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Environmental Management ISSN 0364-152XVolume 54Number 6 Environmental Management (2015)54:1237-1248DOI 10.1007/s00267-014-0358-z

Technological Innovation andDevelopmental Strategies for SustainableManagement of Aquatic Resources inDeveloping Countries

Julius Ibukun Agboola

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FORUM

Technological Innovation and Developmental Strategiesfor Sustainable Management of Aquatic Resources in DevelopingCountries

Julius Ibukun Agboola

Received: 19 September 2013 / Accepted: 18 August 2014 / Published online: 9 September 2014

� Springer Science+Business Media New York 2014

Abstract Sustainable use and allocation of aquatic resour-

ces including water resources require implementation of

ecologically appropriate technologies, efficient and relevant

to local needs. Despite the numerous international agreements

and provisions on transfer of technology, this has not been

successfully achieved in developing countries. While

reviewing some challenges to technological innovations and

developments (TID), this paper analyzes five TID strategic

approaches centered on grassroots technology development

and provision of localized capacity for sustainable aquatic

resources management. Three case studies provide examples

of successful implementation of these strategies. Success

requires the provision of localized capacity to manage tech-

nology through knowledge empowerment in rural commu-

nities situated within a framework of clear national priorities

for technology development.

Keywords Technology � Developing countries �Strategies � Aquatic resources � Sustainable management

Introduction

Technological innovations and development (TID), in the

past, has been approached from the perspective of structural

change and technical choice, with little or no consideration

for sustainable technologies to meet local needs and address

environmental problems across scales. Although concepts of

what is economically and technologically practical, eco-

logically necessary, and politically feasible are rapidly

shifting, weak links still exist between the formal Research

and Development (R&D) institutions and local communities

that hold and use traditional knowledge (Colby 1991;

AMCOST 2010).

Since the 1970s, developing countries have expressed in

various international fora their desire for improved access

to foreign technologies and enhanced technological capa-

bilities. In the past three decades, specific provisions on

transfer of technology have been incorporated into various

international instruments. Such provisions have various

objectives and scope, a variety of modes of implementa-

tion, including the provision of financing, and are subject to

different terms and conditions. In most cases, however,

such provisions contain only ‘‘best efforts’’ commitments,

rather than mandatory rules. An example of a detailed

definition of the objectives of technology-related provi-

sions is provided in the Law of the Sea Convention (Law of

the Sea 1982), which details the ‘‘basic objectives’’ to be

reached directly or through competent international orga-

nizations. Also, unlike the Vienna Convention, the Law of

the Sea Convention and Agenda 21 focus more on the

development of local capabilities than on access to tech-

nology (UN 2001). The Law of the Sea Convention deals

specifically with transfer of marine technology and

capacity building in the management, exploration, and

exploitation of marine resources.

The past century has seen advances in fishing technol-

ogy blamed as a major cause of the current over-exploi-

tation of fish stocks. Challenges of bycatch of charismatic

species (such as dolphins in tuna purse seines) and the

J. I. Agboola

Operating Unit Ishikawa/Kanazawa, Institute for the Advanced

Study of Sustainability, United Nations University,

Ishikawa 920-0962, Japan

J. I. Agboola (&)

Department of Fisheries, Faculty of Science/Centre for

Environment and Science Education (CESE), Lagos State

University, Ojo, Lagos, Nigeria

e-mail: jb_agboola@yahoo.com; julius.agboola@lasu.edu.ng

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DOI 10.1007/s00267-014-0358-z

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discarding of not-so-charismatic species (such as juvenile

fish killed by shrimp trawling) have led to the successful

development of various innovative gear-based and opera-

tional solutions to ameliorate these issues. The steps

involved in successfully reducing bycatches have tended to

follow an incremental framework involving identification

of problems, experimentally testing proposed solutions,

implementing these solutions throughout industry, and

finally gaining acceptance of the solutions from concerned

interest groups (Kennelly and Broadhurst 2002). Also, after

millennia of assuming that seafood resources are inex-

haustible, and centuries of somewhat muted concerns that

advanced fishing technology may have a detrimental

impact on stocks and ecosystems, advances in fishing

technology came to be recognized as a major cause of the

current over-exploitation of fish stocks (Kennelly and

Broadhurst 2002). During the last few decades, however,

fishing technologies have begun to focus more on conser-

vation-oriented goals, and more recently, on sustainable

management approaches.

