The Effect of Teacher's Reading Aloud on Iranian EFL Learners' Reading Comprehension

Hakim Sabzevari University Faculty of Letters and Humanities

Department of English Language and Literature

The Effect of Teacher's Reading Aloud on Iranian

EFL Learners' Reading Comprehension

Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree

of Master of Arts (M.A.) in Teaching English as a Foreign Language

(TEFL)

By:

Mohammad Ali Kowsary

Supervisor:

Dr. Moslem Zolfagharkhani

September 2013

II





Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the

Degree of Master of Arts (M.A.) in Teaching English as a Foreign

Language (TEFL)

By


Supervisor:

Dr. Moslem Zolfagharkhani

Advisor:

Dr. Gholamreza Zareian

September 2013

III



We hereby recommend that this thesis

By


Entitled:



Be approved in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master

of Arts (M.A.) in Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL).

Examining Committee

Dr. Moslem Zolafagharkhani …………………..………………. (Supervisor)

Dr. Gholamreza Zareian ...…...………...………………….......... (Advisor)

Dr. Mohammad Davoudi .......................…………..……………. (Examiner)

Date of Defense:

V

Acknowledgments

I would never have been able to finish my thesis without the guidance of my excellent

professors, help from friends, and support from my family and wife. I would like to express

my deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Moslem Zolfagharkhani, for his excellent

guidance, caring, patience, and providing me with an excellent atmosphere for doing

research. I would like to thank Dr. Zareian, my dear advisor for his constant support and

detailed comments throughout the processes of conducting the research and writing thesis.

I would also like to thank my dear friends and colleagues for allowing me into their

classes to complete my research.

I also owe a debt of gratitude to some dear friends from different universities of Iran

who helped me have access to many invaluable sources to complete the thesis. My research

would not have been possible without their helps.

I would also like to thank my parents and two elder sisters. They were always

supporting me and encouraging me with their best wishes. Finally, I would like to thank my

wife, Zohreh Davachi and I want to dedicate this work. She was always there cheering me up

and stood by me through the good times and bad.

VI

Abstract

The present study was developed in order to investigate the effect of teacher's reading aloud

instruction on Iranian EFL learners' reading comprehension. It was also pursued to find

whether or not male and female EFL learners have different reading abilities as a result of

receiving reading aloud instruction. The participants of the study were 70 male (n = 31) and

female (n = 39) pre-intermediate EFL learners who were selected based on their performance

on English language placement test called Oxford Placement Test (OPT).They were assigned

to two equal groups of control and experimental. Prior to the main study, a pilot study was

performed on 20 EFL learners of the same age and proficiency level in order to ensure the

reliability of the reading passages.The experimentalgroup received theread aloud instruction

while control group received reading instruction through routine methods, both in six

sessions. In every session, the participants received a reading comprehension test. The first

three tests were regarded as pretest and the second three tests, as posttest.The results

ofindependent sample t-test showed that there isasignificant difference between the control

and experimental group on their performance on posttest. Therefore, reading aloud

instruction was effective in enhancing Iranian EFL learners' reading comprehension ability. It

was also found there is no significant difference between male and female EFL learners'

reading comprehension ability.

Keywords: Reading aloud, reading comprehension, gender

VII

Contents

Dedication......................................................................................................................... VII

Acknowledgments............................................................................................................. VII

Abstract............................................................................................................................. VII

Table of contents............................................................................................................... VII

List of Tables..................................................................................................................... VII

List of Figures.................................................................................................................... VII

Chapter One

Introduction.........................................................................................................................0

1.1. Overview...............................................................................................1

1.2. Statement of the Problem......................................................................3

1.3. Objectives of the Study..........................................................................3

1.4. Significance of the Study.................................................................................5

1.5. Definition of the Key Terms............................................................................6

1.5.1. Reading comprehension ability...........................................................6

1.5.2. Learning strategies...............................................................................6

1.5.3. Cognitive strategies..............................................................................6

1.5.4. Reading aloud.......................................................................................6

1.6. Research Questions.................................................................................6

1.7. Research Hypothesis.........................................................................................7

1.8. Limitations of the Study....................................................................................7

VIII

Chapter Two

Review of Literature...........................................................................................................8

2.1. Overview...............................................................................................9

2.2. Reading Comprehension........................................................................9

2.2.1. Theoretical Definitions.............................................................9

2.2.2. Reading Comprehension Models..............................................18

2.3. Individual Differences and Reading Comprehension...............................34

2.3.1. The role of Gender in Reading Comprehension.........................37

Chapter Three

Method................................................................................................................................39

3.1. Overview..........................................................................................................40

3.2. Participants.......................................................................................................40

3.3. Materials..............................................................................................41

3.3.1. Oxford Placement Test............................................................41

3.3.2. Reading Comprehension Passages............................................41

3.4. Procedure..........................................................................................................42

3.5. Data Analysis........................................................................................45

Chapter Four

Results and Discussion.......................................................................................................46

4.1 Overview................................................................................................47

4.2. Pilot Study.............................................................................................47

4.3. Analysis of Proficiency Test....................................................................48

4.4. Analysis of the Pretest........................................................................................50

4.5. Analysis of the Posttest.......................................................................................54

IX

4.6. Testing the Hypotheses of the Study.......................................................57

4.7. Discussion..............................................................................................60

Chapter Five

Conclusion, Implications and Suggestions for furthur Research...................................62

5.1. Overview................................................................................................63

5.2. Summary of the Major Findings..............................................................63

5.3. Conclusion.............................................................................................64

5.4 Implications of the Study.........................................................................65

5.5. Suggestions for Further Research.............................................................66

REFERENCES.....................................................................................................................68

APPENDICES......................................................................................................................88

Appendix A: Oxford Placement Test (OPT)..............................................................89

Appendix B: Reading Comprehension passages........................................................91

List of Tables Table 4.1. Descriptive statistics of the pilot study on reading passages...........................48

Table 4.2. Reliability Statistics of the reading passages...................................................48

Table 4.3. The Frequency of scores obtained from proficiency test..................................49

Table 4.4. Independent samples test of scores on language proficiency test......................49

Table 4.5. The descriptive statistics of the experimental group's scores on the first three

reading comprehension tests.........................................................................................50

Table 4.6. ANOVA on experimental group's pretest.........................................................50

X

Table 4.7. The descriptive statistics of the control group's scores on the first three reading

comprehension tests.....................................................................................................51

Table 4.8. ANOVA on control group's pretest................................................................52

Table 4.9.The descriptive statistics of control and experimental groups' mean scores on pretest......53

Table 4.10. Independent samples t-test between control and experimental group on pretest.............53

Table 4.11.Descriptive statistics of the scores of experimental group on the second three

reading comprehension tests.........................................................................................54

Table 4.12. ANOVA on Experimental Group (Posttest)..................................................55


comprehension tests.....................................................................................................56

Table 4.14. ANOVA on control group (posttest).............................................................56

Table 4.15. The descriptive statistics of control and experimental groups' mean scores on posttest.57

Table 4.16. Independent samples t-test between control and experimental group on pretest.............58

Table 4.17. Descriptive statistics of male and female EFL learners on posttest...............59

Table 4.18. Independent samples t-testbetween the performance of male and female EFL

learners on posttest......................................................................................................59

List of Figures

Figure 1.3 Model of reading comprehension...........................................................................21

Figure 4.1.The difference between the performance of experimental group on the first three tests....51

Figure 4.2.The difference between the performance of control group on the first three tests.52

Figure 4.3. Control and experimental group scores on pretest.................................................54

Figure 4.4.The difference between the performance of experimental group on the first three tests...55

Figure 4.5.The difference between the performance of control group on the first three tests.57

Figure 4.6. The difference between the performance of control and experimental groups on posttest.58

0

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1

1.1. Overview

Nowadays, learning foreign languages becomes a fundamental requirement to gain

professional and academic success as the majority of scientific studies are published in

English. Reading is considered as one of the receptive skills of language learning; however,

reading ability and proficiency has always indicated the level of literacy. Its importance is

also augmented with regard to the different functions it serves. Being able to gain information

through written texts, having fun and pleasure as a result of reading magazines, novels,

anecdotes, etc, and being skillful enough to get the daily business done, are some of the

functions that reading fulfills.

A number of researchers (Alderson & Urquhart, 1984; Chai, 2001; Hudson,1982;

Yusuf, 2010) have stated that the reading skill is one of the most crucialskills for educational

and professional achievement. Langer (1981) stated thatreading is the most important activity

in any language class, not only as a source ofinformation and a pleasurable activity, but also

as a means of consolidating andextending one‟s knowledge of the language. Focusing on the

significance of reading skill, Shih (1992) encouraged researchers to put their attention on

modern reading materials and tasks which guide students to develop cognitive and

metacognitive strategies for optimal learning.

Reading in a second language involves a complex cognitive process with a high

degree of difficulty. Through the passage of time, various styles, techniques and strategies of

reading instruction have been taken into consideration, including receptive reading, reflective

reading, skim reading, scanning, intensive and extensive reading. What determines the speed

and the strategy used for reading is certainly the purpose for which the reader is processing

the text. Teachers have had a crucial responsibility in equipping students with the most

2

modern reading strategies. Various experiments have been done in the realm of

comprehension (Hedge, 2008; Nunan, 2004; Richards &Renandya, 2002).

Shih (1992) suggested readers to connect with the text through deep reading and

chunking the text to meaningful lengths. Also, he believed that materials for teaching reading

should engagestudents' affect (interest, attitude and emotions). Observing many new insights

for reading instruction is adequate to be convinced to forget the old fashioned views which

consider reading as a passive skill and put more attention on reading as an interactive process.

The remarkable shift regarding reading comprehension persuaded the majority of researchers

(Canagarajah, 1993; Grabe1991, Hudelson, 1984; & Shih, 1992) to take the new attitude and

classification in reading comprehension. In this regard, Grabe (1991) suggests: First, reading

instruction should be taught in a content-centered context, because content provides learners

motivation and purposeful activities. Second, a reading lab should be used to provide

individualized instruction. Third, sustained silent reading should be encouraged to build

fluency, confidence and appreciation of reading. Fourth, reading lessons should be planned to

engage readers in comprehension instruction and build background knowledge. Fifth, specific

skills and strategies should be given high priority and practiced consistently based on the

educational contexts, student‟s needs, and teaching objectives. Sixth, group work and

cooperative learning should be used regularly to promote reading discussions and finally,

students need to read extensively.

One way for enhancing reading comprehension of learners is through

teachinglearning strategies. Taking into consideration the intimate relationship between

reading comprehensionprinciples and cognitive strategies, researchers must try to find

suitable ways to integrate cognitive strategies with reading comprehension skill. To end this,

it is better to engage students more deeply in the process of reading comprehension.Some

3

researchers make a distinction between readers; for example, Block (1991) classified readers

to poor and good readers by think-aloud protocols and concluded that because good readers

use the strategy of integration in retaining information and apply it to newly learned

information, they can plan and control their learning.Among various types of instructional

reading comprehension techniques, reading aloud is the most available and common

one.Anderson, Hiebert, Wilkinson and Scott(1985)stated that “the single most important

activity forbuilding the knowledge required for eventual success in reading is reading aloud

tochildren” (p.33). Reading aloud is one of the strategies that activate learners' prior

knowledge and enables them to applythis information while they read (Pardo,2004). For

teachers, reading aloud provides a precious opportunity for students to learn vocabulary,as

well as reading skills and strategies(Cunningham, 2006).

1.2. Statement of the Problem

As a skill full of fruitful attainments, reading has a fundamental value for EFL learners.

However, due to lack of familiarity with appropriate strategies, most of the learners have

profound problems and passive role in reading comprehension process. In spite of a common

theory among English learners that reading skill is the easiest skill in English language, there

are lots of critical problems in mentioned skill among the learners especially in pre-

intermediate levels. One of the most effective and influential strategies to improve reading

comprehension ability is reading aloud strategy.

Although a number of different studies (Elley, 1989; Hillman, 1975; McCormick,

1981) have been investigated the use of reading aloud as a teaching tool to enhance learners'

comprehension and motivation in second and foreign language classroom, it has not been

given sufficient attention by language teachers and researchers as May (1986) asserted

4

reading aloud needs a comprehensive empirical evidence to support the use of this teaching

and learning strategy in classroom.

