The Critical Impact of Muslim Communities in Northern Britain

in 2001

Introduction:

This thesis will provide an outlook assessing the critical

impact of what the riots had in Northern Britain during 2001.

This introduction will not only explain the basis of the riots

of 2001, but also engage in the critical moments that occurred

during this troubled time for the Muslim community globally,

including aspects of 9/11 and the build-up of distress that

led to the outbreaks of racial riots in Bradford, Oldham and

Burnley. This dissertation is not just of interest

academically but also personally, as a British Muslim from a

multi-ethnic background I feel that personally there are many

contributions as to why these race riots happened from both

racial, religious, political and social reasons. Firstly I

will start will discussing 9/11 for the basis of the context

to engage with the Islamic morality at the time. According to

Theodore Gabriel, “the perception has been gaining ground for

some time now that Islam is against the western world and has

intensified since the incidents of 9/11. This is probably

mainly a view from the western intervention in the Gulf in

1990, the recent confrontation in Afghanistan, and the present

Iraqi crisis.”1 From here we can start to see the basis of the

“Muslim crisis” that was apparent globally through, war,

conflict, and there almost being a fear of Islam throughout

the world. There are many reasons why people suggest 9/11 1 Ron Geaves, Theodore Gabriel, Yvonne Haddad, Jane Idleman Smith, Islam & The West Post 9/11, (Aldershot England, Ashgate Publishing, 2004) p.13

1

happened however the impact of the terror attacks were

tremendous especially on the Muslim identity in Britain. 9/11

happened on the 9th of September 2001, and is still one of the

major critical points of time for the British Muslim and non-

Muslim society. “The Uk contains one of the most diverse

Muslim communities in Europe. It was the eighteenth century

that the first Muslims began to form communities were formed

in areas of the major port cities such as Liverpool, Newcastle

and London.”2 Furthermore, “two significant communities were

formed in Woking and Liverpool with a number of converts

playing and important role.”3 What is interesting is that the

migration of Muslims into Britain really came apparent after

the Second World War, a key reason being, “post-war economy in

Britain needed labour. Additionally, in recently decolonised

regions of the world, economic and educational conditions were

not satisfactory.”4 Which led to, “push-pull effect which over

two decades brought a significant number of Muslims to the Uk,

mainly from the rural areas of Pakistan and Bangladesh,

invited to participate in migration as a result of their

historic relationship through Britain colonisation and now

part of the new commonwealth.”5 This was just the beginning of

the Muslims growth that spread right across the UK, however

this thesis is looking mainly at the impact of Muslim

communities in the Northern part of Britain. For example, 2 Ron Geaves, Theodore Gabriel, Yvonne Haddad, Jane Idleman Smith, Islam & The West Post 9/11, (Aldershot England, Ashgate Publishing, 2004) p.1163 Ron Geaves, Theodore Gabriel, Yvonne Haddad, Jane Idleman Smith, Islam & The West Post 9/11, (Aldershot England, Ashgate Publishing, 2004) p.1164 Ron Geaves, Theodore Gabriel, Yvonne Haddad, Jane Idleman Smith, Islam & The West Post 9/11, (Aldershot England, Ashgate Publishing, 2004) p.1165 Ron Geaves, Theodore Gabriel, Yvonne Haddad, Jane Idleman Smith, Islam & The West Post 9/11, (Aldershot England, Ashgate Publishing, 2004) p.116

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according to Dilwar Hussein, “the largest Muslim communities

have been formed around the old industrial cities and nearly

half the Muslims are located within this area.”6 Below there is

a table given to show how many Muslims were in particular

Muslim areas at the time during 2001 which was taken from the

consensus at the time.7

Cities Amount of

Muslims in this

areaLondon 607,000Birmingham 140,000Greater

Manchester

125,000

Bradford 75,000Kirklees 39,000

2001 was an interesting time for Muslims with both the riots

and 9/11 happening at the time, which in end effected Muslim

identity as a whole throughout Britain. “Only time will tell

how serious and consequential an occasion 9/22 will be in the

vast expanse of human history.”8 However using 9/11 as a

critical moment engages with the idea of Muslim’s loss of

identity and loss of self-due to these moments. We saw the

notion of identity “that it is relational, it operates not in

6 Ron Geaves, Theodore Gabriel, Yvonne Haddad, Jane Idleman Smith, Islam & The West Post 9/11, (Aldershot England, Ashgate Publishing, 2004) p.1187 Ron Geaves, Theodore Gabriel, Yvonne Haddad, Jane Idleman Smith, Islam & The West Post 9/11, (Aldershot England, Ashgate Publishing, 2004) p.1188 Ron Geaves, Theodore Gabriel, Yvonne Haddad, Jane Idleman Smith, Islam & The West Post 9/11, (Aldershot England, Ashgate Publishing, 2004) p.125

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isolation but in context and 9/11 has radically influenced the

context for British Muslims. British Muslims have been

detained in Guantanamo bay, British Muslims have been arrested

on suspicion of terrorism, mosques and homes have been raided,

and some have pointed to London as the hub of Islamic

terrorism.”9 The fact that Muslims at this time were seen as

terrorists, were getting stopped and searched, been made to

feel inferior, beneath the rest of the community, a place

where they called home to feel as if they were trespassing

would make anyone lose their sense of self, who they are and

what were they doing in a country that they were being told

didn’t belong to. However, “the Muslim Council of Britain

issued a press statement condemning the attacks on 9/11 three

hours after the incident and then held a press conference two

days later gathering a large number of Muslim leaders to a

similar statement.”10 According to Dilwar Hussein, “countless

other Muslim institutions through websites, emails, press,

statements, talks, study circles, leaflets, etc. all condemned

the attacks. Despite this, hate mail, offensive phone calls,

arson attacks on mosques and attacks on individuals, thought

to be Muslim began to occur at an alarming rate.”11 This then

led to the term “Islamaphobia” being polarised in 1997 by the

Runnymede trust,12 an interesting fact about the concept of

9 Ron Geaves, Theodore Gabriel, Yvonne Haddad, Jane Idleman Smith, Islam & The West Post 9/11, (Aldershot England, Ashgate Publishing, 2004) p12510 Ron Geaves, Theodore Gabriel, Yvonne Haddad, Jane Idleman Smith, Islam & The West Post 9/11, (Aldershot England, Ashgate Publishing, 2004) p.12511 Ron Geaves, Theodore Gabriel, Yvonne Haddad, Jane Idleman Smith, Islam & The West Post 9/11, (Aldershot England, Ashgate Publishing, 2004) p.12512 Ron Geaves, Theodore Gabriel, Yvonne Haddad, Jane Idleman Smith, Islam & The West Post 9/11, (Aldershot England, Ashgate Publishing, 2004) p.126

