RECENTLY DISCOVERED NEW INSCRIPTIONS FROM PRE-ANGKORIAN CAMBODIA IN STUNG TRENG PROVINCE

VONG SOTHEARA

LECTURER OF HISTORY DEPARTMENT ROYAL UNIVERSITY OF PHNOM PENH

sothearavong@gmail.com Abstract:

The stone inscriptions of Cambodia are unique ancient historical sources. New stone inscriptions,

almost one every semester, are still being discovered in former places of worship. This paper uncovers the meaning of four newly discovered Pre-Angkorian inscriptions that were found in Stung Treng province within the last decade. The first stele, Ka 201, was found underground at the temple ruin site in Thalaborivath hillock, and the second, a doorjamb, Ka 193, from the damaged temple of Prambuon Loveng. Both are situated on the right bank of the Mekong River and are about two kilometers apart. The third stele, K. 1257, was unearthed from a ruined temple site near Badeum pagoda and the last one, a rock inscription, K. 1289, was found at a low island at the confluence of the Sekong and the Mekong Rivers which can only be seen at the peak of the dry season, when the river level is at its lowest. This is the first written evidence in Cambodia for the existence of a sacred place, called ‘Tirtha’ in the water at the said confluence. Accompanying this stone lettering, are two rounded pedestals for supporting two different aspects of the God Çiva. Therefore, these objects provide strong evidence that the Mekong water was permanently, magically purified as holy water for agricultural enrichment bestowed on the people living downstream. These inscriptions also provide evidence that Khmer people in the 7th century preferred worshiping the supreme God Çiva to others.

ស ចរកៃនរបេទសកមពជ គជរបភពឯក ររបវតត រសតប ណែតមយគត។ រហតដលសពវៃថង េគេនែតរកេឃើញស ចរកថមៗេទៀតជេរៀង លឆន ពអតតបជនយ ឋ ននន។ អតថបទេនះ នងេបើកបងហ ញអពអតថនយៃនស ចរកថមសមយមនអងគរចនន៤ផទ ង ែដលេគរកេឃើញេនកនងេខតតសទងែរតង េនអឡងទសវត រចងេរកយេនះ។ បនទះសតមភទ១ Ka 201 េគរកេឃើញពកនងដេនទទលប ណបកែបកេឈម ះថ បរ ត, ផទ ងទ២េនេលើេមទវ រ Ka 193

េគរកេឃើញេនេលើទ ងរប ទបកែបកេឈម ះ រប ទរបបនែលវង េហើយកែនលងរកេឃើញស ចរកទងពរេនះ សថតេនេរតើយខង ត ៃនទេនលេមគងគដចគន ែដល ងេនចមង យរបមណ២គឡែមរតពគន ។ ផទ ងសតមភទ៣ K. 1257 េគរកេឃើញពកនងដរតងគនររប ទឥដឋបកែបកជបរបងវតតបដម េហើយស ចរកទ៤ K. 1289 េគរបទះេឃើញេនេលើថមដលមយដធកនងបតទេនលរតងចណចរបសពវៃនទេនលេសកង នងទេនលេមគងគ។ េគ ចេមើលេឃើញថមចរកេនះបន ែតេនចងរដវរបងេវ ទកេន កបផត។ ភសត ងសេណរេនះ គជេលើកទ១េហើយេនកមពជ ែដលមនបញជ កពអតថភពៃនបជនយ ឋ នតថៈ េនរតងទរបសពវទេនលទងពរេនះ។ ជមយគន េនះ េយើងេឃើញមនែផនទរមេទវរបពរ ែដលពតជសរមបតមកលរបរពះឥសរ ជសវលងគពររបេភទេផ ងគន ។ េហតដេចនះ វតថ ងទងេនះ បនផតលនវសកខកមមយងរងមថ ទកទេនលេមគងគរតវដន ែខមររបសទធមនត គមសកតសទធទកជអចៃរនតយ េដើមបឧទទសបជឲយផលកសកមមកនែតសមបណ សរមបជវភពេន មដងទេនលភគខងេរកម។ ចែណកស ចរកែដលបនសក ទងអសេនះ បងហ ញនវភសត ងករនយមេគរពបជចេពះរពះឥសរជធរបសែខមរេនតបនេនះ។

1- THALABORIWATH INSCRIPTION KA 201 OR K. 1287 This inscribed stele is 70 cm high, 39 cm wide (at the middle of both sides) and 9 cm

thick. It is wider at the top than at the bottom. It is kept at the office of the Stung Treng Culture and Fine-Arts Department in Stung Treng town (Figure 3). A rubbing was made on January 09th, 2002 while I paid a personal visit to this province. According to the officials of the department, this inscription was taken from Thala Barivath district which is situated on the west bank or the right side of Mekong River in the area of Thalaborivath hillock. While visiting the site one day after making the rubbing, I talked to several local people who still

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remembered that the stele was discovered buried behind the campus of Thalaborivath High School which was a former military base during the regime of the People’s Republic of Kampuchea. The site is located very close to the south-east of the 7th century Preah Ko temple (See Map).1 District officials told me that the stele was originally transferred and kept at the district office for a few years before being moved to the office of the Stung Treng Culture and Fine-Arts Department for preservation, where it has been housed since 2001.