Reading comprehension through instruction can take a lot of time and energy; also it

can be very exhausting for the students. Some boring and traditional teaching and learning

strategies such as reading aloud and answering the comprehension questions, translation of

the text into L1 and asking learners to find new words,among others, are used by Iranian EFL

learners in order to have a good performance on general English language tests. They are one

of the challenging problems of Iranian EFL learners that in some cases make them

disappointed in their attempt to learn language.

Also, lack of innovative and updated strategies for reading comprehension and

assigning all vocabulary learning responsibilities to learners provided some negative attitudes

towards the current reading instruction methodologies. In addition, the majority of EFL

learners complain that their lexical knowledge is transient, since there is no opportunity to

practice their knowledge out of class time.

There has been an illusion regarding reading comprehension as a passive skill. In

order to remove the illusion regarding reading skill as a passive skill and prepare the situation

that the learner can read aloud, the researcher attempted to apply reading aloud to reading

comprehension skill to investigate whether reading aloud affects reading comprehension skill

or not. Indeed, the researcher tried to feel the gaps in this case and intended to explore a way

to improve EFL learners' reading skill.

5

1.3. Objectives of the Study

Given the above problems in the current reading comprehension teaching and learning

methodology, this study was an attempt to study the relationship between reading aloud

andreading comprehension ability on pre-intermediate EFL learners.

This study also pursued to find the difference between male and female EFL learners

regarding their reading comprehension ability as a result of reading aloud instruction.

1.4. Significance of the Study

This study would be of considerable interest to language learners, teachers and not only

because of adding information to the present theoretical knowledge to improve EFL learners‟

reading abilities, but also of providing opportunities to enhance their strategic behavior.

Reading aloud is one of the cognitive strategies that let the learners wean the dependency of

teachers and make them active in reading comprehension process.

Moreover, it is hoped that this study would be significant with respect to its

implications in employing appropriate materials for second language syllabus designers and

material developers. At the end, it is hoped that findings of this study motivate EFL teachers

to get some insights related to the use of appropriate strategies to enhance the learners‟

reading comprehension abilities.

The findings of this study may motivate teachers to apply cognitive strategies in

language teaching and reinforce the learners‟ positive attitude regarding reading

comprehension.

6

1.5. Definition of the Key Terms

The key terms of this study are as follow:

1.5.1. Reading comprehension ability: According to Chastain (1988), “reading is a process

involving the activation of relevant knowledge and related language skills to accomplish an

exchange of information from one person to another. Reading requires the readers to focus

their attention on the reading materials and integrate previously-acquiredknowledge and skills

to comprehend what someone else has written” (p. 216).

1.5.2. Learning strategies are "specific actionstaken by the learner to make learning easier,

faster, more enjoyable and more effective"(Oxford 1990, p. 8).

1.5.3. Cognitive strategies are "mental routines or procedures for accomplishing specific

learning goals like solving a problem, studying for a test, or understanding what is being

read" (Dole, Nokes&Drits, 2008, p. 4).

1.5.4. Reading aloud is astrategy that allows learners to become more familiar with literacy

(Wood &Salvetti, 2001).

1.6. Research Questions

In view of the discussion in the previous sections, the researcher intends to answer the

following research question:

1. Does teacher‟s reading aloud have any significant impact on Iranian EFL learners'

reading comprehension in Pre-intermediate levels of English proficiency?

2. Does teacher‟s reading aloud make any significant difference between male and

female EFL learners regarding their reading comprehension?

7

1.7. Research Hypothesis

The following research null hypothesis was proposed in order to address the research

question of the study:

H01. Teacher‟s reading aloud does not have any significant impact on Iranian EFL

learners in Pre-intermediate levels of English proficiency.

H02. Teacher‟s reading aloud does not make any significant difference between male

and female EFL learners regarding their reading comprehension.

1.8. Limitations of the Study

To conduct this study, the researcher encountered certain limitations which might have

endangered the validity of the final results. Some of the major ones are described here.The

participants‟ background knowledge might have affected their reading comprehension.

Although a standard proficiency test was administered in order to homogenize learners' level

of language proficiency, their reading pre-knowledge could not be measured accurately.

Regarding the facilities of the research to conduct the study, this study also

determines some delimitation as follows. The participants' age range waslimitedto 18 to

30.The researcher chose the participants from pre-intermediate levelof English language

proficiency that limited the scope of the study.

8

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF THE

LITERATURE

9

2.1. Overview

This chapter provides a comprehensive review of different theoretical and empirical studies

related to reading comprehension. It begins with various theoretical definitions of reading

comprehension andthen proceeds to different models of reading comprehension and

instruction process. The chapter terminates with investigating the role of individual

differences in reading comprehension and more significantly gender which is the focus of the

present study.

2.2. Reading Comprehension

Reading is likely to be considered as the most significant skill among the four language skills

particularly in scholastic settings for a wide range of learners including those learning foreign

languages. This undeniable significance made a large number of studies to be dedicated to the

exploration and teaching of reading.

2.2.1. Theoretical Definitions

Reading is an interactive process between reader and the text which tends to automaticity

(Alyousef, 2006). This interaction is an attempt to elicit meaning using a variety of

knowledge such as linguistic or systemic knowledge (through bottom-up processing) as well

as schematic knowledge (through top-down processing). Also, a large number of studies have

been done with the intent to explore the process of reading. Nevertheless, it is still a

phenomenon which remains largely not understood, and there is not even a commonly

approved extensive theory behind it (Cekic, 2007). Nevertheless, reading is beheld as a main

origin of intelligible input and as an experience that many earnest learners most need to apply

(Gilakjani&Ahmadi, 2011).

10

The ultimate goal of reading is to understand the meaning of the text. The large body

of research indicates that there are many processes contributing to reach the meaning of the

text. Van den Broek, et. al (2005) argued that these processes can be divided into two

categories: those involved decoding the written text into meaningful units and those which

combine these units into meaningful and coherent mental representation that is called

comprehension.

The process of reading comprehension or understanding requires a number of

cognitive factors that can be assessed, and observed indirectly (Pearson & Hamm, 2005).

Comprehending of texts involves “the flexible use of different sources of information,

including in some cases, the integration of linguistic information with graphic information”

(Verhoeven&Perfetti, 2008, p. 293).

Research studies on reading comprehension process then proposed different models of

reading comprehension process based on the types of skills and abilities involved during the

process. Reading without comprehension is not reading. Students encounter difficultieswhile

comprehending a text for a wide range of reasons including insufficiency ofassurance, low

decoding and fluency aptitudes, and defective strategies for settinga goal for reading,

controlling one‟s comprehension, and solving problems (Dalton& Proctor, 2007). Since

reading comprehension is a process that is contingent uponthe achievement on the interaction

between the text and reader attributes(Nodushan, 2010), before exploring the notion of

reading comprehension, it seemscrucial to consider the concept of the text. A text is an intact

linguistic unit whichdiscusses a topic about which different people have different ways of

expanding(Zhang, 2008). The text, by itself, does not transfer meaning, though. Rather, a

textis only considered as a guide for readers or listeners as to how they should organizethe

intended meaning from their own already existing knowledge. Since perceptionis involved

11

with the knowledge possessed by the listener or reader in addition tothe information within

the text, for the effective perception of the text, thecapability to connect the textual material

to one‟s previously acquired knowledgeis also certainly required (Carrell, 1983).

Reading comprehension occurs when the meaning of a passage is

totallycorrespondent with the network of information, established in meaningful ways

interms of a particular society. Furthermore, it is almost always assumed thatstudents‟

advancing capabilities to understand language contribute largely to theirreading experiences

(O‟Brien &Walsleben, 2006). Reading is an important skillfor learners of English. This skill

can also be considered as the most essential skillto succeed in learning (Anderson, 2003).

Grabe and Stoller (2001) state that thereading skill is considered as a dominant instrument for

achieving new informationand accessing alternative elaborations and understandings in

academic texts.

Carriedo, Elosua , and Garcia-Madruga (2011) state that reading comprehension is a

complicated cognitive process, which consists of a number of interactive activities bridging

the text, the way of thinking of the readers attempting to understand the text, and the context

itself. Cubukcu (2008) suggests that successful comprehension cannot be accomplished

automatically. Rather, it is contingent upon a directed cognitive effort, which includes

knowledge about cognitive processing. Through this processing, a reader takes controlling,

monitoring, and evaluating the reading process into special consideration (Cubukcu, 2004).

Nunan (2004) states that reading comprehension involves highly complex cognitive

processes and, contrary to listening comprehension, which is ephemeral, reading

comprehension can be considered as permanent. He also adds that reading involves the

processing of written language. Rivers and Temperly (1978) report that one main purpose for

12

reading is to obtain instructions on how to perform some tasks for work or daily life, such as

knowing how an appliance works.

Based on the above-mentioned studies, Gilakjani and Ahmadi (2011) concluded the

following:

1. Our interpretation of reading is best known as a process of interaction which

occurs between the reader and the text. The central principle is that the reader

reestablishes the information of the text based partly on the information

elicited from the text and partly from the background knowledge accessible to

the reader.

2. Reading is an interactive process, which refers to the interaction of many

constituent skills inherently in simultaneous affairs; the interaction among

these cognitive skills results in the process of reading comprehension to

happen fluently. Thus, the skill of reading is involved with both a body of

lower-level, expeditious, automatic skills of identification and also a body of

higher-level interpretation or comprehension skills.

Reading skill plays an important role in autonomous learning whether the

finaldestination is developing language abilities, performing better on academic texts,or

learning more about a special subject matter.According to Ajideh (2003), reading

comprehension can be considered as oneof the main purposes of language teaching/learning.

Reading does not onlyconsider the processes of decoding and visual word recognition.

Rather, its finalgoal is comprehension (Ouellette, 2006). Although reading comprehension

hasalways been considered as a crucial skill, especially for students with low abilitiesin

reading, which makes it easy for the students to participate in mainstreamcontent-area

classes, paradoxically, many students are not sufficiently capable tocontribute reading

13

guidance (Bremer, Vaughn, Clapper, & Kim, 2002). Seidenberg(2005) defines readers as

experts at a rather complicated, unique human skill, yetpeoples‟ instincts about how they

accomplish in this skill is fairly confined. Sincethe process of reading is not widely

conscious, readers are aware of the outcome,which is text comprehension, but not of how this

outcome is fulfilled.

Goodman (1970) calls reading “a psycholinguistic guessing game”. In similar

manners, most foreign language reading specialists view reading as an interactive mental

process in which the reader interacts with the text to create meaning (Bernhardt, 1986;

Carrell, Devine, &Eskey, 1988; Rumelhart, 1977). One of the crucial segments of this

interactive mental process gives emphasis to „schemata‟, which is the readers‟ already

existing notions regarding the text to be read and the world outside (Barnett, 1988).

There are also two main approaches on reading comprehension. In top-down process

or approach, learners make use of previous knowledge or higher-level knowledge in

analyzing and processing information which is received from words, sentences, etc. In

bottom-up process or approach, learners make use principally of information which is already

present in the data including the words, sentences, etc. As applied to reading comprehension,

for example, bottom-up processing would correspond with comprehending a text mainly by

analyzing the words and sentences in the text.

Top-down processing, on the other hand, would make use of readers‟ previous

knowledge, expectations, experiences, scripts, and schemes, in reading the text (Ajideh,

2003). We comprehend the language of a reading text through the interaction of these two

processes (Yazdanpanah, 2007). While reading a text, the reader perceptually rearranges the

raw data and then makes decisions on the given information (bottom-up). However, top-down

14

processing influences the processing of the raw data by matching them to the activated

notions in the readers‟ minds (Jay, 2003).

Learning the best way to read professionally is a longitudinal procedure of

development and at the end of this process, good readers will be able to read a varied range of

reading texts with comfort and attention, will be able to read purposefully, and additionally,

will be able to read with understanding even when the reading passages are neither too easy

nor essentially engaging. So, thinking about reading comprehension is a familiar concept for

good readers who can attain new information and comprehend new conceptions, can utilize

contextual information properly, and can get involved with the procedure of reading and

pondering upon what is being read (Snow, 2002).

Duke and Pearson (2002) state that a great part on the procedure of reading

comprehension has been based upon the studies of good readers. They list the following

characteristics for good readers:

• Good readers are assiduous readers.

