husband’s Message, considered thethree parts as a unit, and Riddle 60 as a separate text. Klinck (1992: 197) pointedout that the poems copied on ff. 122r-124v between Homiletic Fragment II andRiddles 61-94 ‘look like’ six different texts because they are all introduced by acapital letter on a new MS line and end with the punctuation marks :7 (as the shortpoems of the Exeter Book usually do). In the modern editions, however, these sup-posed six texts are edited as only four texts: Riddle 30b, Riddle 60, The Husband’sMessage and The Ruin.

The division of The Husband’s Message into three parts is striking because, inthe Exeter Book, sections normally characterize the long poems in the first half ofthe manuscript.2 Besides The Husband’s Message, only Deor (ff. 100r-100v) andJudgement Day I (ff. 115v-117v) appear to be divided into parts.

f. 123r, MS line 8: Nu (l. 1a)f. 123r, MS line 17: Hwæt (l. 13a)f. 123v, MS line 4: ONgin (l. 26a)

All the sections in The Husband’s Message begin on a new MS line with a capi-tal letter; unexpectedly these initials increase in size and amount of decorationfrom the first to the third: in l. 1a <N> of Nu is the smallest and less decorated,while <H> of Hwæt (l. 13a) is less marked than <O> of Ongin (l. 26a), which isalso followed by a smaller capital, <N>. Conner (1986: 236) noticed that only inwhat he considered ‘Booklet III’ (from f. 98r on)3 are the texts – in particular theRiddles – introduced by small and often plain letters which recall the small capitals

4 These small capitals are similar to the initials of the ‘Physiologus’ texts but are smaller insize. In the so-called ‘Booklet III’ only Soul and Body II, exceptionally, begins with a whole lineof capital letters (f. 98r).

5 As regards the punctuation marks which are not at the end of the sections of TheHusband’s Message, it is a scribe’s convention that each rune is preceded and followed by a dot(see below 3.2.); apart from that, only two dots appear in the text. Only the dot on f. 123v MSline 2 may be worth noting: it divides the term bearwe («wood», end of l. 23b) from the firstimperative of the text, Ne læt («don’t let», beginning of l. 24a), perhaps marking the change intone and topic from l. 23 to l. 24 as noted by Greenfield (1966: 170).

6 In Riddles 11 (f. 103v) and 27 (f. 107v) the end punctuation is :– , whereas in Riddles 5 (f.102v), 12 (f. 103v), 17 (f. 105r) and 18 (f. 105r) it consists of four combined signs ( :–:7 ). Forthe solutions of the Riddles, I refer to Porter (20032).

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following the initial(s) at the beginning of a long text in ‘Booklet I’ and ‘BookletII’.4 Even if the first initial of The Husband’s Message is the same size as most inci-pits in the final part of the codex, it is still difficult to explain why <N> of Nu isless marked than the other two capital letters, and above all why the third initiallooks like the beginning of a new text.

1.1.1. Punctuation marks at the end of the sections5

In the Exeter Book the two recurring punctuations marking the end of the shortpoems are :7 and, much less frequently, :– sometimes combined with other signs.6Therefore, the signs at the end of each section of The Husband’s Message ( :7 ) stren-gthen the impression that the three parts look like three different texts. The samecombination of colon and positura can also be found at the end of the two sectionsin Judgement Day I and of some stanzas in Deor, but in general, it marks the con-clusion of all the poems in the last part of the manuscript.

It is not easy to verify whether there is a difference in use between the colon andpositura at the end of the sections of The Husband’s Message and those at the end ofother texts. To prove that the two end-punctuations characterizing the short textsof the Exeter Book ( :7 and :– ) may have been used differently in the manuscript –for example, one with a disjunctive function and the other with a conjunctive fun-ction, detaching from, or somehow connecting, one text with the following –would provide clear evidence for a disjunction or a relation between the sections ofThe Husband’s Message. However, even taking into consideration the scribal habitsof the whole codex, there seems to be no norm regulating the rare presence of :–(alone or combined with other signs) in place of :7 at the end of a text.

7 It must be noted that there are just a few thematic sections among the Riddles; for exampleRiddles 7-10, all of which deal with birds («swan», «nightingale», «cuckoo», «barnaclegoose»). However, there is no punctuation mark or codicological element signaling the linkbetween these texts.

8 The case of Riddles 1-3, where Riddle 1 ends on f. 101r with the signs :– , does not providea useful example for an investigation of the end-punctuations as the texts’ structure itself is toocontentious. According to Muir (20062: Riddles 1-3) Riddle 3 represents a text on its ownnotwithstanding the fact that it is neither separated from Riddle 2 (which ends at the end of f.101r) by punctuation signs, nor is it introduced by any capital letter on f. 101v. Williamson(1977: 67-70 and 127-133) instead considered Riddles 1-3 as one single text divided into twosections: one corresponding to Riddle 1 (f. 101r), the other to Riddle 2 and Riddle 3 together (ff.101r-102v), both beginning with the adverb hwilum.

9 Other cases seem to confirm the lack of norms regulating the presence of the end-punctu-ation :- , such as Riddles 11 («wine»), 12 («ox») and 13 («ten chickens»), which show nei-ther a thematic nor a structural link, and have no formulas or recurring elements in common.

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For example, between Riddles 17 «ballista», 18 «amphora?» and 19 «armedrider with hawk», where Riddle 17 and Riddle 18 end with the combined marks:–:7 , no special connection or detachment can be detected. Although these textsall show a thematic similarity, Riddle 19 and Riddle 17 share in particular the topicof hunting, which is instead absent in Riddle 18. If the link were represented by thetheme of the activities performed with weapons, then one would expect the pun-ctuation :– also at the end of Riddle 19 to also connect the following text, Riddle20 «sword»,7 with this group of poems; but, in fact, it ends with :7 . Only Riddles17 and 18 share the opening formula Ic eom, whereas Riddle 19 does not; therefo-re, not even a stylistic criterion would explain the hypothetical relation betweenthese three riddles.8

In light of the above,9 no definite conclusion can be drawn concerning the pos-sible norms of the end-punctuations in use in the Exeter Book, and the presence ofthe signs :7 at the end of each section of The Husband’s Message does not seem togive us any specific element either in favour of or against the unity of the poem.

1.1.2. Treatment of the space and wrap-mark

A further graphic cue which deserves attention in The Husband’s Message is thetreatment of the space at the end of the sections: the MS lines occupied by the endof the first and the second sections (f. 123r MS line 16, f. 123v MS line 3) presentonly the last couple of words of these two textual parts, and these words have been

10 At the end of Soul and Body II, of Deor, of Wulf and Eadwacer, of Pharaoh, of The Ruinand of Riddles 7, 16, 37, 51, 53, 62, 70, 85.

11 This layout can be found, along with a wrap-mark, in The Phoenix f. 57r; without thewrap-mark in The Phoenix f. 62r, in Christ in Judgement on ff. 23v, 27r, 28v; in Life of SaintGuthlac (A) ff. 33v, 36r, 38v, 43r, 44v (at the end of the poem), in Passion of Saint Juliana (f.72r), in Canticles of the 3 Youths f. 55v (at the end of the poem).

12 Williamson (1977: 13) pointed out that the scribe copied the end of a (section of a) textclose to the right-hand margin only when there were just a few words left to write. In fact, thistreatment of the space also characterizes texts such as Soul and Body II, whose end did not needto be marked: in the case of Soul and Body II the following poem, Deor, begins on a new MS lineand, even at a first glance, is clearly very different in tone, style and genre, besides the layout.

13 The riddles presenting a wrap-mark which separates their tail from the incipit of the fol-lowing riddle are Riddles 37 (f. 109v), 45 (f. 112v), 51 (f. 113v), 53 (f. 113v), 62 (f. 125r), 70 (f.126r) and 85 (f. 129r).

14 Apparently supporting this explanation, the ends of Riddles 7 and 16, copied close to theright-hand margin of the MS line, are not accompanied by a wrap-mark perhaps because the fol-lowing texts begin on a new MS line.

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copied close to the right-hand margin of the folio. As a result, this layout, which isdifferent from that of all the preceding texts (from The Lord’s Prayer I, f. 122r),draws attention to the first two parts of the poem. This treatment of the space canalso be found at the end of other short texts10 and at the end of some sections of thelong poems in the first half of the manuscript, where the final words, when copiedclose to the right-hand margin of the MS line, are sometimes preceded by a wrap-mark.11 However, this particular layout does not seem to depend on any specificcharacteristic of these poems or on their relationship with the following texts.12

It is even more difficult to understand the reasons behind the use of the wrap-mark at the end of the first section of The Husband’s Message (f. 123r MS line 16).This text, besides nine Riddles13 and the long poems at the beginning of the manu-script, is the only one presenting a wrap-mark in the Exeter Book. However, only inthe riddles does this graphic cue apparently follow a rule. As Williamson (1977:13) pointed out, in the riddles the last words are copied close to the right-handmargin of the folio because of the scribe’s need to save space; in this case, the begin-ning of the following riddle is also copied in the same MS line, but starting fromthe left-hand margin. The wrap-mark has thus the specific function of separatingthe end of a riddle, on the right, from the incipit of the following riddle, on the leftof the same MS line.14

In the long poems, the wrap-mark appears instead to be more a decorative thana distinctive element. Here the layout is different: only the end of the textual sec-tions – but never the end of the texts – has been copied close to the right-hand of

15 For example, Riddles 36, 37 and 38 are all on f. 109v and begin with the word Ic but,whereas the initials <I> in Riddles 36 and 37 have the same shape and size, the initial in Riddle38 differs in both aspects.

16 Comparison of Nu and Hwæt in The Husband’s Message and the beginning of other textsstarting with the same words do not show any precise correspondence on a codicological level.For example, Nu is also the incipit of The Whale (Nu, f. 96v), where <N> is identical to the firstinitial of The Husband’s Message in shape (even though it is slightly larger in size), but it is alsofollowed by another capital, <U>. Hwæt is the incipit of Passion of Saint Juliana (f. 65v) but,compared to Hwæt in The Husband’s Message, the shape of <H> is completely different and thegraph is followed by many other capital letters along the whole MS line. Hwæt in Vainglory (f.83r) resembles more the second incipit of The Husband’s Message because the shape of <H> isidentical but is also followed by a second capital letter (<W>).

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the margin; when the wrap-mark recurs, the following section starts on a new MSline in any case. This pattern also characterizes the first two parts of The Husband’sMessage, as the second section starts on a new MS line. Thus here, too, the wrap-mark apparently does not bear any particular structural significance.

This comparison between the layout of The Husband’s Message and that of thelong poems may provide one element in support of The Husband’s Message as a uni-tary text, but the shape and size of the three capital letters undermine the hypothe-tical integrity of the poem, as they make its sections look like three different texts.That is why they require special consideration in the codicological analysis.

1.1.3. The capital letters

To interpret the layout of The Husband’s Message and the unusual treatment ofthe capital letters in particular, a comparison with the initials of the other poems ofthe codex unfortunately does not help. The Exeter Book is in fact characterized bya great variety of shapes and sizes for the same graph,15 and as regards the capitalletters in The Husband’s Message, <N>, <H> and <O>, there are other poems star-ting with the words Nu (l. 1a) and Hwæt (l. 13a), but the codicological features ofthese incipits are always different from text to text.16 Only the opening of the thirdsection, Ongin («start», l. 26a), immediately recalls the beginning of The Descentinto Hell, Ongunnon («(they) started», f. 119v), where shape and size are identicaland <O> is also followed by the small capital <N>. Apart from this strict corre-spondence on the codicological level, however, The Husband’s Message does notshare any specific structural aspect with The Descent into Hell, and the comparisondoes not fulfil any useful purpose.

17 L. 16 and l. 54: «that you two often spoke in old times».18 L. 24a: «Don’t let», l. 26a: «Start», l. 27a: «board».19 L. 13: «Look! The one who carved this stick ordered me to ask you».20 A hypermetric verse, being longer than usual, attracts the audience’s attention and, in a

passage, slows down or changes the narrative rhythm.21 See Beowulf, Exodus, Andreas, Fates of the Apostles, Dream of the Rood and Judgement Day

II; in the Exeter Book Passion of Saint Juliana and Vainglory. The edition adopted for Fates of theApostles and Dream of the Rood is Krapp’s (1969: 51-54; 61-65), for Judgement Day II it is Caie’s(2000: 84-103); for Passion of Saint Juliana it is Muir’s (20062: Passion of Saint Juliana).

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According to Klinck (1992: 26), the layout of The Husband’s Message apparen-tly reflects the copyist’s uncertainty about the beginning and end of the poem.However, two possible explanations for this unusual mise en page can still be hypo-thesized. Perhaps the poem was copied as three separate fragments – each introdu-ced by a capital letter and closed by an end-punctuation – because these fragmentswere different texts which the copyist, or the compiler, decided to juxtapose in lightof their thematic similarity. To suppose that these texts were contained in differentexemplars may explain the inconsistency in the graphic cues (size of the capitals,presence or absence of wrap-mark between the sections). However, this theory ofthree separate poems somewhat contrasts with the strict connection between thesecond and third sections of The Husband’s Message, which share the same themeand style, a whole line (l. 16 and l. 54: þe git on ærdagum oft gespræcon)17 and thepresence of imperatives in the second person singular (at the end of the second sec-tion – l. 24a Ne læt – and at the beginning of the third section – l. 26a Ongin, l. 27aonsite).18 There is also continuity on the narrative level, as the memories of the pastfollowed by an exhortation in the present represent a pattern repeated in a similarway. On the other hand, the first section presents a style and a content which appe-ar detached from the following lines, which suggests that ll. 1-12 may represent ashort text (perhaps a riddle?) juxtaposed to Riddles 30b and 60 on the basis of athematic similarity. In this case, The Husband’s Message may actually begin fromthe second capital letter, in correspondence to Hwæt (l. 13a). The fact that l. 13Hwæt, þec þonne biddan het se þisne beam agrof 19 is hypermetrical20 and that theword Hwæt is a typical incipit of Anglo-Saxon poetry21 apparently supports thistheory.

If this hypothesis is plausible, it could provide an explanation for the smallersize of the first capital letter which, as mentioned above, is similar to the initials ofthe riddles. Thus, the wrap-mark at the end of the first section might have beenused as a disjunctive element aimed at marking the distinction between this part,which would be a different text, and the actual beginning of The Husband’s Message

22 See Lochrie (1986).23 According to Muir (20062: The Judgement Day I / Footnote / F1), the punctuation :7 at

the end of the first section of Judgement Day I is due to a mistake on the part of the scribe, whoconsidered l. 80 the end of the text.

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(the second section), beginning on a new MS line perhaps because the scribe knewhe was copying down a new poem of a different genre – even if it also deals with thethemes of a promise and a secret conversation.

If the second section is certainly linked to the third, as several clues indicate, yetit is difficult to explain why the third initial is marked as though it were the begin-ning of a new poem. The issue is thorny; however, an interpretation can be sugge-sted through comparison with another text which is also divided into sections:Judgement Day I. There, the capital letters have been treated like those in TheHusband’s Message:

f. 115v, MS line 18: đæt (l. 1a)f. 117r, MS line 9: WILe (l. 81a)

Judgement Day I (ff. 115v-117v) is a wisdom poem in two sections (ll. 1-80, ll.81-119), dealing with the fate of men on Judgement Day. Warnings addressed tothe faithful alternate with images describing Hell, Heaven, the destruction of theworld due to the purifying fire and the punishments destined to those who will notrepent. The narration introduces three types of men who correspond to threeexempla of behaviours towards the Apocalypse, offering the audience two negativeand one positive model. The second section of the poem begins at l. 81 with theword Wile, which appears much more marked than the beginning of the poem đæt,as <W> is bigger than <đ> and is also followed by two more capital letters. Boththe sections end with the punctuation :7 . Despite appearances, there is no doubtabout the unity of the poem,22 where the didactic tone is the same throughout thewhole text and the themes of Judgement Day and man’s fate are developed coher-ently from the beginning to the end. In this regard, Krapp and Dobbie (1936: xlii)and Caie (1976: 97) believe that the division into two sections does not have anyrelevance from the structural point of view.23 Besides the bipartition, the biggersize of the second incipit, Wile, is also difficult to interpret, however. A possibleexplanation may be that the compiler, or the copyist, wanted to specificallyhighlight the second part of the poem (corresponding to ll. 81-119) because of theimportance of its content. This initiative may be connected to the position of theexemplary figures in the text.

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The first exemplum, at l. 14a, is represented by gromhydge guman («hardhear-ted men»), guilty of accumulating wealth during their life and boasting beforeGod; they are thus condemned to the torments of Hell. The second figure, at l.77b, is the man who Lyt þæt geþenceđ («thinks little about it»), who often despi-sed the divine teachings and immoderately enjoyed worldly pleasures, heedless ofthe ‘final journey’: on Judgement Day he will be among the crowd of sinners. Theonly positive exemplum in the text is instead described in the second part of thepoem, at l. 96a: every living creature deophydigra «who thinks deeply». This figu-re, who grieves over his sins and is worried about the final Judgement, representsthe positive model every Christian should consider: if he repents, God will givehim whatever he wants; and if he wishes to be admitted into the Kingdom ofHeaven, he will have to zealously put «these teachings» (þissa larna, l. 89a) intopractice. The relevance given to this part of the poem may depend on a specificplan aimed at insisting on the possibility of following a good example and beingsaved, rather than on fear of Judgement Day and the punishments awaiting thosewho will misbehave. The same plan may include other texts in this part of theExeter Book, among which The Husband’s Message, where the third section is stri-kingly marked perhaps because of the presence of a runic message, which makes thepassage especially suitable in expressing the compiler’s thought (see below 3.2.2.).

The question of the unity of The Husband’s Message is unfortunately more com-plex than in Judgement Day I. Codicological data alone is not sufficient to provethat ll. 1-12 are separate from the rest of the text; however, they contribute tosignalling the apparent lack of cohesion in a text which has traditionally been con-sidered unitary. This aspect is also of particular relevance in view of the interpreta-tion of the poem (see below 3.3.-3.4.2.).

1.2. The manuscript context

The Husband’s Message begins on f. 123r MS line 8, after Riddle 60, and endson the second last MS line of f. 123v, immediately followed by The Ruin.Particular attention will be devoted to the relation with both Riddle 30b (f. 122v)and Riddle 60 (f. 122v-123r), appearing immediately before The Husband’sMessage and both oddly detached from the two big groups of Riddles 1-59 (ff.101r-115r) and Riddles 61-94 (ff. 124r-131r). As a matter of fact, from a thematicand, to some extent, stylistic point of view these two riddles, together with TheHusband’s Message, seem to represent a textual section. The closeness of The Ruin(ff. 123v-124v) after The Husband’s Message (and just before Riddles 61-94) is alsotaken into consideration. In addition to that, a substantial part of the analysis will

24 Conner (1993: 160) recalled the example of the ‘Book of Cerne’, contained inCambridge, University Library, MS. Ll.1.10, where some prayers recur twice in the same section(prayer n. 3 is identical to prayer n. 52, prayer n. 30 is identical to prayer n. 69) because, accord-ing to the editor [Kuypers (1902: xiv-xviii)], the manuscript was probably copied from two dif-ferent exemplars.

25 See for example Riddles 25 and 65 («onion»), Riddles 37 and 86 («bellows»). 26 However, this argument does not take into account the presence of riddles with an iden-

tical solution within the same group and not very far from one another, such as Riddles 32 and33 («ship»), Riddles 87 and 92 («antler»).

27 Ed. Muir (20062: Riddle 30a, Riddle 30b).28 The variants in Riddle 30b are: gemylted (v. 3b) in place of gebysgad, gecyssad (l. 6b) in

place of cyssad, modge miltsum (v. 8a) in place of monige mit miltse, swa ic mongum (v. 8b) in

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deal with the whole group of eight homiletic works – from Judgement Day I toHomiletic Fragment II (ff. 115v-122v) – which precede Riddle 30b and Riddle 60,and which seems to cast a new, different light on The Husband’s Message (seebelow 2.1.-2.3.).

1.2.1. The position of Riddle 30b and Riddle 60

Before considering the relation between Riddle 30b, Riddle 60 and TheHusband’s Message, some issues concerning the two riddles should be dealt with; inparticular, their isolated position in the manuscript and the reason for a second ver-sion of Riddle 30, already inserted in the first large collection of Riddles 1-59.