The text is written in 20 lines of ancient Khmer language and is still about 90%

readable. Natural weathering has made the first three lines difficult to decipher but beyond this, the engraved characters are deep and clearly readable. (See Photo 3).

The text does not mention a date but its paleography belongs to 7th century. It’s

content is about the donation by a noble person entitled P-añ Ram to the Lord Çiva, using the names Suvarnnalińga and Can dīçvara. The list of donated property comprised slaves or servants, every day tools, goods and food, plantations and animals. This gift was associated with the substantial wealth of another god named Dińgeçvara whose name was not known prior to this (Vong 2010: 175-179).

Text of Ka 201 or K. 1287

(1)- amnoy sru...................vasm..............rddey (2) (ai ta) vrah kamratāń añ suvarn nalińga (3) .......y rańko....vā kañcan I vā dharmma I vā (4) ...p I vā ka pliń I vā an-rok I ku ya jā I (5) [ku dven I ku] am ras ple mar sre ai cam kā mā tlo(6)ń 10 sre ai [kam dot] mā tloń 7 slā tem 100-100 tmur 20 (7) am noy p-añ rām ai ta vrah kamra(8)tāń añ çrī candīçvara //2 koça prak I (9) makuţa I trīpā[da]3 lańgau I sań-hvār mās I klas (10) lańgau I toń-vāy lańgau samruk 2 cnā(11)ń dan-hum lańgau I jagar lańgau samruk 2 (12) thās I srageh samruk I bhājana lańgau I // (13) kñum vrah ta si vā kañjai I vā paroy I vā krād4 I (14) vā teń vom sot5 I vā antis I vā kamvau I (15) vā aras I vā tkar I vā kam dot I vā tleń I (16) ku kañjuń I ku ye lań I ku kañcit I ku vot I (17) ku mān ra añ I ku ye hvāy I ku ye (18) māy I ku tpoñ I ku skep I ku ye ai I (19) sre ai cam kā tloń mā gui 20-1 tmur (20) 20-1 slā tem 100-100-1 toń 10 gi neh (21) ti roh tel6 prativaddha ai ta vrah ka(22)mratāń añ çrī dińgeçvara //o//

Translation

(1-6)- Donation of rice ............. (prosper) ... to (Vrah Kamratāń Añ) My Lord Suvarnnalińga… husked rice, 5 menservants (list of the five names of Vā) and 3 women servants (list of the three names of Ku), substantial mean of Mar, rice-field at Camkā, one Mā 10 Tlong,7 rice-field at Kamdot, one Mā 7 Tlong, 200 areca trees, 20 bulls and cows. 1 Of this temple there remains only a brick wall and a sacred reclining bull of the Lord Çiva in front of the temple. This Nandin statue is housed in a wooden shelter and surrounded by a concrete floor. Near Nandin’s shrine there is a concrete platform for the Kuoy community’s traditional, annual New Year celebrations at which they always performed a fighting competition. 2 Two vertical slashes constitute the ancient number ‘2.’ 3 There is a scratched line that makes the character look like either the consonant ‘d’ or a cancellation sign. 4 In a previous edition in Khmer (Vong 2010: 178), this slave name was wrongly read as ‘vā kroda.’ 5 In previous editions (Vong loc. cit.), this name was read as ‘vā teń I vā lot I’. 6 In previous editions, this word was mistakenly read as ‘ta tel’ 7 the word Mā, a Sanskrit word, is identified as ‘measure, to measure, mete out, mark off’ (Jenner 2009(a): 368); Tloń/Tlong, a Khmer word is an unidentified unit of measure for paddy and salt (Ibid: 225).

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(7-12)- Donation of P-añ Rām8 to My Lord Çrī Candīçvara9 (comprised) 1 silver box, 1 crown, 1 bronze container with three supporting legs, 1 golden decorated band (Sańvār), 1 umbrella with bronze handle, offering of two bronze embossed objects,10 1 bronze incense pot, 2 sets of embossed bronze Jagar (drum?), 1 tray, 1 embossed Srageh, 1 bronze plate container. (13-18)- Servants of God, 11 men (list of 11 names of Vā), 10 women (list of 10 names of Ku). (19-22)- Rice-field at Chamkar, once 21 Tlong, 21 bulls with cows, 201 areca trees, 10 coco trees, these listed items are even concerned11 as donated objects for My Lord Dińgeçvara.12

2- PRASAT PRAMBUON LOVENG INSCRIPTION KA 19313 OR K. 1288 This inscription was carved on a collapsed sandstone doorjamb at the Prambuon

Loveng temple ruin, about 2 kilometers south or down stream of the Thalaborivath district office and on the Western side of the Mekong River. I made a rubbing on the morning of January 9th, 2003 at the district office where it was being kept (See Map).