• From the starting point, they are clear about the goal they have in their minds for their

reading. They continually evaluate whether the text, and their reading of it, can be

considered supportive in the way of their achieving their purposes.

• Good readers usually behold the text before they read, considering things, such as the

arrangement of the text and the sections of the text that can be most related to their

reading purposes.

• While their reading, good readers consistently predict what is to happen next in the

reading.

• They read preferably, consistently deciding about their reading, including what to read

attentively, what to read promptly, what not to read, what to read again, and so on.

15

• Good readers establish, reconsider, and examine the meanings they organize while

reading the text.

• Good readers intend to certify the meaning of unknown terms and notions in the text,

and they deal with inconsistencies when required.

• They elicit, assimilate, and connect their previous information with the new

information embedded in the text.

• They reflect upon the writers of the text, their modes, ideas, goals, historical

background, and so on.

• They control their comprehension of the text, making judgments in their reading when

necessary.

• They evaluate the quality and value of the texts, and show reactions to the text in a

wide range of ways, both emotionally and cognitively.

• Good readers read varied kinds of text variedly.

• When reading narrative texts, good readers take the situation and characters into their

special consideration.

• When reading demonstrative texts, good readers consistently establish and reconsider

extracts of what they have read.

• For good readers, text proceeding takes place not only while reading the text, but also

during brief breaks they have while reading, even after the „reading‟ itself has

initiated. Even after the „reading‟ has culminated.

• Even though comprehension is known as a time-consuming, prolonged, and

complicated activity, it seems to be both struggling and creative for good readers.

In addition to the above mentioned, Fielding and Pearson (1994) maintain that an

accomplished schedule of teaching of reading comprehension should contain the following

four constituents:

16

• Extensive amounts of time for genuine reading of the texts.

• Instructor-orientated teaching within strategies of comprehension.

• Conveniences for collaborative and peer education, and

• Opportunities for learners to communicate with a teacher and with one another

regarding their replies to reading.

The outcomes of maintained reading comprehension schedules within some years

(Fielding & Pearson, 1994) suggest, however, that plainly designating time does not seem to

be sufficient. Instructors, on the other hand, might enhance this potential possibility that

allocating more time to the contextual reading will lead to developing reading comprehension

skills:

1. Opportunity. Instructors can present some opportunities in selecting texts. Even

though no research has been found directly connecting opportunity to the

development of reading comprehension, some researchers (Anderson et al., 1987)

maintain that opportunity directly links to attraction and motivation, both of which are

connected immediately to education.

2. Appropriate level of difficulty. Instructors are able to control students‟ as well as their

own options to make sure that all of the learners allocate most of their time reading

books with optimal level of difficulty, which means neither so difficult that learners‟

mental resources are engaged with solely considering the way to read the words nor

so easy to handle that no new information is possibly available to gain (Fielding &

Pearson, 1994).

17

3. Extensive readings. Instructors should credit and motivate multiple readings of texts

that tend to develop comprehension and fluency (Allington, 1983). Even though most

of the studies with the subject of rereading of texts have developments in the speed of

reading as the main focus of attention, exactitude, paraphrasing, and accentuation, a

growing body of research has demonstrated enhanced reading comprehension

(Dowhower, 1987).

4. Social meaning discussions. The time allocated to the reading comprehension

shouldn‟t be totally “silent”. Instead, instructors should (a) designate some time to

peer-reading, composed of students with diverse capabilities (Koskinen& Blum,

1986; Labbo&Teale, 1990); (b) create constant occasions for learners with the intent

to negotiate their reading with the instructor and with one another. This is because

reading comprehension is perpetually viewed as a social rather than a mental

procedure (Fielding & Pearson, 1994).

Although reading comprehension skill and background knowledge may not be

considered as two completely separable issues, they are assumed to contribute to the process

of reading comprehension in rather different manners (Ozuru, Dempsey, & McNamara,

2009). McCarthy (1991) also suggests that readers‟ knowledge of the structure of the text

assists them to discover the content of the text within a shorter time. Accordingly, schemata

or background knowledge will be of primary importance for readers. Therefore, pre-reading

activities based on schemata should be used for activating and building such background

knowledge called schemata (Ajideh, 2003).

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2.2.2. Reading Comprehension Models

Reading comprehension is a complex psycholinguistic process and cognitive ability which

needs to incorporate listener/readers‟ knowledge into text information plus elaboration of a

mental representation (Meneghetti, et.al. 2007). The plethora of studies have been

investigated reading comprehension process and products and tried to provide a clear picture

of the how readers extract meaning and to explain the number and types of abilities and skills

involved in reading comprehension process.

Research shows that reading comprehension strategies should be unequivocally

instructed over an extended period of time (Ness, 2010). It is also recommended by some

researchers (Block, Gambrell, & Pressley, 2002; Keene & Zimmermann, 1997; Pearson,

Roehler, Dole, & Duffy, 1992; Pressley, 2002a) that reading comprehension strategies be

transferred to students while they are involved in reading rather than apart from reading.

From the perspective of the significance of reading comprehension, a crucial issue for

instructional psychology is considering the parameters of efficient teaching for reading

comprehension (Hiebert& Raphael, 1996).

Many different models of reading comprehension emphasize the idea of limited

processing capacity, which can be seen as an undeniably crucial source of individual

differences in the process of developing reading comprehension skill (Seigneuric, Ehrlich,

Oakhill, &Yuill, 2000).

The DART (Directed Activities Related to Text) model is a task type which was

developed by Davies and Greene (1984) as a harsh criticism against the traditional reading

exercises such as multiple-choice items, which they argue, are emphatically limited in their

potential scopes as learning activities. According to them, a good reading task is one which

19

typically makes the most of authentic atmosphere, provides students with a typical

framework for processing and analyzing the text, frequently involves an oral reading of the

text by the teacher or the student followed by silent reading and rereading of the text,

involves students interacting with the text and with each other along with the interaction with

the world outside, involves students in direct analysis of the text rather than the usual indirect

question answering, and ultimately involves students in transferring the information they get

from the text to a kind of real representation of what they have learned from the reading text.

Carroll (1993) identified the following cognitive abilities involving in reading

comprehension:

1. Reading Decoding:Ability to recognize and decode words or pseudowords in

reading using a number of sub-abilities (e.g., grapheme encoding, perceiving multiletter units,

phonemic contrasts, etc).

2. Reading Comprehension:Ability to attain meaning (comprehend and understand)

connected discourse during reading.

3. Verbal (printed) Language Comprehension:General development, or the

understanding of words, sentences, and paragraphs in native language, as measured by

reading vocabulary and reading comprehension tests. It does not involve writing, listening to,

or understanding spoken information.

4. Cloze Ability:Ability to read and supply missing words (that have been

systematically deleted) from prose passages. Correct answers can only be supplied if the

person understands (comprehends) the meaning of the passage.

5. Reading Speed (fluency):Ability to silently read and comprehend connected text

(e.g., a series of short sentences; a passage) rapidly and automatically (with little conscious

attention to the mechanics of reading).

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The instructional frameworks have always been examined as a whole in real

classroom environments. The results of studies on the whole frameworks have revealed that

the individual activities together enhance comprehension (Liang & Dole, 2006).

Comprehension instruction is divided into two main divisions: 1) instruction that has

students‟ assistance in perceiving the content of a particular text as its priority, and 2)

instruction that has comprehension strategies to assist students to perceive texts of any kind

as its priority. The former pays more attention to students‟ comprehension of the message of

a specific text that they are reading. On the contrary, the latter pays more attention to

students‟ comprehension of the strategies of understanding the texts they are reading and

often employs texts more as passages to experience applying the process than as something

specific from which to learn (Liang & Dole, 2006).

The present models of reading comprehension stressed the significant role that

different cognitive processes play during text comprehension. For example, both short-term

and long-term memories have major roles in reading comprehension process. The new

information is stored in short-term memory during the processing of the text, and at the same

time the reader refers to his/her background knowledge in order to construct a coherent

representation of the text (van den Broek, 1994).Verhoeven&Perfetti (2008) presented an

integrated model of reading comprehension that is shown in Figure 1.3.

The reader starts to read a text with the identification of single lexical items. The

process of word identification includes the readers‟ representation of orthography,

phonology, morphology and meaning. When the word is identified, the next step is

understanding the text that is called in this model word-to text integration. It is the result of

word by word processing. The final stage is text comprehension in which learners

comprehend the text by combining the meaning of each sentence plus prior knowledge.

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Figure 1.3 Model of reading comprehension

Wood, Bruner, and Ross (1976) first used the expression scaffolding to symbolize

mothers‟ literal interaction while reading to their young children. Scaffolding pertains to an

adaptable assistance that, in spite of not being permanent, authorizes students to succeed in a

22

task that would not be possible without the scaffold or to fulfill a task more completely and

more contentedly than they could without the scaffold (Graves & Graves, 2003).

Vygotsky (1978) also offers the idea of scaffolding teaching as a strategy of teaching.

The idea rises from Vygotsy‟s (1978) socio-cultural theory and his conception of the Zone of

Proximal Development (ZPD). This concept originates from the range between what a child

can do independently and what the child can do with the help of a more expert person. In

scaffolding teaching, an instructor prepares scaffolds or assistance in order to enable students

to construct and internalize new information on their background knowledge. A significant

feature of scaffolding teaching is the temporary state of scaffolds or supports. Once the

enhancement in the learners‟ abilities takes place, the scaffolding or support is eliminated. In

this level, learners are able to fulfill the task without requiring any scaffold or support. Thus,

in scaffolding instruction the main purpose for instructors is to support students in the way of

becoming independent and self-controlled learners (Scharlach, 2008). Additionally, one of

the significant parameters in planning a Scaffolded Reading Experience is emphatically the

text itself. The level of difficulty of the texts should be measured, as well as the possibility

that the students‟ motivation might be activated to read them while equalizing the appropriate

readers with the appropriate texts. Until recent years, the level of text difficulty was usually

measured with the formulas of readability or mathematical equations, which considered the

level of the difficulty of the vocabulary items besides the level of the complexity of the

sentences, and finally allocated a level of quality to a text. However, readability formulas

have received their own share of criticism (Graves & Graves, 2003).

It is a common belief that reading strategies are among the basic features in achieving

accomplishments within theoretical fields. Strategies play a key role in comprehension since

23

readers apply them to build in a unanimous cognitive account and to elaborating the situation

described in the text (ZainolAbidin, 2012).

Klinger and Vaughn (1998) were the ones who first developed Collaborative Strategic

Reading (CSR). These strategies are aimed at involving students in cooperation in small

cooperative groups, including three to five group members, and employing four strategies for

reading namely, Preview, Click and Cluck, Get the Gist and Wrap Up. Preview provides the

opportunities for students to create affection and apply their background knowledge to

foretell what they will learn (ZainolAbidin, 2012). Click and Clunk is a self-monitoring

strategy designed to monitor students‟ understanding of terms, notions and ideologies that

they perceive or do not perceive or need to get information about. Get the Gist strategy

allows students to elicit the main ideas, namely the gist from the reading text to verify their

comprehension of information. Wrap Up encourages students to utilize cognitive strategies,

such as planning, monitoring and evaluating to further expand the understanding of the text

(Elkaumy, 2004).

CSR is a reading comprehension strategy which associates two instructional

principles: (a) modified reciprocal teaching (Palinscar& Brown, 1984), and (b) cooperative

learning (Johnson & Johnson, 1987) or students‟ pair works (Bremer, Vaughn, Clapper, &

Kim, 2002). CSR accosts three predominant instructional demands, including: first, the best

ways to transfer text comprehension strategies to students to enhance their reading

comprehension skills. Second, the particular ways to appropriately comprise endeavoring

readers in learning related to texts using grade-level texts. Finally, the proper ways and

occasions for English language learners to cooperate interactively and effectively with peers

and improve their attainments (Vaughn &Klingner, 1999). In collaborative learning, in order

to stabilize their comprehension of the content of the reading, students need special occasions

24

to solve problems, argue, think and settle with their peers. Collaborative learning makes sure

that learners interact with each other while learning. This can be considered as a crucial stage,

in which students must apply language when they intend to learn it. The key to collaborative

learning, or creative group work as it is sometimes called, is hidden in the essence of the task.