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Islamaphobia that occurred was that according to Christian

Allen,

Just days before the attacks on 9/11 an event occurred that has since been lost in the fog of urgent history andthe rhetoric of hyperbolic overstatement: the UN’s formalrecognition of Islamaphobia, there by establishing anti-Muslim prejudice, discrimination, and hatred and placing it alongside other equally discriminatory and exclusionary phenomenon such as anti-Semitism and anti-Roma.13

The reason this is interesting in my research is because by

identifying Islamaphobia in the context of my thesis is vital

for the idea of understanding the lack of identity of the

British Muslims throughout 2001. Furthermore, “In reflecting

the wider European landscape, Muslim communities are the

second largest faith in Britain as well the most visually

recognisable, for traditional Islamic attire is readily

recognisable in most towns and cities.”14 At the time of the

Census in 2001, the UK’s Muslim population numbered 1,591,126,

a total of 2.7 percent of the population. Thus, Muslims were

the second largest religious population after Christians. This

as stated above can be seen as the demoralisation of the

Islamic faith and community, however there could be on the

other hand an interest into bringing times of hardship

together and uniting as in Arabic one would say Ummah, meaning

one brotherhood. Throughout this thesis I will attempt to

engage into the aspect of not only highlighting what happened

in 2001 as being a negative impact towards Muslims but also

13 Christopher Allen, Justifying Islamaphobia: A Post 9/11 Consideration of European Union and British Contexts, (Birmingham: University of Birmingham, 2004) p. 114 Office of National Statistics website at www.statistics.gov.uk.

5

showing evidence that even though it was a bad thing that

happened it brought people from the Islamic faith closer

together to join forces and help fight off discrimination,

racism, hatred and finally engage in how such a phenomenon

effected British Muslims focusing mainly on the Northern Part

of Britain and the build-up to the riots.

i) The start of the riots

This section will provide an outlook of the riots during the

summer of 2001, it will engage responses from Oldham, Burnley

and Bradford, however before focusing primarily on the riots

there will be an overview provided concentrating on the three

localities where the riots took place and then attention drawn

back to the South Asian population. This will then attempt to

draw a comparison with the African-Caribbean communities

during 1958 and finally engage in how this has played the

central role in the context of the 2001 riots and how we now

understand British society post riots. And finally engaging in

the different political parties involved at the time that some

would say “provoked” such outbursts during the summer of 2001.

“The ethnic compositions of the three northern towns where the

main riots took place in 2001 have similar yet distinct

histories.”15 They share this past similarity to a changeable

degree with other former textile towns in the North of England

where the riots did not occur in 2001, so there is little

explanation as to why the riots happened in these particular

15 Paul Bagguley and Yasmin Hussain, Riotous Citizens: Ethnic Conflict in Multicultural Britain, (Hampshire: Ashgate Publishing, 2008) p.39

6

areas and not the others.16 According to Hussain and Bagguley,

“Bradford stands out as having a substantial minority of

Pakistani origin at 14.5%, whilst Burnley, Oldham and at 4.9%

and 6.3%, showing much smaller Pakistani communities as a

proportion of their populations according to the office of

National Statistics in 2001.”17 Below is a table from the

British Muslim Council showing the Muslim population in

Britain, which I feel is really important to truly get a

picture of how the Muslim community was spread out during

2001.18

  Source Findings

1 Office for National Statisticshttp://www.statistics.gov.uk General Register Office, Scotlandhttp://www.gro-scotland.gov.uk

The Muslim population ofEngland & Wales is 1.54 million. The Muslim

Population of Scotland is about 40,000.

Total Muslim population 1.6 million.

The Local Authority Districts with the highest Muslim populations are:

Tower Hamlets - 71,000 (36% of population))

Newham - 59,000 (24%) Blackburn - 27,000 (19%) Bradford - 75,000 (16%) Waltham Forest - 33,000

(15%) Luton - 27,000 (15%) Birmingham - 140,000

(14%) Hackney - 28,000 (14%) Pendle - 12,000 (13%) Slough - 16,000 (13%) Brent - 32,000 (12%) Redbridge - 29,000 (12%)

16 Paul Bagguley and Yasmin Hussain, Riotous Citizens: Ethnic Conflict in Multicultural Britain, (Hampshire: Ashgate Publishing, 2008) p.3917 Paul Bagguley and Yasmin Hussain, Riotous Citizens: Ethnic Conflict in Multicultural Britain, (Hampshire: Ashgate Publishing, 2008) p.4018http://www.mcb.org.uk/libarary/statistics.php

7

Westminster - 21,000 (12%)

Camden - 23,000 (12%) Haringey - 24,000 (11%)

2 The Guardian, June 17, 2002, �British Muslims� series - A map of Muslim Britain

Muslim population 1.8 million (3% of total British population)

The Muslim population ofLondon � 1 million (total 7.2 million); Birmingham - 150,000 (1 million) � this includes the world's biggest expatriate Kashmiri population

Scotland 60,000 (33,000 in Glasgow); Wales 50,000; N. Ireland 4000

3 The Financial Times, January 23, 2002, quoting Professor M Anwar, head of the Centre for Research in Ethnic Relations, University of Warwick

1.8 million British Muslims

About 10,000 British Muslims are Afro-Caribbean or white reverts

4 Analysis commissioned by the Muslim Council of Britain in 2001 - based on analysis of the 1999 electoral roll using800 'standard' Muslim first name and surname combinations.

340,000 households. The 1991 Census suggests thePakistani/Bangladeshi household is 4.9 (Table 8.3, �Household & family structure among ethnic minority groups�, by M. Murphy, in �Ethnicity in the 1991 Census, Vol. 1, HMSO, 1996) � so total population of 1.7 million.

5 The Runnymede Trust, �Islamaphobia � a challenge for us all�, 1997

1.5 million Muslims: Pakistani origin 610,000; Bangladeshi 200,000; Indian 160,000;Arab and African 350,000; others 180,000

6 Population Trends, Autumn 2001, ONS: 'The Ethnicity data:

8

sizes and characteristics of ethnic populations of Great Britain - latest estimates'

Pakistani origin - 675,000; Bangladeshi - 257,000 Indian origin - 984,000- say 30% Muslim - total South Asian Muslim population estimate:1.2 million

7 London Chamber of Commerce report - December 2001

249,872 Pakistani and Bangladeshi live in Greater London area.