The whole doorjamb is 170 cm high, 63 cm wide and 23 cm thick. The text is

composed of 13 lines in Khmer but about 50% has been erased at the beginning and end of the first six-lines, and at the beginning of the last seven-lines (See Photo 2). This text seems to be unfinished or possibly continues to another doorjamb. There is no mention of the name of the persons who donated it, or to which Gods it was dedicated, or of any related events, although these may have been recorded in the effaced areas, no trace of these objectives can be seen. However, the rest provides an informational list of male and female servants who were dedicated to the unnamed temple. Remarkably, the servant anthroponyms are mostly in contemporary Khmer language. Hence, this inscription may interest linguists for further studies of traditional Khmer names. I haven’t translated this broken text since it only records the list of the servant’s names.

Text of Ka 193 or K. 1288

(1) ......krom I vā kmau [I] vā tgep......... (2) ....... ń van I vā t[sva]c I vā kmań I........ (3) ........[v] I vā tvau I vā bhan dau I vā vrau I.......... (4) .......bhān I vā vis amacitta I ame kmau I ku....... (5) ..............ca[m] I ku pańket I ku klań a......... (6) .......n I vā kandin I ku ran occ rū I ku ya nos I vā jmām I vā tkar I ku asaru... (7) .....ta et I ku ya dhī I kon ku ya cī I ku ta ńen I ku ya........ (8) ..... ń I vā ta eń I ku ya tāń I ku jamnā I ku am [va]l I ku mratāń .r..... (9) ......añcī I ku ya mai I ku candrāy I ku kañjoń I ku ya māń I ku........ (10) .....[mo]y I ku ame kandat I ku dhun I ku ame can er I ku mañjarī [I]... (11) ....vāy I ku ben I ku sam puh I vā tleń I ku ya [hva]ń I ku tkah I ku [va]ń I ku mratāń vrau I vā [çra]..... (12) [vā] tvar I ku ya[s]ta mān I vā kandin I ku

8 The word P-añ is rarely seen in Pre-Angkorian inscriptions. This term was probably an analogue of the term Poñ, (my personal communication with Prof. Michael Vickery in Phnom Penh in June 2003). 9 Is a brand new name of the God Çiva who has never appeared in other edited Pre-Angkor inscriptions. 10 These objects were not mentioned. The meaning of the word Toń-vāy here is not known exactly but I suggest it meant ‘offering.’ And the word samruk was translated as ‘embossed work,’ (Pou 2004: 486) or in French as ‘repoussé,’ (Cœdès 1953: 6). I think that this term referred to ‘carved relief’ on ancient materials or probably to ‘the proper noun of metal’ that was used to create artifacts or tools. 11 The word, prativaddha means ‘to be concerned, involved.’ Cf., K. 341N:3, (Cœdès 1954: 32-3). 12 This is also the new epithet of the God Çiva. 13 I suspected it had probably been listed in Cœdès’s inventory but after double-checking with Inscriptions du Cambodge, volume VIII and additionally published and unpublished partial inventory of Clause Jacques, I’m sure that it must be a new inscription. Mr. Michel Tranet lists it as Ka 193 (Tranet 2003: Picture 42).

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knit I ku priyadarççana I ku vrau I ku kla pit I vā sra[c I ku jo]... (13) rhval I ku tyāk I ku vlac jamnā I vā kanrom I ku kañjoń I vā roh nor vrah I14.

3- A NEW INSCRIPTION OF WAT BADEUM, K. 1257 This inscription was unearthed from an unofficial dig inside a temple ruin site called Wat Badeum, which is located very close to Chetiyaram pagoda. It has been kept there since it was discovered. The location of this monastery is on the left bank of the confluence of the Sekong and Sesan Rivers, about 10 Km up stream from Stung Treng provincial town, in Sam Khuoy commune, Sesan district of Stung Treng province (See Map). Outside the pagoda’s north-west wall, or in front of Sam Khuoy commune office, there are several temple ruins which were completely destroyed by illegal excavation during 1980s and early 1990s. One, has been enclosed by a triangular fence and two others have been built on by villager’s houses. Part of the ruins has been covered by road paving since 2007-8. Inside the pagoda enclosure, near the fence, a lot of broken stone artifacts from the brick temples can be seen piled up untidily. Almost sixty years ago, Cœdès (1953) discovered and studied a 7th century Sanskrit inscription, K. 360, at a broken brick temple at the same site but named it differently as Wat Katiñaram.15

It took several years before I was able to make rubbings of this new inscription. I was informed firstly about the existence of this inscription by Mr. Pou Thonwath in 2006. But I didn’t have any means to reach it. Then in 2007, one of my students, Ms. Sorn Sotheany, who was living in Stung Treng town, gave me some photographs that she had taken while visiting this pagoda to join a traditional merit making festival, Bon Phjum Ben. But I was unable to make a complete reading from the photographs. Finally, on April 11th, 2008, by chance I was driven to visit this site during a study-tour to Stung Treng16. Mr. Sam Sa Em, of the Stung Treng Cultural and Fine-Arts Department, guided us to visit a traditional performance by local youths for Khmer New Year celebrations at Chetiyaram pagoda. As soon as we arrived I sought permission to make rubbings and to measure the stone inscription that was under the custodianship of two young novices and a monk.