Each collaborative learning task will impractically have a group performance associated with

a way to reinforce characteristic responsibility so that the instructor ascertains what each

student did while working on the task (Fisher & Frey, 2007).

CSR is a completely mature, achievable intervention, the efficiency of which is

already established (Swanson et al., 2011). The important point regarding CSR is that, here,

the teacher should be heavily engaged in introducing the CSR strategies to students. Thus, the

actual planning time seems to be less than the introductory lessons. This period of

introduction takes a vital amount of time. Further, students continue to require scaffolding or

support during participation in groups. As students become more experienced in applying the

strategies, the role of the teacher becomes minimal and less significant. As time passes,

teachers engage in monitoring the groups and providing help when required (Liang & Dole,

2006).

CSR is developed to support students with diverse ability levels by providing them

with four reading comprehension strategies as they learn to work cooperatively. These

strategies include previewing or predicting the texts; giving feedback by determining „click‟,

which means „I get it‟ or „clunk‟, which means „I don‟t get it‟ at the end of each paragraph;

eliciting the most important components of the text, namely the “gist” of the text; and finally,

getting key ideas to „wrap up‟.

It equips the teacher and students with step-by-step trainings, lesson plans, sample

dialogues for the teacher and students in addition to whole class activities and participations

25

(Klingner, Vaughn, &Schumm, 1998). The purposes of CSR are to enhance reading

comprehension and improve conceptual learning in order to develop students‟ engagement

with the reading text. Even though CSR strategies were expanded to assist students with

difficulties in learning and at-risk students for difficulties in reading, they have also revealed

some positive effects for average and high-average achieving students (Klingner& Vaughn,

1998).

Reciprocal teaching developed by Palinscar and Brown (1984) is an educational

technique described as a short conversation between teachers and students in order to build

the meaning of the text. Palinscar and Brown‟s study revealed that Reciprocal Teaching (RT)

could involve students in the four strategies, including predicting, questioning, clarifying, and

summarizing (Yang, 2010). It is designed to enhance students‟ reading comprehension by

teaching them how to summarize the main content, formulate questions, elaborate on

complexities, and finally predict what may come next (Harris & Hodges, 1995).

Omari and Weshah (2010) state that reciprocal teaching is considered as one of the

most effective methods in improving the cognitive and metacognitive measures for the

students using organizational procedures enabling them to designate the appropriate set of

strategies at their own rate of development. Reciprocal teaching occurs when the teacher and

students participate in a discourse focusing on applicable parameters of any particular text

(Yang, 2010). Research shows that reciprocal teaching has an impact on students‟ reading

comprehension potentiality. Reciprocal teaching is designed as an educational process

primarily delineated to develop students‟ reading comprehension. The expression

„reciprocal‟, on its own, characterizes the origin of the interactions between the teacher and

students (Palinscar, David, & Brown, 1989).

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In addition to modified reciprocal teaching, the other instructional principle of CSR is

cooperative learning. Cooperative learning is known as an efficient technique for classrooms

which are different from each other culturally and linguistically (Klingner& Vaughn, 2000).

In fact, one of the most successful teaching strategies in which small groups, containing

students with different levels of abilities, apply a wide range of activities to learn and to

enhance their comprehension of a particular subject matter is called cooperative learning. In

this way, each member of every group has responsibility for acquiring what is taught and

assisting other members of the group to acquire what is taught. Therefore, an appropriate

atmosphere of achievement may be created by the cooperation of each and every one of the

members of the group (Mandal, 2009).

Even though cooperative learning is considered as a highly developed instructional

approach, few studies have investigated the lingual communications of English language

learners during cooperative learning (Klingner& Vaughn, 2000). Most of the theories based

on cooperative learning suggest that when cooperative learning tasks are developed to engage

interwoven groups of students, using an arranged set of group responsibilities into roles, it

can be claimed that the process of learning is developed (Beck, Chizhik, & McElroy, 2005).

It is a common belief among many educators that instead of the teacher, students

should be at the center of the teaching and learning process (Dyson, Griffin, & Hastie, 2004).

Cooperative learning is an approach to students‟ group work which lessens the occurrence of

inappropriate circumstances and improves learning. A large and fast-growing class of

research verifies the high potentiality of cooperative learning in higher education. In

comparison with traditionally taught students with teacher-orientated lectures, students taught

cooperatively tend to achieve better academic results, greater perseverance through

development, higher logical reasoning and precise thinking skills, greater understanding of

27

perceived material, more time spent on instructional tasks and less distractive activities in

classes, less symptoms of apprehension and disquietude, more instinctive drive to learn and

achieve, greater ability to see special circumstances from other peoples‟ views more assertive

and confident interactions with other classmates, much better perspectives toward subject

matters, and better self-efficacy and self-esteem (Felder & Brent, 2007).

Peer-assisted learning (PAL) is an effective learning approach in which learners

cooperate together to solve problems and learn by discovering and communicating with each

other (Mackey, Kamphoff, & Armstrong, 2010). In other words, achieving knowledge or

aptitude by the use of assiduous help and support from peers is referred to as peer-assisted

learning (Lee, 2010). Peer-assisted learning (PAL) is a student-to-student assistance scheme

for academic and personal accomplishment. Evidence reveals that peer-assisted learning

schemes assist students to establish social communications that influence their learning

achievements positively (Huijser, Kimmins, & Evans, 2008). According to Packham and

Miller (2000), such schemes are designed to support:

• Students who are encountering problems with specific features of the elements of the

course;

• In the development of marks and social improvements; and

• In enhancing the general graduation mark and the subsequent engagement of students.

A wide range of expressions can be used to refer to peer assisted learning, including

peer education, peer teaching, peer learning, and peer tutoring. Not considering the term used,

this concept requires enhancing learning and learning by teaching using peers within an

instructional system (Mackey et al., 2010). There has been extensive research on peer

tutoring. Studies have shown that:

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• Social motivation can be improved by the use of cooperative learning structures and

group reward possibilities (Johnson, Maruyama, Johnson, Nelson, &Skon, 1981;

Wentzel, 1999; Slavin, 1990).

• Student motivation can also be influenced by the level of involvement in the task in

order to attain classroom purposes (Ryan &Deci, 2000).

• Peer tutoring can be considered as an economically and educationally significant

intercession for students with low abilities that can be profitable for both the tutor and

the tutee, instructionally and socially, by activating their motivation to learn (Miller &

Miller, 1995).

• Peer tutoring enables teachers to adjust a classroom of heterogeneous learners to

enhance instructional accomplishment within diverse levels of ability and content

areas (Cohen, Kulik, &Kulik, 1982; Cook, Scruggs, Mastropieri, &Casto, 1985;

Johnson et al., 1981). Additionally, Falchikov (2001) defines four principal

categorizations of peer-tutoring, namely:

• Same-level peer tutoring where participants in the pair work are in the same level in

terms of their experience, skills and/or achievement;

• Same-level peer tutoring where unequal status is recognized and initiated by a

coordinator; students may be chosen to take the role of the tutor based on their higher

level of skills and/or instructional achievement;

• Cross-level peer tutoring in which the same institution is involved. Thus, unequal

status comes from differences already existing between student tutors and tutees. This

model creates the basis of the highly-achieved notion of Supplemental Institution (SI)

29

that emanated from North America (Bidgood, 1994; Congos&Schoeps, 1993;

Wallace, 1992).

• Cross-level peer tutoring, in which two institutions are involved, e.g. the UK‟s

Community Service Volunteers (CSV) „Learning Together‟ program, where

undergraduate student tutors assist students‟ learning by instructing personnel in local

schools and colleges (Community Service Volunteers, 2005).

Peer-assisted learning strategies (PALS) can be used to enhance the development of

English vocabulary. This strategy has been revealed to develop the theoretical skills and

reading ability of students with low abilities as well as English language learners (Cuenca-

Sanchez & Scruggs, 2007). Smith, May, and Burke (2007) emphasize the following three

points regarding PALS classes:

1. Participating in remedial actions and works are rejected by the students, and they

tend to use supportive modules that consider high risk courses rather than high

risk students (Rust & Wallace; Martin &Arendale, 1993).

2. Lower level students largely tend to participate actively in tasks which are more

student-orientated than teacher-orientated (Rust & Wallace, 1994).

3. Higher level students are encouraged more than teachers to support lower level

students to become professional students (Martin &Arendale, 1993).

According to Hughes and Macy (2008), some of the positive effects of a PALS

program may be that it:

• Diligently engages all students in tasks they achieve successfully.

• Enhances students‟ chance to read and improve basic skills.

30

• Encourages students to perform better in reading comprehension.

• Develops educational resources in the classroom.

• Prepares indisputably creative peer cooperation.

• Creates an appropriate atmosphere for less active students to assume a complementary

role in an important activity.

• Permits students with lower abilities to spend more time and allows the general

instructional program to be within their reach.

• Assists instructors to opt for instructional variety.

• Expedites student accomplishment in reading.

• Is tangible and easy to apply.

• Is known as an interesting activity by both teachers and students.

Ramsey, Jolivette, and Patton (2007) introduce the following steps that teachers might

follow in order to succeed in employing PALS during reading lessons.

1. Teachers should clarify to students that PALS will assist them to read better and

get more information from their reading. It is considered significant for teachers

to emphasize that experience and being “on task” is important to supporting

their partner.

2. Teachers should explain how cooperating helps both students to be

accomplished; clarify for them the significance of working together, especially

when they plan to combine the team competition/point system feature. Teachers

should elucidate that the two members of each team consist of a „tutor‟ and a

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„tutee‟ (the more proficient student will take the role of the tutor and the less

proficient one will take the role of a tutee), and that the roles exchange with

each reading so each will have an opportunity to be tutor and tutee.

3. Teachers should teach students how to prepare their work places for PALS:

Students can clarify their work places, obtain PALS materials, get into their

allocated roles, and determine the PALS materials so each student can have

access to them.

4. Teachers should instruct students how to behave as a tutor and as a tutee.

Teachers should model the appropriate behaviors. Teachers should ascertain

that students experience behaviors for giving and receiving proper feedback.

5. Teachers should explain the constructive and non-constructive effects of pair-

work to students. They should explain that two students who work on a

particular task and give each other support and approval run a constructive pair-

work, whereas non-constructive pair behavior occurs when students are off

tasks. Teachers should also design a plan for students by developing a

behavioral contract or a list of tasks to perform during the activity. Role playing

and practicing with students will reinforce constructive pair behaviors.

6. Finally, teachers should emphasize, compliment, and recognize their hard work

and correct and constructive behavior.

According to Hughes and Macy (2008), PALS is an interpretation of peer tutoring in

which instructors identify students who need support with particular skills and ask the most

independent students in the class to help them with those specific skills.

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Reading aloud has been used as a teaching strategy in almost every language class

especially in those which include students with oral reading difficulties (Razinski&Padak,

2000). Reading aloud allows learners to become more familiar with literacy (Wood

&Salvetti, 2001). Reading aloud actually happens when someone listen to an informant who

read different types and genres of texts and then engage in talking about the book (Franzese,

2002).The types of reading aloud materials consist of fiction and nonfiction books, poems,

articles or book chapters (Razinski&Padak, 2000).

In effect, reading aloud builds a mutual relationship between the teacher and the

students through meeting the same stories and characters and experiencing common reactions

towards the events.Leuenberger (2003) believes that reading aloud is the foundation of a

well-balanced kindergarten literacy curriculum. Rog (2001) asserts that reading stories aloud

can be defined as developing learner's “concepts about print, story structure, and other

elements of text” and “provides the child with a wealth of information about the processes

and functions of written language” (p. 49). It also promotes learner‟s duration of attention and

listening skills (Dragan, 2001) and improves the precision of recall, sequencing ability and

ease in writing (Reed, 1987). Reading aloud to children provides them new understandings

on various subjects that they face only through books (Terblanche, 2002).

