Teenage vegetarianism: Beauty or the beast

EISEVIER

Nutrition Research, W. 17, No. 3. pp. 391-404.1997 Copyright 0 1997 Elsevier Science Inc. Printed In the USA. Ail rights resezved

ml-5317/97 $17.00 + .oo

PII SO271-5317(a7)00003-1

TEENAGE VEGETARIANISM: BEAUTY OR THE BEAST?

Anthony Worsley B.Sc(Hons) Ph.Dl* and Grace Skrzypiec B.Sc(Hons) Grad Dip Ed Department of Community Medicine, University of Adelaide

Adelaide, South Australia 5005 PH: +61 8 303 3576 FAX: +61 8 223 4075

ABSTRACT

The aim of this study was to examine the likely cognitive and social ideological influences associated with teenage vegetarianism. Two thousand adolescents (mean age 16 years) took part in a survey conducted in 52 South Australian schools. The data collected from two questionnaires was reduced in complexity by principal components analyses and the resulting factor scores examined via ANOVA which compared female Non-Vegetarians (NV) with Full and Semi Vegetarians (FSV). FSV exhibited more concern for the environment, animal welfare and gender equity than non vegetarians. In addition, and contrary to our initial hypotheses, FSV reported more concern about their appearance, greater use of TV programs for behavioural modelling, and greater prevalence of extreme weight loss behaviours. The findings suggest a possible developmental link between teenage vegetarianism and eating disorders which may be part of female adolescent identity development. copyIight e 1997 Elscvier scimce Inc.

KEY WORDS: Vegetarianism, Social Attitudes, Dieting Behaviours, Survey, Australia

JNTRODUCTION

Vegetarian food patterns are common among adolescents, especially among teenage women (1). However, little is known about the factors which influence their adoption of these habits. Vegetarianism challenges the dominant meat eating culture of the West in a number of ways (2). From a health point of view meat is portrayed as an unhealthy, ‘heavy’ product (eg. high in cholesterol and chemical residues (3). Morally, meat production is perceived as cruel and a negation of animal rights. Ecologically, it is claimed that meat production harms the environment (eg. the clearing of rain forests for animal pastures) and is energy extravagant (cattle consume

?? to whom correspondence should be addressed

391

A. WORSLEY and G. SKRZYPIEC

about one third of the world’s total grain harvest) (3). Finally, meat consumption is believed to compromise spirituality and to arouse ‘animal passions’.

Anglo-American vegetarianism is very much in the egalitarian tradition. (4). It opposes social hierarchies (unequal power relationships) commonly found in mainstream societies between parents and children, husbands and wives. Instead, it promotes equality between humans and between humans and animals. Sims (5) in her comparisons between American vegetarians and non vegetarians found that they differed to varying extents along these themes. More generally, such egalitarianism is characteristic of Anglo societies (6).

Adolescence is a period in which individuals have to balance the need for self expression with the needs of others and those of the wider community (7, 8). This may be accompanied by rebellion against adult behavioural norms and social hierarchies(9).

Vegetarianism, with its anti-establishment leanings, is one of a number of social ideologies which are likely to appeal to some adolescents. Others include environmentalism, egalitarianism and consumerism (exemplified by concern with body appearance and fashion). Some of these ideologies may overlap with each other. For example, some vegetarians are active members of environmental groups (10).

We were able to examine possible relationships between adolescent vegetarian food patterns and their adherence to a number of these social ideologies through a survey of South Australian secondary students. On the basis of the sociological and psychological literature we made the following predictions:

1 Views of Food

Adult vegetarians hold positive attitudes of fruit and vegetables but have negative views of meats (11). So, in addition to having different food patterns, we expected that:

Hypothesis 1 Adolescent vegetarians would hold different views of foods to non-vegetarians, positive views ofj?uit and vegetables and negative views of meats.

2 Dieting Behaviour

Since most dieting behaviour at this age is more common among women than men (13), and appears to be in pursuit of social and fashion goals (‘cosmetic dieting’), we expected that:

Hypothesis 2 Vegetarian women would be less likely to diet in order to lose weight than nonvegetarian women.

3 Appearance Vegetarian philosophies value Nature and the ‘natural’ (11, 12) and generally down play vanity, fashion and the general trappings of mainstream society. Therefore:

TEENAGE VEGETARIANISM 393

Hypothesis 3A Teenage vegetarians should express less interest in body appearance and fashion than their same sexpeers.