The rubbings and digital photographs of this inscription that my students and I made at

this time made possible the reading and recognition of all the remaining characters. This stele is 125 cm high, 27.5 cm wide and 11 cm thick. It is wider at the top than the bottom. The first engraved surface is well preserved without any characters being effaced. The complete text is written in 7th century Khmer language and composed of 29 lines. It is 68 cm high with a blank space of 10 cm underneath that was probably to enable the insertion of a supporting mortise (Photo 4). The second surface of the stele has four lines of Sanskrit

14 This proper noun is not found out in any other edited inscriptions yet there are many sources called Ramnoc Vrah. Cf., Inscription d'Angkor Borei K. 557 et K. 600: 7 (Cœdès, 1941: 22); Inscription de Prasat Neang Khmau Ka 3: 8, (Pou 2003: 196). 15 I have observed, that the Badoem area has only one Buddhist pagoda. These two different names of the monastery are derived from modifications of the same place name after 1979. 16 Because this study tour was not planned to visit Stung Treng province but unintentionally we agreed to go there as compromising with our counterpart, another group of private students who joined venture in the trip. So, we spent there about 4 hours from 5 pm and hurried to come back to our booked hotels in Kratie provincial town. Our colleagues who were co-responsible for the historical student group were Mr. Nop Sokha, Touch Soputhy and me. During this short visit, we were taken to visit only the traditional games in this pagoda. 4

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poetry17 but it is seriously effaced and cannot be completely read. There is no decoration in any style on either side beyond the carved text.

The text records an important donation to the God of the temple called Çri

Suvarnneçvara at Ampal that likely corresponded with the former toponym of a temple at the Badeum site. The property comprised male and female servants, children and adults totaling 115 persons, as well as 100 bulls with cows, 40 buffaloes and 300 areca trees.

Text of K. 1257

(1) mūla kñum vrah kamratāń añ çrī suvarnneçvara āy (2) nī am pal ge nī jmah ge I yajamāna vrah sukhamatī (3) sāminī I hajay o ai sre vrai o vā dharmmavīra18 I vā klapit (4) vā ragāl I vā klapit19 I vā uñ I vā dhanakar I vā bham rań I (5) vā tmāń I vā ladu I ku lā I ku moy I ku vań I ku ajo (6) tel añ I ku moñ I ku vań I ku vrau I ku ok I ku ya tai I lāń (7) tai II pau tai III o hajai ai pok I vā kajit I vā ās ta vrah I (8) vā skes I vā kantāń I vā avai citta I vā pañcamī I vā toy I (9) vā ñań20 I ku kañcas I ku lań I ku eń I ku loń I ku ya tre I (10) ku vań I lāń tai I pau tai I o hajai ai jam -er o vā kam poñ I (11) vā atā vrai I vā pañcamī I vā kandul I vā vńā nu citta I vā sa-uy I (12) vā bhāladdha I vā am vī I vā dendīka I ku aras pi par I ku ya agat (13) ku vlac jamnā I ku ame vrai I ku vrai I ku ame sam buh I ku smal I ku kva (14) jā I ku kñaiń I der si III der tai IIII pau tai I o hajai (15) ai yaryer o vā kam poñ I vā tvāń I vā kañjir I vā ka-o (16) y I ku ame kloh I ku kloń I ku ame tmāń I ku srańe I ku ya vā(17)ń I ku ya loń I ku ya poc I ku ya mās I ku ya hvāń I (18) ku vasantī I ku ya poń I ku ya āy I ku ya vau I kon ku der (19) tai II ple ka vrah I vā ratna dāsa I vā treń I vā ksay21 I vā dehv I (20) vā tam tem I vā dah I [vā] trāp I vā klā[c le] I vā sahvāń añ dai (21) vā madhadeça I vā tloń I vā ja āń I vā kansań I vā tmi I vā dha (22) namūla I vā drań I ku mañ I ku dralem I ku ya moñ I ku ya (23) mar I ku bhńā añ vetta I ku klapit I ku ya māñ I ku cralāp (24) ku srac dań I der siy I der tai I vā sap sop I ku vań I (25) vā klā I vā tmāń I vā munidā I vā mān [dharmma] I vā kajaih I (space) (25) ku māń I ku kmau I ku ratisthal I ku ame kalpit I (27) ku guru dai I ku p-oc22 ku avai I sarvva pind a kñum m (28) 120.10.523 sarvva pinda tmur 120 kra(29)pi24 20.20 pinda slā tem 300 //

Translation

(1-3)- The total foundation of slaves of My Lord (Vrah Kamratāń Añ) Çri Suvarneçvara at this place, (called) Ampal, these people, their names, a sacrifice of Vrah Sukhamatisāminī.