There are about 150,000 Turks in the UK, of whom90% in London

8 The Changing Geography of South Asians inBradford' Dr. Deborah Phillips, University of Leeds, 2001 http://www.bradford2020.com/

The 1991 Census indicated that Bradford's South Asian population numbered about 65,450 making up 14 per cent of the city's total population.48,900 of these were of Pakistani/Kashmiri origin. This representedthe second highest concentration of people of Pakistani origin in Britain.

The latest estimates (from Bradford MDC) indicate that the South Asian population has grown considerably over the last decade to 94,250 and that people of Pakistani/Kashmiri origin number about 73,900. The South Asian population therefore nowrepresents about 19 per cent of the total population of Bradford.

However, the year 2001 was a year to remember for the British

people, not only for the devastating events of 9/11 in

America, but also, “for the worst outbreak of urban violence

since the 1980’s, these were the riots in Bradford, Burnley

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and Oldham in May, June and July 2001. Involving South Asian

Men of either Bangladeshi or Pakistani origin in responses to

the neo-fascist British National Party (BNP).”19 During the

summer of 2001, the riots caused much distress and pain

towards the Muslim communities of the Mill town areas, even

though provoked by Right-Wing political groups, it caused

South Asian men to clash with the police, emphasising the

great dissatisfaction and discontent felt within the Muslim

community.20 Migration had always been a big reason for why

people felt threatened in Britain. The reason why people felt

threatened was because people after the war, were not used to

any more change, they didn’t want adjustment, hence why people

then became “racist” towards different ethnicities, for

example.

In the British West Indies the cost of living had nearly doubled during the war. Unemployment, social dislocation and poverty were widespread. Migration to the United Kingdom, where there were employment opportunities that failed to attract British born workers, was a strategy imposed largely by necessity.21

So after the war, Britain’s business started up again and due

to lack of British born workers wanting to be employed for

industries such as the National Health Service, and

Transportation, led to new arrivals from Trinidad, Barbados

and Jamaica.22 Then during 1958 the first of the racist attacks

19 Tahir Abbas, Muslim Britain: Communities Under Pressure, (London: Zed Books LTD, 2005) p. 20820 Humayun Ansari, The Infidel Within: Muslims In Britain since 1800, (London: C.Hurst & Co Publishers LTD, 2004) p.38921 Minority rights Group International, World Dictionary of Minorities, http://www.minorityrights.org/?lid=5417&tmpl=printpage, Accessed 16th March 2013 22 Minority rights Group International, World Dictionary of Minorities, http://www.minorityrights.org/?lid=5417&tmpl=printpage, Accessed 16th March 2013

10

towards the Caribbean community took place in Notting Hill

area of London which then eventually followed by the community

creating Notting hill Carnival to overcome such attacks.23

There is much similarity to the racist attacks towards the

Caribbean community during 1958, and the South Asian

population of the industry towns of 2001. My study of the

riots through secondary sources found that, “the

misrepresentation disadvantage and discrimination experience

by Muslims in late-twentieth-century Britain existed long

before the well-published events of 2001.”24 Islam has indeed

been viewed as resistant, homogenous and immune to the,

“process of economic, social, ideological and political change

and has long obscured the complexities of historical

experience of Muslims in difference societies.”25

ii) Social impact of 2001 riot

Through this part of section one, I will attempt to engage my

attention to the social issues that impacted the South Asian

population of Oldham, Bradford and Burnley using sociological

understanding of the underclass, social cohesion,

disenchantment, poverty, segregation, loss of morality and

finally the idea of parallel communities. Through these many

ideas, it will help participate and focus the problems that

were happening before the riots of 2001, however highlighted

after the initial event. According to James Rode, “the riots

23 Minority rights Group International, World Dictionary of Minorities, http://www.minorityrights.org/?lid=5417&tmpl=printpage, Accessed 16th March 201324 Humayun Ansari, The Infidel Within: Muslims In Britain since 1800, (London: C.Hurst & Co Publishers LTD, 2004) p.38925 Humayun Ansari, The Infidel Within: Muslims In Britain since 1800, (London: C.Hurst & Co Publishers LTD, 2004) p.389

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were always a highly contested set of events and

interpretations attempted to impose a form of coherency which

belies the complexity and contingency of the happenings.”26

Before the riots occurred during 2001, the aspect of racism

and creating a more multi-cultural Britain was always on the

cards. The Commission on the future of Multi-Ethnic Britain

was set up in January 199827, just two years before the

Northern riots of 2001. “This was an independent think tank

devoted to the cause of promoting racial justice in Britain.”28

From a response from the Commission of 1998, “The government

has stated that it is committed ‘to creating One Nation’, a

country where ‘every colour is a good colour … every member of

every part of society is able to fulfil their potential ...

racism is unacceptable and counteracted … everyone is treated

according to their needs and rights... everyone recognises

their responsibilities … racial diversity is celebrated.”29

From here the most theoretical debates on these questions and

responses have been between what we call nationalist and

liberal theories of society. However the Commission report

26 Karla V Rodes, Local events National implications: the Burnley and Oldhamriots, rioting in the Uk and France: a comparative analysis, p41-5527 Bhikhu Parekh, The Report of Commission on the Future of Multi-Ethnic Britain, RunnymedeTrust, October 11th 2000, p.1 http://www.runnymedetrust.org/reportIntroduction.html, Accessed 24th march 2014 28 Bhikhu Parekh, The Report of Commission on the Future of Multi-Ethnic Britain, RunnymedeTrust, October 11th 2000, p.4 http://www.runnymedetrust.org/reportIntroduction.html, Accessed 24th march 2014

29 Bhikhu Parekh, The Report of Commission on the Future of Multi-Ethnic Britain, Runnymede Trust, October 11th 2000, p.4 http://www.runnymedetrust.org/reportIntroduction.html, Accessed 24th march 2014

12

contends that the need now is for debates to be between the

liberal and pluralist theories. Britain should develop both as

a community of citizens (Liberal view) but also as a community

of communities (the pluralist view).