Hypothesis 3B Teenage vegetarians should show less interest in television than their same sex peers.

4 Gender Equity

Traditional western vegetarianism promotes social equity (12), is anti-patriarchal and promotes sexual equality (14). Therefore:

Hypothesis 4 Vegetarians are likely to hold more egalitarian views of gender than non vegetarians.

5 Interest in the Environment

The widespread involvement of vegetarians in environmental groups (lo), and its ‘naturalistic’ animal welfare intent, suggests that:

Hypothesis 5 Vegetarians would express more interest in environmental issues and animal welfare than non vegetarians.

METHOD

The qualitative studies which preceded this study, and the general procedure employed during the administration of the survey have been described in a preceding paper (1).

. . The Ouestwwwa

Two booklets which included several questionnaires were used to survey adolescents. These booklets contained a common core (section 1 through 5 below), and additional questions on either gender and the media (booklet A) or on environmental attitudes and vegetarian views and experiences (booklet B). Because each student received only one booklet, the number of responses to items unique to each booklet was approximately 50% of the total number of students participating.

1 Food Consumption: A list of 36-foods based on Baghurst’s (15) food frequency questionnaire was used as a self-reported measure of food consumption (see Table 1). Students were required to indicate how often they ate certain foods: Daily, Several Times a week, Weekly, Fortnightly, Monthly or Rarely/Never.

2 Attitudes to Foods: A series of questions about a variety of foods were developed by the researchers and used to examine adolescents’ attitudes to foods (see Table 2).

394 A. WORSLEY and G. SKRZYPIEC

3 Dieting Behaviour: Two separate measures of dieting behaviour were employed: (i) Stunkard and Messick’s (16) “Three-factor Eating Questionnaire” which measures Restraint, Disinhibition and Hunger, and (ii) Benbrook’s (17) “Body Weight Control” Questionnaire (see Table 3).

4 Appearance: Adolescents’ views of the importance of appearance were examined using a modified version of Hall et al’s (18) “Food, Fitness and Looks Questionnaire” (see Table 5).

5 Vegetarianism: Self-reported vegetarian status was used to classify teenagers as full or semi-vegetarians (FSV) or non-vegetarians (NV). Students responded to the question “Are you a Vegetarian?” : No, Semi, Yes. (Details of this and a vegetarian classification based on meat consumption for this sample can be found in 1).

One booklet (A) examined adolescents’ views of:

6 Gender: Smith and Walker’s (19) “Women in Society Questionnaire” was adapted and made suitable for the teenage respondents of both sexes and used to examine their views of gender roles (see Table 4).

7 Media: Adolescents’ views of television were examined through a series of questionnaire items derived through prior interviews (20; see Table 6).

The other booklet (B), also contained questionnaires which examined:

8 Environmental Attitudes: A modified version of Herrera’s (21) “Questionnaire of Environmental Beliefs” (with items concerning politics, socio-economic policy, competitiveness and legal control omitted; our aim was to measure attitudes concerning environmental issues per se) was used to investigate adolescents’ environmental views (see Table 7). 9 Vegetarian Views and Experiences: A series of questions based on research carried out by Wright and Howcroft (22) on both adult and teenage vegetarians were used to investigate adolescent’s vegetarian views and experiences (see (1) for details).

In all of the above questionnaires (except 1,4, 5 and 7) respondents were required to indicate how strongly they agreed or disagreed with statements on a 5-point Likert type scale which ranged from ‘Strongly Disagree’ to ‘Strongly Agree’, or ‘don’t know’.

ANALYSIS

Data was reduced using principal components analyses with varimax rotation, for each of the individual questionnaires, with the exception of the Three-factor Eating Questionnaire, for which scores were calculated according to the specified procedure (16). A Dieting Activity Score (DAS) was calculated for each participate by summing the weight loss behaviours in the Body Weight Control Questionnaire (ie. items in Table 3). Because only 26 adolescent men reported themselves as FSV, only adolescent women were used in the comnwsons of vecew vepetarians. These were made using Analysis of Variance procedures from the SPSS-x for Macintosh.


RESULTS

Several statistically significant differences in the ideologies and behaviours of FSV and NV adolescent women emerged from the analysis.