According to Conner (1993: 159-160), the double transcription of Riddle 30would depend on the fact that this text was included in both the large collectionsof riddles copied in the Exeter Book, which were transmitted separately and lateron joined onto the same codex. The hypothesis of two separate collections ofpoems transcribed in the same manuscript seems to Conner more plausible thanone large group of riddles containing two almost identical versions of Riddle 30,24

also in light of the fact that the medieval collections of enigmas in Latin only inclu-de riddles with different solutions, whereas in the Exeter Book the solutions ofsome texts from Riddles 1-59 coincide with the solutions of others25 from Riddles60-94.26 Instead, Conner suggests no explanation regarding the isolation of Riddles30b and 60 in the manuscript.

About the presence of two versions of Riddle 30, other critics based their theo-ries on the fact that Riddle 30a and Riddle 30b27 seem to depend on the same ver-sion of the text: they are identical, except for some variants.28 Doane (1998: 58-65)

place of þær ic monnum, and the omission of ond in l. 7b [see also Afros (2005a: 434-435) and(2005b), Liuzza (1988: 4)]. Afros (2005b: 4) considered the syntactical variants in the two textsinteresting but – unlike Liuzza – rhetorically not particularly relevant, because their syntacticalfunctions are the same in both Riddle 30a and Riddle 30b.

29 Doane (1998: 63).30 Doane (1998: 64).31 Doane (1998: 59).32 Liuzza (1988: 2-3).

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ascribed the variants of Riddle 30b precisely to the possibility that both Riddle 30aand Riddle 30b may have been copied from the same exemplar. The codicologicalanalysis reveals that the position of the words of the two texts on the MS lines isalmost identical, as also the ‘phrase markers’ (the spaces inside and between the sen-tences). According to Doane, the copying technique of the scribe was aimed atreproducing the ‘substance’ of the text instead of the exact words, recomposing byear and modifying in itinere, freely substituting words with elements that lent thepoem a better effect on a metrical, rhetorical or semantical level.29 As a matter offact, the reception of texts was not so much linked to the lexicon but rather to theposition of the words on the folio, which influenced breaks and pauses in the oralperformance. Accordingly, the variants of Riddle 30b may be explained as anattempt to re-create and maintain unaltered the ‘spatial arrangements’ of the origi-nal layout of the exemplar. In particular, almost all the variants appear at the end ofMS lines (on four out of six MS lines), and they may have been introduced by thecopyist himself while copying the riddle for the second time, in order to mirror thelayout of Riddle 30a at the expense of the ‘phonemic strings’ (the lexical and rhy-thmic elements of the text).30 This interesting theory accounts for the similarity ofRiddle 30a and Riddle 30b, but Doane simply ascribes the detached position ofRiddle 30b to a possible slip of the copyist, who may have copied the riddle asecond time inadvertently.31

Also according to Liuzza, the variants between Riddle 30a and Riddle 30b donot demonstrate that there were two different versions of the riddle. The closesimilarities in the spelling and in the dialect, in addition to the presence of an unu-sual form in both texts – onhæbbe («raise», l. 7a) instead of the standard WestSaxon onhebbe – would suggest both a very short parallel transmission of the tworiddles as separate texts and an origin from a common written ancestor which wasnot very different from them.32 Therefore, the same scribe copied, in the ExeterBook, both Riddle 30a and Riddle 30b from two basically identical texts containedin one or more exemplars, and some of the variations emerged during the transcrip-

33 Examining the Riddles, Liuzza (1988: 11-12) noted some possible interpolations andrearrangements that the scribe, copying from the exemplars, may have introduced in the texts.These modifications would suggest a copyist not very familiar with the riddles, or sometimescareless (for example, he copied Riddle 68 as if it were two different texts, but they actually formpart of the same text).

34 Liuzza (1988: 5-10) believes that Riddle 30a was miscopied and that Riddle 30b is closerto the original model, as it appears stylistically and rhetorically superior. Liuzza (1988: 12).

35 According to Blackburn’s (1901: 4) original idea, the section includes the poems follow-ing Riddle 30b (Riddle 60 and The Husband’s Message), because these three texts all share somethematic aspects.

36 See also Niles (2006), and below 2.3. The term beam («tree») meaning «the Cross»recurs, for example, in Dream of the Rood l. 6a, l. 97b, l. 114b and l. 122a.

37 Due to the non-systematic distribution of the punctuation and the accents, and the typeof mistakes in the Exeter Book, Klinck (1992: 24) concluded that the scribe copied from one ormore exemplars without imposing his own conventions.

38 Riddle 30b is in a prominent position in the manuscript after a section of texts of homilet-ic poems. It is difficult to believe that the riddle has been copied for the second time and juxta-posed to works of a completely different genre by chance or because of an oversight.

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tion of the two texts33 (in fact, according to Liuzza Riddle 30b reveals a rhetoricaland stylistic superiority).34 As regards the position of Riddle 30b the scholar (1988:12-13) referred to Blackburn (1901: 4), suggesting that perhaps in its exemplarRiddle 30b was part of a section of works which was later copied en bloc in theExeter Book.35 This hypothetical series of texts might be the homiletic poems pre-ceding Riddle 30b, in which the riddle would consistently integrate, providedTalentino’s (1981: 135) allegorical interpretation of its solution, «Cross», is moresuitable than the traditional one, «tree».36

Klinck (1992: 24-16), too, agreed that the copyist of the Exeter Book reprodu-ced a section of texts faithfully from the exemplar,37 but according to her this sec-tion corresponds to Riddle 30b, Riddle 60 and The Husband’s Message, all dealingwith plants and trees. The Husband’s Message might have been originally juxtapo-sed to the riddles because of its tripartite structure and the presence of runes (a fre-quent element in the riddles). Therefore, the disposition of the texts would suggestthat the wooden objects described in Riddle 30b («tree») and Riddle 60 («reedpen») may represent a sort of introduction to the rune-staff of The Husband’sMessage. Adopting Klinck’s view, it is possible to advance a hypothesis. If Riddle30b has been copied from the same exemplar as Riddle 30a, as Doane (1998: 63)believes, perhaps the compiler himself was responsible for the choice of copying ita second time and placing it before Riddle 60.38 Furthermore, perhaps Riddle 60was not originally isolated from the other riddles, or copied as detached by mista-

39The edition of Riddle 60 adopted here is Klinck’s (1992: 99), whereas the translation ismine.

40 Ms: seaxeđ.

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ke. The function of these two riddles as an introduction to The Husband’s Messagecan be ascribed to the importance the compiler attached to this text. However, it isdifficult to explain why the choice fell on Riddle 30 and Riddle 60: in fact, they arenot the only riddles dealing with wooden objects or presenting a narrative structu-re similar to that in The Husband’s Message (the description of the origin of themysterious identity at the beginning and then, ex abrupto, its transformation).Riddle 30 may have been chosen because, among the riddles concerning woodenobjects, it allows a variety of interpretations. Niles (2006: 130; 132) pointed outthat the solution, «tree», represents a sort of metonymy with respect to all theother objects hinted at in the text (l. 4a: maybe a forest, l. 5: maybe a cup, l. 7: may-be the Cross), because it simply identifies the material of which each of them ismade. This openness to different readings also includes a possible allegorical mea-ning: the potential allusion to the Cross would link the riddle to the Christian con-text described by the preceding homiletic texts and create continuity between the-se poems and The Husband’s Message, which is also similarly open to an allegoricalinterpretation (see below 2.3.).

1.2.2. The relation with Riddle 6039

1 Ic wæs be sonde, sæwealle neah, æt merefaroþe, minum gewunade frumstaþole fæst. Fea ænig wæs monna cynnes þæt minne þær

5 on anæde eard beheolde; ac mec uhtna gehwam yđ sio brune lagufæđme beleolc. Lyt ic wende þæt ic ær oþþe siđ æfre sceolde ofer meodu muđleas sprecan,

10 wordum wrixlan. Þæt is wundres dæl, on sefan searolic, þam þe swylc ne conn, hu mec seaxes40 ord ond seo swiþre hond, eorles ingeþonc ond ord somod, þingum geþydan þæt ic wiþ þe sceolde

41 Ms: twan.42Riddle 60: «I was by the sand, near the sea-wall / by the sea-waves, I lived fixed / to my

original seat. There was / almost no one of the race of men that could / see my dwelling there insolitude; / but every dawn the dark wave / flowed around me with watery embraces. Hardly Iimagined / that, sooner or later, I would have had / to speak without a mouth in the hall, / toexchange words. That is part of a wonder, / ingenuous for the mind of someone who doesn’tknow such thing, / how the point of the knife and the right hand, / a man’s thought and thepoint, together, / for this purpose pressed me, so that I have to / transmit to you instantly, beforeus two only, / a message, in such a way that no one else / will relate more widely our words».

43 Unlike critics, Elliott (1955: 1), Goldsmith (1975: 263) and Pope (1978: 54-56) consid-ered Riddle 60 as an introductory passage contained in The Husband’s Message.

44 Dulcis amica dei, ripae vicina profundae, / suave canens musis; nigro perfusa colore, / nuntiasum linguae digitis signata magistris. Ohl (1928: 36-37).

45 Leslie (1968: 433) believed that the Latin enigma may have been a source of inspirationfor Riddle 60 as regards the origin of the reed, but the development of the Anglo-Saxon text isdifferent from that of the Latin poem and leads to a different solution («pen» instead of«reed»). Whitman (1971: 110, 115) also noted that in Harundo there are references to two ofthe possible ‘transformations’ of the reed: the flute (l. 2a) and the pen (l. 3). These objects alsoappear in Riddle 60 in a similar textual pattern (l. 9, perhaps a reference to the flute, and ll. 12-13, perhaps a hint to the pen).

46 See below 3.1.1.

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15 for unc anum twam41 ærendspræce abeodan bealdlice, swa hit beorna ma uncre wordcwidas widdor ne mænden.42

Riddle 60 and The Husband’s Message, juxtaposed on the manuscript, appearvery much connected on the level of content. For a long time critics sought to veri-fy whether the riddle represents an integral text or forms part of The Husband’sMessage; today its independence is widely accepted.43 Some critics, such as Leslie(1968: 453) and Whitman (1971: 108-109), even detected some parallels betweenRiddle 60 and Symphosius’ Harundo44 and supposed a thematic influence from theLatin enigma. However, as the similarity is limited to the presence of a reed, whichis afterwards transformed into an object, we cannot speak of derivation.45

The elements that, in the past, cast doubts on the integrity of Riddle 60 are ofdifferent types. First of all, the narrator of the riddle resembles that of TheHusband’s Message, identified with a personified object46 (l. 13b beam, «stick») bymost critics, as suggested by terms referring to the object and its natural environ-ment (l. 2a treocyn «type of wood», l. 13b beam «stick», l. 23b bearwe «forest»).Moreover, in both texts there is a reference to a secret communication (Riddle 60 ll.

47 L. 1: «Now secretly I want to tell you».48 Leslie (1968: 455).49 Williamson (1982: 201); (1977: 215) did not completely rule out this solution because of

l. 9a (ofer meodu «in the hall»), which may refer to the hall of warriors, a place suitable for aninstrument; however, the scholar also pointed out that a flute can hardly be defined as muđleas.The solution «reed pen» thus seems more suitable, not least because the motif of speakingwithout a mouth, or speaking while keeping quiet, also recurs in other riddles linked to thetheme of writing: for example, Riddle 67 l. 6b nænne muđ hafađ «it has no mouth» («Bible»)or Riddle 94 ll. 9b-10a no þær word sprecan / ænig ofer eorđan «without saying a word there onearth» («book»). See Nelson (1978).

50 Muir (20062: The Husband’s Message / Commentary).51 Niles (2006: 131). The solution proposed by Kirby (2001: 219) also seems to be based

only on the closeness of The Husband’s Message: considering the expressions muđleas sprecan (l.9b) and ord (l. 12a, perhaps a reference to the weapon of a warrior), the scholar hypothesizes thatthe solution of the riddle may be a runic message carved on a cliff close to the sea (the idea of therunes would depend on l. 17 uncre wordcwidas widdor ne mænden).

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16b-17, The Husband’s Message l. 1 Nu ic onsundran þe secgan wille).47 In additionto that, from a codicological point of view the scarcely marked incipit of TheHusband’s Message also contributed to instilling doubt about where to identify thebeginning of the text (see below 1.1.3.).

The integrity of Riddle 60 can mainly be supported by comparison with otherriddles (for example, Riddles 26, 53, 73, 92), from which a recurring narrative sche-me emerges. According to this scheme, the narration develops through threemoments in particular: the description of the birthplace (ll. 1-7a), the transforma-tion of the object (ll. 7b-14a) and its new function (a reed pen, ll. 14b-17).48

Therefore, as Goldsmith (1975: 244) pointed out, despite the similarities, the nar-rator at the beginning of The Husband’s Message cannot be identified with the spea-ker in Riddle 60; in fact, a second description of the mysterious entity’s origin(which would correspond to The Husband’s Message ll. 1-12) would not be consi-stent with the structural pattern described above, which characterizes Riddle 60. Afurther element suggesting the independence of Riddle 60 is the fact that, at theend of the text, it is possible to guess the solution without the need of furtherdetails.

Critics did not always agree on the solution in the case of Riddle 60: beside themost widely accepted one, which recognized in the mysterious entity a «reed pen»(or possibly a «flute»),49 Williamson (1977: 315-319) and Muir (20062)50 sugge-sted «rune-staff», maybe due to the proximity of The Husband’s Message on themanuscript.51 Niles (2006: 132) instead proposed «reed», pointing out that, simi-

52 Leslie (1968: 433) sought to prove that the narrator in The Husband’s Message is in fact amessenger and not a personified rune-staff. This theory represents for Leslie a crucial argumentfor denying the inclusion of Riddle 60 in The Husband’s Message.

53 See Riddles 19, 24, 64 and 75 (and, with their names written in full, in Riddles 42 and 58).54 The edition adopted for Cædmon’s Hymn and An Exhortation to Christian Living is

Dobbie’s (1942: 105-106; 67-69).55 It is included in Leslie’s (1961) and in Klinck’s (1992) editions of elegies.

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larly to the narrative strategy and the type of solution of Riddle 30b («tree»),Riddle 60 would also not represent a mysterious entity coinciding with the objectsdescribed (a pen and a flute), but rather one identified with the material of whichthey are made.

In light of all these considerations, Riddle 60 certainly can be classified as a rid-dle and, as such, as an independent text. The first section of The Husband’s Messagein particular shares thematic elements and stylistic features with Riddles 30b and 60(and with the genre of the riddles), such as the description of the narrator’s bir-thplace at the beginning (ll. 1-12) and the subsequent transformation into anobject with new functions (l. 13), the apparent personification of the speaker52 andthe presence of runes.53 As discussed above, also the capital letter introducing ll. 1-12 (the least marked capital letter in The Husband’s Message) resembles the initialsof the riddles. Nu «now» is a controversial incipit: according to Leslie (1961: 14),it is aimed at catching the audience’s attention, as in Cædmon’s Hymn and in AnExhortation to Christian Living.54 In Elliott’s opinion (1955: 1-2), instead, theadverb nu at the beginning of a text has the precise function of creating a link withthe preceding text – in this case, Riddle 60. Without denying the integrity ofRiddle 60, Nu thus seems to work as a structural element and to suggest a strictconnection between the riddle and the first section of The Husband’s Message. Thisconnection deserves more attention because, together with textual analysis, it canprovide new elements for the interpretation of the poem (see below 3.3.2.).

1.2.3. The Ruin

The Ruin, which follows The Husband’s Message, is introduced by a scarcelymarked incipit, a capital letter which resembles, in size, the second initial of TheHusband’s Message. Traditionally defined as ‘elegiac’,55 this poem has a contempla-tive tone and a mainly descriptive style; unlike in other elegies, the narration is inthe third person singular and does not deal with stories of personal suffering but

56 The edition adopted for The Ruin is Klinck’s (1992: 103-105).57 The adjective wrætlic and the adverb wrætlice often recur in the riddles, sometimes at the

very beginning: Riddle 33 l. 1b, Riddle 42 l. 1b, Riddle 44 l. 1a, Riddle 51 l. 1a, Riddle 69 l. 1a,Riddle 70 l. 1a; Riddle 23 l. 2a, Riddle 36 l. 2a, Riddle 47 l. 2a, Riddle 67 l. 2a, Riddle 68 l. 2a;Riddle 55 l. 3a.

58 Derolez (1954: 399-400): some of the runes (in particular W «joy», M «man» and Œ«earth») were sometimes used in texts to replace one of the two elements of a compound, likein Riddle 90 l. 7a, where the term mod W means «joy in the heart». In Beowulf, in three out ofeleven cases, the rune Œ stands for the word eþel «earth». However, with respect to The Ruin,Klinck (1992: 26) admitted: «I find no particular reason for the inclusion of the M-rune in TheRuin». As far as The Husband’s Message is concerned, the function of the runes is instead that ofa cryptic code aimed at conveying a secret message (see below 3.2.-3.2.2.).

59 Because of the loss of at least one folio after f. 118, critics expressed different opinions onthe (supposed) integrity of Contrition. Klinck (1992: 28-29, 95-98) considered the poem as aunitary work; Muir (20062: Contrition A; Contrition B) instead distinguished two differenttexts. While admitting some doubts about the integrity of the poem, J.E. Anderson (1986b:

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rather with the decadence of a city. At l. 1a Wrætlic is þes wealstan «This wall-sto-ne is wonderful»)56 the word wrætlic, recalling the incipit of some of the riddles,may provide a connection between The Ruin and the following texts, Riddles 61-94.57 Regarding the juxtaposition with The Husband’s Message, there is no obviouslink between the two texts despite the presence of a rune in The Ruin, which con-ventionally replaces the term mon in the compound M dreama (mondreama «joysof men», l. 23b).58 However, the preceding section of poems from Judgement DayI to Homiletic Fragment II may provide a Christian context in which a possible con-nection between The Husband’s Message and The Ruin may be seen on an allegori-cal level. Both texts present narrative elements which lend themselves to a symbolicinterpretation – such as the themes of the pledge, the sea journey and the secretmessage in The Husband’s Message, the symbolic meaning of images such as the‘wall-stone’ and the water in The Ruin – and which should be reconsidered in thelight of their connection to the homiletic themes characterizing this part of theExeter Book (see below 2.3.).

1.2.4. The section of homiletic poems

The eight religious poems preceding Riddle 30b, Riddle 60 and The Husband’sMessage are of different lengths, genres and structures. They range from The Lord’sPrayer I to the penitential and elegiac Contrition A and Contrition B,59 from the

112-114) proposed to treat it as a ‘conceptual unity’, and Pulsiano (1995: 155) also observedthat «[t]he poems are best understood as two fragmentary, but complementary, works».

60 See Zimmermann (1995: 171-174). Swanton (1964: 273) pointed out that all theseworks, except for Homiletic Fragment II, are ascribed to the school of Cynewulf (between theend of the eighth and the beginning of the ninth centuries).

61 Muir (20062: Introduction / The Anthologist, the Texts and their Sectional Divisions).62 In the Bible, Christ’s Descent into Hell is set before His Resurrection (conventionally on

Holy Saturday). In medieval tradition the chronological inversion of these two episodes is notrare, however, perhaps because the universality of salvation was further emphasized by showingthat the Saviour’s Resurrection can radically change even the condition of the dead. Izidorczyk(1990: 444-445).

63 Muir (20062: Introduction / The Anthologist, the Texts and their Sectional Divisions).J.E. Anderson (1986b: 127-134) highlighted Easter as a further theme shared by most of thepoems of this homiletic section. Firstly, Easter is connected to Judgement Day, as Christ’sResurrection forewarns the resurrection of the body and soul at Christ’s Second Coming.Pharaoh recalls the Jewish Easter, which celebrates the beginning of a new life for the Israelitesbecause the episode of the Exodus was one of the canonical readings of the Old Testament in thefirst days of Easter liturgy. Almsgiving refers to a penance typical of Lent (cf. Blickling HomilyDominica Tertia in Quadragesima, containing a passage concerning the duties of a priest and, atthe end, a passage devoted to alms), and The Lord’s Prayer I is traditionally associated to the pen-itential rites of Lent. The edition adopted for Dominica Tertia in Quadragesima is Kelly’s (2003:26-37).