Martinez and Roser (1995) mention that talking about books provides a chance for

learners “to say what they think, to share their connections with text, and to collaborate in

group-constructed meanings” (p. 33).Students acquire „habits of the mind‟ that they would

use throughout their life (Hahn, 2002).Talking about text ideas rather than listening only to

them does not involve quick or one word answer but allows children to think deeply and

analyze the story events and ideas (Beck &McKeown, 2001). Talking about the book is

considered efficient when children work hard to get main ideas, observe and compare, ask

33

questions and relate the story to their life (Martinez &Roser, 1995). Furthemore, McCarrier,

Pinnell, and Fountas (2000) state that read aloud stories introduce students to new topics that

they can use when they involve in writing and provide a good model of how writers express

their thoughts.

Terblanche (2002) explains that reading aloud also extends children‟s repertoire and

teaches a large number of new vocabulary words in context rather than in isolation (Franzese,

2002) which affects their reading ability as teachers involve them in discussions about the

content of the book. Teachers motivate them to use the lexical items, expressions and

sentences from the text in their answers and help them talk about the book using higher order

thinking skills (Hickman, Pollard-Durodola, & Vaughn, 2004).

Reading aloud also has positive effects on the development of vocabulary reading

comprehension. Primamore (1994) argues that learners benefit more than others when they

are ready to because they often enter school lacking the necessary tools of literacy, and may

be at risk in enhancing their reading and writing skills. Reading aloud to learners can be used

in order to compensate problems in reading such as poor vocabulary and lack of

comprehension and motivation towards reading in general and would guarantee reading

success (Primamore, 1994).

Wood and Salvetti (2001) designed Project Story Boost in order to help weak children

who experienced reading failure due to poverty and provided story read-aloud sessions for

several weeks. It was found thatlearners' vocabulary development and participation in

discussions as well as reading and writing activities were improved. The ability to retell the

stories by sequencing events and using detailsas well as vocabulary of the stories of those

learners who participated for a longer period of time in the project was improved. The

34

storybooks read-aloud had positive effects on primary grades where learners achieved higher

in reading fluency and comprehension than those who did not participate in the project.

In similar way, Hargrave and Sénéchal (2000) investigated poor children who had just

participated physically in storybook reading-aloud class. The results showed that preschool

children from economically poor families responded to open-ended questions around the text

better than children who listened passively to stories. After four weeks, children vocabulary

size was developed that usually takes four months.

Teachers conduct read-aloud strategy differently, especially regarding to discussion

during and after the reading. Some teachers ask learners to discuss the story during the read

aloud session; some others may leave the discussions until the end. Making students

interactively engage while they are reading the story aloud can significantly help them

improve their comprehension and concentration (Terblanche, 2002).

Providing a well-structured plan for the read-aloud sessions would provide precious

opportunities for students to take advantages of this strategy (Terblanche, 2002). In contrast,

unplannedness may lead to discouragement on the part of the learners. This is a very

significant point for teachers since as Rog (2001) warns success would be yielded as a result

of the good selection of books and the method to implement in reading.

2.3. Individual Differences and Reading Comprehension

In the realm of second language reading comprehension, the differences between individual

learners in processing and understanding the texts were the focus of a large number of

studies. They studied why some learners failed to comprehend the texts and fluency of

reading texts. Perfetti and Hart (2002) proposed Lexical Quality Hypothesis to posit that less

skilled readers with weak lexical performance that are not optimal for efficient access tends

35

to cause problems with comprehension. So, the source of difficulty in reading comprehension

is reader‟s lack of lexical knowledge.

As Long et. al (1997) states explanation of inference problems in second language

readers was one of the purposes of research on individual differences in reading

comprehension.

Levy and Hitchley (1988) developed a study with two experiments to investigate the

developmental and individual differences in children‟s story comprehension and recall. In the

first experiment, they examined the learners‟ individual differences of word decoding skills

in story comprehension. The medium of presentation, i.e., reading versus listening, was

manipulated to examine the relationship between decoding skill and reading ability. The

participants read silently, read orally, and listened to well-organized and poorly-organized

stories.

The results showed that there was no significant difference in the performance of

learners when they read silently and when they listened to the passages, but oral reading

promoted the comprehension of well-organized stories. No differences were observed

between the organization of reading texts and medium of presentation for poor readers. The

second experiment showed that poor readers benefited oral reading of well-organized texts.

The poorest readers took the advantages of advance organizers to comprehend the stories.

Therefore, it was concluded that the problem of poor readers is due to some general memory

problems not the structural organization of stories.

Long et al. (1994) conducted a study to examine the accuracy of less skilled readers in

sentence level representations as well as their ability to make appropriate inferences during

reading. They compared skilled and less skilled readers in terms of their ability to execute the

necessary process for representing the meaning of a sentence (i.e., to select the context-

appropriate sense of an ambiguous word) and also their ability to make an inference related to

36

the sentence topic. They predicted that skilled readers would make topic-related inferences

that less skilled readers would not make.

Long et al. (1994) found that skilled readers were faster in responding the appropriate

topic words than to inappropriate ones. Also, both skilled and less skilled readers had similar

knowledge about sentence topics but less skilled readers were not successful in making topic-

related inferences even though they could execute a process that dependson an adequate

sentence-level representationand relevant knowledge about the sentencetopics.

Long et al. (1997), in a similar study in terms of methodology, performed two

experiments to investigate individual differences in readers‟ constructingaccurate

propositional representations at sentence and text level. The results of first experiment

confirmed no differences in skilled and less-skilled readers to perform a task that is sensitive

to the underlying propositional structure of sentences. In the second experiment, the

significant differences were found in the extent to which skilled and less-skilled readers

integrated ideas from different parts of a text. They suggested discourse level as the most

important problematic area for readers at academic level.

In a study developed by Meneghetti, et.al (2006), they were looking for whether the

reading comprehension process is better explained by a single or by multiple factors. Ten

aspects of reading comprehension were measured on 184 students (9 to 13 years old). The

results of analysis showed that the two factors model was better explained reading

comprehension process in comparison to a one or a three factors model. Therefore, it was

confirmed that reading could be comprehended as „basic‟ or „complex‟.

Meneghetti, et.al (2006) were also sought to find the relationship between the two-

component model and scholastic achievement. They found that the more „complex‟ aspects

of reading comprehension which reflect some metacognitive knowledge and control

processes can better predict scholastic achievement.

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2.3.1. The role of Gender in Reading Comprehension

In a study on 49 participants (23 males and 26 females), Oxford and Young (1997) tried to

investigate strategies involved in reading comprehension. In this regard they chose three texts

(2 Spanish texts and one English text). The texts belonged to the courses books of the test

takers. There texts had different topics: foreign cultures in work, economics, leisure and

history. The result showed that there was no particular difference between the scores of two

genders in all text topics, also there was no difference in the self report in both genders

regarding familiarity with the topics of the texts or their background knowledge of any of the

readings. Brantmeier (2002) used the same readings of Oxford and Young (1997) study and

gave them to two groups of university students of Grammar and literature. The grammar

group contained 9 males and 47 females and the literature group contained 23 males and 53

females. The male participants of the two groups said that they were more familiar with the

boxing topic than females and the female participants said that they were more familiar with

frustrated housewife than males. The researcher found that there was no difference between

the two genders in comprehension of the gender oriented texts at advanced levels of learning

and although there is a significant difference in topic familiarity in instruction levels, the

effect of text content on second language reading comprehension by gender is kept when the

intermediate texts are examined by advanced participants.

Pae (2004) studied the behavior of 14,000 EFL Korean students on reading

comprehension. The male and female participants‟ behavior was assessed by Differential

Item Functioning (DIF) methodology. The participants took their own National Korean test

for college entrance. The researcher found that the difference between two genders lies in

some items, in other words male gender performed better in logical issues and female gender

did better in items such as impression, tone and mood without considering the content of the

38

items. Further research on the content showed that content may not be a reliable basis in

comparing the behavior of the both genders on reading comprehension. They suggested that

item type should be added to item content in further researches. Al-Shumaimeri (2005)

worked on 132 Saudi female and male students of EFL to compare their performance on

gender neutral texts. The readings contained two tests of readings with familiar and

unfamiliar subjects. The result showed that the male students did better in the reading texts.

Also familiarity with the texts was an effective issue in reading comprehension.

In a study to investigate the effect of gender on reading comprehension, Sallabas

(2008) found that there is a huge difference between female and male gender in the process of

reading comprehension and the females gained more scores than male participants in reading

comprehension. Wei-Wei (2009) studied the effect of gender on reading comprehension

among secondary level students in China. The researcher found that the male gender tended

to use bottom up strategies while the female gender tended to use more top down strategies.

The males approached the words in the texts analytically while the females looked at the text

more globally and tried to guess the meanings of the words in the text. In general females

were better in using both background knowledge and the text knowledge and could interact

with the text using their world knowledge.

To sum up, even though there are a number of studies investigating thesignificance of

read aloud activities in reading comprehension and vocabularyrecognition and recall, there

are few studies which have examined the direct effectsof read aloud activities on reading

comprehension. Thus, the primary focus of the present study is on investigating the impactof

read aloud activity types on reading comprehension in order to fill part of the existing gap in

this little exploredarea.

39

CHAPTER THREE

METHOD

40

3.1. Overview

The main purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of reading aloud instruction as

compared with silent-reading instruction on Iranian EFL learners' reading comprehension. In

this chapter, a comprehensive description of the participants of the study, instruments for data

collection, procedures of data collection and data analyses were provided. The participant

section introduces number, age, sex, level, first language and location of the participants. The

instrument section introduces proficiency test, reading comprehension passages functioning

as pre and posttest used in this study for collecting data. The procedure section describes

what tasks were done for collecting data and how data were collected in the course of

research and, finally, in data analysis section, a brief introduction to statistical methods of

data analysis is provided.

3.2. Participants

The participants of the study were 70 male (n = 31) and female (n = 39) pre-intermediate EFL

learners who were studying English in Farhang English Language Institute located in the city

of Sabzevar, Iran. Their level of education was from the first grade to the third grade of high

schools and their age was from 14 to 16. The learners' level of language proficiency was

determined by a standard English language placement test called Oxford Placement Test

(OPT).Also, 20 EFL learners of the similar age and proficiency level participated in pilot

study. The selected participants of the study were randomly assigned to two groups of

experimental and control in order to pursue the goals of the study.

The participants of the study received reading instruction along with other language

components in their general English course.Since gender of the participants was a relevant

variable, the gender variable applied. Because of the unbalanced percentages of male and

41

female students studying the English language at the English language institute, in the group

of subjects participating in this study, females outnumbered males.

3.3. Materials

The materials employed for data collection consisted of OPT andreading comprehension

passages. The detailed description of materials is as follows.

3.3.1. Oxford Placement Test

In order to manifest the participants' homogeneity in terms of language proficiency level, a

version of Oxford Placement Test called Solutions Placement Test (Edwards, 2007) was used

in this study. The validity of the test is self-evident. This test enabled the researcher to select

those learners who were compatible with the conditions of the study. It also enabled the

researcher to have a greater understanding of what level their participants were at. Oxford

placement test were used to assess students‟ knowledge of grammar, vocabulary and reading.

The test contained 50 multiple choice questions assessing students‟ knowledge of grammar

and vocabulary and a reading text with 10 graded comprehension questions (five true-false

and five multiple choice items) measuring learners' reading comprehension ability (see

appendix A).

3.3.2. Reading Comprehension Passages

Reading comprehension passages were the key instruments of this study.Six syllabus-based

reading passagesalong with five multiple-choice comprehension questions after each passage

wereused in the study. They were selected from the pre-intermediate reading comprehension

course book, i.e. Pre-intermediate Select Readings books (Lee & Gunderson, 2011).The

42

average length of each passage was between 2500 to 3000 words (see appendix B) and they

were selected based on three different textual types:

1. Narrative passage with an inbuilt dialogue designed to illustrate the effect of

phonological features such as stress and intonation

2. Straight narrative passage

3. An expository passage containing factual information about a certain subject.

Regarding the scoring of reading comprehension questions, every correct item was

awarded +2 points and incorrect one was assigned 0. The first three reading passages were

considered as pretest and the second three passages were used as posttests of the study. In

order to determine the reliability of the reading passages and ensure the compatibility of the

test to the learners' level of reading comprehension, it was piloted on EFL learners (n = 20)

who were similar to the learners of the main study in terms of age, sex, and proficiency level.