Furthermore the next idea which is relevant specifically to

the Mill town riots was the notion of the “underclass”. The

underclass was a sociological idea that had always been

present, however the underclass was revived again during the

1980’s the USA. The concept was then imported into Britain in

the late 1980’s and was widely publicised through the Sunday

Times Magazine.30 The underclass in relation to the 2001 riots

are very much relevant, for example, the underclass focuses on

different factors not just on the typical person living in

poverty. The definition of the underclass according to Charles

Murray is a range of different developing factors. “The

chaotic and convulsive character of the August unrest, its

huge distant from what could be normatively called a

proletarian struggle, the impossibility for it to fit in a

longed-for movement for the working class empowerment,

provoked a certain nostalgia for the early 80’s.”31 This

statement about struggle and the reason for revolt is just one

of the many reasons as to why the riots could have occurred

during the summer of 2001.

30 Charles Murray, Charles Murray and the Underclass: The Developing Debate, (London: IEAHealth and Welfare Unit in association with The Sunday Times, 1996) p.131 The Feral Underclass Hits the Streets: On the English Riots and other ordeals, http://sic.communisation.net/en/the-feral-underclass-hits-the-streets, Accessed 17th March 2014

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Another reason why the riots could have happened was through a

lack of social cohesion. Social cohesion is also referred to

as “the glue that maintains the stability in society.”32 Some

of the key points of the concept social cohesion requires are

that within mechanical solidarity social cohesion and

integration comes from the homogeneity of individuals: people

who feel connected through similar work, educational and

religious training to name a few. Finally the two types of

solidarity can be distinguished by morphological and

demographic features, types of norms in existence, and the

intensity and content of the conscious collective. While

competing interpretations continue to be acknowledged, however

there were dominant responses of 2001 that did emerge for

example, “The dominate representation of the 2001 riots has

come to focus on the perceived lack of social cohesion that

apparently self-segregating South Asian communities possessed

through their supposed cultural otherness and failure to

adhere to the dominant values of British society.” 33

furthermore the Cantle report stated, “Many of the present

problems seem to owe a great deal to the failure to

communicate and agree a set of clear values that can govern

behaviour. This failure is evident at both the national and

local levels, and it has led to community break down in some

parts of the country.”34 The idea of social cohesion is one of

the main reasons I feel that the South Asian population of 32 Nicholas Abercrombie, Stephen Hill and Bryan S. Turner, The Penguin Dictionary of Sociology Forth edition, (England: Penguin Group, 2000) p.32033 Lord Denam, Building Cohesive Communities: A Report of the Ministerial Group on Public Order and Community Cohesion, (London: Home Office, 2002) 34 Ted Cantle, Community Cohesion: A Report on the independent review team, (London: HomeOffice, 2001) p.18

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Bradford, Oldham and Burnley felt disillusion and disconnected

with the British society. The fact that society had

stigmatised them with the lower paid jobs, lower class and

also statistically had been shown as having a lower

educational ability, made them an easy target through the

distress of 2001. According to the 2001 consensus, “Pakistanis

are located outside London, (80%) in the Midlands, West

Yorkshire and North-Western towns and cities.”35 Following

Rowntree’s investigation, “The nature of population growth

since 2001 has fed into a debate about segregation, what the

figures show that since 1991-2001 the demographic shifted: the

growth in the white population was smaller than that recorded

among ethnic minority population.”36

As stated above there are a number of reasons why the South

Asian community rioted during 2001, and one important factor

was the concept of parallel communities. Parallel communities

was an idea introduced by again Ted Cantle stating, “The

concept of parallel lives was established in the report of the

Community Cohesion Review Team, which examined the causes of

the race riots in Northern towns in England in 2001.”37 The

term “parallel lives” was intentionally chosen to stress that

the two principal communities both the White and Asian

communities were the main concentration of the Cantle report

35 Steve Garner and Gargi Bhattacharyya, Poverty, Ethnic and Place, (United Kingdom: Joseph Rowntree Foundation, 2011) p.636 Steve Garner and Gargi Bhattacharyya, Poverty, Ethnic and Place, (United Kingdom: Joseph Rowntree Foundation, 2011) p.837 Ted Cantle, Community Cohesion: A Report on the independent review team, (London: HomeOffice, 2001) p.1-2

15

and had no contact and had developed separately.38 The main

reason of the development of the idea of parallel lives was to

actually highlight that even though both communities lived in

the same residential area both parallel lives did not meet at

any point, which showed that they were only apparent when

supported by separate social, cultural, education and

employment patterns.39 According to Ash Amin, “The study

focuses on the problem of inter-faith intolerance and conflict

in urban contexts where mixture has failed to produce social

cohesion and cultural interchange.”40 Furthermore the

ethnographic research on areas marked as “racial agnosticism”

has seemed to be identified with two types of neighbourhood.

The first is seen to be as typically old white working class

area in which “a successive wave of non-white immigrant

settlement had coupled which continued the socio-economic

deprivation and cultural or physical isolation.”41 Secondly the

other neighbourhood as Ash Amin stated was called the “White

Flight.” This neighbourhood included Aspiring working class

people who moved to the suburbs for Britain to create a better

life and escape the vicious cycle of poverty and deprivation

that was highly emphasised in neighbourhood one. Moving on to

the unrest of 2001, this exemplifies the processes of

38 Ted Cantle, Community Cohesion: A Report on the independent review team, (London: HomeOffice, 2001) p.2

39 Ted Cantle, Community Cohesion: A Report on the independent review team, (London: HomeOffice, 2001) p.2

40 Ash Amin, Ethnicity and Multicultural city Living with Diversity, (Durham: University of Durham, 2002) p.2 41 Ash Amin, Ethnicity and Multicultural city Living with Diversity, (Durham: University of Durham, 2002) p.3

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neighbourhood one according to Amin, however it also shows the

fear and agnosticism characteristic of neighbourhood two. The

main reason to focus attention on this was to draw awareness

to the underlying causes of the riots in 2001. Over the years

there have been many triggers of urban clashes and conflicts

between various ethnic groups, in the case of the 2001

disturbances which was graphically described as,

The fire that burned across Lancashire and Yorkshire through the summer of 2001 signalled rage of young Pakistani youths and Bangladeshis of the second and thirdgenerations, deprived of futures, hemmed in on all sides by racism, failed by their own leaders and representatives and unwilling to stand by as, first, fascists, then police officers, invaded their streets. Itwas the violence of communities fragmented by colour lines, class lines, and police lines. It was the violenceof the hopelessness. It was the violence of the violated.42