Eight hundred and twenty five women classified themselves as non vegetarians (402 answered Questionnaire A) 50 indicated that they were ‘full’ vegetarians (23 answered Questionnaire A) and 195 were ‘semi’ vegetarians (109 answered Questionnaire A). Subsequent compairsons with reported food intake showed that ‘full vegetarians ate little or no flesh whereas ‘semi’ vegetarians restricted their intake, particularly of red meat (1).

The factors derived from the principal components analyses which exhibited differences between female full and semi vegetarians (FSV) and non vegetarians (NV) are shown in the Tables and Figures which follow. Only statistically significant differences between the two groups are presented (further findings from these analyses are available from the authors).

Food Consumption: FSV adolescent women reported that they consumed more Legumes and more Chicken/Rice (i.e. chicken, rice, but not cereal), but less Whole-milk and Meats than non-vegetarians (see Figure 1, and Table 1).

Attitudes to Foods: Anti-meat attitudes were strongest amongst the FSV teenage women, who were also more Pro- vegetables , Pro-Fruit and more likely to practice Meat Restraint ; supporting Hypothesis 1. (see Figure 2, and Table 2).

Body Weight Control: The reported dietary practices of FSV women were generally more frequent and extreme than NVs. FSVs exhibited more Mild Dieting Behaviours (maximum score = 20), more Extreme Dieting Behaviours (18), and more Dieting Activities (DAS) (34) than NVs (refuting Hypothesis 2). On the Stunkard and Messick dimensions, FSVs tended to score less on Disinhibition (14) and Hunger (12) but more on Restraint (1 S), than NV teenagers (see Figure 3, Table 3).

Attitudes to Gender: Egalitarian issues were important to FSV women, who were more supportive of Gender Equality and less supportive of Traditional Patriarchal Views ; supporting Hypothesis 4 (See Figure 4, Table 5).

Attitudes to Appearance: FSV women were more likely to be Appearance Conscious than NV women. This is in direct contrast to what was expected in Hypothesis 3A (see Figure 4, Table 4).


FIG.1 Food Consumption Differences between FSV and NV adolescent women

**Whole Milk

**Legumes

*Chicken/Rice

***meats (chickenless)

LOW CONSUMPTION SCORE HIGH

I FSV @$# NV

(1) This figure compares the food consumption of the three groups of women, expressed as factor scores. The mean scores are expressed as whole numbers. In this and figures 2 and 4, the mean of each factor score is equal to zero, and the standard deviation is 100, calculated across the whole sample. Thus higher than average scores are shown on the right and lower than average scores on the left of the figure.

For this and subsequent tables: ****p<0.0001, ***p<o.o01, **p<o.o1, *p<o.o5

FIG.2 Food Attitude Differences between FSV and NV adolescent women

***Anti-Meat

***Meat Rest - 100 x av factor score

***Pro-fruit

***Pro-vegs

-30 60 90 120

ATTITUDE SCORE

TAB

LE

1: F

ood

Con

sum

ptio

n Fa

ctor

s an

d Lo

adin

gs

Min

ce m

eat

(ris

sole

s/m

eatlo

af/b

olog

nais

e

Pork

(eg

cho

p/po

rk

fille

t/roa

st)

Stew

/Cas

sero

le

etc

(with

mea

t no

t ch

icke

n

Col

d m

eats

(H

am/s

alam

i/cor

ned

beef

...)

46

Bac

on

41

Saus

aee

roll/

mea

t ui

e/ua

stie

37

Fact

or

5: L

egum

es

Eige

nval

ue:

1.49

Pe

rcen

t V

aria

nce:

4.

1%

Cro

nbac

h A

luha

:0.6

2 B

eans

/soya

bean

s Le

ntils

/spl

it pe

as/c

hick

pe

as

Ric

e (e

g fr

ied/

boile

d . ..

)

Cro

nbac

h A

lpha

:0.3

0 (f

irst

item

om

itted

)

Chi

cken

(r

oast

/frie

d/ca

sser

ole

. ..)