64 Muir (20062: Introduction / The Anthologist, the Texts and their Sectional Divisions).

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Biblical Descent into Hell to the short, dialogic Pharaoh. These texts altogetherseem to develop a common theme: Christ’s Second Coming.60 Judgement Day Iintroduces this topic, urging the faithful to repent; through frequent hints at episo-des of the historia salutis, the following poems underline the necessity of reaffir-ming Christian belief.61 Contrition A and Contrition B, juxtaposing two oppositebehaviours – a request for help addressed to God to gain eternal salvation, and acomplaint about one’s hardships –, emphasize the need to do penance for one’ssins. The Descent into Hell deals instead with one of the main themes of the historyof salvation, Christ’s liberation of sinners from Hell, an event which, in this Anglo-Saxon poem, is set after His Resurrection.62 This text is strictly linked to the Easterliturgy, where Christ’s Resurrection is associated with the Christians’ new birththrough the sacrament of baptism.63 In this context, the good deed described inAlmsgiving highlights the importance of behaving well during life to access theKingdom of Heaven. In its conciseness, the dialogic Pharaoh is particularly relevantbecause it hints at Exodus, which is central in the historia salutis;64 the allusion tothe destruction of the Pharaoh’s army in the waters of the Red Sea reminds us of the

65 See below 2.3.66 More strictly textual aspects of the text are dealt with below (see below 3.1.-3.2.1., 3.3.-

3.4.4.).67 The edition of the text adopted is Klinck’s (1992: 100-102). On my own initiative, I have

signalled the hapax legomena in the footnotes and I have marked in bold the capital letters, seek-ing to reproduce their original size. The translation is mine and has no literary pretensions butis meant to be a tool in approaching the poem; therefore, it is as literal and respectful to the textas possible.

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fact that the Israelites are the Chosen People. According to Muir, the water, causingthe defeat of the Egyptians, represents freedom and renewal for the believers andthus hints at Christian baptism.65 Two prayers end the homiletic section: TheLord’s Prayer I, which praises God, and Homiletic Fragment II, which encouragesthe faithful to fight earthly temptations through their Christian faith.

Even if The Husband’s Message clearly differs from this group of works in genreand content, its position in the manuscript suggests that it may have a role in thepath of repentance and salvation developed by this homiletic section. Under thisbroader perspective, and only in light of the contest described, may The Husband’sMessage acquire further, symbolic meanings which can be revealed through its rela-tion to the other texts. An allegorical interpretation of the poem will thus be pro-posed here, not as an alternative to other readings based only on the analysis of tex-tual elements,66 but rather as a further contribution to the exegesis of the text.

The connection between The Husband’s Message and the section of homileticpoems deserves its own space (see below 2.-2.3.). However, before proceeding withthat, a presentation of the content of the poem is needed; therefore, text and tran-slation will be included here. As far as a punctual analysis of the sections and theirrelationship is concerned, instead, see below 3.3.-3.4.4.

2. Text and translation67

1 Nu ic onsundran þe secgan wille———— treocyn ic tudre aweox.I[n] mec æld——— ———— sceal ellor londes setta[n] ———— —————————-c

5 sealte strea[mas] ————————————sse.Ful oft ic on bates ——— —————— gesohte þær mec mondryhten min —————

68 Ms: hofu. Both Leslie (1961: 60) and Klinck (1992: 200) believed that hofu, «palaces» inthis context, is less likely than hafu, «seas». Krapp and Dobbie (1936: 226) instead kept theform hofu.

39 The compound ceolþele is a hapax.70 Ms: modlufun.71 Ms: læram.72 Sænacan is a hapax.73 Ms: fędan.

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ofer heah hafu.68 Eom nu her cumenon ceolþele,69 ond nu cunnan scealt

10 hu þu ymb modlufan70 mines frean on hyge hycge. Ic gehatan dear þæt þu þær tirfæste treowe findest.Hwæt, þec þonne biddan het se þisne beam agrofþæt þu, sinchroden, sylf gemunde

15 on gewitlocan wordbeotunga þe git on ærdagum oft gespræcon,þenden git moston on meoduburgum eard weardigan, an lond bugan,freondscype fremman. Hine fæhþo adraf

20 of sigeþeode. Heht nu sylfa þe lustum læran71 þæt þu lagu drefde,siþþan þu gehyrde on hliþes oran galan geomorne geac on bearwe.Ne læt þu þec siþþan siþes getwæfan,

25 lade gelettan, lifgendne monn.ONgin mere secan, mæwes eþel, onsite sænacan,72 þæt þu suđ heonan ofer merelade monnan findestþær se þeoden is þin on wenum.

30 Ne mæg him [ofer] worulde willa * * * mara on gemyndum, þæs þe he me sægdeþonne inc geunne alwaldend god ———— ætsomne siþþan motan secgum ond gesiþum s[inc gedælan],

35 næglede beagas. He genoh hafađ fædan73 gol[des], ———————-

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—————ed elþeode eþel healde,fægre fold[an] ————————————————— [hold]ra hæleþa, þeah þe her min win[e]

40 ——————- —————————nyde gebæded nacan ut aþrong,ond on yþa g——-g— [ana] sceolde faran on flotweg, forđsiþes georn, mengan merestreamas. Nu se mon hafađ

45 wean oferwunnen; nis him wilna gad,ne meara, ne mađma, ne meododreama,ænges ofer eorþan eorl gestreona,þeodnes dohtor, gif he þin beneah.Ofer eald gebeot incer twega

50 ge[h]yre ic ætsomne · ᛋ· ᚱ· geador,· ᛠ· ᚹ· ond · ᛗ· aþe benemnanþæt he þa wære ond þa winetreowe be him lifgendum læstan woldeþe git on ærdagum oft gespræconn.

1 Now secretly I want to tell you……….. the type of wood, I was born from the breedIn me men ……………… I must, elsewhere on the earth establish ……………… ………..……………….

5 salty waves, ………… ……………………………Very often on … of the ship, I sought where my lord …………… meon the high seas. I have now come hereon the ship’s deck, and you ought to know

10 what you think in your heartabout my lord’s love. I dare promisethat you will find there glorious fidelity.Look! The one who carved this stick ordered me to ask youthat you, adorned with jewels, remember

15 in your mind the promisesthat you two often spoke in old times,when, in the stronghold of mead,you two could keep a home, inhabit one land, have a friendship. A feud drove him away

74 For an interpretation of the runes and the syntax of the sentence at ll. 50-51, see below3.2.2.

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20 from the glorious people. Now he himself has ordered to instruct you joyfully, so that you toss the watersafter you have heard on the edge of the cliffthe sad cuckoo sing in the wood.Don’t let then any living man

25 divert you from the journey, prevent you the way.Start to seek the sea, the seagull’s homeBoard a ship, so that, southward from here, over the sea-way you find the man:there that prince is waiting for you.

30 He cannot …….. for himself, [in] the world, a greatest wish in his heart, as he said to me, that almighty God allows you two……….. together then you can [distribute a treasure] to men and followers,

35 adorned bracelets. He owns enoughdecorated gold, ………………………………. a foreign nation hold a country,a beautiful land, …………………..……… of loyal men, although here my lord

40 …………………. …………………forced by necessity rushed out his ship and on the waves …. [alone] had totravel on the sea-way, eager for the journey,to stir up the sea-streams. Now that man has

45 overcome his trouble; he lacks neither joy, nor steeds, nor treasures, nor joys of the mead none of the noble treasures on earthdaughter of a prince, if he enjoys you.Over the old promise between you two

50 I hear ‘sun’s path’,74

who is altogether ‘joy of the earth’, and ‘man’ declare together by an oaththat, as long as he lives, he would keepthe pledge and the faith between friendsthat you two often spoke in old times.

75 Swanton (1964: ), Bolton (1969), Kaske (1967), Goldsmith (1975: 251-263).76 See also Goldsmith (1975: 253). See also Ch. 1 (1.1.-1.2.).77 Bolton (1969: 338-339) saw a correspondence between The Wife’s Lament l. 31b brerum

beweaxne and ll. 28b-29a in þam eorđscræfe / […] þes eorđsele and Canticum Canticorum 2:2 Sicutlilium inter spinas and 2:14 in foraminibus petrae in caverna maceriae. The Husband’s Message ll.22-23 siþþan þu gehirde […] / galan geomorne geac on bearwe and l. 48a þeodnes dohtor resembleCanticum Canticorum 2:12 vox turturis audita est and 7:1. filia principis. However, CanticumCanticorum, where the main theme is the love between a man and a woman who represent allegor-ically Christ and His Church, compared to The Wife’s Lament and The Husband’s Message is muchlonger and more focused on images describing the relationship between the two characters. Theseaspects and many other details do not appear in the two Old English poems; therefore, the recur-rence of some similar expressions scattered throughout them cannot prove any dependence fromCanticum Canticorum and cannot testify to a reworking of the Biblical text (see below 2.4., 2.5.).

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2.1. The pact and the sea journey: an allegorical interpretation

The content of The Husband’s Message can be described as a man’s exhortationto his spouse to reunite with her in a distant land now that he has overcome thehardships of the past. Probably the position of this poem is not fortuitous in themanuscript, after a section of homiletic works dealing with the necessity of repen-ting in view of eternal salvation, a perspective made possible only by Christ’sSecond Coming. My analysis will seek to show that, after the announcement ofJudgement Day and the excursus into the history of salvation from Judgement DayI to Homiletic Fragment II, The Husband’s Message seems to seal the path of salva-tion described and, with a secret message, to hint at the Christian consolation thatthe soul will obtain in the afterlife. In fact, this message may be read as God’s wordaddressed to all the faithful, urging them to reunite with Him spiritually because –as the preceding homiletic poems underline – on Judgement Day only the redee-med will be saved. The Father’s reward will thus be granted to those who will com-ply with the precepts and put their faith in Him.

This interpretation is justified only by attaching an allegorical meaning to TheHusband’s Message. In the past some critics interpreted the text as an allegory,75 butthose readings researched a precise source and punctual correspondences betweenpassages of the Holy Scriptures and expressions or images in the poem; however, thepoetic composition of The Husband’s Message, both in structure and content, seemsto lack a real model.76 Some parallels appear a bit forced and some conclusions risky,such as Bolton’s (1969) who, highlighting some possible lexical parallels, sought toprove that Canticum Canticorum is the source of both The Husband’s Message andThe Wife’s Lament.77 Nevertheless, these first allegorical readings have the merit of

78 The edition adopted for Psalm 100 is Krapp’s (1933: 71).79 See Liber Genesis 12:1-4, 7; 13:16; 17: 1-9; Epistula ad Galatas 3:6-9, 16, Epistula ad

Romanos 4:13.80 According to this covenant the Israelites received the Ten Commandments; see Epistula

ad Hebraeos 12:22-24, Liber Exodi 20:3-17, Liber Deuteronomii 27:11-26, etc.81 God promised Noah a mighty progeny and assured him that no living being would be

destroyed by the waters of the Flood, see Liber Genesis 9:9.82 This alliance is not written on stone but rather on people’s hearts; according to it, David

will build a house in the name of God and God will make His kingdom stable forever. See IIRegum 7:12-13, Liber Ieremiae 33:17, Epistula ad Hebraeos 8:13.

83 Goldsmith (1975: 253-256).

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highlighting some textual elements that, together with the enigmatic runic message,may be reinterpreted as allusions to the Old and New Testaments: among these,especially the main themes of the pledge, the sea journey and the secret message.

The pact between a man and a woman is central in The Husband’s Message. Thelord, through his message, reminds his spouse of the vows of fidelity they utteredwhen they were still together, and renews his commitment with a new oath expres-sed by some runes carved on a stick. Terms referring to the promise and the oldpledge are frequent and scattered throughout the text: l. 15b wordbeotunga «pro-mises», l. 49a eald gebeot «old promise»; l. 51b aþe «with an oath», l. 52a wære«pledge», l. 52b winetreowe «faith between friends». Also in the first section the-re is an allusion to the vows: l. 12: þæt þu þær tirfæste treowe findest «that you willfind there glorious fidelity», very close to Psalm 100.6 l. 3 hwær ic tirfæste treowefunde («where I found glorious fidelity»).78 On a figurative level, the focus on thistopic recalls the Old Testament pledges between God and man which, in the lightof the New Testament, represent crucial steps in the history of revelation andredemption. In the first pact, God asks Abraham to leave his land and promiseshim a mighty progeny, from which a great people will descend.79 In the Bible fre-quent allusions hint at this pledge, which is of seminal importance in the history ofsalvation, as it lays the foundations for the covenant between God and the ChosenPeople, a covenant which later will be sealed by other pacts (such as Moses’ Tablesof the Law,80 Noah’s pact81 and king David’s new alliance82). In The Husband’sMessage the promises between the two characters clearly date back to a distanttime: l. 49a eald gebeot, ll. 15b-16 wordbeotunga / þe git on ærdagum oft gespræconnand ll. 52-54 […] þa wære ond þa winetreowe / […] / þe git on ærdagum oft gespræ-conn («[…] the pledge and the faith between friends / […] / that you two oftenspoke in old times») highlight that the promise is not only old but also firmly esta-blished, as in the Old Testament.83

84 This homily, which is ascribed to John Chrysostom, was translated from Greek to Latinin the fifth century. See the passage […] uiator factus est [Christus], ut te sine labore faceret;nauigauit, ut te sine timore redderet […]. Froben and Episcopius (1547: 839).

85 See Evangelium secundum Mattheum 8:23, about which Bede [Charles’ (1913: 42) edi-tion] comments: Mare quod dominus […] transire desiderat praesentis saeculi tenebrosus accipitusaestus. Navicula quam ascendant nulla melius quam dominicae passionis arbor intellegitur, de quaalibi dicitur, si quis vult post me venire tollat crucem suam, et sequatur me.

86 Ll. 43b-44a: forđsiþes georn, / mengan merestreamas «eager for the journey, to stir up thesea-streams». According to Swanton (1964: 288), the resoluteness of Christ’s behaviour in fac-ing death in The Husband’s Message ll. 43b-44 resembles that of the heroic Christ in Dream ofthe Rood; see for example ll. 126b-131a: Is me nu lifes hyht / þæt ic þone sigebeam  secan mote / anaoftor þonne ealle men, / well weorþian. Me is willa to đam / mycel on mode, ond min mundbyrd is/ geriht to þære rode «Now it is my life’s hope / that I, alone more often than all men / may searchfor that tree of victory / to honour it well. / I have a great wish in my heart / for that, and myprotection is / directed to the Cross».

87 See Evangelium secundum Marcum 4: 37-40, The Ascension ll. 411-424 and Andreas ll.443b-454a.

88 Iesaias Propheta 60:19: Non erit tibi amplius sol ad lucendum per diem nec splendor lunaeilluminabit te sed erit tibi Dominus in lucem sempiternam et Deus tuus in gloriam tuam.

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The theme of the sea journey is also strictly connected to the Biblical context, asthe comparison with other Anglo-Saxon poems helps in highlighting. In TheHusband’s Message the image of the ship appears twice: when, in the past, the lordwas forced to leave his spouse and go on a journey because of a feud (fæþo; see ll.19b-20a, 39b-44a) and when, as soon as he has overcome his hardships, he invitesthe woman to board a ship and go south, and join him in a foreign land (ll. 44b-45a). In medieval religious works Christ’s death was often associated with naviga-tion, as in De cruce dominica homily.84 In addition to that, as Bede points out, inthe Gospels sea travel (in naviculam) is a symbol of Christ’s passion and death onthe Cross, through which he saved men85 – and perhaps this is why, in TheHusband’s Message, the lord is compelled to leave but, at the same time, appears«willing to (pursue) the journey».86 As regards the woman’s journey, instead, theimage of the ship facing a dangerous crossing to reach a safe harbour has a Christianmeaning both in the Bible and in Anglo-Saxon literature.87 Therefore, the adjura-tion to go «southward from here» (suđ heonan, l. 27b) may represent an invitationto follow Christ symbolized by the sun, whose course is southward.88 Also the S-rune in l. 50 may hint at this allegorical image, as the interpretation of the runicmessage will suggest (see below 3.2.2.).

The pledge and the journey, which are key themes in both The Husband’sMessage and the history of salvation, and the presence of lexical forms which seem

89 See also below 3.4.2.90 The sense of mystery is also grounded in the etymology of the Norse term rún: «obscure

and mysterious speech».91 Evangelium secundum Mattheum 13:11: qui respondens ait illis quia vobis datum est nosse

mysteria regni caelorum illis autem non est datum..92 Goldsmith (1975: 261). Bede underlined the correspondence between the Church and

the faithful’s soul: Quanto devotius Ecclesia sive anima quaeque sancta diligit Deum, tanto famil-iarius habet amicum Deum; cf. In Cantica Canticorum, Hurst and Hudson’s (1983: 236) edition.

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to recall Biblical motives,89 may thus lead to a further, Christian reading of thisAnglo-Saxon poem.

2.2. The message and the third section

Consistently with an allegorical interpretation, especially the runic message onll. 50-51 of The Husband’s Message may serve the purpose of transmitting aChristian teaching coherent with the preceding homiletic poems. In light of anallegorical reading, the message can acquire the meaning of a new promise aimed atreconfirming the old vows often hinted at (ll. 15b, 49a, 51b, 52a, 52b). This rene-wed alliance is uttered at l. 1 Nu ic onsundran þe secgan wille, where the adverbonsundran «secretly» may allude to the mystery associated with the runes.90 On aChristian level, onsundran may figuratively refer to the mystery of the Kingdom ofHeaven (see Evangelium secundum Mattheum 13:11),91 which will be unveiledwhen the Church (and the soul of the faithful) will complete a spiritual journey tojoin Christ.92

Partly anticipating the interpretation of the runes and the message (see below3.2.-3.2.2.), we can suppose that the contracting parties of the new pledge may beChrist – identified by the two compounds Sigel-Rad «sun’s path» (and thus, alle-gorically, «Kingdom of Heaven») and Ear-Wyn «joy of the earth» – and human-kind represented by Mon. The compiler’s choice of highlighting with a markedincipit the beginning of the third section may depend on the very position of therunes, at the end of the poem, as all the runes seal the old vows and represent theessence of the poem.

In this part of the codex Judgement Day I and The Husband’s Message, the onlytexts with an internal section more marked than the beginning of the poem, framea group of works inspired by the history of salvation. In Judgement Day I the mar-ked section contains the positive example of every living creature «who thinks dee-

93 See above 1.1.3.94 Muir (20062: Riddle 30b): Ic eom ligbysig lace mid winde, / w[uldre bewunden we]dre

gesomnad, / fus forđweges, fyre gemylted, / bear[u] blowende, byrnende gled. / Ful oft mec gesiþassendađ æfter hondum, / þær mec weras ond wif wlonce gecyssađ. / Þonne ic mec onhæbbe, hi onhni-gađ to me, / modge miltsum, swa ic mongum sceal / ycan upcyme eadignesse. «I am beset withflames, fighting with the wind / wound round with splendour, united with the elements / eagerfor the onward journey, agitated by fire / blooming in a wood, a burning flame. / Very often

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ply» (deophydigra, l. 96a),93 who will receive God’s mercy on Judgement Day; inThe Husband’s Message instead it includes a runic message suggesting hope for sal-vation. We can hypothesize that these sections are the most significant passages inthe two poems and convey an important Christian doctrine: those who keep thefaith will be saved and will reach the Kingdom of Heaven. The Husband’s Message,whose allegorical meaning seems to refer to God’s promise of salvation to the fai-thful, thus concludes the path outlined in Judgement Day I and developed by thefollowing homiletic texts, where the focus is especially on the importance of repen-tance and atonement. The exhortation to conversion plays especially on the rewardwhich will follow, eternal salvation; therefore The Husband’s Message, as accompli-shment of the spiritual path and message of hope coming from God after penance,seems to integrate perfectly into this context.

2.3. The interaction between The Husband’s Message and the homiletic sec-tion of texts

As previously shown, in the manuscript The Husband’s Message is separatedfrom the section of homiletic texts by two riddles which, together with it, representa thematic section dealing with wooden objects. The position of these riddles maypossibly be ascribed to a compiler’s initiative aimed at creating a sort of ‘introduc-tion’ for The Husband’s Message.

However, Riddle 30b and Riddle 60, isolated from the two collections of rid-dles, seem somehow to integrate into the preceding homiletic context because theyallow for different levels of interpretation, including a religious one. Niles (2006:130-132) noticed that, in Riddle 30b and 60, «a material thing is seen in successi-ve modes of its temporal existence, first as something alive and growing, and thenas the material source from which crafted things are made». As solutions for theriddles, he suggests «tree» (or «wood») and «reed», from which all the descri-bed objects derive. In Riddle 30b94 there are references to various objects: a tree (ll.

companions pass me from hand to hand / so that proud men and women can kiss me. / Then Iraise myself up, and they bow to me / many with reverent joy; there I shall / increase the ascen-dancy of blessedness among people». Translation by Treharne (2000: 71).

95 Blackburn (1901: 1-13).96 See for example Epistula ad Corinthos I 3:13-15.97 See also Dream of the Rood ll. 135b-140a: ond ic wene me / daga gehwylce hwænne me dry-

htnes rod, / […] / on þysson lænan life gefetige / ond me þonne gebringe þær is blis mycel,/ dream onheofonum «and every day / I expect that the Lord’s Cross / […] / will take me from this transi-tory life / and then bring me where there is great bliss, / joy in Heaven».