3.4. Procedure

In order to investigate the effect of reading aloud onreading comprehension of EFL learners,

a structured procedure was designed to collect data. The data collection procedure was

conducted carefullyduring 8 sessions of summer 2013 semester, in three steps, i.e., pilot study

of the reading passages, administering the proficiency test, instruction and administration of

reading passages to both groups of the study.

Prior to the main study, a pilot study was performed on 20 EFL learners of the same

age and proficiency level in order to ensure the reliability of the reading passages.The items

of all six passages (n = 30) were analyzed using Cronbach alpha formula. The obtained result

was .78that was a satisfactory level of test reliability. The researcher also pursued another

purpose in the pilot study.It was going to find out the length of time that the majority of the

43

learners spend to deal with each passage.The average time for reading each passage was

found to be 5minutes and for answering the five multiple-choice questions was about 7

minutes.

The participants' intended language proficiency level for this study was pre-

intermediate, so in order to ensure the homogeneity of the participants, the standard English

language proficiency test i.e., Oxford Placement test (Solutions) was administered. As was

mentioned earlier, the test consisted of 50 multiple-choice items of grammar, vocabulary, and

5 true-false items as well as 5 multiple-choice reading comprehension test items. A total of 70

EFL learners participated in the study. Every correct answer in multiple-choice and true false

questions was given +1 point and every incorrect answer was given 0 point. No negative

score was considered for penalty in this test. The total score of the test was 60. A definite

range of scores is determined by Oxford Placement Test (Edwards, 2007) to interpret the

results. Regarding the obtained scores, 14 participants could not attain the minimum score for

the pre-intermediate level and they were excluded from the whole sample. Then, the

participants were randomly assigned to two equal groups of control (n = 30) and

experimental (n = 30).

The main study was conducted in the following manner. The experimentalgroup

received theread aloud instruction. In the first session, the participants were asked to read

aloud each passage in turn and then answer the questions. In the second session, the

researcher himself read the passage aloud and then asked the learners to answer the questions.

In the third session, the researcher read aloud the text and randomly paused at some spots in

the passage and asked the learners to read subsequent word aloud. Afterwards, the

participants answered the reading comprehension questions. The students' scores in these

three sessions were regarded as their pretest.

44

The fourth session was initiated by reading aloud each passage separately by the

researcher and providing a brief introduction in one sentence or two in order to give the

participants a general perception towards what they were about to read. Likewise, the

participants answered reading comprehension questions at the end of the fourth session.

In the fifth session, the passages were read aloud by the researcher and discussion of

the general meaning of the passage as well as vocabulary explanation was conducted. Finally,

the process of reading aloud instruction was completed in the sixth session. The researcher

read aloud the passage while pausing to askquestions,reviewing of the events and clarifying

some ambiguous pointsand at the same time, the students were able to explain target words.

This process not only helped learners improve their comprehension, but let them build

strategies to use in reading independently. The scores of the students in the last three sessions

of reading comprehension were considered as posttest.

In the control group, the participants received the same six reading passages but no

reading-aloud instruction was provided. The reading instruction was presented by means of

routine and traditional techniques in language institute. The lesson began with presenting the

new wordsand the students were asked to read silently and their silent reading would be

checked by the researcher by either randomly reading a word wrongly or requiring them to

read the word aloud correctly. Finally, the participants were asked to answer the reading

comprehension questions.In similar manner, the pretest and the posttest of the control group

were considered as the first and the last three sessions of the study respectively.

All the procedures of data collection were done without any major problem and they

proceeded in the predicted order. All the participants were present in all phases of the study.

Furthermore, to care for the tenets of the research, no one of the papers during different

45

phases of study was given back to the participants, and no information about the content of

study was transpired before administering it.

3.5. Data Analysis

The raw data was collected and submitted to SPSS 21.0 to perform statistical analysis. First,

descriptive statistics (such as mean, standard deviation, kurtosis, skewness and frequency) is

needed for proficiency test to show the general information of obtained scores. The selected

participants of study were randomly assigned to two groups and a t-test was performed to

show that there is no significant difference between learners in terms of their language

proficiency. The reliability analysis using Cronbach's alpha formula was performed on

reading passages.

Two one-way ANOVAs were performed in order to find out the statistical significant

difference among three tests of the pretest as well as the posttest. The location of differences

and the rate of progress in a comparative view were also depicted by bar graphs.

An independent sample t-test was performed to show whether there was any

significant difference between the two groups regarding the effectiveness of treatments.

46

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND

DISCUSSION

47

4.1 Overview

This study aimed to investigate the impact of reading aloud instruction as compared with

silent-reading instruction on Iranian EFL learners' reading comprehension. This chapter

provides the detailed statistical analyses conducted throughout the research and testing the

hypotheses of the study based on the obtained results. Every step which was taken in

analyzing the obtained data is presented in this chapter. In addition, in discussion section, the

major findings of the study are compared with the results of the previous empirical studies.

With regard to purpose of the study, the data were submitted to different statistical

analyses in order to test the following hypotheses of the study:

H01. Teacher‟s reading aloud does not have any significant impact on Iranian EFL

learners in Pre-intermediate levels of English proficiency.

H02. Teacher‟s reading aloud does not make any significant difference between male

and female EFL learners regarding their reading comprehension.

The following steps were taken in order to investigate the null hypotheses of study.

4.2. Pilot Study

Prior to the main study, a pilot study was performed on 20 EFL learners of the same age and

proficiency level in order to check the reliability of the reading passages.

Descriptive statistics of the pilot test on reading passages (consisting of 30 items),

such as mean, standard deviation (SD), standard error of measurement (SEM) and the item

48

facility (IF) index of the test items are provided in Table 4.1. The items with facility index

above 0.63 were too easy and below 0.33 were too difficult. Three items (two easy and one

difficult) were revised.

Table 4.1. Descriptive statistics of the pilot study on reading passages

Mean SD SEM IF < 0.33 0.33 ≤ IF ≤ 0.63 IF > 0.63

Reading Passages 13.86 6.71 3.44 2 27 1

In order to test the reliability of the tests, Cronbach's alpha analysis was performed,

the results (r = 0.78), as is shown in Table 4.2., indicated that the test items of reading

passages had a satisfactory level of reliability.

Table 4.2. Reliability Statistics of the reading passages

Cronbach's Alpha N of Items

Reading Passages .78 30

4.3. Analysis of Proficiency Test

All participants of the main study (n = 74) took part in a proficiency test called Oxford

Placement Test (Solutions). The purpose of the proficiency test was to manifest the learner's

homogeneity or to show whether the learners' knowledge of English is at the same level. The

detailed descriptive statistics of proficiency test is shown in Table 4.3.

49

Table 4.3. The Frequency of scores obtained from proficiency test

Frequency Percent Valid Percent

Valid

29 1 1.6 1.6 31 1 1.6 1.6 33 1 1.6 1.6 35 1 1.6 1.6 39 6 9.4 9.4 40 6 9.4 9.4 41 10 15.6 15.6 42 9 15.6 15.6 43 6 7.8 7.8 44 5 7.8 7.8 45 7 7.8 7.8 46 4 6.2 6.2 47 4 6.2 6.2 48 3 1.6 1.6 49 3 1.6 1.6 50 4 1.6 1.6 51 1 1.6 1.6 53 2 1.6 1.6

Total 74 100.0 100.0

According to Oxford Placement Test (Solutions) (2007), the intermediate learners are

those who attain 31 and above (out of 50) on grammar and vocabulary section and 8 and

above (out of 10) on reading. The total score should not be less than 39. As Table 4.3 shows,

four participants could not attain the intended scores for intermediate level of language

proficiency; therefore, they were excluded from the sample.

In order to ensure the homogeneity of the participants, the participants were randomly

assigned to two groups and their scores were compared by a t-test analysis. The results, as

shown in Table 4.4, showed that there is not any significant difference (t = .75, p > .01)

among selected participants for intermediate level.

Table 4.4. Independent samples test of scores on language proficiency test

Levene's Test for

Equality of

Variances t-test for Equality of Means

F Sig. t df Sig. Mean

Difference Std. Error

Difference

95% Confidence Interval

of the Difference Lower Upper

OPT

Homogenized

Equal

variances

assumed 1.583 .213 .750 68 .456 .62054 .82704 -1.03497 2.27604

50

4.4. Analysis of the Pretest

The participants of the study were randomly assigned to two group of control and

experimental. Every group received reading instruction for 6 sessions. The scores of

participants of both experimental and control groups in the first three reading tests were

regarded as their pretest. The descriptive statistics of the scores of experimental group on the

first three reading comprehension tests are presented in Table 4.5.

Table 4.5. The descriptive statistics of the experimental group's scores on the first three

reading comprehension tests

N Sum Mean Std. Deviation

Reading 1 Experimental Group 35 117 3.34 1.083

Reading 2 Experimental Group 35 122 3.49 .781

Reading 3 Experimental Group 35 126 3.60 1.006

Valid N (listwise) 35

In order to check whether or not the reading comprehension ability of the

experimental group's participants is almost at the same level, a one-way ANOVA was

conducted. The results are provided in Table 4.6.

Table 4.6. ANOVA on experimental group's pretest

Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Between Groups 1.162 2 .581 .624 .538

Within Groups 95.029 102 .932

Total 96.190 104

The results shows that there is not any significant difference (F = 0.62, p> 05)

among the pre-test listening comprehension scores of the three groups of participants.

Figure 4.1 depicts the difference between the performance of experimental group on

the first three tests.

51

Figure 4.1.The difference between the performance of experimental group on the first three tests

The descriptive statistics of the control group'sscores on the first three reading

comprehension tests are presented in Table 4.7.


comprehension tests

N Sum Mean Std. Deviation

Reading 1 Control Group 35 86 2.46 .701




In order to check the reading comprehension ability of the experimental group's

participants among the first three tests, another one-way ANOVA was conducted. The results

are provided in Table 4.8.

52

Table 4.8. ANOVA on control group's pretest


Between Groups .362 2 .181 .721 .489


Total 25.962 104

The results of ANOVA indicated that there is not any significant difference (F = 0.72,

p> 05) among the first three reading comprehension scores of the participants in control

group. Figure 4.2 depicts the difference between the performance of control group on the first

three tests.

Figure 4.2. The difference between the performance of control group on the first three tests

The mean of both control and experimental groups' scores on the first three reading

comprehension tests were considered for their pretest. The descriptive statistics of control and

experimental groups' mean scores on pretest are presented in Table 4.9.

53

Table 4.9.The descriptive statistics of control and experimental groups' mean scores on pretest

N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation

Pretest (Experimental Group) 35 2.33 4.67 3.4762 .56178

Pretest (Control Group) 35 2.67 4.00 3.2190 .29085


In order to ensure that there is no significant difference between the participants of

control and experimental groups regarding their knowledge of reading and writing, an

independent sample t-test was performed. The results are provided in Table 4.10.

Table 4.10. Independent samples t-test between control and experimental group on pretest

Levene's Test

for Equality of

Variances

t-test for Equality of Means


Difference

Std. Error

Difference

95% Confidence

Interval of the

Difference

Lower Upper

Pretest

Equal

variances

assumed

9.741 .103 2.405 68 .119 .25714 .10693 .04377 .47052

The results of independent samples t-test indicated that that there is no statistical

significant difference between experimental and control group (t= -0.25, p > 0.05) in their

performance on pretest. Figure 4.3 depicts the difference between experimental and group in

pretest.

54

Figure 4.3. Control and experimental group scores on pretest

4.5. Analysis of the Posttest

As mentioned, the second three reading comprehension tests were considered as posttest. The

descriptive statistics of the scores of experimental group on the second three reading


Table 4.11.Descriptive statistics of the scores of experimental group on the second three reading comprehension tests


Reading 4 Experimental Group 35 4 7 5.34 .968

Reading 5 Experimental Group 35 4 9 7.00 1.188

Reading 6 Experimental Group 35 7 10 8.83 .822


55

In order to check whether there is any significant difference in reading comprehension

ability of the experimental group's participants, a one-way ANOVA was conducted. The

results are provided in Table 4.12.

Table 4.12. ANOVA on Experimental Group (Posttest)


Between Groups 212.800 2 106.400 105.513 .000

Within Groups 102.857 102 1.008

Total 315.657 104

The results indicated that there is a significant difference (F = 105.51, p< 05) among

the posttest listening comprehension scores of the three groups of participants. Figure

4.4shows the gradual progress of the performance of experimental group on the second three

tests.