Through this ideas of segregation became apparent through the

South Asian population and the. “White communities in

Bradford, Oldham and Burnley. The urban disturbances in

Bradford Oldham and Burnley in 2001 served to underline the

contested meaning of black minority ethnic residential

segregation in Britain.”43 According to Ludi Simpson, a

Professor of Population Studies at the University of

Manchester, “there is no doubt that settlement patterns at any

point in time can be described numerically as racially

segregated. Populations categorised by race or ethnic group 42 Ash Amin, Ethnicity and Multicultural city Living with Diversity, (Durham: University of Durham, 2002) p.4

43 Deborah Phillips, Parallel Lives? Challenging discourses of British Muslim Self-Segregation, (United Kingdom, Space and Society, 2004) p.4 http://www.envplan.com/abstract.cgi?id=d60j

17

are found to be very far from equally or randomly

distributed.”44 The idea of immigrants coming and settling in

the United Kingdom was to escape the problems of poverty, war

and create a better life for them and their families. However

the riots were the initial indication as to when immigrants,

specifically from the South Asian communities in the North of

Britain, had come the animosity it had created between the

white and south Asian community. The problems they faced were

they were the population who had the lower paid jobs, didn’t

have much on educational skills, and were finally made to feel

not wanted, hated, and ghettoized from their community. So

when the riots did happen, the really of not belonging was a

major part to the feeling among the community, that is why

second and third generations of Pakistani and Bengali people

rose up and attacked back to make a point that they could not

be stigmatised out of the wider society.

Section 2

Outcomes: effects of the riots

Through this section I will now discuss the effects of the

2001 riots in Bradford Burnley and Oldham using newspaper

articles from the Times, BBC new reports, The Guardian, The

Telegraph and Argus, Manchester Evening news and the

Lancashire Telegraph. I will attempt to analyse the impact the

riots had on Islam and how it ended up being portrayed in the

wider society, understand the impact of 9/11 post 2001

Northern Riots, and critically engage with the rise of

44 Ludi Simpson, Statistics of racial segregation: Measures, Evidence and Policy, (Manchester:University of Manchester, 2003) p. 3

18

Radical Fundamentalism in the United Kingdom. Next, understand

the idea of the increase of secularisation of Islam in society

post riots, and finally understand how the riots effected the

communities involved such as Oldham, Bradford and Burnley, and

the new legislation brought to help the South Asian community

feel less segregated and more involved within their

communities.

The riots were an interesting phenomena that caused people to

understand that there was a problem in society. In Bradford

for example, there was a lot of violence and conflict,

according to The Guardian, “Racial violence erupted on the

street of Bradford as hundreds of Asian youth fought white

extremists and police in some of the world rioting yet seen in

a summer of disturbances in northern towns and cities. Two

people were stabbed and three seriously injured after a

protest march against the National front turned violent.”45 The

result to such event involved South Asian Men of either

Bangladeshi or Pakistani origin in responses to the neo-

fascist British National Party (BNP).”46 The BNP is the British

National Party, which is a far right political party that

operates throughout the United Kingdom. “It was formed in 1982

from the remnants of the old national Front.”47 However,

according to the organisation, Hope not hate, they state that,

“When the party was first led by former John Tyndall (1982-

45 Paul Harris, The Guardian- The Observer, Race Riots ignite Bradford, Sunday 8th July 2001 http://www.theguardian.com/politics/2001/jul/08/uk.race, 46 Tahir Abbas, Muslim Britain: Communities Under Pressure, (London: Zed Books LTD, 2005) p. 20847 http://www.hopenothate.org.uk/the-real-bnp/

19

1999), it was easily identified with Nazism through its

extreme and provocative activities, associations and

publications as well as its active denial of the facts of the

holocaust.”48 So during the riots of 2001, “ethnic minority

communities in all the areas where violence erupted have had

their lives marked by ongoing, mundane and persistent

racism.”49 According to the Daily Telegraph an article

published on May 29th 2001, stated, “Right-Wing extremists were

accused of whipping up racial tension which accumulated in

Britain’s worst ethnic violence for more than 15years.”50

Agreeing with the distressful problems of the riots, the Chief

correspondence of the Oldham police gave a statement stating;

“there is no doubt the presence of the NF and BNP in recent

weeks would seem deliberate ploy to exploit our racial

situation and it has since struck a chord of fear among our

communities not just the Asian population.”51

The effects of such distress sociologically can be seen post

the riots of 2001. For example, some could suggest being

stigmatised for so long created young British Muslims to rebel

against society hence why there was a growth of fundamentalism

in the past 10 years. For Example “terrorist” attacks can be

seen with the London underground bombings on 7/7. According to

the Great London Authority, “the terrorist attacks on 7th July 48 http://www.hopenothate.org.uk/the-real-bnp/49 Paul Bagguley and Yasmin Hussain, The Bradford Riot of 2001: a preliminary analysis, (Leeds: University of Leeds, April 2003) p.150 Paul Stokes, ‘White extremists blamed for race riots’, The Telegraph May 29th 2001, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1332047/White-extremists-blamed-for-race-riots.html, Accessed 15th March 2014 51 Paul Stokes, ‘White extremists blamed for race riots’, The Telegraph May 29th 2001, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1332047/White-extremists-blamed-for-race-riots.html, Accessed 15th March 2014

20

2005 tested the London Resilience Partnership plans to the

limit, as four suicide bombers killed 52 passengers and

injured early 800 on the city’s transport network.”52 According

to Dr. Quintan Wiktorowicz, who was at the centre of the

controversy at the time of the London Terrorist attacks to

resolve Muslim and UK issues, stated in his book, Radical

Rising Islam: Muslim Extremism in the West, “Studies that

detail the demographic profile of Islamic activists indicate

that recruiters frequently come from particular socioeconomic

and educational backgrounds, but not everyone from that shared

backgrounds chose to join.”53 Another interesting concept that

occurred is the, “in 1991, one in nine Bradford residents was

Muslims; 9.5% of the Bradford electorate came from the Indian

Subcontinents. The Muslim population is concentrated in the

inner-city districts.” This gives a brief overview as to how

Bradford was like ten years before the riots in 2001.