98 See this image in the Latin poem De Pascha ascribed to Cyprianus; see Hartel’s (1871:306) edition.

99 This solution, which was firstly proposed by Leslie (1968: 455), is perhaps the most like-ly, not least considering that Riddle 60 ll. 6-7a seem to refer to a reed plunged into the waters ofa lake rather than to a tree: ac mec uhtna gehwam yđ sio brune / lagufæđme beleolc «but everydawn the dark wave / flowed around me with watery embraces» [see Goldsmith (1975: 244)].Other critics, such as Williamson (1977: 315) and Porter (20032: 136), could not choosebetween reed pen, flute and rune-staff. Kaske (1967: 63-69) instead tried to prove that Riddle60 describes the same object we find in The Husband’s Message (the rune-staff ) and that the twotexts together represent an allegory of the Cross. See also above 1.2.2.

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1-2), a ship (l. 3), a harp, a cup or the Cross (ll. 5-6) and again, perhaps, the Cross(ll. 7-9).95 The solution «Cross» offers significant possibilities to read the riddleallegorically. Talentino (1981: 130-132) considered a number of elements whichmay lead to a religious interpretation, such as the allusions to the fire (l. 1a: legby-sig, l. 3b: fyre gemylted, l. 4b: byrnende), which is a symbol for God represented as alight and a purifying fire,96 and the reference to the wind (l. 1b: lace mid winde),which is an image of the Holy Spirit. According to Talentino (1981: 133-143) theexpression fus forđweges («eager for the journey», l. 3a) suggests the idea of theCross as a spiritual vehicle which allowed Christ to ascend to Heaven.97 On ll. 5-6people pass the object on from hand to hand and kiss it: this scene reminds us ofthe ritual adoration of the Cross on Good Friday, thus implying the theme of theCrucifixion, and of Christ’s Resurrection.

According to Borysławski (2004: 90) Riddle 30b and Riddle 60 link HomileticFragment II to The Husband’s Message through the Christian metaphor of the ‘treeof life’ (lignum vitae).98 Among its various meanings, this image can also representa reference to the Cross which, rising from the earth up to the sky, led Christ to theFather and joins humankind to God. If Riddle 30b can thus be associated with theCross, Riddle 60 seems to refer to another object: a reed, from which a reed pen canbe made.99 The reed also has a connection with a Christian symbol: in fact, in theBible it sometimes recurs as a measuring instrument (of a temple, a sanctuary or an

100 See Apocalypsis Iohannis 11:1 and Hiezechiel Propheta 40:3.101 Goldsmith (1975: 261).102 According to Goldsmith (1975: 258) the pen implies a further reference to the action of

spreading God’s word by means of the Scriptures, perhaps in light of Iesaias Propheta 11:9: Nonnocebunt et non occident in universo monte sancto meo quia repleta est terra scientia Domini sicutaquae maris operientes.

103 Caie (1976: 85). See also Epistula Petri I 3:21: quod et vos similis formae salvos facit bap-tisma non carnis depositio sordium sed conscientiae bonae interrogation in Deum per resurrectionemIesu Christi.

104 Muir (20062: Introduction / The Anthologist, the Texts and their Sectional Divisions).105 Epistula ad Romanos 6:3-4: An ignoratis quia quicumque baptizati sumus in Christo Iesu

in morte ipsius baptizati sumus? Consepulti enim sumus cum illo per baptismum in mortem ut quo-modo surrexit Christus a mortuis per gloriam Patris ita et nos in novitate vitae ambulemus; 10-11:Quod enim mortuus est peccato mortuus est semel quod autem vivit vivit Deo. Ita et vos existimatevos mortuos quidem esse peccato viventes autem Deo in Christo Iesu.

106 J.E. Anderson (1986a: 637).

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altar)100 which, metaphorically, can ‘measure’ souls and divide the unrighteousfrom those who accepted God’s doctrine transmitted by the Holy Scriptures.101

The reed pen may also be a symbolic object: it is associated with God’s word forexample in Psalmus 44: 2 Lingua mea stilus scribae, which, according to traditionalexegesis, means that God’s word is not ephemeral but is as immutable as the writtenword.102

In light of the above, both Riddle 30b and Riddle 60 present some elementswhich can be interpreted from a Christian perspective and may potentially integra-te them in the religious context provided by the preceding section of homiletictexts. As regards these poems, in a strict relation to Christ’s Second Coming ano-ther eschatological image seems to emerge through a series of allusions: the image ofwater, which is associated with baptism. Unlike on Judgement Day, when the bodywill resurrect together with the soul, in baptism only the soul comes back to life: itis the first stage of the spiritual journey that the Christian begins in order to purifyhimself and reunite with God.103 This sacrament is also linked to the Easter liturgy,as the Resurrection recalls the renewal experienced through baptism.104 Therefore,as the Letter of St. Paul to the Romans 6:3-11105 clearly points out, to be baptizedmeans to convert oneself, accept Abraham’s pact and believe that our salvationdepends on Christ’s death on the Cross. The clearest references to baptism are con-tained in The Descent into Hell, which narrates the events of Easter morning. Theprevious day, Holy Saturday, is traditionally known as the day of baptism onearth,106 of which John the Baptist (who is the principal narrator in the text) is a

107 The Descent into Hell ll. 131-137a: ond for Iordane in Iudeum — / wit unc in þære burnanbaþodan ætgædre. / Oferwurpe þu mid þy wætre, weoruda dryhten, / bliþe mode ealle burgwaran, /swylce git Iohannis in Iordane / mid þy fullwihte fægre onbryrdon / ealne þisne middangeard «andby the Jordan among the Jewish / – we two bathed together in that stream. / Lord of the peo-ples, sprinkle with that water, /with a joyful spirit all the inhabitants of this place / as you andJohn in the Jordan / happily inspired all this world / with the baptism». The edition adopted isMuir’s (20062: The Descent into Hell).

108 Zimmermann (1995: 172).109 Muir (20062: Introduction / The Anthologist, the Texts and their Sectional Divisions).110 See Liber Exodi 15:19 and 17:5-6; Evangelium secundum Iohannem 1:25-28; 19:34.111 Homiletic Fragment II ll. 8-11a: An is geleafa, an lifgende, / an is fulwiht, an fæder ece, / an

is folces fruma, se þas foldan gesceop, / duguđe ond dreamas «There is one creed, one living God,/ one baptism, one Eternal Father, / there is one prince of all the peoples who created this world,/ blessings and joys». The edition adopted is Muir’s (20062: Homiletic Fragment II).

112 See The Seafarer ll. 53-55a and Life of Saint Guthlac (A) ll. 743-744a. The cuckoo oftenappears in Celtic literature as well (see below 3.4.4.).

113 Versus de cuculo ll. 15-16: Non pereat cuculus, veniet sub tempore veris / et nobis veniens car-

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representative figure. At the end of the poem (ll. 131-137a),107 John the Baptistrecalls the place where Christ was baptized, the river Jordan; the fact that the watersof the Jordan are accessible to whoever wants to immerse themselves in it is a hint atthe universal possibility of accepting the Christian creed and gaining eternal salva-tion.108 Besides The Descent into Hell, other allusions to baptism appear in Pharaohand Homiletic Fragment II. In Pharaoh the waters of the Red Sea represent death forthe Egyptians and freedom for the Israelites. According to Muir109 this episoderecalls many other moments in the history of salvation where water becomes a sym-bol of Christian renewal: besides the Red Sea, other examples are the water sprin-ging from the rock struck by Moses’ stick in the desert; the waters of the riverJordan, where Christ was baptized; and the water pouring from Christ’s piercedside on the cross.110 As regards Homiletic Fragment II, instead, baptism is listed asone of the elements representative of the Christian creed (l. 9a an is fulwiht).111

Being related to the liturgical rites of Easter, baptism therefore appears to be atime for reflection, penance and renewal. Even if The Husband’s Message does notcontain explicit allusions to this sacrament, according to Kaske (1967: 59) there isan image, very frequent in Christian Latin poetry, which may convey the idea ofrenewal: the cuckoo (galan geomorne geac on bearwe, l. 23). This bird in the MiddleAges was associated with the new season (spring or summer),112 as in Alcuin’sVersus de cuculo and Conflictus Veris et Hiemis: in the first poem the narratormourns the cuckoo’s departure and waits for its return together with spring;113 in

mina laeta ciet. The edition adopted is Dümmler’s (1881-1923: 269).114 Dümmler’s (1881-1923: 270-272) edition. Kaske (1967: 58) noted that in religious

texts, besides the spring, the summer – to which the cuckoo is also connected – took the exegeticmeaning of renewal, as in Hrabanus Maurus’ De Universo X, xi, at the very beginning of thechapter: Aetas autem venturae jucunditatis praefiguratio est, et fervorem charitatis exprimit. Herespring is also described with reference to the renewal of man’s nature through baptism or, in abroader sense, through humanity’s atonement for original sin: Misticae autem ver Baptismi novi-tatem significant, aut renovationem vitae post frigus infidelitatis, et pigritiae torporem: sive resur-rectionem corporum post mortis occubitum. The edition adopted for Hrabanus Maurus’ DeUniverso is Migne’s (1974: 303, 302).

115 The Ruin ll. 38-46: Stanhofu stodan; stream hate wearp, / widan wylme. Weal eall befeng/ beorhtan bosme, þær þa baþu wæ[r]on, / hat on hreþre. Þæt wæs hyđelic. / Leton þonne geotan[l]—- / ofer h[arn]e stan hate streamas / un[d]—- / —-[o]þþæt hringmere hate—- / —- þær þabaþu wæron «The stone buildings stood; the stream threw up heat / in wide springs; the wallsurrounded all / in its bright bosom, where the baths were, / hot inside. That was a convenientthing. / Then [they] let pour …/ the hot streams on the grey stone / … / onto the round pool,the hot … / … where the baths were».

116 Murgia (2010: 197).117 Cammarota (1997: 29-30): The Ruin l. 1a Wrætlic is þes wealstan! recalls Evangelium

secundum Mattheum 21:42: Dicit illis Iesus numquam legistis in scripturis lapidem quemreprobaverunt aedificantes hic factus est in caput anguli a Domino factum est istud et est mirabile inoculis nostris. The symbol of the cornerstone also appears in Passion of Saint Juliana ll. 653b-654and in The Advent Lyric 1 ll. 1-2a.

118 ‘Lapis angularis’ traditionally hints at Christ as the cornerstone, the solid base on which

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the second text the speaking voice hopes for the bird’s return and calls him pasto-rum dulcis amicus (l. 46).114 Therefore, also in The Husband’s Message the image ofthe cuckoo may suggest the beginning of a new era, after Christ defeats death (seebelow 3.4.4.).

Also The Ruin may include a reference to baptism, therefore to renewal, in apassage concerning the hot water sources and the baths within the walls. After thedescription of the ruins’ desolation, the insistence on the theme of water (ll. 38-46)115 is meaningful, because the numerous expressions (stream, wylme, baþu,streamas, hringmere) are all linked to the concept of heat (hate, hat on hreþre, hatstreamas) in a positive connotation, as confirmed by l. 41b Þæt wæs hyđelic «thatwas convenient». The hot water in the baths, used to purify the body, allows thusfor an allegorical parallel with baptism, where water is a symbol of the soul’s purifi-cation from original sin.116 Christian symbology can also be suitable for the inter-pretation of the image of wealstan (l. 1a), which describes wondrous building stoneand may allude to the Biblical lapis angularis,117 a symbol of Christ.118 The poem

everyone’s faith can be grounded. See for example Epistula ad Ephesios 2:20-22, Epistula Petri I2:4 and Epistula ad Corinthos I 10:4.

119 According to Keenan (1966) the city represented is Babylon as described in ApocalypsisIohannis.

120 Cammarota (1997: 33-34) pointed out that, with frequent shifts from the present to thepast tense, the text seems to adopt the idea of time formulated in Augustine’s De Civitate Dei,according to which human history is marked by the constant tension between ‘heavenly city’and ‘earthly city’.

121 Because of a reference to the long-dead builders of the walls in ll. 6b-9a, Swanton (1964:284) sees The Ruin as a fragment dealing with the last days on earth before the final Judgement.

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describes the ruins of a city which is representative of all the cities on earth, andaccording to Swanton (1964: 284), it lends itself to an eschatological reading suchas the destruction that will take place on Judgement Day, when all the works ofmen will be destroyed on the advent of the Kingdom of Heaven.119 In addition tothat, the text appears as a reflection on the transience of life and, implicitly, encou-rages the faithful to pin their hopes on the hereafter.120 In conclusion, the possibleeschatological meaning of The Ruin would provide a connection with TheHusband’s Message by recalling that human deeds are transitory, doomed to ruinand oblivion, and thus implicitly insisting on a concept already expressed in TheHusband’s Message:121 the importance of conversion.

3. Textual analysis

The codicological investigation (see above 1.1.-1.1.3.) has provided some ele-ments to formulate a strong assumption: the first section may not be a part of TheHusband’s Message, and the third section is more important than the second one, towhich it is strictly connected. The copyist’s treatment of the last capital letter maydepend on the fact that the third section contains the most important passage ofthe poem: some runes addressed to the woman. This runic message thus requiresparticular attention, not least because of its complexity (see below 3.2-3.2.2.). Asfar as the manuscript context is concerned, the relation between The Husband’sMessage and the surrounding texts has cast new light on the main topics of thepoem that reveal a potential allegorical meaning and a strong connection with thereligious context (see above 1.2.-1.3.2.).

The following analysis, which is focused, on the one hand, on the main textualproblems – the narrator’s identity and the runic message (see below 3.1.-3.2.2.) –and, on the other hand, on the structure, style and content of the three sections of

122 See aweox in Riddle 9 l. 10a, Riddle 10 l. 3b (in the variant awox) and Riddle 73 l. 1a. Theform weox appears in Riddle 87 l. 1a.

123 The Wife’s Lament l. 3b: siþþan ic up weox «since I grew up».

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The Husband’s Message (see below 3.3.-3.4.4.), will provide further elements to con-firm that the first section is, on the whole, different and partly ‘disconnected’ fromthe rest of the poem. Therefore, a possible explanation for the tripartite layout ofthe text will be proposed (see below 3.3.2.).

3.1. Identity of the narrator

The Husband’s Message is the monologue of a messenger who conveys a secretrunic message to a woman (ll. 50-51). The literal meaning of the poem is intelligi-ble: the narrator, speaking on behalf of his lord, reminds the woman of the husban-d’s past, painful vicissitudes and announces that the man has now regained prospe-rity and peace of mind; finally, he urges the woman to reunite with his lord in adistant land.

There are not many details about the identity of the narrator, as he speaks abouthimself only in the first section, where the text was damaged. Considering that ll.1-12 may not form part of the poem, as the codicological analysis suggested, thistextual problem should be confronted by allowing the possibility that a change ofnarrator may have taken place from the first to the second section.

Apparently, at ll. 1-12 the textual references to the speaker hint at a personifiedobject (the stick carved with the runes), but they could also describe a human mes-senger: l. 2 …. treocyn ic tudre aweox can be translated as either «the type of wood, Iwas born from the breed» (with reference to a man) or «the type of wood, I wasborn from the seed» (with reference to a plant from which a rune-staff was latermade). The term (a)weox does not offer clarification: it recurs often in the Riddles122

to describe personified objects, but in The Wife’s Lament123 it refers to a woman.Treocyn «type of wood» may refer to ic in l. 2b and suggest the idea of an objectmade from a tree; however, because of the preceding lacuna, we cannot prove it.

All the critics who dealt with the identity of the narrator considered ll. 1-12 aspart of The Husband’s Message, thus taking for granted that the content in this pas-sage is consistent with the following lines. Especially Leslie (1961: 13-14), followedby Greenfield (1966: 170), identified the narrator with a human messenger andhighlighted some expressions which apparently would not concur with a personi-fied object. L. 6 Ful oft ic on bates… gesohte, hinting at numerous journeys in the

124 Ericksen Schrunk (1998: 33) claimed that, at least in Scandinavia, there is archaeologicalevidence supporting the habit of reusing the same wooden object to send a new message toanother addressee (see for example the 12th-century rune-staffs found in Bergen, which appearto have been scraped off and carved again). These sticks were used to convey messages aimed atcommercial exchanges, but also marriage proposals (some for real, some as a joke).

125 Orton (1981: 45). In the riddles the object, even if destined to last briefly by its ownnature, introduces itself through allusions to a long series of different experiences and situations;the reason for this is perhaps grounded in the structural pattern of the riddles: to guess the iden-tity of the mysterious entity, the audience needs various examples from its life. As a matter offact, the solution of each Anglo-Saxon riddle always corresponds to an object as representativeof a category (and never to an object in particular). See for example Riddle 65 ll. 1-2a: Cwico wæsic, ne cwæđ ic wiht, cwele ic efne seþeah / Ær ic wæs, eft ic cwom «I was alive, I did not say anything,even so I die. / I was already, back I came». The solution is «onion».

126 Riddle 35 ll. 13-14: «Say, skillful (man) of true sayings, of cunning thoughts / wise inwords, what this garment is».

127 Dream of the Rood l. 40b: «He mounted a high cross» and l. 56b: «Christ was on thecross».

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past, contrasts with the nature of a stick and its limited use, the transmission of amessage in a given moment. At l. 13b se þisne beam agrof appears in opposition tothe hypothesis of a personified rune-staff, as here the narrator is not referring tohimself but to a separate object.

Critics underlined the weakness of some of Leslie’s ‘evidences’ for the hypothe-sis of a human messenger, comparing the style of The Husband’s Message with thatof other poems characterized by a personified narrator, in particular the riddles. Asregards l. 6,124 Orton (1981: 45) noted that the poet may have adopted a typicalconvention of the riddles, where the personified object describes itself as the repre-sentative of a given category and, as such, speaks as if it were the ‘heir’ of all theexperiences of similar objects.125 In The Husband’s Message the reference to variousjourneys may thus depend on the fact that the narrator represents every rune-staffever sent to transmit a message. According to Orton, in l. 13b se þisne beam agrofthe speaking voice may be referring to itself in the third person, consistent with thefrequent stylistic feature of the prosopopoeia (see Riddle 35, where the personifiednarrator is a coat of mail, ll. 13-14: Saga sođcwidum, searoþoncum gleaw, / wordumwisfæst, hwæt þis gewæde sy).126 Also in Dream of the Rood the narrator, the Cross,hints at itself in speaking about Christ, but does not use first-person pronouns, as ifit were referring to a different object: Gestah he on gealgan heanne (l. 40b) and Cristwæs on rode (l. 56b).127

As the prosopopoeia is a common rhetorical device not only in Anglo-Saxonriddles but also in other genres of texts, despite the absence of decisive elements,

128 Elliott (1955: 1), Goldsmith (1975: 248, 262), Pope (1978: 44-49), Ericksen Schrunk(1998: 31-33), Fiocco (1999: 179-180), Niles (2003b: 198-206).

129 As Renoir (1976: 339-341) underlined, in classical Latin tradition there are also exam-ples of poems in which, in a few lines, the earlier life of a wooden object is narrated (for exam-ple, Catullus’ Carmen IV, where the narrator is a ship).

130 Hiezechiel Propheta 37:16-19: Et tu fili hominis sume tibi lignum unum et scribe superillud Iudae et filiorum Israhel sociis eius et tolle lignum alterum et scribe super eum Ioseph lignumEphraim et cunctae domui Israhel sociorumque eius. Et adiunge illa unum ad alterum tibi inlignum unum et erunt in unionem in manu tua. Cum autem dixerint ad te filii populi tui loquentesnonne indicas nobis quid in his tibi velis? Loqueris ad eos haec dicit Dominus Deus ecce ego adsu-mam lignum Ioseph quod est in manu Ephraim et tribus Israhel quae iunctae sunt ei et dabo easpariter cum ligno Iuda et faciam eas in lignum unum et erunt unum in manu eius.