TAB

LE

2: F

acto

rs

of A

ttitu

des

to F

oods

an

d Lo

adin

gs

Fact

or

1: A

nti-m

eat

Eige

nval

ue:

7.59

Pe

rcen

t V

aria

nce:

23

.7%

C

ronb

ach

Alp

ha:0

.91

I lo

ve t

o ea

t re

d m

eat

such

as

beef

lvea

l -7

5 I a

lway

s en

joy

roas

t la

mb

dinn

ers

-74

I can

’t st

and

to e

at a

ny r

ed m

eat

73

I en

joy

a pl

ate

of v

eget

able

s w

ith a

ste

ak

-72

I’d

rath

er

not

eat

any

red

mea

ts

69

I do

not

eat

any

red

mea

t 68

I

can’

t st

and

the

smel

l of

coo

ked

red

mea

t 67

Tr

im l

amb

is o

ne o

f m

y fa

vour

ite

food

s -6

4 N

othi

ng

satis

fies

my

appe

tite

like

a st

eak

-60

I ca

n’t

stan

d ro

ast

pork

55

I

only

eat

bee

f or

lam

b if

I am

for

ced

to

51

I pre

fer

to e

at v

eget

able

s m

ore

than

red

mea

t 50

Cho

ps

and

saus

ages

ar

e m

y fa

vour

ite

mea

ts

-37

Gen

eral

ly,

I lik

e al

l ki

nds

of v

eget

able

s

Fact

or

2: P

ro-v

eget

able

s

80

Eige

nval

ue:4

.05

Perc

ent

Var

ianc

e:

12.6

%

I rar

ely

eat

vege

tabl

es

-74

I on

ly e

at v

eget

able

s be

caus

e I

have

to

Cro

nbac

h A

lpha

:0.8

3

-73

I lik

e ve

geta

bles

so

muc

h I

coul

d ea

t th

em

all

dav

lone

70

,

_ I

eat

at l

east

tw

o di

ffer

ent

sorts

of

vege

tabl

es

ever

y da

y 65

I u

refe

r to

eat

veg

etab

les

mor

e th

an m

eat

53

Fact

or

4: P

ro-F

ruit

Eige

nval

ue:

1.38

Pe

rcen

t V

aria

nce:

4.3%

C

ronb

ach

Alp

ha:0

.73

(last

ite

m o

mitt

ed)

I lo

ve t

o ea

t ap

ples

I

have

at

leas

t on

e ni

ece

of f

ruit

dailv

78

77

Fr

uit

is m

y fa

vour

ite

kind

of

foo

d 71

I h

ave

a sa

lad

ever

y da

y 46

Fact

or

3: M

eat

Res

train

t Ei

genv

alue

: 1.

79

The

only

red

mea

t I

eat

is i

n di

shes

w

ith

Perc

ent

Var

ianc

e:

5.6%

othe

r th

ings

, an

d no

t on

its

ow

n as

a s

teak

Cro

nbac

h A

lpha

:0.6

4

Whe

n I

eat

red

mea

t I

feel

hea

vy

and

full

I on

ly e

at b

eef

or l

amb

if I

am f

orce

d to

I

won

’t ea

t m

eat

if I

can

see

anyt

hing

th

at l

ooks

lik

e bl

ood

I’d

rath

er

not

eat

any

red

mea

ts

such

as

beef

llam

b I

only

lik

e re

d m

eat

if it

is c

rum

bed

eg s

chni

tzel

I c

an’t

stan

d th

e sm

ell

of c

ooke

d re

d m

eat

65

64

52

46

46

44

44

I am

fus

sy

abou

t th

e fo

ods

I ea

t 38


FIG 3: Differences in the Dieting Behaviour of Full and Some Vegetarian (FSV) and Non-Vegetarian (NV) Teenage Women

DIETING ACTIVITIES:

***Dieting Action Score (DAS)

STUNKARD’S 3-FACTOR: I I I I I I I I

***Restraint

‘Disinhibition

*Hunger

DIETING BEHAVIOUR:

Mean Score FSV m NV

FIG 4: Differences in the Attitudes of Full and Some Vegetarian (FSV) and Non-Vegetarian (NV) Teenage Women.