This paper draws on successful examples of TID pro-

jects around the world to propose relevant strategies (in

‘‘Framework for TID Strategies’’ section) to overcome

some technological challenges to sustainable management

of aquatic resources in developing countries. It further

hinges on the need for clear national priorities for tech-

nology development, identification of appropriate forms of

cooperation, an enabling environment, and capacity

building.

The Need for Localized TID

Globalization has been a very uneven process in which

very poor countries, in particular, have experienced mar-

ginalization (World Bank 2002; Sachs 2000; Ghose 2003).

Also, inadequate skills, limited access to technical infor-

mation, ineffective institutional and regulatory frame-

works, as well as organizational rigidities impede technical

change and innovation (UNESCO 2010).

Analysis (Table 1) reveals the global trend in Gross

Domestic Expenditure on Research and Development

(GERD) and the number of researchers, between developed

and developing (including less developed) countries.

GERD totals from developing countries make up less than

a quarter of the world’s GERD, and researchers from

developing countries make up only one-third of the total

number of researchers globally. As a result, low intensities

of applied technologies among other factors constrain

dynamic investment and competitive industrial develop-

ment in developing countries.

It is evident that technology transfer (TT) from devel-

oped to developing countries is required for growth and

development. However, the transfer of methods from one

context to another raises concerns familiar from past

attempts to duplicate technological success stories by

abstracting from the specific social, political, and organi-

zational conditions in which a particular technology

emerged (Biggs and Smith 1998). Also, many technologies

and solutions that work efficiently in western countries

often fail in many African and some Asian contexts

(Esposto 2009). Thus, there is a need to redefine the current

technology cooperation process between developed and

developing countries. In the context of economic devel-

opment, sustainable aquatic resource management is a

critical component (Agboola and Braimoh 2009). The

livelihoods of a vast majority of developing countries and

coastal communities depend on aquatic resources which

support the functioning of aquatic ecosystems. UNIDO

(2005) has emphasized the importance of building tech-

nological capabilities that are appropriate for catching up

and for sustaining poverty reduction. Technologies for

developing countries need to be efficient, adaptive, and in-

expensive.

TT, Applications, and Aquatic Resources

Technology is widely accepted as essential for improving

the economy of a nation, especially in developing countries

where industrial growth has occupied a very important role

(Guan et al. 2006). However, it is believed that technology

will perform differently in different institutional and in-

frastructural environments. In short, most technology is

circumstantially sensitive in some way (Evenson and

Westphal 1995).

One of the major challenges to sustainable development

in developing countries has been the problems of direct

applications of often inappropriate technology from devel-

oped countries and subsequent technological marginaliza-

tion. On the one hand, there is indigenous technology and

local initiatives (often neglected), and on the other is the

lack of capacity to manage the so called ‘‘transferred tech-

nologies.’’ TT is gaining more attention and institutional

interest is rapidly expanding (Reisman 2005). In the context

of this paper, ‘TT’ is defined as the process of transferring

scientific findings from developed countries to users in

developing countries to create tangible benefits for the

purpose of sustainable development.

The need for TT, especially to developing countries, has

been recognized in various international fora (UN 2001).

Over 80 international instruments and numerous subre-

gional and bilateral agreements contain measures related to

transfer of technology and capacity building. The tech-

nology-related provisions contained in such instruments

follow different approaches, depending on the object and

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purpose of the respective instruments. They all aim, how-

ever, at promoting access to technologies and, in some

cases, the development of local capabilities in developing

countries, particularly in least developed countries.

While transfer of technology is a fundamental goal of

many international instruments, especially in agreements

involving developing countries (UNCTAD 2000), one of

the main challenges is how to ensure that ‘‘transfer and

diffusion’’ provisions are given effect and translated into

practice. The technology required for growth and devel-

opment in developing countries should positively aim at

enhancing sustainable production, use, and management of

natural resources including aquatic resources.

Human use of aquatic ecosystems and resources includ-

ing coastal and ocean waters is changing. The scarcity of

aquatic resources threatens global food supplies and the state

of human health in many regions of the world (FAO 2007).