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most critics supported the theory of a personified object as the narrator of TheHusband’s Message.128 This hypothesis appears plausible not least because the the-me of the personified wooden object was widespread in various literary contexts.129

3.1.1. The personified object

All the critics who identified the narrator of The Husband’s Message with a per-sonified object usually took for granted that it is a rune-staff; instead, those whointerpreted the poem allegorically either connected the rune-staff with Christiansymbology or suggested different objects recalling the Biblical context. For instan-ce, according to Goldsmith (1975: 254) the rune-staff of The Husband’s Messagemay hint at the inscribed stick in Hiezechiel Propheta 37:16-19:130 the prophet car-ved on it the names of the northern and southern tribes, which will be reunited inone people. The rod would thus be a symbol of Christ the King’s sceptre and, assuch, of the unity of the Church under His government. Niles (2003b: 203-204)hypothesized another type of narrator from the presence of beam (l. 13b), whichhas various meanings including «tree», «piece of wood» and «wooden object»(for example «weapon-rack» – metaphorically, «gallows» –, «yoke» and«cross»). According to Niles, the runes in The Husband’s Message are not carvedon a stick but on something bigger corresponding to the mainmast of the ship; inlight of this interpretation l. 9a on ceolþele «on the ship’s deck» (where the com-pound ceolþele is a hapax) would define precisely the position of the narrator. Kaske(1967: 53) also interpreted on ceolþele as a reference to the position of the main-mast of a ship; however, according to this scholar the ship is a symbol of theChurch and the mainmast stands for the Cross, representing Christ as the pillar of

131 Ericksen Schrunk (1998: 33-35).132 This is not the first time in which critics hypothesize a double narrator within a single text.

J.E. Anderson (1986a), (1986b) proposed an articulated but rather hazardous theory according towhich all the texts copied between The Wife’s Lament and The Ruin form part of a single, long‘Easter Riddle’ concerning Easter liturgical rituals and theological meanings. In light of this read-ing, J.E. Anderson detected two speakers in these texts (including The Husband’s Message).

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Christianity as a whole. Therefore, the narrator of The Husband’s Message would bethe Cross, and the sea journey would be a metaphor for Christ’s death.

The articulate, allegorical interpretations proposed by the critics appear certain-ly interesting but, overall, a little strained, as the textual data is not sufficient toconfirm them. It thus seems preferable to follow the most traditional hypothesis ofa rune-staff as narrator of the poem. Our knowledge of the use of wooden sticks asmaterial supports for private communications in the Germanic context, testified byvarious archaeological findings,131 is a further element which makes this theoryplausible.

3.1.2. Change of narrator?

If the incipit of The Husband’s Message corresponded to l. 13 instead of l. 1, thenarrator in the second (and third) section would probably not be the rune-staffspeaking in ll. 1-12.

E.R. Anderson’s (1973) view of a possible change of narrator after l. 12 is cer-tainly worth reporting, as he was the only one who took the structural value of thesections of the text into consideration. According to Anderson, ll.1-12 wouldrepresent a prologue to the text, where the speaker is a human messenger whoshows the rune-staff with the carved secret message to the woman. Therefore, l. 6Ful oft ic on bates… gesohte should be interpreted in a literal sense, as a reference tothe numerous journeys of the messenger. At l. 13 the capital letter and the interjec-tion Hwæt would signal a different narrator, besides a change of tone, style andtopic. Now the rune-staff, which has undergone a personification, would tell thewoman of her husband’s condition (ll. 13-25), highlighting its function as an inter-mediary of the secret message. In the last section, marked by the two capitals ofOngin (ll. 26-54), the stick would continue its speech revealing the meaning of thecarved runes (reproduced on ll. 50-51).

The hypothesis of a double narrator132 is interesting, as it attempts to link thestructural division of the poem to the content; in fact, E.R. Anderson’s theory seeks

133 The literal translation of ll. 49-51 is: «Over the old promise between you two / I heartogether · ᛋ· ᚱ· , together · ᛠ· ᚹ· and · ᛗ· declare with an oath».

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to offer reasons for the text’s apparent lack of unity due to the presence of threecapital letters. However, some elements are questionable: in his opinion, the firstnarrator corresponds to a human messenger but, as previously pointed out, ll. 1-12seem to suggest a personified object instead. Furthermore, in the second and thirdsections no textual element provides information about the identity of the speaker,whoever he may be; therefore, there is no evidence either in favour or against achange of narrator. As a consequence, E.R. Anderson’s theory appears based onlyon codicological data which, alone, is not sufficient to prove it.

The issue of the narrator should perhaps be addressed from a different perspec-tive. It should rightly be considered that the speaker may change from the first tothe second section, but mostly because it should be taken into account that ll. 1-12may not form part of The Husband’s Message. Allowing for the hypothesis that inthe first section a wooden object is speaking, as many critics believe, this sectionthus shows a stylistic feature (prosopopoeia) in common with the preceding texts,Riddle 30b and Riddle 60. In l. 13 there is an explicit reference to a rune-staff whichis thematically consistent with the preceding lines, but it should not be taken forgranted that the narrator is still the same, as we lack further consistent textual data.Instead, the narrator’s references to itself in the first person disappear completelyfrom the text, and there is a clear change in the narrative style. There are also otherelements marking the diversity between the first and the following sections of TheHusband’s Message (see below 3.3.2.); therefore, the very possibility that ll. 13-54may represent a new text could be considered the main element in support of achange of narrator after l. 12.

3.2. The runes and a crux

ll. 49-51: Ofer eald gebeot incer twegage[h]yre ic ætsomne · ᛋ· ᚱ· geador· ᛠ· ᚹ· ond · ᛗ· aþe benemnan133

The runes S, R, EA, W and M (ll. 50-51) carved on a rune-staff (as l. 13b, seþisne beam agrof, suggests) represent the secret message addressed to the woman.The shape of the last symbol is not clearly recognizable, as it resembles both the

134 Elliott (1955: 3) and, more recently, Fiocco (1999: 168) and Bragg (1999: 34) took intoconsideration the possible identification of the last symbol with the D-rune.

135 The last rune in The Husband’s Message also resembles the third rune in Riddle 19 l. 5a,which is traditionally interpreted as M (and, together with the runes O and N, forms the wordmon in the text).

136 Fiocco (1999: 172).137 According to Leslie (1961: 65-66) this letter shows faded traces of the upstroke of <h>,

which would support the reading gehyre; however, these traces are not clear at all to the nakedeye. Klinck (1992: 58), who also adopted the form gehyre, considered instead the possibility ofa copyist’s oversight: in the Exeter Book, there are other cases in which <h> has been confusedwith <n>; see also Kaske (1964: 205 fn. 8). For example, in Passion of Saint Juliana l. 637b, inthe word þohtun (f. 75r, MS line 8), an original <n> has later been corrected into <h>.

138 The form genyre is not found elsewhere and has been interpreted by Kaske (1964: 205)as the first person singular of the present of genyrwan «contract, constrain», which lost thegraph <w> because of a scribal omission.

139 A third possibility is the reading gecyre, only preferred by Kock (1921: 123), and Krappand Dobbie (1936: 227). This form comes from gecyrran, meaning «to turn, to convert»; Kocktranslated it as «to place together», according to Elliott (1955: 7) «a meaning suggested ratherby the context than by normal Old English usage».

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rune ᛗ, Mon (M), and the rune ᛞ, Dæg (D);134 however, by comparing it withother runes in the Exeter Book, it is possible to identify the M-rune, as most of thecritics have. The symbol is, in fact, rather similar to the rune in the compoundMdreama (mondreama, l. 23b), contained in The Ruin135 with the unambiguousmeaning «joy of men».

It is a copyist’s convention that in The Husband’s Message every rune is preced-ed and followed by a dot, which means that the symbol stands for the term it rep-resents, as the metre in these lines also suggests.136 However, the complexity of themessage is not only due to the interpretation of the runic symbols but also to theirgrammatical function in relation to the main verb ge…yre, where a lacuna caused bydamage on the folio is evident: what is left of the third letter looks like <n>, but thepossible reading <h> should not be ruled out.137 This verb is a crux, as it may beread either as genyre «I contract, I constrain»138 or as gehyre «I hear».139 Mostcritics chose the form gehyre, which fits better syntactically in the sentence, asOrton (1981: 49-50) points out: genyre hardly could be followed by benemnan,which in this case should be taken as an ‘infinitive of purpose’ and translated as «Icrowd together […] in order to declare [by an oath]». On the contrary, there arevarious examples of the verb gehyran («to hear») followed by an ‘accusative +infinitive’ construction, for example in The Husband’s Message ll. 22-23 siþþan þugehyrde on hliþes oran / galan geomorne geac on bearwe. The runes thus represent the

140 Elliott (1995: 5-6), E.R. Anderson (1973: 245), Orton (1981: 50), Ericksen Schrunk(1998: 34), Fiocco (1999: 180), Goldsmith (1975: 259), Kock (1921: 122-124), Williamson(1977: 316).

141 The Rune Poem stanza 16: «S (the sun) is ever a joy to seafarers (or, in the hopes of sea-farers) when they journey away over the fishes’ bath, until the course of the deep bears them toland». The edition and the translation adopted are Dickins’ (19682: 12-13).

142 The Norwegian Rune Poem stanza 11: «Sun is the light of the world; / I bow to the divinedecree»; The Icelandic Rune Poem stanza 11: «Sun = shield of the clouds / and shining ray / anddestroyer of ice». The edition and the translation adopted are Dickins’ (19682: 24-27, 28-33).

143 The two Norse versions of The Rune Poem are more recent than the Anglo-Saxon version(which dates back to the 11th century) and are very different from it; stylistically they are influ-enced by skaldic poetry; in terms of content, they mainly refer to traditional wisdom and hea-

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direct object of gehyre and the subject of the infinitive benemnan: «I hear together· S · R · together · EA · W · and · M · declare by an oath».

The identification of the runes also gave rise to some problems. By replacing thesymbols with the corresponding names of the fuþork, we obtain Sigel (or Segl), Rad,Ear (or Ea), Wyn and Mon. The most popular interpretation is by Kock (1921:122-123), who considered the first two couples of runes as two compound nounsstructured in the form of the Norse kenningar. Therefore, · S · R · would correspondto Sigel-Rad «sun’s path», similar to the kenningar sólar jađarr or sólar grund,both referring to the sky; · EA · W · would mean Ear-Wyn «earth’s joy» or «thelovely earth», similar to the expression eorþan wynne (Beowulf, l. 1730b). The lastrune, · M ·, would simply correspond to Mon «man». Kock’s interpretation raisedsome objections over time: Niles (2003b: 207 fn. 46), for example, underlined thatnot all the runes had ‘stable’ names (such as R, W and M), and some are found withmore than one meaning: among these, S and EA. According to Kock, the S-runemay not indicate Sigel, but rather Segl «sail»; Segl-Rad «sail’s path» would thusmetaphorically refer to the sea. This compound is already found in Beowulf l.1429b and, from a thematic point of view, appears preferable to Sigel-Rad becauseof the numerous references to sea journeys in the poem (ll. 8a, 21b, 26a, 28a).

Even if critics140 traditionally connect the S-rune to Sigel, it is hard to come toa final conclusion. Nicholson (1982: 316) pointed out that in the Anglo-SaxonRune Poem stanza 16, where the S-rune is described, the meaning «sail» appearsjust as suitable as «sun».141 Clunies Ross (1990: 24 fn. 3) believed that the runesof twelve stanzas out of twenty-nine (including stanza 16) correspond to the runesof the two Norse versions of the poem (Norwegian and Icelandic), both of whichinclude a stanza about the sun142 (even if the content is completely different fromthat of the corresponding stanza in the Anglo-Saxon poem)143 but do not include

then mythology. The Anglo-Saxon Rune Poem is also a wisdom poem, but unlike the other twoversions, it describes all the elements from an openly Christian perspective (see for example stan-za 1, concerning the F-rune «wealth», in the three texts) Clunies Ross (1990: 25, 28, 36-37).

144 The other case that reveals a Christian perspective is in the Norwegian Rune Poem stan-za 7, which describes hail: «Hail is the coldest of grain; Christ created the world of old».References to Norse mythology are instead numerous: stanzas 5, 10, 12 and 13 mention Regin,Frothi, Tyr and Æsir, Loki.

145 Goldsmith (1975: 252) also recognizes two meanings for the rune Ear. 146 The Rune Poem stanza 29: «EA (the grave?) is horrible to every knight, when the corpse

quickly begins to cool and is laid in the bosom of the dark earth. Prosperity declines, happinesspasses away and covenants are broken».

147 Page (1995: 71-74) recalled that ear has the same origin as the Norse aurr «wet clay,loam, mud» and eyrr «gravelly bank near water», and with the Gothic *aurahjons «tomb».

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a stanza referring to the sail. In the Norwegian Rune Poem (stanza 11) it is possibleto detect an association between the sun and Christ in Judgement; this is one of theonly two cases in which the Christian God is alluded to in this text.144 The Anglo-Saxon Rune Poem instead describes all the elements from a Christian perspective.Hypothesizing that stanza 16 of the Anglo-Saxon version, like stanza 11 of theNorwegian Rune Poem, may contain a religious reference, the S-rune would moreprobably correspond to «sun», which symbolically recalls Christ seen as sol salu-tis. In fact, in the text Christ comes to represent the point of reference for the sailor– who, according to traditional Biblical symbology, stands for the believer.

The issue concerning the EA-rune is less complex. The symbol corresponds toEar which, according to Elliott (1955: 6), has a double meaning: «earth» and«water» (and, by extension, «sea»).145 In The Rune Poem stanza 29, the corre-spondence of EA with «earth» appears clear,146 but Williamson (1977: 316) andEricksen Schrunk (1998: 34) preferred the meaning «sea» because the expression«joy of the sea» (Ear-Wyn) seems to suit the context well. However, Page (1995:71-74) ruled out the meaning «sea», pointing out that ear is in a linguistic rela-tionship with other terms from other Germanic languages, all apparently meaning«earth».147

3.2.1. Traditional interpretations

If the meanings of the runic symbols in The Husband’s Message are «sun»,«path», «earth», «joy» and «man», and the first four runes form two com-pounds, the translation of ll. 50-51 may be: «I hear together ‘sun’s path’, together

148 See Elliott (1955: 3-7), E.R. Anderson (1973: 245), Nicholson (1982: 317-319) andFiocco (1999: 181).

149 Nicholson (1982: 318).

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‘joy of the earth’ and ‘man’ declare by an oath». The sense of these lines in the con-text described in The Husband’s Message has long been discussed; the theory accor-ding to which the secret message sums up the main topics of the narration has beenwidely received,148 as it keeps the literal meaning of these lines. The sense of therunes would thus emerge in light of the preceding narration and should thereforebe clarified by comparison with some expressions from the text. Among differentreadings, the most interesting appears to be E.R. Anderson’s (1973: 254), in lightof the presence of the three capital letters. The runes would all refer to topics con-tained only in the third section of the poem, where the exhortation to the womanbecomes more explicit (as the imperative in l. 26a Ongin suggests) and the descrip-tion of the husband’s fine condition in the present occupies almost the whole pas-sage (ll. 35b-39a, 44b-48). Sigel-Rad «sun’s path» would thus be connected to l.27 onsite sænacan, þæt þu suđ heonan, a reference to a southward journey, followingthe sun’s direction. Ear-Wyn, «joy of the earth» or «earthly joy», may allude to l.38a fægre foldan, a concept on which ll. 45b-48 insist. Mon, instead, simply identi-fies the woman’s husband inviting her to start the journey. Nicholson (1982: 318)and Niles (2003b: 207) also adopted the same references for the runes except forthe first compound, which they interpret as Segl-Rad «path of the sail» (by exten-sion, «ship’s path») associating it with l. 28a ofer merelade.

In conclusion, all the efforts to find the correspondent expressions for the runesin the text show that critics considered the runic message as a condensed form ofthe main themes of The Husband’s Message, aimed at urging once again the womanto undertake the journey, reminding her of the vows between her and the husband,and promising her a happy future with him. The themes of the sea journey, the reu-nification and the marital bond are sealed by the runes, which seem to encouragethe woman to follow the «sun’s path» to find the «joy of the earth» in a farawayland, together with her «man».149

3.2.2. A new reading of the runic message

In some scholars’ opinion, the runes of The Husband’s Message may possiblyhave a further level of meaning which goes beyond the literal one and conceals alle-

150 Evangelium secundum Mattheum 5:34-36: Ego autem dico vobis non iurare omnino nequeper caelum quia thronus Dei est, neque per terram quia scabillum est pedum eius neque perHierosolymam quia civitas est magni Regis, neque per caput tuum iuraveris quia non potes unumcapillum album facere aut nigrum. Supporting Kock’s interpretation, Leslie (1961: 17 fn. 1)pointed out that, in the Celtic tradition, the runes were used to invoke sacred entities such as thesun, the moon and other natural elements as witnesses to an oath, and this may be the case ofThe Husband’s Message.

151 See below 3.4.2.152 Passion of Saint Juliana, The Ascension, Fates of the Apostles and Elene.

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gorical references. A long time ago Kock (1921: 122-123) suggested an interpreta-tion – later adopted by Greenfield (1966) – according to which the runes meta-phorically recall three symbolic elements that would represent the witnesses andguarantors of the husband’s new vow: sky («sun’s path»), earth («joy of theearth») and mankind («man»). To support this reading, Kock mentioned as apossible parallel Matthew’s Gospel 5: 34-36, which expresses the prohibition ofswearing by the sky, by the earth and by oneself.150 The message in The Husband’sMessage would thus be a new promise of love and commitment where the runes,according to Greenfield (1966: 171), are «letters symbolising the macrocosm [skyand earth] and the microcosm [mankind in general] as witnesses to the inscriber’struth».

Kock’s reading has the advantage of suggesting a possible connection betweenSigel-Rad and sky, which from a Christian perspective corresponds to the Kingdomof Heaven. The association between sun and Christ is in fact so well-founded inthe Biblical context as to be immediately understood by any believer.151 Moreover,a correspondence between the runes and Christian symbology is also made possi-ble by the position of The Husband’s Message in the manuscript and the possiblerelation between the theme of the pledge and the Scriptures (see above 2.1.-2.3.).However, the parallel with Matthew’s Gospel suggested by Kock is difficult to pro-ve, and the translation of Ear-Wyn as «earth» scarcely does justice to the com-pound, as it only translates Ear and neglects Wyn which in fact has the function of‘head of the compound’. The runic message is the most important passage in thepoem, as suggested by its prominent position at the end of the text; therefore, it ishard to believe that one of the runic symbols might be redundant. Other possibleinterpretations for ll. 50-51 thus need to be considered.

Groups of runes are not rare in Anglo-Saxon poetry. Apart from theCynewulf ’s runic sign in some poems,152 in the Riddles sometimes the solution (orreferences to it) is expressed in runes: the anagram of the runic symbols, read

153 In Riddle 19 the runes S R O H stand for the word HORS which, together with thewords obtained from other groups of runes in the riddle, provides a clue to the solution(«armed rider with hawk», according to most critics).

154 Bolton (1969: 340) anagrammatized the runes and found SMEARW, which translatedas «oil». Fiocco (1999: 175) obtained SWEARD «sword» (which she believes represents aphallic symbol) and J.E. Anderson (1974: 406) instead suggested «fleece» for the same term.According to Bragg (1999: 40-46), the runes in The Husband’s Message also need to be anagram-matized, but she did not come to any final conclusion.

155 See for example Dewa’s (1995) strategies to solve Riddles 19, 24, 42, 64, 75. For Riddle19, instead of «armed rider with hawk» Dewa (1995: 30-31) suggested another solution whichwas also accepted by Williamson (1977: 186): snac «ship», from the acronym of the groups ofrunes in order of appearance within the text. Dewa called this technique «orthographic varia-tion», in accordance with Griffith’s (1992: 15) definition; however, this interpretation seemsrather complicated compared to the traditional one, which is still preferred by critics.

156 Derolez (1954: 396-402).

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according to their phonetic value, forms a word.153 In The Husband’s Message the-re have been some attempts to decipher the message by anagrammatizing therunes, but they did not yield any appreciable result.154 Other methods which pro-vided possible new solutions to the riddles cannot be applied to The Husband’sMessage.155 In poetry the most common runic compounds present only one of thetwo elements in the form of a rune (usually W «joy», M «man» and Œ«earth»); for example, Riddle 90 l. 7a modW (= modwyn, lit. «joy in the heart»),or The Ruin l. 23b Mdreama (mondreama «joys of men»). As already pointed out(see above 1.2.3.), in these cases the use of W, M and Œ in the compounds is utter-ly conventional, as they replace three common words;156 therefore, these runes donot have a particular relevance in the texts. The compounds in The Husband’sMessage, besides being hapax legomena, appear instead to be very different becausethey present both elements in the runic form. Moreover, these terms are very rele-vant in the text because they convey the secret message. To construe the relationthat connects the concepts expressed by the single runes, it is thus necessary toconsider the grammatical link between them and reconstruct the syntax of the sen-tence on ll. 50-51.

The presence of S «sun» and M «man» in the message is striking if we consi-der that the theme of the pledge, on the allegorical level, may correspond to thecovenant between God and Abraham (see below 2.1.). The sun could be a symbolof Christ (consistent with the allegorical meaning of l. 27b þæt þu suđ heonan); Sand M may thus represent the two contracting parties of the pact, Jesus and man-kind, who renew God and Abraham’s old covenant. If these are the references of the

157 In this case Kaske (1964: 206) translated ll. 50-51 as «I constrain sigel-rad, ear-wyn andmann, all together, to declare by oath».