APPEARANCE:

***Appearance Conscious

ENVIRONMENT:

**Environment Protection

GENDER:

**Traditional Patriarchal

**Gender Equality

I I I I I

I I I I I

I I I I

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

-80 -60 -40 -20 1 0 20 40 60 80 Factor Scores x 100

FSV NV

Q

TA

BL

E

3: B

ody

Wei

ght

Con

trol

Fa

ctor

s an

d L

oadi

ngs

TA

BL

E

4: A

ttitu

des

to G

ende

r Fa

ctor

s an

d lo

adin

gs

Fact

or

1: M

ild D

ieti

ng

Beh

avio

urs

Eige

nval

ue:5

.97

Perc

ent

Var

:35/

1%

Cro

nbac

h A

lpha

:0.8

7 Fa

ctor

1:

Tra

ditio

nal

Patr

iarc

hal

Vie

ws

Eige

nval

ue:9

.95

Perc

ent

Var

:26.

2%

Cro

nbac

h A

lpha

:0.9

2 lo

a d St

oppe

d ha

ving

sn

acks

be

twee

n m

eals

to

lose

wei

ght

78

Stop

ped

eatin

g ce

rtain

fo

ods

eg f

atty

fo

ods,

bisc

uits

to

los

e w

eigh

t 77

C

ut d

own

on t

he a

mou

nt

of a

ll ty

pes

of f

ood

eate

n to

los

e w

eigh

t 72

Ea

ten

so m

uch

that

you

hav

e fe

lt gu

ilty

abou

t w

hat

you

have

eat

en

66

Eate

n ‘d

iet’

food

s to

los

e w

eigh

t 59

Ea

ten

only

fru

it an

d ve

geta

bles

to

los

e w

eigh

t 58

Sk

inne

d on

e m

eal

a da

v eg

bre

akfa

st

to l

ose

wei

&

52

*.

_ _

Skip

ped

two

mea

ls a

day

eg

brea

kfas

t an

d lu

nch

to l

ose

wei

ght

42

Hav

en’t

had

anyt

hing

to

eat

just

dra

nk

wat

er,

or d

iet

drin

ks

to l

ose

wei

ght

40

Gon

e on

a d

iet

to a

ain

wei

ght

-37

Fact

or

2:E

xtre

me

Die

ting

B

ehav

iour

s Ei

genv

alue

: I .

69

Perc

ent

Var

: 10

.0%

C

ronb

ach

Alp

ha:0

.85

Had

not

hing

to

eat

for

one

or

mor

e da

ys t

o lo

se w

eigh

t 73

H

aven

’t ha

d an

ythi

ng

to e

at ju

st

dran

k w

ater

, or

die

t dr

inks

to

los

e w

eigh

t 68

M

ade

vour

self

vom

it to

los

e w

eieh

t 67

Sk

ippe

d tw

o m

eals

a d

ay e

g br

eakf

ast

and

lunc

h to

los

e w

eigh

t 66

B

ough

t pi

lls o

r la

xativ

es

from

the

che

mis

t to

hel

p yo

u lo

se w

eigh

t 62

Sm

oked

to

los

e w

eigh

t 51

Sk

ippe

d on

e m

eal

a da

y eg

bre

akfa

st

to l

ose

wei

ght

50

Eate

n on

ly f

ruit

and

vege

tabl

es

to l

ose

wei

ght

41

Eate

n ‘d

iet’