17 For this point, I’d like to thank Mr. Dominique Soutif who ensured me its existence on the stone. 18 the character of the latest syllable starts with the consonant ‘វ-V’ that looks like the consonant ‘ធ-Dh’ and

possibly reads as ‘ធមមធរ-Dharmma dhira’. 19 The latest syllable starts with the consonant ‘P’ but it looks like the consonant ‘ធ-Dh’. It can be read as ‘កលធត-Kla dhit’. 20 This consonant ‘ញ-ñ’ is an uncertain reading. 21 Uncertain reading, because it can be read as ‘gyāy’. 22 This name can be read as ‘P-och ta avai I-កបឲចតៃអវ១’ too. 23 This figure can be read also as ‘145’ because it seems to be scratched with 6 slashes on the figure number ‘20.’ So we can take ‘20’ times ‘7’ equaling ‘140.’ 24 This syllable looks like the consonant ‘L-ល’.

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(3-7)- House keepers or servants of the dwelling25 at Sre Vrai,26 nine men (name list of 9 Vā) and nine women (name list of 9 Ku) with two teenager girls and three baby girls. (7-10)- Servants of dwelling at Pok, eight men (name list of 8 Vā), six women (name list of 6 Ku), a teenager girl, a baby girl. (10-14)- Servants of dwelling at Jam-er, nine men (name list of 9 Vā), nine women (name list of 8 Ku) with three mid-teenage boys, four mid-teenage girls and a baby girl. (14-19)- Servants of dwelling at Yayer, four men (name list of 4 Vā), 13 women (name list of 13 Ku) and two mid-teenage girls (or 2 young daughters of Mrs. Ya Vau). (19-27)- Products for initiating the saint foundation, 22 men (name list of 22 Vā), 17 women (name list of 17 Ku) and one mid-teenage boy and girl. (27-29)- As a total of all kinds is 135 servants,27 120 bulls with cows, 40 buffaloes, 300 areca trees.

4- BRAH TIRTHA INSCRIPTION, K. 1289

This inscription was engraved on the only smooth face of an octagonal rock in the riverbed at the confluence of two rivers, the Sekong and Mekong. The rock is located at the far north beyond the mid point of the Sekong river mouth and the near east of a low island called Bay Samnom. This island appears only during the dry season when the river level is low. Pieces of ancient broken brick remain on the island that would have been construction elements of a temple. Local people still remember from their ancestors’ tales that there was a brick temple on this island but now it has mostly disappeared because of the strong water current and frequent flooding. This area is also near the middle of Mekong River mouth and close to the deep-water flow of the two rivers and Kantouy Ko cape (See Map).28

I was told about this new discovery by one of my third year students, Mr. Khamphan

Seiha, on 11 April 2010 when he was visiting this site by wooden boat with his friends. He tried to take photographs of this inscription and pedestals with a low-resolution hand-phone camera. Then, I was given directions to the site on 28 May 2010 by Mr. Chea Hak, one of Seiha’s friends, when the water was around 50 cm higher than the level of their first visit. But the letters were only barely visible while there were no waves, so I couldn’t make clearer pictures of the stone than were taken before.

This inscription is composed of 3 lines in 7th century Khmer language according to its

paleographic lettering style. It cannot be read completely from the photographs. It would be 25 This is a most important term in this inscription, it can be written as Hajaya, Hajaiya, Hajai, that appeared first in this Pre-Angkorian inscription. It means “shelter or loge for gardeners and field-keepers,” (Pou 2004: 545), dwelling or home; in Cham language it is written as Hajai which means “close place, lord house, propriety, domain, citadel, fortress” (Jenner 2009b: 695). Here it is identified as “House keepers or slaves of dwelling.” 26 Sre Vrai (< Sre–Paddy field + Vrai–Forest) means ‘paddy field near (or in) the forest’. 27 However, the total number of names listed is only young and adult 125 servants. 28 There is an alternative opinion that this rock inscription had possibly fallen into the riverbed from some temple ruin on the left river bank. But from my observation, this hypothesis could not be true because we cannot find any pieces of temple elements, either ancient bricks or decorated stone parts of a temple near the so-called low Bay Samnom Island where the inscription and the two pedestals were found. By comparison, a lot of broken stone artifacts, sacred objects and broken brick have been found on the riverbed at the Bachong temple that was destroyed by the river. This ruined temple was located on the riverside where the Sekong meets the Mekong River about 1000 meters south, down-stream of the Bay Samnom Island. Hence, we don’t think this inscribed rock could have been removed from the river-bank by natural erosion or change of water course. On the other hand, most of inscriptions in temples have been carved on well prepared stones but this inscription was engraved on a natural rock look like other unmovable lettering rocks on the mountains or in caves.

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easier to read if rubbings could be made. However, one important term can be clearly identified, Ājñā Brah Tīrtha, which means an Order about a Sacred Ford (See Photo 5). The likely subject of the text is an order by the Lord of the Sacred Tirtha to a King to install some sacred objects at the low island at the confluence of two rivers for dedication as a ford for pilgrimage. This holy ford was available for ordinary people too. And the last clause seems be a warning to people who would harm or destroy this installation.