In essence, sustainable fresh and marine water resources are

a foundation for human survival and economic development,

and for maintaining life-supporting aquatic and terrestrial

ecosystems. They encompass all the possible roles for water

in terms of quality and quantity for intended uses, supporting

the functioning of aquatic ecosystems and as an essential

component of economic development. Aquatic resources

also encompass the hydrological systems, the linkages

between freshwater systems, and the downstream coastal

areas into which they drain and where they sustain biolog-

ically rich and commercially important coastal ecosystems

(Agboola and Braimoh 2009). With recent advances in

technology, exploitation of the aquatic ecosystems and

resources has produced some attendant challenges. Tech-

nological challenges related to aquatic systems are numer-

ous, quite dynamic, and may not be exhaustive. Here we

review a few technological challenges relevant to sustain-

able management of aquatic resources.

Challenges Arising From Genetically Modified

Organisms (GMOs)

Aquatic biotechnology is an exciting area of science that

involves combining science and technology applied to

aquatic organisms to develop and apply innovative tools,

techniques, and products that help to conserve oceans and

other aquatic ecosystems, protect species at risk, detect and

treat disease in fish, and identify fish populations among

others. It is a recent technique, used mainly for the genetic

improvement of fish, and produces great hopes and fears

regarding the future use of aquatic resources. Public

oppositions arising from ethical, environmental, and social

equity concerns are challenges yet to be fully addressed,

and the potential impacts of GMOs on aquatic ecosystems

are far from fully understood. According to Costa-Pierce

(2003), the aquatic biotechnology sector inherited not only

problems from the broader agricultural biotechnology

sector, but also unique challenges specific to aquatic

environments. However, experiments with transgenic or

genetically modified fish have shown that commercially

important traits, such as enhanced growth rates (proved to

be significant), disease resistance, and increased environ-

mental tolerance (not yet proved to be significant), can be

improved (Dey and Gardiner 2000). Transgenic fish not

only have many potential applications in aquaculture, but

also raise concerns regarding the possible deleterious

effects of escaped or released transgenic fish on natural

ecosystems (Maclean and Laight 2000).

Challenges Arising From Ocean Energy (OE)

and Fishing Practices

OE defines a wide range of engineering technologies that are

able to obtain energy from the ocean using a variety of

conversion mechanisms. It has the potential to make an

important contribution to the supply of energy to countries

and communities located close to the sea (Esteban et al.

2008). This in itself is an important possible limitation of

OE, as contrary to an extended belief, over 60 % of the

world’s population lives over 120 km away from the

coastline (Gommes et al. 1998). Also, it has been reported

that the theoretical global potential for the various types of

OE is between 20,000 and 92,000 TWh/year, compared to

the world consumption of electricity of around 16,000 TWh/

year. Therefore, it is unlikely that this technology alone will

Table 1 Regional totals R&D for expenditure (GERD) and researchers, 2002 and 2007

Region % World GERD Researchers (thousands) % World researchers Researchers per million inhabitants

2002 2007 2002 2007 2002 2007 2002 2007

World 100.0 100.0 5,810.7 7,209.7 100.0 100.0 926.1 1,080.8

Developed countries 82.6 76.2 4,047.5 4,478.3 69.7 62.1 3,363.5 3,655.8

Developing countries 17.2 23.7 1,734.4 2,696.7 29.8 37.4 397.8 580.3

Less-developed countries 0.1 0.1 28.7 34.7 0.5 0.5 40.5 43.4

Sources GERD and researchers data: UNESCO (2010). Population: United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population

Division, 2009; World Population Prospects: The 2008 Revision and UIS estimations

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be able to solve the energy needs of the planet (Soerensen

and Weinstein 2008). Nevertheless, it is likely that certain

countries well endowed with this type of energy could

eventually rely on it to produce a significant percentage of

their energy needs (Esteban et al. 2008), while some coun-

tries are looking to develop energy export too.

Although alternative energy projects such as wind,

current, wave, tidal, and thermal energy conversion can

help meet our increasing energy demands while curbing

global climate change, they also have potential direct

impacts on coastal ecosystems including the disruption to

sea currents or longshore sediment transport; hazard to

shipping; risks to biodiversity; and fluid spillages or leak-

age (Esteban et al. 2008). While many OE technologies

have the potential to produce energy without greenhouse

gas emissions, the impacts of such technologies on coastal

ecosystems will need to be effectively assessed, mini-

mized, and mitigated (Gill 2005; Pelc and Fujita 2002).