According to the London School of Economics and Politics,

“Previous incidents of serious civil disorder in English such

as the Oldham, Bradford and Burnley riots in 2001, led to

government-commissioned inquiries and reviews.”54

Why the riots happened

52 Greater London Authority,http://www.london.gov.uk/mayor-assembly/mayor/london-resilience/preparing-london/previous-incidents/7-july-bombings, Accessed 31st March 201453 Quintan Wiktorowicz, Radical Islam Rising: Muslims Extremism in the West, (United States of American: Rowman & Littlefeild Publishers, INC, 2005) p.1254 The London School of Economics and Political Science, ‘Reading the riots study to examine causes and effects of August Disturbances’, http://www.lse.ac.uk/newsAndMedia/news/archives/2011/09/riots.aspx, Accessed 7th April 2014

21

The effects of the riots were rather prominent throughout

society, and the impact of 9/11 did not help the Islamic

“crisis” that had implicated the situation. Firstly one of the

most critical impacts that has been seen is the impact of

Fundamentalism. The problem of fundamentalism has been

apparent throughout history, however after the riots in 2001,

fundamentalism was at its peak. An example of Islamic

fundamentalism was the attacks on the London underground in

2007. The bombings of 2007 are important to understand the

build up to why it had happened. People commit suicide

bombings for a several of reasons, and one of them is if they

feel their religion is being threatened. Feeling threatened in

society is one of the reasons people commit the crimes, they

do it to protect them and their beliefs. Going back to the

impact of the riots, there were rumours according to Yasmin

Hussain stating, “The Braford riots were over the weekend of

7th-8th July was reputedly the worst on mainland Britain for

twenty years. On the night of the 9th July there was a riot

involving 200 whites in Bradford. An Indian takeaway and a

pizza takeaway also own by a south Asian family were

attacked.”55 Taking this example into consideration shows how

society viewed and portrayed the Muslim communities during the

time of the riots. The British communities have had a diverse

ethnic name as to where they have coincided with one another.

However when categorising all British into one place can cause

conflicts with other races. For example, “Due to the very

diverse nature of the British Muslim presence is it difficult

55 Paul Bagguley and Yasmin Hussain, The Bradford riot of 2001: Preliminary analysis, (United Kingdom: University of Leeds, 2003) p.3

22

to always talk of single entity where so much difference

exists in terms of first language, political allegiance,

religious sub-domination etc.”56 The idea of British

Fundamentalism has become more apparent throughout society

since 2001. According to an Article by Sundas Ali, she stated

that there has been a “crescendo culminating in talks of clash

of civilizations between Islam and the West. Suddenly what was

for many a parallel world became something to discover.”57 The

problem with the attacks on the London underground on the 7th

July 2005 (7/7) elevated comparable concerns in Britain. The

fact that the attacks had happened, showed that there were

raised tensions already. There was a build up to all the

radicalisation of British Muslims through society, and

evidence of that was through the 7/7 attacks in 2005.

Another impact that occurred after the riots of 2001 was the

lack of Morality within the British Muslim communities. There

had been a rise of “segregated lives” and neighbourhoods of

people of the South Asian origin. An analysis of media

coverage at the time indicated that questions of minority

ethnic self-segregation, white flight, and radicalised

territories. According to D.Phillips, there was indication

that, “the spotlight was on the Pakistani and Bangladeshi in

the northern textile towns in Britain.”58 This then showed the

impact of them being portrayed as poor and backwards compared

56 Ron Geaves, Islam and The West Post 9/11, (England: Ashgate Publishing, 2004) p.11557 Sundas Ali, Second and Third Generations in Britain: A Socially excluded Group? Identities, Integration and community cohesion, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008) p. 258 Deborah Phillips, Parallel lives? Challenging discourses of British Muslim self-segregation, (Leeds: University of Leeds, 2006) p.4-5

23

with the British Muslims of the south of Britain, which then

led to them feeling socially isolated and segregated from

society, which then provoke the feeling of lack of morality

through the Muslim communities in Northern Britain.

However, it could be seen that after the riots of 2001, the

9/11 attacks and the attacks in 7/7 that there was Islamic

secularisation and a fear of the unknown, for example, in

Oldham which was one of the worst hit area took place

throughout the neighbouring area too such as Chadderton,

Glodwick, Coppice and Westwood. Oldham was an area where, 11%

make up the Asian population which included Pakistani,

Bangladeshi and Indian heritage, the actual rate of mixed race

marriages was less than 1% and there was no mixing between

cultures for example, primary and secondary schools were

either 99% Asian or 99% white there was no integration, which

then created segregation which then led to the feeling of less

religiosity in society.59 One of the problems with these sort

of areas is the fact that people from these backgrounds mix

culture and religion meaning the same thing, which in fact is

incorrect. A big example can be see with the idea of wearing

the veil, according to Kate Anderson.

Although Quranic scripture does not declare specific gender roles, Dale Eickelman explores the differences in the socialization of the sexes, primarily how girls must be protected until marriage, feminine status is tied to gender roles. Legislative change does not always become

59 BBC NEWS, http://news.bbc.co.uk/news/vote2001/hi/english/newsid_1355000/1355606.stm Accessed 25.04.2014

24

active change, although it depends on the population and location of the region.60

The reason there has been reference to this aspect of Islamic

tradition is because of the social impact that has been

placed, for example, this is similar to the impact of the

riots that happened in 2001, and how the lack of integration

led to the segregation of races due to social and cultural

reasons rather than religion itself. The concept of

secularisation has been a phenomenon that has been around a

lot during the 20th century. According to the Oxford dictionary

secularisation means, “Not connected with religious or

Spiritual matters.”61 What is important here is to now

understand secularisation as being an impact of what happened

after the riots of 2001. There were many indications as to why

there has been a rise of secularisation in the Muslim

communities, which then showed the reason to why there was a

rise of fundamentalism, like a domino effect. For example,

“Some academics have observed a change within the British

Muslim society that became apparent in the 1980’s. Whereas a

previous generation has pursued ideals of integration, some

young Muslims suddenly wanted to assert their distinctive

character by identifying with the global Ummah of Islam.”62

Furthermore, “it was a community that provided a superior

60 Kate Anderson, Beneath the Veil: a Historiography of Gender and Scripturein Islam, https://www.academia.edu/1371563/Beneath_The_Veil_A_Historiography_of_Gender_and_Scripture_in_Islam, Accessed 25.04.201461 Oxford dictionary, http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/secular, Accessed 25.04.1462 Sundas Ali, Second and Third Generations in Britain: A Socially excluded Group? Identities, Integration and community cohesion, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008) p.5