Text of K. 1289 (1) ---- ta ājñā brah tīrtha ai kamratāń pdai (2) --- [ka]rom gui ta jā [me] ti [aiy]29 anak

sāmānya jan na [dah] (3) ---- ti ai pūrva [ta vrah] kamratāń añ ge dau kam luńń ----

Translation (1)- ... a command of the Lord Tirtha30 to the Lord of earth or surface below31... (2)- ...be …32 to ordinary people, in the case (3)- ... be at the east of My Lord, they must be gone into …

COMMENT:

The Most important concept in this inscription is the term ‘Brah Tirtha’ that means a saint’s passage, way, road, ford, stairs for landing or for descent into a river, bathing-place, place of pilgrimage on the banks of sacred streams and piece of water; in the scripture of Ŗgveda it referred to the path to the altar between the Cātvāla and Utkara; in Yajñavalgya, Tirtha is an object of veneration or sacred object; in Bhāgavata Purāņa, it was a worthy person, a person worthy of receiving something (William 2005:449). It also means water, body, tree or place that is holy, or a place where a holy statue is installed. Tirtha is a sacred, magical place whose super-natural power originates from its particular nature, the size of the river or lake where the Tirtha is situated or the holy person who stays there (Chhom 2005). The point of the confluence of two, three or four rivers is such a place, suitable for the installation of objects of worship in shallow water or on a low hillock on the riverbed that is called a ‘ford.’ A Tirtha [or teertha] is a pilgrimage site. Literally, the Sanskrit term Tirtha means a ford, a shallow part of a body of water that may be easily crossed. Titze (1998 & 2001) mentions a Tirtha provides the inspiration to enable one to cross over from worldly engagement to the side of Nirvāņa, which means 'blowing out, what must be blown out is the triple fire of greed, hatred, and ignorance(Gombrich 1988: 63). Also a tirtha is a holy place where there is a well, pond, lake, river or sea, the waters of which are considered to be holy, by religious tradition, any place of pilgrimage on the banks of sacred streams of water (Baidyanath 1985; Tripurari 2009).

It is possible that such a place may correspond with local belief in Neak Ta Tik/ Place of

water spirits. Obviously, this Sacred Tirtha and the two round pedestals were evidence of a

29 This reading is uncertain because it should be read as oy too. 30 Because a similar phrase in K. 583, vrah çivājñā was translated as ‘un ordre auguste de Çiva/ the sacred command of the Lord Çiva’ by Claude Jacques (1976: 356). 31 This title must refer to the King who established this Tirtha sanctuary (Pou 1992: 88); This term was also translated as ‘lord of the surface below’ in Michael Vickery (1998: 435). 32 These few words are uncertain that can’t be identified the meaning.

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former Sacred Ford where devotee pilgrims had to pay homage. Even if now we cannot find the associated objects of worship, one pedestal was designed with a square mortise (See Photo 6) that probably was to install a Trimurti Lińga-three different shaped sections on a cylindrical Lińga; a four-faced pillar at the bottom, octagonal faces at the middle and a rounded top (See Photo 7). Another round pedestal was designed with a big round mortise in the center and four other small round mortises at the edge. Unfortunately, I could not photograph it clearly since it was covered by deep water. This would have supported round Çivalińga objects (See Photo 8) because the same kind of round Çivalińga object has also been found on the Sekong riverbed where Ba Chong temple ruin collapsed (See Photo 9). The concept of sacred objects installed in water provides evidence that the water of the Mekong River was considered to be ‘sacred’ or ‘holy’ and bestowed agricultural enrichment (Ang 2000 and Nouth 2003) on the delta down stream.33

A 5th century inscription of the King Devānika from Wat Luong Kau (K. 365:St. XIX)

located up-stream near the Wat Phu archaeological site, mentioned that he established a Mahātirtha, which probably corresponded to a ‘Water Tank’ (Chhom 2005). But it was still not the same kind of Sacred Ford, Tirtha, found in Stung Treng. Similarly, there were several other inscriptions of King Mahendravarman (former Prince Citrasena) in the 1st quarter of the 7th century that mentioned the placement of ‘victory Lińga pillars’ along the Mekong River in order to celebrate his ‘successful conquests.’ During my personal trip to Sambor district in early January 2003, I found one more such inscription that had been recently discovered in Sambor district, on Dam Laung Island in the Mekong River and was being kept in Wat Sasor Muoy Roy (100 Pillar Pagoda).

In 1995 a big sculpted rock of divinities was discovered at Khan Mak Houk, up-stream

from Stung Treng in the Mekong River at the extreme end point of Don Deng Island near Wat Phu. It has several images of Hindu gods and 71 Çivalińga images. Traced on the northeast face of the natural stone is Vishnu sleeping on Ananta Nāga and the birth of Brahma, an ascetic hermit, a fish, a turtle followed by a sleeping Vishnu, and an ornate god with four arms flanked by two people praying that are looking at an elephant and a character mounted on an elephant flanked by two Dvārapāla (Santoni and Hawixbrock 1998: 392).

These permanent sacred objects can only be seen at the peak of the dry season. They

were created on rock which allowed the river water to flow across and be empowered by them, and so provide evidence that the Mekong water was considered to be holy. The secret power of this sacred, magical site was increased by its natural geographical location that was conceptualized as a so-called ‘Tirtha’, viz., at the confluence of two waterways separated by Don Deng Island; the small Houay Tomo River on the left, and a branch of Mekong on the right side. However, no written evidence was found so the date of these sacred objects can only be estimated as probably during the Angkor period.