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S- and the M-rune, however, the relation between the other runes (R, EA and W)and their function in the message remain to be clarified.

The key to the interpretation of ll. 50-51 must be sought in the syntax of thesentence, starting from the unexpected repetition of the adverb «together» in thesame line due to the presence of the synonyms ætsomne (l. 50a) and geador (l. 50b).The only other example of ætsomne and geador together is Beowulf l. 491 þa wæsGeatmæcgum geador ætsomne «then it was for the Geat warriors altogether», buthere the adverbs are close to one another and the redundancy is probably aimed atstrengthening the idea of unity; however, in The Husband’s Message this is not obvi-ous. While not completely excluding a use of the adverbs like that in Beowulf l. 491Kaske (1964: 206),157 as other critics who adopted the reading genyre, supposedthat ætsomne and geador probably have different functions in the sentence. Kaskeconsidered ætsomne as a modifier of the main verb and geador as an element con-necting the first two runes, and translated «I constrain into unity sigel-rad com-bined, ear, wyn, and mann». E.R. Anderson (1975: 290) also adopted this readingand translated «I superimpose on the old promise between you two ·S·R· together,·EA·W· and ·M· to declare by oath», where «I superimpose on» translates genyreætsomne ofer, on which eald gebeot incer twega («the old promise between youtwo») would be dependent. The critics who preferred the reading gehyre did notlinger for too long on the presence of two synonymous adverbs and only translatedone of them (gehyre ic ætsomne «I hear together»). Only Orton (1981: 50) tookgeador into consideration and explicitly regarded it as the indicator that the firstand the second runes have to be taken as a compound:

The first and second runes are separated from the later three by the word geador,«together», and are accordingly to be joined as sigel-rad, «sun’s path», i.e. «sky»;the third and fourth runes, separated from the fifth by ond, «and», together giveear-wynn, probably «lovely earth»; the fifth rune means mon, «man».

The position of the two adverbs and the sense of the sentence do not confirmthat ætsomne and geador are aimed at strengthening the idea of unity. On the otherhand, geador is part of a message which requires decoding; therefore, it can hardlyrepresent only a filler in the line. Another hypothesis may be that the two adverbsare not perfect synonyms and have different functions, for example that of connec-

158 The Ascension ll. 144b-145: «There is a promise / between God and Men together, aholy pledge».

159 However, the idea of God, thus of Christ, as harbinger of joy for the living can also befound in the Old Testament: see Psalmus 65: 1-6 and Iesaias Propheta 14:5-8 and 44:23.

160 In the Anglo-Saxon context this is not the first case in which runes and text are com-bined in a difficult, complex puzzle, which suggests a taste for complex enigmas and riddles inmedieval England. Besides the runes in the Riddles, a further famous example is the FranksCasket where, in the panels, images, runes and inscriptions in the Latin alphabet are combinedinto graphic-pictorial puzzles which refer both to the concepts expressed by the carved scenesand to the story of the casket itself.

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ting elements on different syntactical levels. In l. 50a gehyre ic ætsomne the adverbmay modify the verb and link the two contracting parties of the pledge, Christ andhumankind (hinted at by the runes S and M), like in Abraham’s pact: gehyre icætsomne […] aþe benemnan «I hear together […] declare by an oath». Ætsomne hasa similar function in The Ascension ll. 144b-145 where the context is similar, evenif in a different syntactical construction: Wær is ætsomne / godes ond monna,gæsthalig treow.158 The adverb geador (l. 50b) may instead work on the phrase-lev-el, connecting the two compounds and placing them on the same level: readingSigel-Rad geador Ear-Wyn «‘path of the sun’ [= sky] and together ‘joy of theearth’» it is possible to recognize two epithets for Christ, who represents the sky(the very Kingdom of Heaven) and, «at the same time», the only possible joy forthe living. The compound Ear-Wyn should thus be translated «joy of the earth»because it does not represent earthly pleasures («earthly joy») in opposition to theeternal salvation in the afterlife (Sigel-Rad, linked to the Kingdom of Heaven), butrather suggests that God is in Heaven as well as on earth, where he became incar-nate in Christ. The association of joy with Christ’s figure recurs especially in theNew Testament in reference to the defeat of death and the promise of eternal salva-tion to humankind.159

If both compounds identify the first contracting party of the pledge, the onlysingle rune of the message, ·M·, probably describes the second one. Thus ll. 50-51can be translated as «I hear ‘Heaven’, (who is) altogether ‘joy of the earth’ [=Christ], and Mankind declare together by an oath». This interpretation of themessage does not appear obvious, especially in the eyes of a modern reader.However, it is the context in which The Husband’s Message is positioned in theExeter Book, focused on the theme of conversion, which supports a Christologicalperspective according to which the runes, coherently with the main themes of thepoem, would insist on the covenant between God and man, aimed at the reunionof the righteous with Him in the hereafter (see also above 2.1.-2.2.).160

161 L. 10b mines frean is somewhat unusual metrically, as the alliteration would normallyhave involved the noun frean instead of the adjective mines ( / x || / x ); see the general metricalnorms in Cable (1991: 20).

162 Leslie (1961: 14).

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3.3. The first section: content, structure and style

At the beginning of the first section of The Husband’s Message a narrator whoseems to correspond to a rune-staff briefly describes its life and journeys.Subsequently, it declares the purpose of its mission: urging the woman to reunitewith her lord and confirming the man’s loyalty and devotion. In the following sec-tions (ll. 13-25 and ll. 26-54) the narrator does not talk about itself anymore but,through indirect speech, only references the lord’s words, aimed at convincing thewoman and reassuring her of the newly gained prosperity. At the end of the poem(ll. 49-54) the secret message carved on the rune-staff is explicitly expressed as afurther guarantee of the husband’s commitment.

The first section is much shorter than the other two and presents aspects thatare both in common with, and in opposition to, them. On the thematic level, twoparts can be distinguished: ll. 1-9a, where the personified rune-staff introducesitself, and ll. 11b-12, where it hints at the vows of fidelity between its lord and thewoman, thus providing a connection to the following narration. Stylistic analysisimmediately highlights the difference between ll. 1-12 and the rest of the poem:firstly, whereas from l. 13 on the narrator only speaks as his lord’s spokesman, in thefirst section the focus of the narration is on the first person singular like in the rid-dles or in the elegies, where the point of view is highly personal. This aspect is ren-dered by the recurrence of the pronoun ic (ll. 1a, 2b, 6a, 11b) and the marked posi-tion of the possessive mines in l. 10b, which, as the metrics of the text reveals, bearsa metrical accent and takes part in the alliteration of the line.161 The first word, Nu«now», has the rhetorical effect of attracting the audience’s attention,162 and fromthe very beginning, it introduces the temporal dimension of the poem – the pre-sent – on which the repetitions of nu in l. 8b and l. 9b also insist. The focus on thepresent appears in accordance with the narrative scheme of The Husband’s Messagewhere, unlike in the elegies, the typical situation of a happy past vs a painful presentis reversed: the hardships are now replaced by wealth and welfare; therefore, notonly consolation but also happiness are possible in the present. The marked posi-tion of her «here», involved in the alliteration of l. 8, also seems to confirm thisanalysis.

163 Ll. 7a, 8a, 8b, 9a, 10a, 11a, 12a.164 Besides the hypermetric line at the beginning of each section (l. 13 and l. 26), some lines

are anomalous and cannot be classified with certainty (ll. 22a, 17a, 52a), and other lines presentmany monosyllabic terms to which as many ‘long drops’ correspond, like ll. 16a and 45a (C-type) and l. 19b (B-type). In some cases the alliterations appear scarcely conventional: for exam-ple, in l. 18 the alliteration involves the adjective an instead of the noun lond, perhaps to under-line the idea of unity between the spouses who used to share the same home. In l. 16 and l. 54,instead of the verb gespræcon, it is the adverb oft that takes part in the alliteration, perhaps tohighlight especially the frequency with which the spouses pronounced the promise in the past.

165 For example, the formula secgan wille (l. 1b) has the structural function of establishing acommunication (here, between the narrator and the woman); see also in Deor l. 35 Þæt ic bi mesylfum secgan wille and Andreas l. 648 nu ic þe sylfum secgan wille.

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The adverb onsundran «secretly» (l. 1a), hinting at a private conversation, isconsistent with the final runes and, together with them, frames the long exhorta-tion addressed to the woman throughout the text. In ll. 11b-12 Ic gehatan dear / þætþu þær tirfæste treowe findest, where the messenger vouches for his lord, the keywordtreowe introduces the topic of the vows binding the spouses and also provides anintratextual connection with the compound winetreowe «faith between friends»(l. 52b). Furthermore, the very structure of l. 12b recalls l. 28b monnan findest «[sothat] you may find the man». However, the ‘connective elements’ are only limitedto ll. 11b-12 because, as already pointed out, the rest of the first section is quite dif-ferent from what follows. The metric scan provides further evidence, as in ll. 1-12there is an unexpectedly high frequency of C-type lines,163 which are instead quiterare in the rest of the poem, where the metre is, in general, less regular164 but showsno particular discontinuity from the second to the third section.

3.3.1. Formulas (ll. 1-12)

Structural and stylistic analysis reveals that the genre of the first section of TheHusband’s Message is difficult to define. Stylistically it is characterized by a perso-nal perspective which reminds us of the riddles, but comparison with these textsdoes not open significant perspectives, because in The Husband’s Message ll. 1-12there is no enigma. The formulaic expressions do not reveal any resemblance tothose of the riddles; they are not numerous and often have only a structural fun-ction, rather than a link to a context or theme in particular.165 The only exceptionsare the formulas describing the narrator’s sea journey; however, the theme of sai-ling – also recurring in the other two sections with reference to the lord and the

166 Lendinara (2001: 242). See Metrical Preface to the Pastoral Care ll. 1-5a [Dobbie’s (1942:110) edition]: Þis ærendgewrit Agustinus / ofer sealtne sæ suđan brohte / iegbuendum, swa hit ærfore / adihtode dryhtnes cempa / Rome papa «Augustine brought this message / beyond the saltysea, from south / to the inhabitants of the isle, as previously / the God’s champion had written,/ the Pope of Rome». Lendinara pointed out that a link between the «salty sea» and a missionof evangelization also occurs in The Menologium ll. 101b-104a Ne hyrde ic guman awyrn /ænigne ær æfre bringan / ofer sealtne mere selran lare / bisceop bremran «I never heard of any man,/ of a more famous bishop / who previously brought a better doctrine / beyond the salty sea»;Dobbie’s (1942: 51-52) edition.

167 Psalm 100.6 l. 3: «where I found glorious fidelity». Leslie (1966: 60) interpreted thisanalogy as an influence of The Husband’s Message on Psalm 100, as the line was apparently inter-polated in the Anglo-Saxon version of the psalm and does not find a correspondence in theLatin original. However, as Klinck (1992: 202) pointed out, the line may simply have been for-mulaic and traditional in the poetic diction.

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woman – is quite common and does not relate to any specific genre in the Anglo-Saxon tradition. The only interesting intertextual connection can be detected bet-ween sealte streamas (l. 5a) and hate streamas «hot waters» in The Ruin l. 43b,where the warm water of the baths seems to hint at baptism as a symbol of renewalof faith, a theme developed in the preceding homiletic texts. This link with TheRuin may thus add a further, religious suggestion to The Husband’s Message ll. 1-12, at least within the context of the Exeter Book. Sealte streamas is also remini-scent of the expression sealtne sæ, which in the Preface of Alfred’s Cura Pastoralis isassociated with a journey ofer sealtne sæ suđan «beyond the salty sea, from thesouth», literally referring to the distance covered by the Benedictine monkAugustine from Rome to England to convert the English people to the Christianfaith.166 Comparison with the formula and the context described in CuraPastoralis may strengthen the symbolic value of the sea journey hinted at by sealtestreamas also in association with suđ heonan («southward from here», l. 27b): inThe Husband’s Message the theme of sailing may also recall a spiritual pilgrimage,the prospect of conversion and salvation that the sea journey seems to entail in thewhole poem.

However, the most noteworthy element in the first section of The Husband’sMessage is its final line, þæt þu þær tirfæste treowe findest, which recalls Psalm 100.6l. 3 hwær ic tirfæste treowe funde.167 The resemblance of these lines suggests a simi-larity between the two contexts; therefore, marital fidelity in The Husband’sMessage, described as «glorious fidelity», can be compared to the religious mea-ning implied in Psalm 100, suggesting that the relationship between the man andthe woman is similar to the bond between God and his worshippers, on which sal-

168 Psalm 100. 6 ll. 1-5: Ofer geleaffulle eorđbugende / eagan mine georne sceawedun, / hwæric tirfæste treowe funde / þa me symble mid sæton and eodon; / he me holdlice her đegnade «Mywishful eyes watched / the believers on earth, / where I could find glorious fidelity, / then theysat with me at a banquet, and went; / here he devotedly served me».

169 The Whale, ll. 1-3: Nu ic fitte gen ymb fisca cynn / wille wođcræfte wordum cyþan / þurhmodgemynd bi þam miclan hwale «Now, again, I will tell a song, / with art of poetry in mywords, about a species of fish, / with the memory of my mind, about the big whale». The edi-tion adopted is Muir’s (20062: The Whale).

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vation, God’s ‘reward’ to mankind, is based.168 In light of this intertextual link, theexpression þæt þu þær tirfæste treowe findest thus appears to be characterized by apolysemy which supports an allegorical interpretation of The Husband’s Message.Moreover, the structural similarity with l. 28b monnan findest may even suggest acorrespondence between the «glorious fidelity» of l. 12b and the «man», whomay represent Christ; the recurrence of findest in this case would thus acquire areligious connotation and, at l. 28b, recall the Christian concept of the believer’ssearch for God.

3.3.2. An interpretation of ll. 1-12

As already mentioned, the first section of The Husband’s Message is not easy toclassify. Besides, whereas ll. 1-8a are reminiscent of Riddle 30b and Riddle 60, a par-tial shift in style and tone makes ll. 8b-12 much closer to the second and third sec-tions of The Husband’s Message, with which l. 12 is in a structural and thematicconnection. The fact that ll. 1-12 share features with the preceding riddles and, atthe same time, with The Husband’s Message suggests that it may have been added bythe copyist as a linking device.

The key to this interpretation may lie partly in the first word, the adverb Nu, ascomparison with another text beginning with the same incipit (The Whale) seemsto support this interpretation. The Panther and The Whale are two single, inde-pendent texts, although in the Exeter Book they form a part of a section of worksnow defined as the Anglo-Saxon ‘Physiologus’. However, their thematic comple-mentarity is brought out by the narrative frame represented by The Whale ll. 1-3,169 where Nu introduces a sort of preamble to the proper description of the wha-le, providing a connection between the representation of this animal, a symbol ofSatan, and the preceding beast, the panther, identified with Christ. The role of Nuin The Whale l. 1 thus suggests that in The Husband’s Message l. 1 this adverb, besi-

170 See above 1.2.1.171 The edition adopted for The Panther is Muir’s (20062: The Panther).

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des drawing the audience’s attention, may also bear the function of linking thepoem to the preceding text, the end of Riddle 60 (ll. 14b-17: þæt ic wiþ þe sceolde /for unc anum twam ærendspræce / abeodan bealdlice, swa hit beorna ma / uncre wor-dcwidas widdor ne mænden). The presence of onsundran (The Husband’s Message l.1a), which refers to a secret communication, also contributes to the continuitybetween the two poems.

All these considerations allow for a new hypothesis about the nature of thefirst section of The Husband’s Message, which only in part differs from the secondand the third sections: ll. 1-12 may represent a ‘transitional passage’ that thecopyist inserted (and perhaps composed?) on purpose, in order to link more stric-tly The Husband’s Message with the contexts of the two riddles which precede and‘introduce’ it.170 Consequently, the beginning of the poem should be placed incorrespondence to the word Hæwt, l. 13a. This theory may be supported byLiuzza’s (1990: 9) view concerning the compilation of the Exeter Book, accordingto which the scribe did not simply juxtapose the texts but probably both alteredexisting poems by adding new material, and adapted adjacent texts to emphasizethe interrelations and to form a coherent sequence. For example, in Life of SaintGuthlac (A) ll. 1-29 appear to be a second prologue, added to the poem probablyto connect it with the preceding work, Christ in Judgement. Liuzza (1990: 9)underlined that the content presenting the encounter between the blessed souland the angel who brings a message to God and the promise of Paradise appearsin ἀπὸ κοινοῦ «between the Judgement Day theme [in Christ III] and the imageof righteousness personified by Guthlac», and only the presence of a wholeMS line of capital letters on a new folio clearly distinguishes Life of Saint Guthlac(A) ll. 1-29 from the end of Christ in Judgement. In addition to that, on a stylisticlevel the formula at l. 30 Monge sindon geond middangeard «many, in the world,are» is a typical opening in Anglo-Saxon poetry (see also The Panther l. 1);171

therefore, according to Liuzza, it may be the original prologue to Life of SaintGuthlac (A).

In conclusion, in light of codicological and stylistic data, The Husband’sMessage ll. 1-12 may be defined as a ‘hinge-poem’, a passage aimed at linking thetext with the preceding riddles. The important implication of this definition is thatthe actual beginning of The Husband’s Message corresponds to l. 13 Hwæt, þec þon-ne biddan het se þisne beam agrof.

172 These lines appear metrically irregular and are difficult to classify. In l. 20a Heht nu sylfaþe (B-type?) þe is apparently the second ‘lift’ but, if heht, or nu, is the first ‘lift’ (instead of sylfa),it means that the alliteration involves the second ‘lift’ instead of the first one and the line is veryanomalous. In l. 22a siþþan þu gehyrde (+A-type?), if we did not hypothesize that þu bears astress, there would be only one ‘lift’. L. 24a Ne læt þu þec siþþan (+A-type?) is also difficult toclassify but probably the stress is on the pronoun þu instead of the verb læt, given that in TheHusband’s Message the deictic pronouns often seem to correspond to ‘lifts’.

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3.4. The second and third sections: content and structure

The beginning of the second section of The Husband’s Message is characterizednot only by a capital letter (<H> of Hwæt) but also by a hypermetric line. The firstword, Hwæt, marks a change in the narrator’s tone and attitude; now he onlyreports the orders received by his lord. Here, as also in the third section, the insi-stence on personal pronouns emphasizes, besides the presence of the woman, theact of enunciation, the importance of the interlocutor and the sense of direct com-munication (see þu in ll. 14a, 21b, 22a, 24a, 27b; þec in ll. 13a and 24a; þe in l. 20band þin in ll. 29b and 48b). This stylistic feature is also confirmed by the metrics ofthe lines, as here the personal pronouns, unlike in The Wife’s Lament, tend to beara metrical stress: this seems to be the case of ll. 29b (þin), 31b (me), 32a (inc), 48b(þin) and 49b (incer) – where the pronouns are also involved in the alliteration –and perhaps also ll. 20b, 22a, 24a.172

The second section is structured on the recurrence of the verb het «[he]ordered» (ll. 13a and 20b), which introduces the lord’s commands to the messen-ger. In l. 13a het expresses the request of reminding the woman of the old spousalvows, a topic also referred to by the compound wordbeotunga (l. 15b) and by l. 16þe git on ærdagum oft gespræcon, which is repeated at the end of the text, too (l. 54).This recurring line is followed, in the second section, by a digression whichdescribes the happy moments of the past. The repetition of the syntactical structure‘object + infinitive’ creates a list of the habits once shared by the spouses, providingan ‘accumulation effect’: eard weardigan, an lond bugan, / freondscype fremman (ll.18-19a). Ll. 19b-20a Hine fæhþo adraf / of sigeþeode switch the temporal dimensionfrom a happy past to a more recent past of suffering, then Heht nu (l. 20b) intro-duces a new command, projecting again the narrative focus into the present. Thespouse is asked to «toss the waters»; then a more explicit imperative follows, Nelæt þu (l. 24a), on which two parallel emphatic sentences depend: siþes getwæfanand lade gelettan (ll. 24b-25a).

173 Ll. 45b-48: nis him wilna gad, / ne meara, ne mađma, ne meododreama, / ænges ofereorþan eorl gestreona, / þeodnes dohtor, gif he þin beneah.