food

s to

los

e w

eigh

t 38

In a

mar

riage

th

e m

an s

houl

d ha

ve t

he f

inal

say

It

is i

muo

rtant

fo

r a

man

to

be m

ore

educ

ated

th

an

his

wife

1

71

I 70

It

is m

ore

impo

rtant

fo

r a

man

to

have

a

good

pa

ying

jo

b th

an

for

a w

oman

69

M

en a

re m

ore

clev

er

than

wom

en

in m

oney

m

atte

rs

68

In a

fam

ily

men

sho

uld

be t

he m

ajor

br

ead

win

ners

67

A

wom

an’s

pl

ace

is i

n th

e ho

me,

lo

okin

g af

ter

husb

and

and

child

ren

63

By

natu

re

wom

en

do n

ot h

ave

as m

any

abili

ties

for

job

succ

ess

as m

en h

ave

62

The

uoss

ibili

tv

of u

reen

ancv

m

akes

w

omen

le

ss s

uita

ble

than

men

as

emol

ovee

s 62

W

omen

ar

e no

t as

eff

ectiv

e in

arg

umen

ts as

men

61

It

is p

refe

rabl

e to

hav

e m

ore

men

tha

n w

omen

in

Par

liam

ent

59

If a

chi

ld

is s

ick

and

both

par

ents

ar

e w

orki

ng,

the

mot

her

shou

ld

say

hom

e in

nr

efer

ence

to

the

fat

her

I 58

1

It is

mor

e di

ffic

ult

to a

ccep

t a

wom

an

than

a m

an a

s an

aut

horit

y fig

ure

A w

oman

sh

ould

be

les

s w

illin

g th

an a

man

to

acce

pt

a ca

reer

pr

omot

ion

that

re

quire

s a

fam

ily

to m

ove

inte

rsta

te

Wom

en

are

mor

e su

ited

than

men

to

be n

urse

s G

irls

shou

ld

be q

uiet

ly

spok

en

Thes

e da

vs w

omen

ar

e as

sui

ted

as m

en t

o m

ost

iobs

58

55

51

-48

, _I

A g

irl s

houl

d ex

pect

th

e gu

y to

do

the

driv

ing

whe

n sh

e go

es o

ut w

ith h

im

1 42

It

is m

ore

impo

rtant

to

con

side

r th

e m

arita

l st

atus

of

a w

oman

th

an a

man

whe

n em

nlov

men

t is

to b

e ei

ven

I I

42

1 M

en a

re a

s su

ited

to h

ousw

ork

as w

omen

1

-41

1

Fact

or

5: G

ende

r E

qual

ity

Eig

enva

lue:

1.3

3 Pe

rcen

t V

ar:3

.5%

C

ronb

ach

Alp

ha:0

.71

Men

are

jus

t as

sui

ted

as w

omen

in

cou

nsel

ling

and

supp

ortiv

e ro

les

74

Aoa

rt t?

om b

reas

tfeed

ing.

m

en a

re a

s ca

nabl

e of

car

ine

for

babi

es

as w

omen

ar

e 71

M

en a

re a

s su

ited

to h

ouse

wor

k as

wom

en

39

Thes

e da

ys

wom

en

are

as s

uite

d as

men

to

mos

t io

bs

36


Views of Television Media: FSV were less likely to rely on television for Relaxation and Entertainment , but were more likely to use television as a Source of Reference for their appearance and behaviour; contrary to Hypothesis 3B (see Figure 4, Table 6).

Environmental Attitudes: Environmental Protection was the main concern for FSV women, and this was the only factor in which they differed from NVs. This heightened concern for the environment supports Hypothesis 5 (see Figure 4, Table 7).

Vegetarian Issues: An examination of the percentage of adolescent women who agreed with various aspects of the ‘vegetarian challenge’ (2) indicated that animal welfare concerns were a high priority amongst FSVs (see Table 8). About a third of FSV teenage women, however, expressed a neutral stance on animal cruelty and meat production issues. Similarly, about a third (and twice as many as NVs) also agreed that red meat was fattening. Interestingly, 37% of non-vegetarian adolescent women reported that they too were concerned with animal welfare issues, yet had not taken the vegetarian option.

Table 8: Percentages of FSV and NV adolescent women who agree or are neutral, about vegetarian issues.

(% Agree) Vegetarians Non-vegetarians meat harmful to environment 24.8% 12.5% Sensory objections (bloody, smells etc) 43.6% 5.4% Meat unhealthy 19.2% 3.1% animal cruelty 60.9% 37.1% meat production not an issue 4.6% 23.7% red meat is fattening 29.9% 13.0%

(% Neutral) Vegetarians Non-vegetarians meat harmful to environment 47.7% 35.5% Sensory objections (bloody, smells etc) 34.7% 29.4% Meat unhealthy 32.7% 17.2% animal cruelty 30.0% 35.2% meat production not an issue 32.3% 51.9% red meat is fattening 29.9% 29.1%

DISCUSSION

Generally, the present findings suggest that teenage women vegetarians share traditional western vegetarian concerns about animal welfare, the environment and egalitarianism. However, two findings indicate that this adolescent variant is not identical to traditional, adult vegetarianism.


First, the greater chicken-eating of the female FSVs suggests that their concern for animals may be limited to those of the four legged (more sentient and empathetic) variety. Second, they placed a lot more emphasis on self expression through weight control, concern with body appearance, fashion and the media, than non vegetarians.