5- CULTURAL SIMILARITY BETWEEN CAMBODIA AND INDONESIA

The concept of a ‘holy water’ installation is similar to the tradition of people on the island of Java, ca. 5th century, after having been influenced by Indian Brahman culture. One notable inscription of a King of Tarumanagara, still can be seen at Ciampea, 15 km west of the city of Java, approximately two kilometers South-west of the botanical gardens. It is a big

33 The lower Mekong delta receives permanent Mekong water and floods annually. This area is well-known for its agricultural production based on Mekong water and fertile alluvium.

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rock in a ‘riverbed,’ which contains several lines of Indian style inscriptions, and two king-sized footprints, which are supposed to be from the conqueror and king, Pūrņavarman (West Java, Accessed on 28 August 2010). This engraved Sanskrit text and pair of footprints were studied by J. Ph. Vogel (1925).34 He explained that the king planned his success by ensuring that the water would flow across this riverbed victory mark or sacred ford. It is also assumed to be a sacred ford worshipped in local traditional beliefs for a long time before having been influenced by Brahmanism and Pallava script from India (Vickery 1999 & 2001). However, Vogel (1925) assumed that this inscription was created during the 5th century, that is about two centuries earlier than in Cambodia. Hence, this concept probably came from India and spread to Cambodia through Java.

6- CONCLUSION Most anthroponyms of slaves were in Khmer while the minor in Sanskrit and the name

of the God, Suvarņņeçvara from Badeum, K. 1257 and Suvarņņalińga from Ka 201 in Thala-borivath are quite similar, meaning ‘golden Içvara’. These inscriptions dated back to the 7th century and were the contemporary text of the temples in the sites. They proved the unifica-tion of Khmer language use, belief in Brahmanism and particularly the belief in the Lord Çiva.

This Tirtha cult in the Mekong-Sekong riverbed can be regarded as a second ‘sacred

ford’ after the first so-called Mahātirtha at Khan Ma Houk at the extreme south end of Don Deng Island near Wat Phu and proves that ancient Khmer people used Brahman objects to purify Mekong water and make it ‘magically sacred water’ or a ‘Holy River’ that would bestow fruitful agriculture on the upper as well as down stream kingdoms of ancient Cambodia. The concept of riverbed worship in the traditions of Khmer people in around 7th century might have been introduced from India through the Javanese at least after the 5th century, if the predicted date of the riverbed rock inscription in the Ciaruteun River mouth is correct. Similar cultural traits in the performing arts of peoples in these two isolated distant regions also suggests a shared common cultural connection in the past that should be studied in more detail.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I would like to make a profound thank to FOKCI that funded my trip to present this to

the EurASEAA 13 conference in Berlin, Free University Berlin. And I sincerely thank Mr. Henri Locard and Mr. David Ford who correct my English paper. References - Ang Choulean, 2000. People and Land, Reyum Gallery, Phnom Penh. (in Khmer &

English) - Baidyanath Saraswati, 1985. Traditions of Tirthas in India: The Anthropology of Hindu

Pilgrimage. N.K. Bose Memorial Foundation. - Chakravarti, Adhir, 1980. Sdok Kak Thom Inscription, part II, Sanskrit College, Calcutta. - Chhom Kunthea, 2005, The Inscription of Vat Luong Kau viewed from Kuruksetra, India,

Siksacakr, No 7(2005) :142, ( 46-52; 141-153).

34 I would like to thank Mr. Arlo Griffith who gave me this important article.

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- Cœdès, George, 1924. Recueil des inscriptions du Siam, Première partie : Inscriptions de Sukhodaya, S.E. Phya Rajanakul, Bangkok.

- Cœdès, George, 1937. Inscriptions du Cambodge, vol. I, EFEO, Hanoi-Paris. - Cœdès, George, 1942. Inscriptions du Cambodge, vol. II, EFEO, Hanoi-Paris. - Cœdès, George, 1951. Inscriptions du Cambodge, vol. III, EFEO, Paris. - Cœdès, George, 1952. Inscriptions du Cambodge, vol. IV, EFEO, Paris. - Cœdès, George, 1953. Inscriptions du Cambodge, vol. V, EFEO, Paris. - Cœdès, George, 1954. Inscriptions du Cambodge, vol. VI, EFEO, Paris. - Cœdès, George, 1961. Recueil des inscriptions du Siam, Deuxième partie : Inscriptions

de Dvaravati, de Çrivijaya et de Lavo, Bangkok. - Cœdès, George, 1964. Inscriptions du Cambodge, vol. VII, EFEO, Paris. - Cœdès, George, 1966. Inscriptions du Cambodge, vol. VIII, EFEO, Paris. - Cœdès, George, 1989-1992. Articles sur le pays khmer, tome I-II, ed. Claude Jacques,

EFEO, Paris. - Gombrich, Richard, 1988, Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benāres

to Modern Colombo, Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., USA and Canada. - Ishizawa Yoshiaki, Jacques Claude et Khin Sok, 2007. Manuel d’épigraphie du

Cambodge, vol. I, EFEO-UNESCO, Paris. - Jacques Claude, 1976. VII. Études d'épigraphie cambodgienne. IX. La stèle du Baphûon,

K 583. In Bulletin de l'Ecole française d'Extrême-Orient. Tome 63, 1976. pp. 351-368. - Jenner, N. Philip, 2009(a). A Dictionary of pre-Angkorian Khmer, ed. Doug Cooper,

Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, the Australian National University, Canberra.