174 Klinck (1992: 206), Mitchell (1985: §§ 3789-3803). In their editions Klinck (1992: 102),Krapp and Dobbie (1936: 227), Leslie (1961: 50) and Muir (20062: The Husband’s Message) allinserted a full stop before l. 49 Ofer eald gebeot incer twega, instead of considering this phrase aspart of the preceding phrase gif he þin beneah (l. 48b). Leslie (1961: 65) pointed out that thispunctuation is justified by the inversion between verb and subject in l. 50a (gehyre ic): inversionsof this type usually occur after an adverbial phrase, which here can only be identified in l. 49.

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The third section is clearly marked by the capital letters in Ongin and is intro-duced by a hypermetric line (l. 26: Ongin mere secan, mæwes eþel). The structure‘imperative + infinitive’ in Ongin mere secan, parallel to l. 24a Ne læt, provides a linkbetween the beginning of the third section and the end of the second section, whileat l. 27a another imperative, onsite, speeds up the rhythm of the narration. This sec-tion is much longer than the others, and the temporal perspective shifts continuous-ly: in ll. 26-48 the man’s requests to the woman (ll. 26-28) alternate with his wishes(ll. 29-31a) and expectations about a future life together (ll. 32-39). The digressionat ll. 28-39, with l. 28 ofer merelade monnan findest, suddenly shifts the narrativefocus on the sender of the message; instead, l. 31b þæs þe he me sægde, breaking thenarration, suspends the present time before the description of the spouses’ future per-spectives as imagined by the man. Because of a lacuna in the text (l. 40) it is not pos-sible to see where, from the husband’s imagined future, the following temporalswitch takes place leading to the memory of the past misfortunes (the departure fromhis land, ll. 41-44a). Here the parallelism of l. 43a faran on flotweg and l. 44a menganmerestreamas, also very similar in content, highlights the theme of the sea journey, onwhich also l. 41a nacan ut aþrong and l. 42a ond on yþa insist. Then, at l. 44b theadverb nu introduces another change in temporal perspective, from a painful past tothe present peace of mind (Nu se mon hafađ / wean oferwunnen, ll. 44b-45a). Whatfollows is a passage (ll. 45b-48) structured on the repetitive ne… ne…-pattern, inwhich the recently gained prosperity and material wealth are described with an ‘accu-mulation effect’ due to the parallelisms.173 L. 48b gif he þin beneah interrupts the listand brings the focus back to the present and the woman’s role in the husband’s life.

The final passage of the third section is introduced by l. 49, potentially in ἀπὸκοινοῦ between l. 48b and ll. 50-54.174 The narrative focus is on the vows of fideli-ty again, which here are expressed through the runes. The message, introduced bygehyre, is detached from the previous narration and projects the discourse on a‘timeless level’, where the pledge between the spouses (l. 51b: aþe, l. 52: […] þa wæreond þa winetreowe) is sealed by another oath. In this passage we can thus find a the-

175 The imperative Ongin does not find an exact correspondence in other texts, although itmay be compared with the praise to God in Psalm 146.7 l. 1 Onginnađ ge drihtne geare andet-tanđ «Start praising God well, too». The edition adopted is Krapp’s (1933: 146-147).

176 Genesis ll. 2168-2169a: «Your rewards are great! Do not let your spirit, faithful to my will,/ weaken!». Genesis ll. 2196b-2197a: «Do not let your spirit / be bound by sorrow». In Andreas,instead, through the imperative ne læt God urges Andreas not to abandon Him and to endure thehardships in the bloody fight against the heathens (l. 957 ne læt þe ahweorfan hæđenra þrym «Donot let the heathen’s force / turn you away»). Other examples of the expression ne læt are in some

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matic correspondence with both the first and the second sections as regards thetheme of the promise (see l. 12b treowe, l. 15b wordbeotunga and l. 16 þe git onærdagum oft gespræcon). However, unlike in ll. 1-12, the second and the third sec-tions also share the recurring verse þe git on ærdagum oft gespræcon, which providesa structural link and at the same time, similarly to a refrain, marks the end of thetext at l. 54. The presence of the dual pronouns git (ll. 16a, 17a, 54a) and uncer (l.49b), absent in ll. 1-12, also contributes to strengthening the connection betweenthe second and the third sections, and emphasizes the idea of union (in the past)and reunion (desired for the future) between the spouses.

3.4.1. Style

Stylistic analysis highlights the difficulty in defining the genre of the secondand third sections of The Husband’s Message, as they seem to share stylistic featuresboth with homiletic and with wisdom poems. It is only possible to conclude thatThe Husband’s Message is generally comparable with texts that convey Christianmoral content.

An interesting aspect of the style of the poem is the hortatory tone of the mes-senger, which is particularly emphatic because of the presence of the imperatives Nelæt (l. 24a), Ongin and onsite (ll. 26a, 27a). In addition to them, the numerous per-sonal pronouns bearing a metrical stress (see above 3.4.) also acquire the functionof persuading and urging the interlocutor, in the communicative act taking placebetween the messenger and the woman. Exhortations similar to those in TheHusband’s Message also recur in various heroic-religious contexts, in particular theexpression ne læt175 which, for example, in Genesis expresses God’s encouragementto Abraham not to be disheartened and to remember the promises connected totheir covenant (ll. 2168-2169a Meda syndon micla þina! Ne læt þu þe þin mod aseal-can, / wærfæst willan mines!; ll. 2196b-2197a Ne læt þu þin ferhđ wesan / sorgumasæled).176 However, the presence of imperatives in The Husband’s Message allows

supplications, for example in Contrition A l. 52b; Muir’s (20062: Contrition A) edition.177 Homiletic Fragment II ll. 1-3: «Rejoice now in your spirit and, as a consolation, thrive /

in your God, and uplift your glory. / Guard your thought, bind fast your mind». 178 The Order of the World l. 37: «Listen now to this excellent story and bind your mind!».179 Pasternack (1995: 77-87).180 For example Beowulf ll. 1735b-1739a, The Phoenix ll. 314-318, The Judgement Day II ll.

260-268.181 The Seafarer ll. 44-47: «He does not think about the harp, not about acceptance of rings

– / not about the pleasure of a woman, not about a hope in the world – / not about other things,except the rolling of waves, / but the one who hastens to the sea always has a desire».

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for comparison especially with wisdom poetry containing precepts, as it is charac-terized by numerous passages using imperatives in succession: for example,Homiletic Fragment II ll. 1-3: Gefeoh nu on ferđe ond to frofre geþeoh / dryhtneþinum, ond þinne dom arær, / heald hordlocan, hyge fæste bind177 and The Order ofthe World l. 37 Gehyr nu þis herespel ond þinne hyge gefæstna.178

In The Husband’s Message the use of syntactical structures such as the ne…ne…-pattern – where, in a list, elements are connected by the repetition of the pattern‘ne + object’ – is a further aspect in common with works of moral content. Theseries at ll. 45b-48a nis him wilna gad, / ne meara, ne mađma, ne meododreama /ænges ofer eorþan eorlgestreona, / þeodnes dohtor is interrupted by a final elementintroduced by gif in opposition with what precedes: l. 48b gif he þin beneah. Thisstructure also recalls other descriptive patterns, ne… ac or ne… þæs, which can befound in wisdom poetry.179 There are many possible examples;180 however, TheHusband’s Message ll. 45b-48 reminds us in particular of The Seafarer ll. 44-47 Nebiþ him to hearpan hyge ne to hringþege – / ne to wife wyn ne to worulde hyht – / neymbe owiht elles nefne ymb yđa gewealc, / ac a hafađ longunge se þe on lagu fundađ,181

which describe a similar context and bear a similar narrative function. In both pas-sages the pleasures of the hall, typical of the heroic tradition, are overshadowed bysomething which goes beyond the worldly: the longing for the sea in The Seafarer,the love for the woman in The Husband’s Message. The relation between the seafar-er and the sea represents man’s spiritual leaning towards God; similarly, perhaps,the lord’s relationship with his spouse may evoke Christ’s love for His Church.

3.4.2. Themes and formulas

Although the literal meaning of The Husband’s Message is secular, there are sev-eral terms scattered throughout the poem which seem to connect it with some well-

182 Swanton (1964: 288).183 Psalm 95.3 ll. 1-2: «Tell his glory among the glorious people, / and his beautiful wonder

on all the peoples». Two other compounds of sige- identify very significant groups of people inthe poems and in the history of salvation: sigeđreat «triumphant group», referred to the multi-tude of people on Judgement Day in The Ascension l. 404b, and sigetudre «triumphant breed»,referred to Adam and Eve’s progeny in Life of Saint Guthlac (B) l. 48a. The edition adopted forPsalm 95 is Krapp’s (1933: 68-69).

184 Ll. 44b-45a: Nu se mon hafađ / wean oferwunnen.185 Kaske (1967: 55).186 The sea journey in The Seafarer is considered to be symbolic of man’s search for God for

example by Klinck (1992: 37).187 Bolton (1969: 344).188 In The Descent into Hell the Virgin Mary is indicated as eorles dohtor, a variant of þeodnes

dohtor: l. 10 heht hy oþre mid eorles dohtor «he summoned the others together with the Lord’sdaughter».

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known Biblical motifs, as also revealed by the intertextual links with other Anglo-Saxon and Latin religious texts. Some expressions in The Husband’s Message there-fore become keywords that suggest a correspondence between the lord and Christ,who urges the faithful to undertake a spiritual journey in order to reunite withHim and find eternal salvation.

When the lord went on a journey, he had to leave his land and his people, whoare defined with the epithet sigeþeod «glorious people» (l. 20a), which, as perhapssuggested by Psalm 95.3 ll. 1-2, may relate to the Biblical ‘Chosen People’:182

Secgeađ his wuldor geond sigeþeode, / and on eallum folcum his fægere wundor.183 Ifthe term sigeþeod lends itself to this allegorical interpretation, further suggestingthe identification between the lord and Christ, the lord’s overcoming of all suffer-ing (ll. 44b-45a)184 may thus represent Jesus’ triumph over death through theResurrection.185 The exhortation to undertake a journey, addressed to a woman ofnoble birth (l. 48a þeodnes dohtor «daughter of a prince»), appears as Christ’sencouragement to humankind to have faith and join Him spiritually. This wouldthus correspond to a journey pro amore dei, just as the allegorical navigation in TheSeafarer,186 where the soul has to face the sea to find God, or the crossing of dan-gerous waters describing the souls’ path to God on Judgement Day in The Ascensionll. 411-421.

In this religious perspective, the exhortation in The Husband’s Message isaddressed to a woman (and not to a man) because she would represent, besidesevery believer’s soul, Christ’s Church on earth,187 consistently with the expressionsþeodnes dohtor188 and sinchroden («adorned with jewels», l. 14a). Swanton (1964:

189 See also Epistula ad Ephesios 5:22-24: Mulieres viris suis subditae sint sicut Domino quoni-am vir caput est mulieris sicut Christus caput est ecclesiae ipse salvator corporis. Sed ut ecclesiasubiecta est Christo ita et mulieres viris suis in omnibus.

190 Swanton (1964: 277) pointed out that the topic of Christ’s spouse appears for example inÆlfric’s homilies (referred to St. Agnes, St. Juliana and the Church) and in the Blickling HomilyIn Natali Domini: Ond mid eallum missenlicum afeddum blostmum sy se Cristes brydbur gefræt-wod «Let Christ’s bride-bower be garnished with every type of flower that is created»; ed. andtransl. Kelly (2003: 4, 5).

191 See for example Passion of Saint Juliana ll. 106-107 Iuliana (hio to gode hæfde / freondræ-denne fæste gestaþelad) «Juliana (she had firmly consecrated to God her friendship)».

192 Canticum Canticorum 1:10: Pulchrae sunt genae tuae inter inaures, collum tuum intermonilia.

193 Beowulf l. 614a grette goldhroden guman on healle «adorned with gold, she greeted thewarriors in the hall», referred to queen Wealhþeow.

194Psalmus 44: 13-15: et o filia fortissimi in muneribus faciem tuam deprecabuntur divites pop-uli, omnis gloria filiae regis intrinsecus fasceis aureis vestita est, in scutulatis ducetur ad regem […];11-12: Audi filia et vide et inclina aurem tuam et obliviscere populi tui et domum patris tui, et con-cupiscet rex decorem tuum quia ipse est dominus tuus et adora eum.

195 Ll. 24-29: Ne læt þu þec siþþan siþes getwæfan, / lade gelettan lifgendne monn. / Ongin meresecan, mæwes eþel, / onsite sænacan, þæt þu suđ heonan / ofer merelade monnan findest / þær se þeo-den is þin on wenum.

196 See Christ’s description in Psalmus 44: 4-5: accingere gladio tuo super femur fortissime, glo-ria tua et decore tuo prospere ascende propter veritatem et mansuetudinem iustitiae et docebit te ter-ribilia dextera tua.

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276-277) underlined that the theme of Christ’s spouse, which is important inCanticum Canticorum,189also recurs in the homilies190 and in Passion of SaintJuliana.191 In Canticum Canticorum 7:2 the Church is invoked by Christ as filiaprincipis and is represented as being adorned with jewels (Canticum Canticorum1:10).192 As a matter of fact, the image of a woman of noble origin wearing jewelsand gems is also found in Anglo-Saxon epic poetry (Beowulf l. 614);193 however,the correspondences between The Husband’s Message and the Bible goes beyondthat. In Psalmus 44: 13-15 and 11-12194 the Church is also described as filia regis,and, as in The Husband’s Message ll. 24-29,195 she is invited to leave every earthlygood and follow God. In Psalmus 44 Christ and Church, together, are depicted asa king and a queen of the heroic tradition196 (Christ sits on a throne and holds asceptre); similarly, in an allegorical sense, in The Husband’s Message the lord and thewoman, reunited, together will rule a nation and distribute wealth (ll. 33-39a).

The direction indicated, «southward» (l. 27b þu suđ heonan), may representanother important element in the allegorical reading of the woman’s sea journey. Inmedieval culture, the direction to the afterlife was not indicated through a unique

197 J.E. Anderson (1974: 406 fn. 1).198 Kaske (1967: 56-57).199 Bede, Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum 4.3: […] audiuit repente, ut postea referebat,

uocem suauissimam cantantium atque laetantium de caelo ad terras usque discendere; quam uideli-cet uocem ab euroaustro, id est ab alto brumalis exortus, primo se audisse dicebat; Colgrave andMynors’ (1969: 340) edition. See also Genesis when Eve tells Adam that eating the apple openedher eyes and that she can now see God enthroned, a reference to the southeast representing whereGod dwells: ll. 666b-667: Ic mæg heonon geseon / hwær he sylf siteđ, (þæt is suđ and east), «I can seefrom here / where he is sitting, (that is south and east)». Vickrey (1969: 91) underlined that inGenesis B «the southeast may be considered a minor motif of the accounts of judgment».

200 Migne’s (1974: 261) edition.201 See Bede, In Genesim: Meridiana quippe plaga… fervorem dilectionis mystice demonstrat,

qua corda electorum, ne in rerum infimarum appetitu ac desideriis torpeant, sole iustitiae desuper,videlicet Christo inlucente, semper accenduntur. The edition adopted is Jones’ (1967: 173).

202 Genesis l. 2762: «our Almighty had [made] the promise».203 Heliand ll. 321b-322: «respect your fidelity vow, / […] and keep well your friendship».

The edition adopted is Cathey’s (2002: 38).204 Psalm 94.11 l. 2: «that previously, in anger, I took an oath». The edition adopted is

Krapp’s (1933: 67).

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reference system;197 however, as Christ was associated with the sun, and thereforeto light and heat, in a Christian context the south was often connected to the con-cept of calor fidei198 and consequently to the Kingdom of Heaven (as also in Bede’sHistoria Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum 4.3).199 In Hrabanus Maurus De Universo,ix, Prologus, in the expression auster sancta Æcclesia est fidei calore accensa,200 thesouth is associated with heat and sunlight, and it comes to represent the ‘new life’of which Christ, in the New Testament, is the example for the Apostles. In a com-mentary to Genesis 12, Bede interprets Abraham’s journey southwards (fromCarran to Canaan, then to Sichem, to Negheb and to Egypt) allegorically in lightof God’s command to men, ad celestem patriam iter facere.201

This chain of possible Biblical references further supports an allegorical readingof the theme of the pledge in The Husband’s Message (see also above 2.1.): most ofthe expressions referring to it recur in the Anglo-Saxon poetic corpus in a religiouscontext. The hapax wordbeotunga (l. 15b) recalls the frequent compound wordbeot«promise», which in Genesis l. 2762 refers to God’s promise of a mighty progenyto Abraham: waldend usser, hæfde wordbeot.202 The compound winetreowe (l. 52b)is a hapax in Old English but is attested to in Old Saxon: it appears with referenceto Joseph and Mary’s relationship in Heliand ll. 321b-322 Lêsti thu inca uuinitreu-ua, / […] endi hald incan friundskepi uuel!203 Lastly, as regards aþe benemnan (l.51b), aþ is usually related to the verb swerian; however, a similar expression appearsin Psalm 94.11 l. 2 þæt ic ær on yrre ađe benemde.204

205 Andreas ll. 598b-600: «there they can, / happy and blessed among the angels, hold ahome / those who look for God after death».

206 Psalm 132.1 ll. 1-3: «Indeed, how pleasant and good it is, like / two brothers both think-ing the same thing, / where they can live in one house». The edition adopted is Krapp’s (1933:127-128).

207 Historically the first examples of pilgrimages pro amore dei are those of the DesertFathers who, in the sixth century, retreated to the deserts of Egypt, Palestine and Syria to livealone. In the Bible, the Israelites looking for the Promised Land – and Abraham in particular –instead represent a model because they abandoned their home and travelled to unknown places,unconditionally obeying God’s will. The Celtic monks, including St. Brendan, followed theseexamples both on land and at sea.

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The new pact sealed by the runes (ll. 50-51) is based on an old alliance, whenthe man and his spouse could «hold a home, live in one land and / have a friend-ship» (ll. 18-19a). The expression eard weardigan (l. 18a) describes the unionbetween the two contracting parties of the pledge and often recurs in religious con-texts: for example in Andreas ll. 598b-600 þær freo moton, / eadige mid englum, eardweardigan, / þa đe æfter deađe dryhten secađ,205 where Andreas speaks of Christ,who showed love with His words and actions and led us to bliss with His teachings.In Psalm 132.1 ll. 1-3 Efne hu glædlic biđ and god swylce, / þætte brođur on an begenhicgen, / þær hig ænne sculan eard weardian206 the formula eard weardigan describesthe union and life of communion of two brothers; in The Panther l. 11a, instead,the panther as a symbol for Christ «holds a home» in the mountain caves, nearsteep hills. It is significant that, in all these cases, the ‘dwelling’ conceals a referenceeither to the House of God or to a joyful place in a Christian sense. In TheHusband’s Message, eard weardigan may somehow evoke the harmony of the pastbetween man and the Father, the lost unity which can be regained through a spiri-tual path that will lead every believer to the Kingdom of Heaven, his home in theafterlife.

As regards the theme of sailing, according to the allegorical reading proposed,there is a reversal of the heroic topos of the sea journey linked to political or warinterests (for instance, Beowulf sailing to Hrothgar’s kingdom to fight Grendel).Once again, what stands out is a resemblance with the topos of the peregrinatio proamore dei, which can be found not only in The Seafarer but also in the medievalstory of St. Brendan’s journey, where the narrator is the Saint who, as an act ofpenance, willingly becomes an exile and sails the sea searching for God.207 In lightof this tradition, apparently there is a correspondence and, at the same time, anopposition between The Husband’s Message ll. 39b-44a, where the lord was forcedto take the ship and sail away, and The Battle of Brunanburh ll. 32b-36a, where the

208 The Battle of Brunanburh, ll. 32b-36: Þær geflemed wearđ / Norđmanna bregu, nede gebe-ded, / to lides stefne litle weorode; / cread cnear on flot, cyning ut gewat / on fealene flod, feorhgenerede «There he was caused to flee / the ruler of the men from the north, forced by necessi-ty / to the bow of the ship with a little troop; / the ship drove afloat, the king went out / on thedark flood, he saved his life»; Buzzoni’s (2001: 90-95 - version A) edition.

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Irish king Anlaf had to escape from the Æthelstan and the English.208 In both cas-es the man has to undertake a risky journey «forced by necessity» (nyde gebæded,or nede gebeded), and the escape is justified by the need to save one’s life. In TheHusband’s Message, however, salvation seems to imply something higher: a signifi-cant expression is forđsiþes georn «eager for the journey» which, at l. 43b, describesthe lord’s attitude. The formulaic system ‘genitive of x + georn’, when the genitivesiþes or a compound of the same term takes part in the formula, usually refers to ajourney in a figurative sense: for example, in Life of Saint Guthlac (B) both utsiþesgeorn «eager for the exodus» and gæst siþes georn «the spirit is eager for the jour-ney» (l. 449b and l. 227a) express the soul’s desire to leave the body at death. Thesecomparisons suggest that perhaps forđsiþes georn in The Husband’s Message mayalso evoke the idea of an allegorical journey. In this case, the lord’s dangerous jour-ney to save his life would be like Christ’s path of death and Resurrection on behalfof humankind.