Indeed, the greater prevalence of extreme weight loss behaviours among the vegetarian women (such as use of laxatives, induced vomiting) and of restrained eating suggests a link between teenage vegetarianism and eating disorders. Bakan et al (23), for example observed that about half of their anorexic patients were vegetarian, and Abraham (24), an eating disorders researcher, has listed ‘becoming vegetarian’ one of a number of methods used by young women to lose weight. In contrast, Janelle (25) found that adult vegetarians were less restrained than non vegetarian adult women. However, those vegetarians had exlcuded all meat from their diets for at least two years. This strongly implies that adolescent vegetarianism may be quite a different phenomenon from the established vegetarianism of adults. Further analysis of the present data showed that full vegetarians had slightly higher restraint scores than semi vegetarians. This confirms the view that adolescent vegetarianism is quite distinct from adult vegetarianism.

Further research is required to examine whether “vegetarianism” is chosen more often by teenagers with eating disorders or whether it is a stage in the development of eating disorders. In particular, the possibility that adolescent vegetarians may be composed of both eating disordered and non disordered individuals should be examined in a larger sample.

The label ‘I am a vegetarian’ may represent a confounding of socially desirable goals about environmental protection and animal welfare and may symbolise an adolescent’s differentiation from her family (only 3% of parents of vetetarians were vegetarian) and mainstream society. In using such a label, an adolescent may cope more successfully with pressures from family and peers to conform to societal norms about eating. For example, her peers and parents are more likely to accept her restrictive food intakes if they are part of a ‘vegetarian’ diet, and thus viewed as ‘good’ (concern for animal welfare, pro environment) than if they are part of a ‘slimming’ diet (‘self centred’). In this respect, teenage vegetarianism may be a ‘front’ for covert weight loss (anorexic) activities.

Twigg (12) has suggested that sometimes adult vegetarians may physiologically express their concern about the purity of the body by fasting to restore the body to its “pure” state. Such convictions may be exemplified by the restrained eating and ‘anorexic’ tendencies found amongst adolescent vegetarians, indicating that there may be a common thread between them. What requires further exploration however, is the extent to which vegetarians and anorexic adolescents share the concern with appearance and the desire to be “beautiful” rather than “natural”.

Concern about animal welfare was not restricted to female vegetarians, over one third of non vegetarian women shared this concern. Unlike the vegetarians, however, they consumed meat. Why? Perhaps their concern was not as strong, or it may have been more diffuse and less focussed on meat or associated with other premises about the nature of animals. For example, more non vegetarians agreed with the view that the slaughter of animals during production was humane. If vegetarian equalitarianism extended to the relationships between animals and humans then it is easy to see how animal slaughter becomes viewed as inhumane and bad.


The greater valuation of gender equality underlines the dilemma that female adolescents face in coming to grips with the expression of self and universalistic motivations or values (26, 27). When extended to the relationships between women and men and to those between humans and animals it can be portrayed as an other oriented, universalistic motivation, which is consistent with traditional feminine roles (care for animals is a form of nurturance; 28). At the same time, the emphasis on gender equality can be seen as a form of self orientation which involves greater female (hence self) autonomy. Future research might examine the links between teenage vegetarianism and eating disorders and whether they share common antecedents within the family.

Vegetarianism among teenage women, then, appears to be a variant of traditional western vegetarianism. However, unlike the adult form, it is largely a female phenomenon, and highly self oriented. For a large number of adolescent women, it may represent a phase in the quiet negotiation of self and universalistic values within the family of origin. Unfortunately, it appears to be linked to a number of health threatening side effects including nutritional deficits and eating disorders.

CONCLUSIONS

1 Adolescent vegetarianism is largely a female phenomenon characterised by meat avoidance, concern for the environment, animal welfare, gender equity, weight loss behaviours and high concern with body appearance.

2 There was a strong association between adolescent vegetarianism and extreme weight loss behaviours which may be indicative of eating disorders. This requires further examination.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors would like to thank Joanne Smith and Jenni Proeve for their help in the collection and entering of the data, and MRC Australia for their generous support.

REFERENCES

1 Worsley, A. and Skrzypiec, G. (1995). Teenage Vegetarianism: prevalence, social and cognitive contexts. Paper sent to Nutrition Research.

2 Beardsworth, A.D. and Keil, E.T. (1993). Contemporary Vegetarianism in the UK: Challenge and Incorporation? Appetite, 20,229-234.