- Jenner, N. Philip, 2009(b). A Dictionary of Angkorian Khmer, ed. Doug Cooper, Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, the Australian National University, Canberra.

- Long Seam, 2000. Dictionnaire du Khmer Ancien (D’après les inscriptions du Cambodge du VIe-VIIIe siècles), Royal Academy of Cambodia-Institute of National Language-Royal University of Fine-Arts, Phnom Penh.

- Nouth Narang et Groslier, Bernard Philipe, 2003. La Cité hydraulique angkorienne, fondement de la civilisation Khmère, CEDORECK, Phnom Penh.

- Pou Saveros, 1992. An Old Khmer-French-English Dictionary, Cedoreck, Paris. - Pou Saveros, 2004. An Old Khmer-French-English Dictionary, 2nd Edition, Les

Introuvables Hors-série, L’Harmattant, Paris. - Santoni Mirielle and Hawixbrock Christine, Laos. Fouilles et prospections dans la région

de Vat Phu (province de Champassak, sud du Laos), in Bulletin de l’École française d’Extrême-Orient (BEFEO), Tome 85, 1998, pp. 387-405.

- Titze, Kurt, 1998. Jainism: A Pictorial Guide to the Religion of Non-Violence, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi, [2 edition (March 2001)], India.

- Tranet, Michel, 2003. History of Cambodia: Chenla Culture from 6th to 8th centuries AD, Phnom Penh, (in Khmer).

- Vickery, Michael, 1998. Society, Economics, and Politics in Pre-Angkor Cambodia: The 7th-8th Centuries, The Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies for Unesco, The Toyo Bunko, Tokyo.

- Vickery, Michael, 1999. History of Southeast Asia, Lecture note given at the Faculty of Archaeology, Royal University of Fine-Arts, Pre-Angkor Studies Society, Phnom Penh.

- Vickery, Michael, 2001. History of Cambodia, Summary of Lectures given at the Faculty of Archaeology, Royal University of Fine-Arts, Pre-Angkor Studies Society, Phnom Penh.

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- Vogel, J. Ph., 1925. The Earliest Sanskrit Inscriptions of Java, Publicaties Van Den Oudheidkundigen Dienst in Nederlandsch-Indië—I, Uitgegeven door het Koninklijk Bataviaasch Genootschap Van Kunsten en Wetensghappen, Batavia, pp. 15-35.

- Vong Sotheara, 2010. Pre-Angkor Inscription of Cambodia I, 2nd edition, Angkor Editions, Phnom Penh (in Khmer).

- William Monier, Monier, 2005. Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi-Chennai, p. 449.

Internet Sources: - Tarumanagara - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Available from

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarumanegara [Accessed 28 August 2010] - West Java (Leuweung Sancang-Ciater Hot Spring-Mount Ratuha and Kawah Putih-

Cimanggu Hot Springs-Patengan Lake or Situ Patengan- Batu Tulis Ciaruteun). Available from http://reni-mytravelindonesia.blogspot.com/2009/ 05/west-java-leuweung-sancang-ciater-hot.html, [Accessed 28 August 2010].

- Tari Kuda Gepang. Available from http://library.thinkquest.org/26300/dance. html, [Accessed 28 August 2010].

- Tirtha - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Available from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tirtha [Accessed 29 August 2010]

- Tripurari, Swami, 2009. Sacred of the Sacred, Harmonist. Available from http://harmonist.us/2009/06/sacred-of-the-sacred, [Accessed 28 August 2010]

Annexes

Map: The places of the four discovered Inscriptions (drawn by Vong S.)

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Photo 1: Picture of the Low Bay Samnom Island (Photo of Vong S.)

Photo 2: Prasat Prambuon Loveng Inscription Ka 193 or K. 1288 (photo of Vong S.)

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Photo 3: (on the Left) Thalaborivath Inscription Ka 201 or K. 1287 (Photo of Vong S.) Photo 4: (on the Right) Badeum Inscription K. 1257 (Photo of Vong S.)

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Photo 5: Braḥ Tirtha Inscription K. 1289 (Photo of Vong S.) Photo 6: A Round Yoni Pedestal with square mortise found at the confluence of Sekong and Mekong. (Photo of Khamphan S.) Photo 7_Trimurtti-Linga from Takeo Museum, the type of Linga that could be erected on

the Yoni in Photo 5. (Photo of Vong S.)

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Photo 8_A Round Linga from Kandal Province, The type of Linga that is supposed to be similar to the missing Linga at the Tirtha site. (Photo of Tranet M.)

Photo 9: Round Linga from Ba Chong Temple where was broken down in the Sekong River. The evidence that local people worshiped to this type of Linga (Photo of Vong S.)

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