25

identity to any on offer in Britain. This distancing has been

exacerbated by economic deprivation and compounded by the rise

in the rise in prejudice and Islamaphobia which is both feared

and experience by Muslims, socially and institutionally.”63 The

fact that there was a fear of Muslims, not only because of the

Northern riots but due to 9/11 shortly after created a high

stigmatism against the Muslim community. Islamaphobia is a

fear of Islam, according to the University of California,

Berkeley, “The term Islamaphobia was first introduced as a

concept in 1991 Runnymede and defined as unfounded hostility

towards Muslims, and therefore fear or dislike of all or most

Muslims,”64 After the riots the concept of Islamaphobia became

more apparent according to the Guardian,

Hostility towards Islam permeates every part of British society and will spark further race riots unless urgent action is taken to integrate Muslim youths into society, according to a devastating report. The commission on the British Muslims and Islamaphobia (CBMI), which is chairedby a key government adviser to the Stephen Lawrence inquiry, warns that more and more Muslims feel excluded from society and simmering tensions, especially in northern English Towns, are in danger of boiling over.65

According to the BBC reports by Dominic Casciani, “the

Northern riots were said to be the direct result of racial

tension between the area’s Asian and white communities, the

underlying the factor being social division and poverty.”66

Another encounter of cultural division and confusion for the 63 Sundas Ali, Second and Third Generations in Britain: A Socially excluded Group? Identities, Integration and community cohesion, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008) p.5-664 University of California Berkeley, Islamaphobia, http://crg.berkeley.edu/content/islamophobia/defining-islamophobia, Accessed 25.04.14 65 The Guardian, British hostility to Muslims could trigger riots, by Jamie Doward Sunday 30th May 2004, Accessed 25.04.14

26

second and third generation Muslims was this problem that,

“cultural identity of the Asian youths that cannot be reduced

to the stereotype of traditional Muslim, Hindu, Sikh lives, to

the bad masculinities of gang life, to that all too frequently

repeated idea of their entrapment between two cultures.”67

Likewise, “these are young people who have grown up routinely

mixing Eastern and Western markers of identity, through

language, bodily expression, music and consumer habits, who

are not confused about their identities and values as cultural

hybrids and who, partly because of racial and ethnic labelling

and the rejection that comes with deprivation, have developed

strong affiliations based on kinship and religious ties.”68

According to Ash Amin,

Their frustration and public anger cannot be detached from their identities as a new generation of British Asians claiming in full the right to belong to Oldham or Burnley and the nation, but whose Britishness includes Islam, halal meat, family honour and cultural resources located in diaspora networks. The want more than the ethnic cultural recognition sought by their community leaders in recent years their actions in summer 2001 wereabout claiming the public turf as bona fide British subjects, without qualifications, and freed from the politics of community consensus practised by their so-called representatives.69

The final impacts of the 2001 riots was this idea of Ummah, or

lack of Ummah in society post riots 2001. The term Ummah is an

66 BBC News, 2001 Northern town riots, By Dominic Casciani, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/5032166.stm, Accessed, 25.04.14 67 Ash Amin, Ethnicity and Multicultural city Living with Diversity, (Durham: University of Durham, 2002) p.968Ash Amin, Ethnicity and Multicultural city Living with Diversity, (Durham: University of Durham, 2002) p.9 69 Ash Amin, Ethnicity and Multicultural city Living with Diversity, (Durham: University of Durham, 2002) p.9

27

Arabic word meaning, “brotherhood” essentially however for the

sake of this research we will extend the words to the Ummah of

the Muslim society and engage it within a wider context.

According to the Socialist party Article Published in 2005,

states that, “in the short term, there is no doubt that ethnic

minorities, and particularly Muslims, are suffering the worst

consequences of increased police repression and the new anti-

terror laws. In London for example, from 2001 to 2002 there

was a 41% increase in stop and search against Asians by the

Metropolitan Police and the figures have rocketed again since

7/7.”70 Furthermore, “in addition to increased state

repression, the obvious consequence of both the riots and the

bombings for Muslims in Britain has been an increase in

racism.71 According to the police, race hate crimes are up 600%

from this time last year. At least two people have been

murdered in racist attacks. While the increased racism affects

all ethnic minorities, it is Muslims who feel particularly

targeted.”72 Finally the pressure “being exerted on Muslim

communities by these events has brought to the fore tensions

that have long existed. Questions about which way forward for

Britain’s Muslims are being debated in Muslims communities up

and down the land.”73 From this article it has shown that the

70 Socialism today, Under Siege: Muslims in Britain, http://www.socialismtoday.org/95/muslims.html, Accessed 25.04.1471 Socialism today, Under Siege: Muslims in Britain, http://www.socialismtoday.org/95/muslims.html, Accessed 25.04.14

72 Socialism today, Under Siege: Muslims in Britain, http://www.socialismtoday.org/95/muslims.html, Accessed 25.04.14

73 Socialism today, Under Siege: Muslims in Britain, http://www.socialismtoday.org/95/muslims.html, Accessed 25.04.14

28

Ummah of the community of Muslims through Britain has been

threatened, their strength tested and their motives questioned

by the non-Muslims of the country. This then led conclusions

for Muslims in Britain to consider, “leaving Britain according

to recent Guardian/ICM survey. However this is not a practical

decision since two thirds of Muslims are born in Britain and

are under the age of 25. While there is widespread alienation

from British society, a place where they are discriminated

against both because of their colour and religion,

nonetheless, for many Britain is also the only home they

know.”74 So this shows the reason as to why the Ummah could be

seen as not coinciding with each other, and why the impact of

segregation, and lack of integration, feeling alienated and

finally feeling disenchanted with religion could cause such

animosity among society. However there were some positive

outcomes that developed post riots 2001, for example,

according to the Telegraph and Argus, “Although annual crime

statistics compiled since Bradford’s riots show offending up

almost ten percent, the longer-term picture seems far more

promising.”75

Conclusion:

Throughout this thesis, the emphasis has been to assess the

critical impact of the riots of 2001. The riots were an

74 Socialism today, Under Siege: Muslims in Britain, http://www.socialismtoday.org/95/muslims.html, Accessed 25.04.14

75 Telegraph & Argus, We’re Beating Crime, Wednesday 23rd January 2002, http://www.thetelegraphandargus.co.uk, Accessed 25.04.14