Figure 4.4.The difference between the performance of experimental group on the first three tests

56

The descriptive statistics of the control group'sscores on the first three reading


Table 4.13. The descriptive statistics of the control group's scores on the first three reading comprehension tests


Reading 4 Control Group 35 3 6 4.46 .919




In order to find the differences regarding the reading comprehension ability of the

experimental group's participants among the second three tests, another one-way ANOVA

was conducted. The results are provided in Table 4.14.

Table 4.14. ANOVA on control group (posttest)


Between Groups 64.133 2 32.067 57.993 .000


Total 120.533 104

The results of one-way ANOVA revealed that there is a significant difference (F =

57.99, p< 05) among the second three reading comprehension scores of the control group.

Figure 4.5 depicts the difference between the performance of control group on the first three

tests.

57

F

Figure 4.5. The difference between the performance of control group on the first three tests

4.6. Testing the Hypotheses of the Study

The mean of both control and experimental groups' scores on the second three reading

comprehension tests were considered for their posttest. The descriptive statistics of control

and experimental groups' mean scores on pretest are presented in Table 4.15.

Table 4.15. The descriptive statistics of control and experimental groups' mean scores on posttest


Posttest (Experimental Group) 35 6.00 8.67 7.0571 .70240

Posttest (Control Group) 35 3.33 5.67 4.4857 .58490


In order to investigate the first null hypothesis of the study in finding whether

teacher‟s reading aloud have any significant impact on Iranian EFL learners, an independent

58

sample t-test was conducted between the control and experimental participants' scores on

posttests. The results are illustrated in Table 4.16.

Table 4.16. Independent samples t-test between control and experimental group on pretest

Levene's Test

for Equality

of Variances



Difference

Std. Error

Difference

95% Confidence

Interval of the

Difference

Lower Upper

Posttest

Equal

variances

assumed

1.129 .292 16.643 68 .000 2.57143 .15450 2.26312 2.87973

The results showed that there is a significant difference between the posttest scores of

both control and experimental groups (t = 16.64, p< .05) in such a way that experimental

group outperformed on reading comprehension tests. In other words, teacher‟s reading aloud

have had a significant effect on enhancing Iranian EFL learners' reading comprehension.

Therefore, the first null hypothesis of the study is not accepted. Figure 4.6 shows the

difference between the performance of control and experimental groups on posttest.

Figure 4.6 the difference between the performance of control and experimental groups on posttest.

59

In order to investigate the second research question of the study in finding whether

teacher‟s reading aloud makes any significant difference between male and female EFL

learners regarding their reading comprehension, the following statistical procedures were

conducted. The descriptive statistics of both male and female EFL learners regarding their

performance on reading comprehension posttest is provided in Table 4.17.

Table 4.17. Descriptive statistics of male and female EFL learners on posttest

Gender N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean

Posttest Female 39 5.7692 1.41866 .22717

Male 31 5.7742 1.50157 .26969

An independent sample t-test was performed between the performance of male and

female EFL learners on posttest. The results are shown in Table 4.18.

Table 4.18. Independent samples t-testbetween the performance of male and female EFL learners on posttest

Levene's Test for

Equality of

Variances



Difference

Std. Error

Difference

95%

Confidence

Interval of the

Difference

Lower Upper

Posttest

Equal

variances

assumed

.349 .557 -.01 68 .989 -.00496 .35030 -.7039 .6940

The results showed that there is not any significant difference between male and

female EFL learners (t = .01, p> .05) regarding their performance on posttest. Therefore, the

second null hypothesis of the study is accepted.

60

4.7. Discussion

The present study examined the effects of teachers' reading aloud instruction on Iranian EFL

learners' reading comprehension ability one the one hand, and finding whether it makes any

difference between the reading comprehension ability of male and female EFL learners. The

results of data analysis showed that reading aloud had a significant effect on Iranian EFL

learners' reading comprehension ability. It was also found that there is no significant

difference between male and female EFL learners and their reading comprehension ability as

a results of reading-aloud instruction.

The results of the present study confirm the findings of McCarrier, Pinnell,

andFountas (2000) that found read-aloud stories can introduce new topics to students and

they can use them when they involve in writing and provide a good model of how writers

express their thoughts.

The findings of this study supported what Terblanche (2002) found regarding that

reading aloud extends children‟s repertoire and teaches a large number of new vocabulary

words in context rather than in isolation. Teachers motivate them to use the lexical items,

expressions and sentences from the text in their answers and help them talk about the book

using higher order thinking skills.Teachers conduct read-aloud strategy differently, especially

regarding to discussion during and after the reading. Some teachers ask learners to discuss the

story during the read aloud session; some others may leave the discussions until the end.

Making students interactively engage while they are reading the story aloud can significantly

help them improve their comprehension and concentration (Terblanche, 2002).

The results of this study was in line with Walsh and Blewitt's(2006) findings. They

studied preschool students that were attempting to understandnovel words encountered during

61

read-aloud sessions. These students read three storybooks repeatedly over four sessions. As

frequency of the readings increased, thesestudents were more likely to comprehend novel

words than those students in a control group that did not experience the repeated readings.

Therefore, student comprehension oftext was promoted through frequent interactions with

text.

This study can also support Primamore's (1994) finding that reading aloud has

positive effects on the development of vocabulary in reading comprehension.Learners benefit

more than others when they are ready to because they often enter school lacking the

necessary tools of literacy, and may be at risk in enhancing their reading and writing skills.

Reading aloud to learners can be used in order to compensate problems in reading such as

poor vocabulary and lack of comprehension and motivation towards reading in general and

would guarantee reading success (Primamore, 1994).

This study provided an empirical support for the findings of Wood and Salvetti (2001)

that foundthe storybooks read-aloud had positive effects on primary grades where learners

achieved higher in reading fluency and comprehension than those who did not participate in

the project. They also found that learners' vocabulary development and participation in

discussions as well as reading and writing activities were improved. The ability to retell the

stories by sequencing events and using detailsas well as vocabulary of the stories of those

learners who participated for a longer period of time in the project was improved.

Similar to this study, Cooper and Kiger(2003) found that read-aloud strategy have

significant impact on reading comprehensionand vocabulary acquisition of young children

which allowed them togrow as independent learners and build strategies to deduce or acquire

the meaning of new wordswhen they read independently. Students could expand the number

of words they could employ in speaking and writing.

62

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION, IMPLICATIONS

AND SUGGESTIONS FOR

FURTHER RESEARCH

63

5.1. Overview

This chapter provides a summary of the major findings of the study. Theoretical and

pedagogical implications of the study are also presented in this chapter. Final thoughts on the

results of the study are provided in conclusion section. The chapter ends with a number of

suggestions and recommendations are provided for future studies.

5.2. Summary of the Major Findings

The present study was designed to explore the impact of training on reading aloud on Iranian

EFL learners‟ reading comprehension. Reading instruction was presented in two manners.

One through the use of reading aloud strategy which was designed based on reading

comprehension texts; another, through the use of the routine and traditional techniques. On

the basis of the results of statistical analyses that were presented in chapter four, it was found

that reading aloud is an effective strategy to help EFL learners enhance their reading

comprehension.

It was found that reading aloud could improve Iranian EFL learners' reading

comprehension more than routine and traditional techniques could do. Furthermore, no

significant difference was found between the performance of male and female EFL learners

in their reading comprehension ability as result of reading aloud instruction and the progress

of both groups were similar.

64

5.3. Conclusion

Reading comprehension is an interactive process between the reader and the written text as

well as the interaction between bottom-up and top-down strategies. The results of this study

supported the use of reading aloud in reading as they allow the students to comprehend more

information, associate it with other ideas and incorporate new ideas into their prior

knowledge. Therefore, when information is decoded by using oral modalities, learning will

be easier.

It can be inferred from the results of this study that the use of reading aloud can

contribute to save time and energy as it summarizes the information. The use of reading aloud

instruction, can be used in different stages of teaching reading.

From this study, it was found that EFL learners' overall reading comprehension ability

was significantly improved after they had been trained to use reading aloud strategy. The

present study filled a gap on the effectiveness of reading aloud strategy in reading

comprehension. Reading aloud instruction is distinctly different from conventional reading

instruction methods as target structures, patterns and activities are generally presented within

communicative contexts. Conversely, reading instruction that is currently presented in the

conventional de-contextualized method in Iranian language classrooms can be recalled within

similar contexts like discrete point tests.

To sum up, reading aloud instruction is identified as the major vehicles to help EFL

learners enhance their reading comprehension.

65

5.4 Implications of the Study

The results of this study provided support for the theoretical and pedagogical value of reading

aloud in reading comprehension class. From theoretical point of view, this study presented

one instructional technique of foreign language reading instruction which are in line with

second language learning theories that highlight the role of attention and consciousness in

language learning. The reading aloud instruction is based on attracting the attention of

learners to specific visuals within meaningful and interactive context that is provided by the

use of the reading aloud strategy. The use of this instructional techniques is characterized as

an effective way of reading comprehension for EFL learners since they are contextualized,

provide deep senses of language use and learner-based classroom as the reading

comprehension is the result of learner‟s efforts.

The results of this study also indicated that reading can be a powerful instructional

strategy that predisposes reading comprehension. Reading aloud can be used in introducing

reading instruction as a way of processing reading at deeper levels in EFL classroom.

From a pedagogical viewpoint, it is plausible to recommend language teachers

consider different learning conditions, role of reading aloud because they definitely have

significance for teaching purposes as the findings suggest. Teachers can implement these

important points in the process of teaching reading and help the learners make significant

improvement.

In classroom situation, teachers can lower the learners‟ stress and anxiety by choosing

the reading aloud strategy. The reading aloud strategy provide a more friendly and less

authoritative classrooms. This can help them improve their risk-taking more than before and

students will be encouraged to participate in class activities.

66

Considering learning situations is one of the procedures which make the task of

reading comprehension easier. For example, using reading aloud situation increases the

learners' attention. This situation results in paying more attention to the reading texts.

Therefore, the teaching and learning cycle can surely create a situation for improving reading

comprehension.

Reading comprehensionstandards and teaching resources are changing continuously.

The teachers should keep abreast of the standards and study the available resources to select

suitable learning condition, teach through effective techniques, and assess reading

comprehension appropriately.

5.5. Suggestions for Further Research

In this section, some suggestions are recommended for future studies, based on the

limitations of the study and the problems that the researcher encountered during the research.

The participants of the study were limited to intermediate proficiency learners; further

research is needed to explore the possible patterns of the effect of the presented variables on

the reading comprehension of the learners and their proficiency achievement at higher levels

of language proficiency.

The present study investigated the impact of reading aloud instruction on reading

comprehension. It is suggested for further studies to investigate the effectiveness of this

instructional strategy on other language learning skills such as speaking, reading and writing.

The reasons why Iranian EFL students are so weak in reading comprehension is still

needed to be explored. Also, using a larger population of students contributes to

generalizability of the results. This is another issue worth trying.

67

Research can be designed to focus on finding which instructional strategies under

reading comprehension situation are most applicable to students of lower and average reading

comprehension abilities and which strategies are most effectively used by high ability

learners under the same conditions to learn more.

In this study, one-way reading aloud task was applied. A study could be done in

which reading is taught through story, films, a combination of reading a text, listening to it,

and watching a corresponding film at the same time.

Further study may investigate the role of reading aloud in other EFL classrooms, such

as science technology, business administration, or those who are leaning English for Specific

purposes (ESP).

The present study could not provide the conditions to know the participants‟ opinions

about the reading instruction strategies, the process of reading comprehension, the conditions

of the study and the general process of the study. These viewpoints could certainly give valid

and reliable insights to the researchers to fairly judge, discuss, and conclude the findings of

study. So, it seems necessary for future research to provide a structured interview to pursue

mainly the above purposes.