3.4.3. Temporal dimension

Unlike in ll. 1-12, where the chronology of the facts is easy to follow, in the sec-ond and third sections the temporal perspective swings continuously in the narra-tion. There is a rapid transition from the memory of the spouses’ happy past to thelord’s command in the present, from the joyful future perspectives to the man’sancient hardships, until the newly regained prosperity.

Second section:ll. 13-15: exhortation referred to the present moment ll. 16-19a: memory of the past ll. 19b-20a: memory of a more recent past ll. 20b-21a: hint at lord’s command (referred to the present moment)ll. 21b-23: explication concerning the lord’s command (referred to a future

moment)ll. 24-25: imperative exhortation (referred to a future moment)

209 See for example the frequent shift from the present to the past in The Ruin and in thefirst passage of The Wife’s Lament, Ch. 2 (2.3.).

210 For example, chronological progress and consequentiality are clear in the succession ofthe imperatives addressed to the woman, between the end of the second and the beginning ofthe third sections (ll. 24-25 Ne læt þu þec siþþan siþes getwæfan, / lade gelettan, lifgendne monn, ll.26a and l. 27a Ongin mere secan and onsite sænacan). Moreover, in the third section ll. 30-39a are,on a temporal level, a new element because this is the first time in which a digression about thefuture of the spouses appears in the text.

211 Also see the Norse tradition: in Skáldskaparmál chapter 78 the term gauk-mánuðr«month of the cuckoo» identifies the first month of summer. Cucina (2008: 86).

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Third section: ll. 26-29: imperative exhortation (referred to a future moment)ll. 30-39a: descriptive passage referred to the present and the future ll. 39b-44a: memory of the past ll. 44b-49: descriptive passage referred to the present ll. 50-54: reading of the runes in the present

A non-linear treatment of the temporal dimension is frequent in Anglo-Saxonpoetry.209 The third section appears to be structured in a way similar to the secondone, and the alternation of present and past moments appears specular. Some pas-sages seem to also correspond in theme and style: the hortatory passage at ll. 24-25and ll. 26-29, the reference to the lord’s flight at ll. 19b-20a and ll. 39b-44a. Even ifthe temporal dimension is different, the description of the couple’s habits in thepast at ll. 16-19a and the future perspectives at ll. 30-39b find a correspondence ona thematic level. It would not be correct to say that the third section only amplifiesthe second and does not develop it; in fact, the narration shows a chronologicalprogress and consequentiality.210 However, the general impression is that everynarrative passage in the second section finds a correspondent but more detailedpassage in the third section, and that the last section alone contains the essentialmeaning of the whole poem. The position of the runes at the end of the text fur-ther supports this view and, as already specified, it is probably the reason for themarked incipit of this part because the runic message enigmatically alludes to, andsynthesizes, the allegorical meaning of The Husband’s Message.

3.4.4. L. 23: elegiac detail or topos?

According to the symbology of some religious Latin works, the cuckoo is theharbinger of a new season and renewal (see above 2.3.);211 therefore, the apparent-

212 Life of Saint Guthlac (A) l. 744: «the cuckoos proclaimed the year».213 The Seafarer ll. 53-55a: «So the cuckoo exhorts with a sad voice, / the guardian of sum-

mer sings, he announces a sorrow / [which is] bitter in the heart».214 Klinck (1992: 203).215 There are no similarities between the cuckoo in The Husband’s Message and the cuckoos

in some Latin and Greek works because the contexts and the symbology involved are complete-ly different; for example, in Hesiod’s Ἔργα καὶ Ἡμέραι («Works and Days») the bird, in March,gives the signal for plowing; in Plautus’ Mercator it is a symbol of adultery and in Pseudolus theexpression cuculus is a word of reproach.

216 See I. Williams (1944: 12) and G. Williams (19702: 49). According to I. Williams (1944:13), the reason why in Welsh poetry the cuckoo is sad whereas in Irish poetry it is only a symbolof summer is based on a linguistic consideration: the cuckoo’s cry (/coo/) sounds like the inter-rogative adverb cw «where?» in Old Welsh. Therefore, the bird’s cry sounded like the incessantrepetition of a question, and it recalled the ideas of abandonment and loss.

217 Transl. by I. Williams (1944: 12).218 A cuckoo appears in almost all the stanzas, and is always strictly connected to death; for

example, stanza 7: «At Aber Cuawg cuckoos are singing. / Sad is it to my mind / That he whohas heard them will hear them no more». Transl. by I. Williams (1944: 13).

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ly elegiac image in The Husband’s Message l. 23 galan geomorne geac on bearwe mayalso lend itself to an allegorical interpretation. However, this expression is a crux inits literal meaning: considering that, at l. 23, the cuckoo has to signal to the womanthe right moment to start her journey and reach her husband, the context does notexplain why the bird’s song is sad.

In Life of Saint Guthlac (A) the cuckoo announces the summer (l. 744a geacasgear budon),212 in The Seafarer it signals the season when the desire for sailing isfelt more intensely and, as in The Husband’s Message, it sings a gloomy song (ll. 53-55a Swylce geac monađ geomran reorde, / singeđ sumeres weard, sorge beodeđ / bitterin breosthord).213 If a sad cuckoo recurs as a conventional image in these two texts,it is difficult to trace the origin of this topos because this animal was widely presentboth in literature and in folk tradition all over Europe.214 Comparison betweenthe image in The Husband’s Message and cuckoos in the classical Latin and Greekworks does not help;215 in the Celtic tradition instead, especially in Old Welshpoetry, the cuckoo is very similar to the Anglo-Saxon representations: it is a sym-bol of summer but, at the same time, it heralds sad omens.216 An example is inKintevin keinhaw asse, a poem about the month of May contained in the BlackBook of Carmarthen (a manuscript from the mid-13th century): «When cuckoossing on the tops of the fine trees, / greater grows my gloom» (ll. 5-6).217 There arefurther examples, such as Claf Abercuawg (from the Llywarch Hen cycle, tran-scribed in the mid-ninth century),218 or the poem Angar Kyfyndawt (from the

219 I. Williams (1944: 58) mentioned the following passage of Angar Kyfyndawt: «I know[…] Why a cuckoo complains; why it sings; I know where the cuckoos of summer are in winter».

220 See Caie (1976: 230).

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Book of Taliesin, copied in the 16th century).219

Going back to the origin of the two different representations – the cuckoo as aharbinger of the new season and, on the other hand, as a symbol of sorrow – is acomplicated issue. However, it is at least possible to hypothesize that their overlap-ping in The Husband’s Message (and in The Seafarer) may be ascribed to a Celticinfluence. This theory would confirm that the image of the sad cuckoo, apparentlyelegiac, in the Anglo-Saxon context has a conventional value which is not linked tothe genre of the elegy itself. This means that the presence of a mourning cuckoo inThe Husband’s Message should be considered as a topos, instead of an elegiac detail.

4. Conclusion

Structural, stylistic and linguistic analysis of The Husband’s Message seems toconfirm what was suggested by the codicological data: ll. 1-12 appear detachedfrom what follows, while the following sections are strictly linked on various levels– besides the presence of a recurring line, the numerous, scattered formulas aboutthe themes of the pledge and the journey highlight a continuity in the narrativedevelopment.

In light of the relation with the closest texts on the manuscript, the poem can beinterpreted both on a literal and on an allegorical level. The exhortation of the manto his spouse can thus be read as Christ’s invitation to His Church (and, in general,to the faithful’s soul) to meet Him in the Kingdom of Heaven. A dense web of ref-erences to the Scriptures and frequent Biblical symbols support, according to theexegetic tradition, the identification of the male figure and Christ, and of thewoman and the Church. The runic message at the end, aimed at renewing the vowsbetween the spouses through a new oath, seems to remind us of Abraham’scovenant, the old alliance between God and man. This pledge was fulfilled byChrist who, on behalf of man’s salvation, brought about the mystery of death andResurrection foreshadowed in the Old Testament and also contained as a dogma inthe sacraments220 (including baptism, which is frequently alluded to in the textssurrounding The Husband’s Message). Therefore, the runes seem to restate, in theshape of an enigma, the message of salvation contained in the whole poem.

1 See for example Klinck’s (1992) edition and Klinck (1984), Pearsall (1977), Greenfield(1986), Znojemská (1999). Conner (2005), trying to contextualize the Old English elegies inrelation to the Exeter Guild-statutes, recognized as elegies only The Wanderer, The Seafarer, TheRiming Poem, Contrition A and Contrition B, and defined all the other texts as ‘laments’.

2 All Old English poetry is in long alliterative lines; therefore Anglo-Saxon elegies, unlikeLatin elegies, lack distinctive prosodic elements [see Mora (1993: 204-205)]. Moreover, asKlinck (1992: 234-235) pointed out, no real sources can be traced for the Anglo-Saxon elegieseither in Latin Christian poetry or in other linguistic traditions – although there are resem-blances to the form of Norse poetry [in the use of the rhyme and the stanzaic division respective-ly in The Riming Poem and Deor; see Harris (1983)] and with some Celtic poems (in particularClaf Abercuawg) presenting a first-person narrator, the theme of suffering, images of a cuckooand of a wild, hostile nature (see The Seafarer), and a gnomic conclusion (see Pilch 1964).

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4

THE WIFE’S LAMENT AND THE HUSBAND’S MESSAGE:A CONCLUSION

One of the aims of my analysis was to verify whether the traditional classifica-tion of both The Husband’s Message and The Wife’s Lament as elegies can be con-firmed. Therefore, as a conclusion to the present study, the differences between thetwo textual compositions will be briefly summarized and related to the issue ofgenre classification. In the end, the possibility of a connection between the twopoems within the context of the Exeter Book will also be addressed.

The texts traditionally labelled as ‘elegies’ – The Wanderer, The Seafarer, TheRiming Poem, Deor, Wulf and Eadwacer, The Wife’s Lament, Contrition A,Contrition B, The Husband’s Message and The Ruin –1 occur in random order inthe Exeter Book; the compiler thus probably did not recognise them as a group.2As a matter of fact, these short texts are heterogeneous on the levels of content andstyle. Their recurring features – a first-person narrator (the only exception is TheRuin), a melancholic tone, the resemblance to a lament, the themes of exile and

3 Figures of exiles lamenting their sufferings in the first person are also found in somehomiletic poems such as Christ and Satan (the figure of Satan, ll. 24b-50, 81-95a, 163-171),Andreas and Guthlac B (the two saints, respectively ll. 290-314 and ll. 528b-561). In the epicpoem Beowulf there is more than one elegiac passage (Hildeburh’s story, ll. 1071-1086, kingHređel’s sorrow for his son’s death, ll. 2444-2462a, the lament of the last surviving warrior, ll.2247-2266). The presence of a fictitious narrating voice also characterizes Dream of the Roodand the Riddles.

4 «[A] relatively short reflective or dramatic poem embodying a contrastive pattern of lossand consolation, ostensibly based upon a specific personal experience or observation, andexpressing an attitude towards that experience»; Greenfield (1986: 281).

5 The role played by homiletic elements in the elegies is quite meaningful, as underlined byPearsall (1977: 51-56) and Greenfield (1986), who distinguished between elegies containingChristian themes and elegies presenting more secular topics.

6 Zimmermann (1995: 145). References to destiny are present in all the elegies (for examplein The Wanderer l. 5b, l. 15 and l. 100b, in Contrition B ll. 48-49); sometimes fate coincides withGod (like in The Riming Poem ll. 59-60 and in The Seafarer ll. 115b-116).

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physical and psychological pain, and abundant use of terms from these semanticfields – are neither exclusive of this genre,3 nor are they included in all the elegies.As a matter of fact, Greenfield’s (1986: 281) definition of elegy,4 one of the mostwidely accepted, is rather grounded on a structural element: an ‘elegiac form’, a nar-rative frame which shows a personal narration leading to general, universal reflec-tion. Two seminal aspects of the genre stand out: the character’s reversal of fate andthe presence of a didactic element aimed at providing consolation. The change offortune always coincides with the loss of a favourable condition, from which amore or less explicit opposition between past and present arises. This loss, connect-ed to the theme of the instability of man’s life, can occur in various forms: theremoval from one’s social context (The Wanderer and The Seafarer), the fragility ofhuman relationships (The Wife’s Lament, Wulf and Eadwacer), the transience ofhuman endeavours and worldly goods (The Ruin), several painful experiences thatdestiny can have in store for men (Deor). The narration of a personal experiencegradually leads to a universal reflection on the human condition, aimed at over-coming sorrow. The final consolation reveals the didactic intent of these poems.

The attainment of a form of comfort varies according to the more or less explic-it presence of the homiletic element.5 In most of the elegies a Christian perspectiveis clearly hinted at, and the final consolation coincides with faith in divine mercyand the Kingdom of Heavens. However, there is a small group of elegies in whichreferences to God and the afterlife are completely lacking. Comfort seems insteadto come from awareness that sorrow is transient, therefore everyone can manage toaccept and face their reversal of fortune more readily.6 The Wife’s Lament forms

7 The only reference to God is in The Husband’s Message, but it is very brief and almost casu-al: l. 32 þonne inc geunne alwaldend god «that almighty God allows you two».

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part of this group of ‘secular’ elegies, together with Wulf and Eadwacer, The Ruinand, according to a traditional grouping, also The Husband’s Message. To all appear-ances, these texts do not present religious motifs7 – although, as previously high-lighted, various elements in The Ruin and The Husband’s Message could be inter-preted symbolically and allegorically [see Ch. 3 (2.3.)]. Wulf and Eadwacer andThe Wife’s Lament unexpectedly have a feminine narrator and deal with the rela-tionship between a man and a woman; therefore, with The Husband’s Message theyhave been considered as a subgroup.

The Wife’s Lament, whose unity, already suggested by the layout of the poem, isconfirmed by textual analysis – which highlights a consistency in the narrativedevelopment and a dense network of intratextual connections that give the textcohesion –, can easily be included in the group of poems called ‘Anglo-Saxon ele-gies’. In fact, the focus of the text is on the contrast between the happiness of thepast, when the two spouses were together, and the present misery due to their sep-aration; then the narrative structure shifts from the individual perspective to a uni-versal teaching aimed at giving consolation to everyone. The allusive style and thelanguage, insisting on the exile theme and on the woman’s suffering, recall the oth-er Old English elegies.

In The Husband’s Message, defined by Greenfield (1986: 226) as «the least ele-giac of the elegies», the elegiac frame is reversed: the conditions favourable to thereunification of the two spouses occur in the present and a future happiness ispromised, in antithesis with the exile and the loneliness of the past. The poem doesnot seem to reflect the elegiac form shared by the other elegies, not having featuressuch as the expression of a lament and the presence of a lexicon referring to sorrowand pain. In light of all the unusual aspects pointed out, the classification of TheHusband’s Message as elegy appears at least dubious. Moreover, the investigation ofthe graphic cues has underlined further complexities, such as the presence of threesections which may even reveal a possible lack of textual integrity. According totextual analysis, the first section, closer to Riddles 60 and 30b from a stylistic view-point, appears somewhat detached from the following sections. It is possible tohypothesize that the three capital letters of The Husband’s Message, arranged inascending order, may indicate a particular use of the three textual blocks. The first,least marked initial may signal a connection to the immediately preceding riddles;the third capital letter, the biggest and most decorated, may instead have func-

8 Only Renoir (1977b: 22) detected a possible link between The Wife’s Lament andEvangelium secundum Lucam 1:52 deposuit potentes de sede et exaltavit humiles. According tothis comparison the husband, guilty of sending his wife into exile, would have been punished byGod with the same fate. However, this seems to be a very loose connection.

9 Gameson (1996b: 461).10 The only textual element possibly hinting at a Christian dimension is l. 41 ne ealles þæs

longaþes þe mec on þissum life begeat «not from all that longing which seized me in this life»,where the expression on þissum life, linked to the theme of hardships, may indicate that thewoman’s suffering is limited to this world.

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tioned as a bookmark for the most relevant section of the text. In fact, this part,including the runes, is not only representative of all the main topics of the poembut it also seems to integrate perfectly in the context created by the close section ofhomiletic texts placed between The Wife’s Lament and The Husband’s Message, allfocused on conversion and on Judgement Day. The position in the manuscript thusreveals and highlights the potential Christian meaning of The Husband’s Message,whose runes, themes and images recall Biblical motifs, lending themselves to alle-gorical interpretations.

The symbolic value of The Husband’s Message, specially emphasized by thecontext of the Exeter Book, casts a different light on this text, pointing out inparticular its didactic element, which would deserve further consideration per-haps in view of a new genre classification. As regards The Wife’s Lament, instead,no allegorical level of meaning is really apparent, nor is any connection with thesection of homiletic texts that follow, as any reference to the historia salutis isabsent.8 The only possibly Christian element may be the image of the oak (actreo,ll. 28a and 36a), which, despite bearing a symbolic value in several literary tradi-tions, in the Old Testament seems to represent a strong sign of the presence ofGod [see Ch. 2 (2.4.2.)]. The image of the oak-tree alone, however, is not suffi-cient to support an allegorical reading of the whole text, where any explicithomiletic element is also missing, as well as the transient perspective9 which inthe elegies is expressed through the contrast between earthly life (represented bythe narrator’s story) and the hereafter.10 Böker (1982: 417), and Greenfield(1986: 294) considered The Wife’s Lament «the most elegiac of all the elegies»and the one offering the least consolation, but comfort here is more in relation tothe capability of facing human suffering resolutely than to an awareness of anafterlife [see Ch. 2 (2.5.1.)].

Despite the lack of religious references, Renoir (1977b: 23) underlined howThe Wife’s Lament must have an edifying function in the Exeter Book:

11 Williamson (1982: 67). Not only does the object in Riddle 59 contain the Saviour’s Holyblood during Mass, but its «wounds» (l. 12a benne, l. 16b wunda, probably a metaphor for thechalice’s engravings) are compared to Jesus’ wounds (ll. 9b-12: gif þæs æþelan / goldes tacen ongi-etan cuþe / [ond] dryhtnes dolg, don swa þæs beages / benne cwædon «when he saw clearly / thesymbol of that noble gold / and the Lord’s wounds do as the ring’s / wounds had said»). Thusthe chalice’s ‘body’ is symbolically like Christ’s body: glorious and wounded. See Ch. 2 (1.2.1.).

12 Atherton (2000: 130), albeit without further explanations, also did not rule out that TheHusband’s Message may be an ‘answer’ to The Wife’s Lament, a message of optimism and recon-ciliation that provides consolation, and that the two poems may somewhat be complementary.

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[…] nor am I implying that the poet intentionally designed the pattern of his narra-tive so as to call to mind a fundamental Christian doctrine, […] I am submitting,however, that the pattern in question is really there, that apprehension thereof mustunavoidably affect the impact of the narrative upon a Christian audience, and thatthe presumably intended readers of the Exeter Book were by no means unlikely to bereceptive to this aspect of the poem.

Therefore, this elegy would be connected to the Christian context of the manu-script and, according to Renoir, its position would be particularly meaningful, aftera riddle (Riddle 59) that seems to hint at several religious symbols (the solution,chalice, is an object used in religious services and closely linked to the figure ofChrist).11 My conclusion thus takes into account this scholar’s point of view, whichattaches seminal importance to the pattern underlying the collection in the manu-script, but moves beyond it, imagining a possible connection between The Wife’sLament and The Husband’s Message – although only from a codicological point ofview. It does not seem fortuitous that a woman’s lament, concerning her separationfrom her beloved and the annulment of the vows of fidelity, is shortly followed by ahusband’s love message which reverses the perspective, hinting at a possible reunionand a new promise. The homiletic section (from Judgement Day I to HomileticFragment II) which separates the two texts would have the effect of gradually shift-ing the focus from the earthly hardships of The Wife’s Lament to the complementa-ry, transcendent vision of The Husband’s Message by introducing a spiritual path ofrepentance and conversion, essential conditions for the eternal salvation foreseen byChrist’s Second Coming. Therefore, The Wife’s Lament would appear to form anintegral part of the eschatological context of the Exeter Book: in light of the joyfulannouncement of The Husband’s Message, the suffering described in the elegy canbe faced and overcome through a Christian perspective, since it has been answeredthrough a message of hope. The perspective of a reunion of the spouses providesrelief and consolation, as it allegorically implies that mankind’s loneliness and sor-row, upon the reunion with Christ, will be replaced by eternal bliss.12

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