29

interesting phenomenon that as a student of religious studies

will never truly grasp from a religious point of view,

however, sociologically there have been many impacts that have

come out of the riots. For example as stated above, there were

many reasons as to why the riots happened, and why it was

particularly in those areas. It was not only due to the high

ethnic minorities in that region but also because they were

provoked by both the British National Party and the National

Front according to the BBC News reports however others might

suggest that the riots happened due to tension in the

community, segregation and that fact that people had a fear of

Muslims. Also, this idea of Islamaphobia had also brought

around a lot of problems for the Muslim people of Britain, for

example, “the language, terminology, and ideas circulated in

the public domain relating to Muslims did not emerge only from

the political elites. However, as the EUMC Report suggested,

the validity of the anti-Muslim messages that are disseminated

through the media should not be underestimated.”76 Furthermore,

“the contemporary representation of Muslims as largely

monolithic and non-differ entailed groups that stereotypically

embody the same immediacies, differences, and demarcations as

elsewhere, are quite relevant to how contemporary society

views and understands them.”77

However this is not the only conclusion that has arisen from

this thesis, as a Muslim myself I have gained knowledge and

perspective into how difficult it is to be a Muslim in a 76 Christopher Allen, Justifying Islamaphobia: A Post 9/11 Consideration of European Union and British Contexts, (Birmingham: University of Birmingham, 2004) p.1177 Christopher Allen, Justifying Islamaphobia: A Post 9/11 Consideration of European Union and British Contexts, (Birmingham: University of Birmingham, 2004) p.11

30

Western society and how to understand the difference between,

faith and culture and what it is to be too western and lose

your own identity or go the other way and not attempt to fit

into a country that we apparently do not belong to. According

to Olivier Roy, “the reformulation of religiosity in Islam is

mirrored in the other western faiths, but this mirror effect

extents also to institutionalised and community-building.

Islam tends to adapt to laws and traditions of its host

countries, even for its movements that pretend to ignore or

reject westernisation.”78 This idea of westernisation has been

established through many years and many religions however the

focus on Islam is apparent due to the reason of it being the

second biggest faith after Christianity. The fear of losing

the identity of one self plays part in the segregation of

Muslim communities from the wider society. The problem with

the riots was of many but for me through my research gathered

information highlighting certain effects. When the riots

happened, there were many social problems from parallel

communities, segregation, and lack of morality, loss of

identity and fear of change. This idea of change again is

pragmatic, change in the west i.e., Britain shows many ways of

how people from the Muslim faith became scared of moving

forward and forgetting their values, faith and beliefs, the

riots were a racist attack to the Muslim community, because as

a whole people tend to be scared of the unknown, and the

attacks in 9/11 didn’t help the Muslim identity throughout

Britain. “Modern societies produce a heightened sense of the

78 Olivier Roy, Globalised Islam The Search For A New Ummah, (United Kingdom: C. Hurst & Co. Publishers LTD, 2004) p.201

31

individual and the notion of self-identity thus becomes very

important. The daily choices we made vis-à-vis clothing, food,

newspaper, all speak volumes about who we are and send out

images, conscious or sub-conscious, about the type of person

we think we are.”79 Furthermore, “Muslim identity is forged by

the complex interchange of numerous factors, perhaps the most

influential among these being the concept of God and man’s

relationship with God.”80 However, “the Qur’an relates the

story of many messengers, saying that God sent messengers to

their brethren, who were non-Muslims. The prophets addressed

their community as ‘my people’ (Qawmi). Hence there is a

fraternal relationship between the Muslim and his community,

regardless of their belief. The Muslim is one of ‘them’,

‘they’ are part of the Qawm.”81 According to the Qur’an there

is further clarification stating, “O mankind! Behold, we have

created you from a male and female, and have made you notions

and tribes, so that you might come to know one another, Verity

the noblest of you in the sight of God is the one who is most

conscious of him.”82 This conclusion has really helped me

engage in various aspect of my thesis from the identity of the

individual, to the identity of the Muslim communities in

Britain and finally to highlight aspects of religious belief,

sociological interpretation of the riots and as to why they

happened. As a Muslim myself I feel that the lack of identity

79 Ron Geaves, Theodore Gabriel, Yvonne Haddad, Jane Idleman Smith, Islam & The West Post 9/11, (Aldershot England, Ashgate Publishing, 2004) p.12080 Ron Geaves, Theodore Gabriel, Yvonne Haddad, Jane Idleman Smith, Islam & The West Post 9/11, (Aldershot England, Ashgate Publishing, 2004) p.12281 Ron Geaves, Theodore Gabriel, Yvonne Haddad, Jane Idleman Smith, Islam & The West Post 9/11, (Aldershot England, Ashgate Publishing, 2004) p.12382Mohammad Yusef Version Qur’an, 5:55

32

and the fear of changed caused the riots to happen, it was a

volcano about to burst for years and when it happened it was

targeted at the fear of Muslims in the second and third

generations fear of losing the identity of self. I come from a

Multi-faith and ethnic background, my maternal side being

Iranian, and my paternal side being Afghan, and their

religious beliefs again were always very different which made

me choose the type of Muslim I wanted to be, the fear of

becoming too western was a fear personally for my family, the

fact that I can identify myself as being British but I realise

I am not English which for many if a hard dilemma to overcome.

Finding yourself within a western community, to understand we

cannot do everything the ‘English’ do due to cultural and

social pressures has been apparent to me all my life, and

finally the fact that change is hard but is you can accept it

becomes easier to adapt to the ‘western’ way of life. Finally

to conclude “the plurality of cultures and ethnic groups is

acknowledged as a positive factor to enhance human life,

rather than to be a cause of prejudice. The notion of Ummah

which attempts to unify Muslims across the globe does not

negate ones duties to those who are neighbours, fellow

countrymen or part of ones Qawm.”83 “The idea of the concept of

Ummah, as theoretical as it may be, it is to transcend the

bonds of the kinship, language, region and ethnicity.”84 To

conclude the reason for the riots were of many that I have

attempted to engage with above, the reasons where so many the 83 Ron Geaves, Theodore Gabriel, Yvonne Haddad, Jane Idleman Smith, Islam & The West Post 9/11, (Aldershot England, Ashgate Publishing, 2004) p.12484 Ron Geaves, Theodore Gabriel, Yvonne Haddad, Jane Idleman Smith, Islam & The West Post 9/11, (Aldershot England, Ashgate Publishing, 2004) p.124

33

build-up of segregation, morality, fear of Islam, the fear of

the unknown have all been identified above. My understanding

of the riots come from a personal experience as my family were

involved in such outbreaks to save their culture and religion

from the west, to find a place in society and to accept that

they understood times were changing but maybe not the way they

wanted it to be. Change can come in a number of forms which in

end shows in how society has panned out. The fact that there

was a rise in fundamentalism after the riots, and the issue

that the Muslim communities felt that their religion was under

attack and scrutinising circumstances. In end there will never

really be an end to analysing impact of Muslims communities in

the western world but there will always be factors that have

played part in why Muslim communities are the way they are

today.

34

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