68

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APPENDICES

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APPENDIX B

Reading Comprehension Passages

Like all growing plants, the potato is a product of the seamless cooperation of sun soil,

temperature and water. However, while potatoes thrive on moisture, so, too, does the potato's

worst affliction, late blight. After attacking and blackening the leaves, phytophthorainfestans

spores move down the stem, eventually reaching and rotting the tubers in the ground. Even

those potatoes harvested and stored may carry the fungus and be wiped out. The search for

the cause of the blight that ruined the Irish plants in the 1840's and the Polish plants in 1980

preoccupied researchers for years. M. J. Berkeley, a 19th-century naturalist, first

recognizedthat the fungus appearing on the potato plants in 1845 in Ireland and elsewhere

was not the result of the blight but the cause. Working in Germany, another scientist Heinrich

Anton de Bary, proved Berkeley's theory by identifying the fungus as an outgrowth on the

host. It took another hundred years. However, before the mystery of the origin of the fungus

was solved, and the pathogen itself was traced to central Mexico. Late blight has traditionally

been held in check with costly chemical fungicides. Unfortunately, for many farmers, the

chemicals are too expensive, if a valuable at all. Therefore today, identifying or creating

blight-resistant potato species is the major goal of agricultural researchers interested in late

blight.

1. Where does late blight begin?

a. in the stems of potato plants

b. on the leaves of potato plants

c. in potatoes in the ground

d. in potatoes that are being stored

2. M. J. Berkeley is known for…

a. discovering the cause of late blight.

b. finding a treatment for late blight.

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c. understanding that the fungus was a result of late blight.

d. recognizing that the blight in Ireland was the same as the blight in Germany.

3. The work of Heinrich Anton de Bary supported the theory that…

a. blight was a disease caused by potatoes.

b. late blight caused a fungus.

c. the cause of late blight was a fungus.

d. German potato blight and Irish potato blight had different causes.

4. Where did the fungus come from originally?

a. Ireland

b. Poland

c. Germany

d. Mexico

5. According to the passage, current research is primarily aimed at…

a. finding types of potatoes not so affected by late blight.

b. developing more effective chemical fungicides to fight late blight.

c. developing less expensive chemical fungicides to fight late blight.

d. discovering the cause of phytophthorainfestans.

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A little more than a hundred years ago, a number of European scholars began to record

stories being told in peasant cottages and compile them into the first great collections of

European folk tales. Written evidence exists to prove that the folk tales they recorded existed

long before then. Though. Collections of sermons from the 12th to the 15th century show that

medieval preachers knew of some of the same stories as those recorded by the 19th century

folklorists. The collections of folk tales made in the late 19th and early 20th centuries provide

a rare opportunity to make contact with the illiterate masses who have disappeared into the

past without leaving a trace. To reject folk tales as historical evidence because they cannot be

dated and situated with precision like other historical documents is to turn one's back on one

of the few points of entry into the previous centuries. But to attempt to penetrate that world is

to face a daunting set of obstacles. The greatest of which is the impossibility of listening in on

the story tellers. No matter how accurate they may be. The versions of the tales recorded in

writing cannot convey the effects that the storytellers must have used to bring the stories to

life: the dramatic pauses, the sly glances, the use of gestures to set scenes, and the use of

sounds to punctuate actions. All of those devices shaped the meaning of the tales, and all of

them elude the historian. He cannot be sure that the limp and lifeless texthe holds between the

covers of a book provides an accurate account of the performance that took place in earlier

times.

1. The author believes that written versions of folk tales…

a. changed dramatically from the 19th to the 20th century.

b. are valid historical documents.

c. show how illiterate the masses were before the 19th century.

d. should be rejected as historical evidence.

2. What problem of folk tale collections does the author discuss?

a. There is no way to tell which version of a story is the original version.

b. They contain historical inaccuracies.

c. They are used as historical evidence.

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d. They don‟t preserve the original performance style of the storytellers.

3. The author‟s main purpose in this passage is to …

a. criticize historians who use folk tales as historical documents.

b. argue that folk tales are authentic historical documents.

c. convince readers that modern versions of folk tales are probably not the same as

the originals.

d. explain why historians must study the illiterate masses of the past.

4. According to the passage. Peasant folklore was recorded by …

a. 19th century folklorists.

b. 19th century preachers.

c. historians in the 12th to 15th centuries.

d. 19th century peasants.

5. The author talks about “limp and lifeless” texts because…

a. the original texts have been damaged.

b. the texts do not reveal how the storytellers presented their folk tales.

c. some of the texts are no longer relevant to historians.

d. the texts provide and accurate account of life in earlier times.

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Bioacoustics is a field that cacophony of sound emanating from the animal kingdom. Using

the equipment adapted from the sound recording industry and the military. Bioacousticians

are learning how creatures use sound in mating, socializing, and staking out territories. The

work of Eugene Morton of the National Zoological Park exemplifies the interests of scientists

in this field. He has shown that most animals warn others away with a harsh, low-pitched

growl. The reason seems to be that deep. Low-frequency sound suggests bigness, in the same

way a bass drum sounds mightier than a snare drum. Conversely, he has found that animals

use high-pitched sounds to show amiability or submissiveness. A pocket mouse, for example,

signals appeasement with a whining squeal. A rhinoceros rumbles when hostile, but whistles

when feeling friendly. Morton and other scientists owe such findings to the sonograph, the

device that helped launch bioacoustics in the 1950‟s Developed for use in creating human

voiceprints and submarine identification. The sonograph converts sound waves in the

atmosphere into electrical signals. The signals drive a stylus, which makes a two-dimensional

"picture" of sound on paper. Using the sonograph, Morton has found that although a bird's

warning chirp and a dog's growl sound dissimilar, pictures of their sounds are much alike.

Both reveal a low overall frequency and broad bandwidth; the sonogram looks like a thick,

black bar. At the opposite end of the sound spectrum is the thin-lined sonogram representing

an animal's friendly call, a high tone that makes the producer seem smaller and unthreatening.

Using sonograms and sophisticated computers, bioacousticians are scrutinizing everything

from cricket chirps to lion roars to learn more about why an animal makes particular sounds

in particular situations.

1. What is the importance of the sonograph in biacoustice?

a. It creates human voiceprints.

b. It sends electrical signals.

c. It helps scientists compare animal sounds.

d. It allows the identification of submarines.

2. The original purpose of sonographs was to…

a. identify submarines.

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b. compare the sounds of birds and dogs.

c. warn threatening animals away.

d. learn more about how animals use sound.

3. What does a sonograph do?

a. It decreases the frequency of sounds.

b. It makes sounds louder so scientists can study them.

c. It creates sounds like animals make.

d. It makes a visual record of sounds.

4. According to the passage. What does research show about large animals?

a. They may make high pitched sounds to show they are in danger.

b. They may make low pitched sounds to show they feel friendly.

c. They may make high pitched sounds to show they feel friendly.

d. They may have difficulty making high-pitched sounds.

5. The research mentioned in the passage suggests that low-pitched sounds made

by an animal …

a. may mean the animal feels relaxed.

b. indicate the animal is bigger than a bird.

c. do not appear on a sonogram.

d. may mean the animal is giving a warning.

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Printers use the term broadside to refer to a large piece of paper printed on one side. In

military language, it means an attack with all one's forces. Dudley Randall invoked both these

senses of the word when he established the Broadside press in 1965. Randall was a librarian

and poet in Detroit when he began the press with his personal savings as a way to copyright

the words to his ballad about a 163 racial incident in which whites killed three Black

children. The poem was printed ad a broadside. "By creating the Broadside press, the most

successful poetry institution in the history of African American literature, Randall created

something that had previously not existed in the United States-an organization that would

publish the works of Black poets, “explains Professor Melba Boyd, a poet and former press

editor. Historically, work by Black poets had been criticized for emphasizing political issues

and not using the traditional poetic forms of the white literary establishment. Thus, Black

poets had found it difficult to get published.Boyd is producing a film documentary that will

present Randall's biography as well as his poetry. Randall served as general editor of the

press from 1965 to 1977. In the mid-seventies, sky-rocketing printing costs and the closing of

many small bookstores to whom he had extended credit left the press in financial straits.

Randall then sold the press and slumped into a depression. But in the 1980's, he revived

community support for the press through the Broadside Poets Theater. Boyd hopes her

documentary on Randall will introduce more people to African American literature.

1. According to the passage, the Broadside press is most famous as a publisher of…

a. criticism of traditional white poetry.

b. biographies of famous African American poets.

c. poetry written by African Americans.

d. African American documentaries.

2. Who paid the costs to start the press?

a. An organization of black writers

b. Dudley Randall

c. Professor Boyd

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d. Many small bookstores

3. According to Professor Boyd. What significant change occurred because of the

Broadside Press?

a. black poets returned to traditional poetic forms.

b. Historical works about African Americans began to appear in print.

c. The Black literary establishment began to emphasize political issues.

d. It became easier for Black poets to get their work in print.

4. What happened to the Broadside Press in the 1980‟s?

a. It was renamed the Broadside Poets theater.

b. It moved into a different community.

c. It regained popular support.

d. It helped support small bookstores during a depression.

5. What did the Broadside Poets Theater do?

a. helped get support for the Broadside Press

b. led Randall into a personal depression

c. led the Broadside Press into financial difficulties

d. supported many bookstores in the community

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There are stories about two U.S. presidents, Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren, which

try to explain the American English term OK. We don‟t know if these stories true, but they

are both interesting.

The first explanation is based on the fact that President Jackson had very little education. In

fact, he had difficulty reading and writing. When important papers came to Jackson, he tried

to read them and then had his assistants explain what they said. If he accepted a paper, he

would write “all correct” on it. The problem was that he didn‟t know how to spell, so what he

really wrote was “ olkoreke”. After a while, he shortened that to “OK”.

The second explanation is based on the place where President Ban Buren was born,

Kinderhook, New York. Ban Buren‟s friends organized a club to help him become President.

They called the club the Old Kinderhook Club, and anyone who supported Van Buren was

called “Ok”.

1. The writer …………………………..… .

1. believes that both of the stories are true 2. doesn‟t believe a word of the stories

3. is not sure whether the stories are true 4. is telling the stories just for fun

2. According to the passage, President Jackson ……………………………… .

1. couldn‟t make reasonable decisions at all

2. didn‟t like to read important papers by himself

3. often had his assistants sign important papers for him

4. wasn‟t good at reading, writing or spelling

3. According to the first story, the term “OK” ………………………………. .

1. was written like this by President Jackson 2. was the title of some formal papers

3. was first used by President Jackson 4. was an old way to spell “all correct”

5. According to the second story, the term “OK” …………………….. .

1. was the short way to say “Old Kinderhook Club”

2. meant the place where President Ban Buren was born

3. was the name of Van Buren‟s club

4. was used to call Van Buren‟s supporters in the election

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Does this sound familiar? You stay up all night to study for a test or finish a project, and the

next day you feel tired, and you can‟t seem to focus, no matter how much coffee you drink.

Have you ever stayed up two nights without stop? How about three? The world record for a

person staying awake is 11 nights.

Why do we need sleep? We all feel better after a good night‟s sleep, but there are more

important reasons to sleep well. Studies show that the body repairs muscles and replaces cells

during sleep. Researchers also think that the brain regenerates during sleep. A certain

chemical is released when we are awake and our brain is working hard. High levels of this

chemical in the brain are thought to be a signal for the brain to rest. Others think that while

we sleep our brain works to organize our memories, which is why we dream.

What happens when we don‟t get enough sleep? Missing one night of sleep is not normally

bad for us, but can slow us down and make us irritable. Missing two nights can affect our

thinking, and we make more mistakes. It is dangerous to stay awake more than three nights,

when clear thinking becomes impossible and we can start to lose touch with reality. In

laboratory experiments, rats that were forced to stay awake finally die.

1. What does the underlined word “irritable” in the 3rd

paragraph mean?

1. happy 2. relaxed 3. angry 4. interested

3. Which of the following statements is not true according to the passage?

1. Muscles are repaired by the body during sleep.

2. Missing one night of sleep is not normally bad.

3. During sleep, the brain regenerates.

4. While we sleep, our brain relaxes and stops to work.

4. Why does the writer mention the experiment of rats?

1. To show to the people the terrible result of not getting enough sleep.

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2. To show that the sleep of the people is completely different from that of the rats.

3. To show that rats are experiencing staying awake.

4. To show that rats can sleep better than us

5. Which of the following is the best title for the passage?

1. Staying Awake 2. Why do people sleep?

3. How to sleep well? 4. Studies on sleeping

The Effect of Teacher's Reading Aloud on Iranian EFL Learners' Reading Comprehension

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