3 Ritkin, J. (1992). Beyond Beef The Rise and Fall of the Cattle Culture. Australia: Viking, Penguin Books.


4 Turner, B.S (1982) The government of the Body: Medical regimens and the rationalization of diet. British Journal of Sociology, 33(2), 2454269.

5 Sims, L.S. (1978). Food-related Value-Orientations, Attitudes, and Beliefs of Vegetarians and Non-Vegetarians. Ecology of Food and Nutrition. V7, pp. 23-35.

6 Hofstede, G. (1992). Cultures and organisations: the software of the mind. London: Hutchinson.

7 Erikson, E.H. (1968). Identity: youth and crisis. New York: Norton.

8 Epstein, S. (1994). Integration of the cognitive and the psychodynamic unconcious. American Psychologist, 49(8), 709-724.

9 Argyle, M. (1986). Social behaviour problems in adolescence. In Silbereisen, R.K. Eyferth, K. and Rudinger, G. (eds), Development as action in context: problem behaviour and normal youth development. New York: Springer-Verlag.

10 Scarce, R. (1990). Eco-warriors: understanding the radical environmental movement. Chicago: Noble Press.

11 Beardsworth, A. and Keil, T. (1992). The vegetarian option: varieties, conversions, motives and careers. The Sociological Review, 38,253-293.

12 Twigg, J. (1979). Food for thought: purity and vegetarianism. Religion, 9, 13-35.

13 Davies, E., and Furnham, A. (1986). The dieting and body shape concerns of adolescent females. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 27(3), 417-428.

14 Adams, C.J. (1990). The Sexual Politics of Meat. Cambridge: Polity Press.

15 Baghurst, K.I., Record, S.J., Falconer, H. and Rump, E.E. (1995). Aspects of personality and information on food choice. In Worsley, A. Multidisciplinary approaches to Food Choice, Adelaide: Food Choice Conference.

16 Stunkard, A. & Messick, S. (1985) The Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire To Measure Dietary Restraint, Disinhibition And Hunger . Journal Of Psychosomatic Research, 29(l), 71- 83.

17 Benbrook, A.H. (1989) Diet Related Behaviours Of Pubescent Children Master’s Thesis, University Of Otago, New Zealand.

18 Hall, A., Leibrich, J., and Walkey, F.H. (1983). The development of a food fitness and looks questionnaire and its use in a study of “weight pathology” in 204 nonpatient families. Anorexia Nervosa: Recent Developments in Research, 41-55.


19 Smith, M & Walker, I (1992) The structure of attitudes to a single object: adapting Criteria1 Referents Theory to measure attitudes to ‘woman’, British Journal Of Social Psychology, 31, 201-214.

20 Skrzypiec, G. (1996). Adolescents, food behaviour and television. Thesis for Master of Education. Education Department, University of Adelaide.

21 Herrera, M. (1992). Environmentalism and political participation: Toward a new system of social beliefs and values? Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 22(8), 657-676.

22 Wright, G., and Howcroft, N. (1992). Vegetarianism: an issue of the ninties. West Yorkshire: Horton Publishing Ltd.

23 Bakan, R, Birmingham, C.L., Aeberhardt, L., and Goldner, E.M. (1993). Dietary zinc intake of vegetarian and nonvegetarian patients with anorexia nervosa. International Journal of Eating Disorders 13(2): 229-33.

24 Abraham, S. (1988). What does food mean to young Australian women? In Truswell, AS., and Wahlqvist, M.L. Food habits in Australia. Rene Gordon, Victoria, Australia.

2.5 Janelle, K.C. (1995. Nutrient intakes and eating behaviour scores of vegetarian and nonvegetarian women. Journal ofAmerican Dietetic Association, 95(2): 180-6.

26 Schwartz, S.H. (1992). Universals in the content ans structure of values: theoretical advances and empirical tests in twenty countries. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 25, l- 65.

27 Schwartz, S.H. (1994). Structure of human values. Manuscript submittedforpublication.

28 Bern, S. (1994) Lenses of Gender: Transforming the debate on sexual inequality. Yale: Yale University Press

Accepted for publication November 11, 1996.

Teenage vegetarianism: Beauty or the beast

Documents

Transcript of Teenage vegetarianism: Beauty or the beast