Challenges Arising From Constructed Environments

Constructed wetlands (CWs) are artificially CWs, built in

areas where wetland ecosystems do not naturally occur

(Sundaravadivel and Vigneswaran 2001). CWs are consid-

ered as a suitable technology for sustainable wastewater

management especially for developing countries. The main

features of CWs are adaptation to local conditions, cost

effectiveness, and adequate capacity for local management of

water resources. Natural wetlands act as a biofilter, removing

sediments, and pollutants such as heavy metals from the

water, and CWs can be designed to emulate these features.

CWs are an emerging, environmentally friendly engi-

neering system employed in some developing countries

like China. They require lower investment and operation

costs while providing higher treatment efficiency and more

ecosystem services than conventional wastewater treatment

methods (Liu et al. 2009). However, there is currently a

lack of sufficient and appropriate data to assist in the fur-

ther development of Constructed Wetland systems and the

implementation of integrated ‘‘bottom-up’’ and ‘‘top-

down’’ approaches by both the public in general and gov-

ernment bodies in particular. Liu et al. (2009) reported that

land availability, institutional limitations, and public edu-

cation will be ongoing challenges for the development of

CWs technology in China. Thus, great effort is still

required, focusing on further research, policy decisions,

public education, and management training to promote the

development of CWs systems in developing countries.

Challenges of Advances in Fishing Technology

Advances in technology for fishing in recent years have

been amazing. Fishing technology has developed with the

objective of trying to catch the greatest quantity of fish

possible, of an ever increasing variety (Kennelly and

Broadhurst 2002). Unlike conventional fishing methods,

new fishing technology makes possible highly efficient

fishing practices, especially with commercial trawlers. The

latter produces higher catches and greater food abundance,

pushing market prices lower. With lower market prices,

fishing operations make less profit and consumers and

retailers waste more fish because waste is less economi-

cally detrimental at the lower prices. The increased

wastefulness and the higher catch rates result in lower fish

populations; this, combined with the lower profits the

fishing operations now garner, causes a need for ever

greater efficiency in fishing operations.

There is no doubt that the worldwide demand for sea-

food will continue to rise and while increased production

from aquaculture may meet some of this demand, there will

always be increasing pressure to harvest wild stocks

(Kennelly and Broadhurst 2002; FAO 2007). Thus, per-

sistence of resource conservation problems such as over-

exploitation of aquatic resources indicates the need for a

better institutional response to natural and societal impacts

on aquatic ecosystems (Agboola and Braimoh 2009).

In addition, in recent years, attention has focused on

issues associated with abandoned, lost, or otherwise dis-

carded fishing gear (ALDFG). The many negative impacts

of ALDFG, such as ‘‘ghost fishing,’’ navigational hazards,

and amassed marine debris, have increased with new

technologies and greater capacity (FAO 2010). Reducing

these impacts requires the use of preventive, mitigating,

and curative measures. Also, destructive fishing practices

such as bottom trawling in the North Atlantic and dynamite

and cyanide fishing in the Indo-Pacific Ocean (Konstapel

and Noort 1995) are damaging or even destroying precious

marine fish habitats, with devastating effects on the

regenerative capacity of fish stocks. The vast amount of

bycatch due to unselective gear and fishing practices is

another matter of concern: almost one-third of the total

world catch is caught and discarded each year by the

world’s fishing fleets. The vast majority of this ‘bycatch’

does not survive. Approximately 10 % of the world’s fish

catch is assumed to be lost through decay caused by poor

post-harvest facilities (Aerni 2001).

Existing Laws as Pertaining to Aquatic Environment

and Resources Management

The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea

deals specifically with marine technology and capacity

building in the management, exploration, and exploitation

of marine resources. This is the only international agree-

ment on transfer of technology as it relates to marine

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environment and resources (Law of the Sea 1982). Specific

articles are as follows (Law of the Sea 1982):

Article 144 on Transfer of technology: ‘‘The

Authority shall take measures in accordance with this

Convention: (a) to acquire technology and scientific

knowledge relating to activities in the Area; and (b) to

promote and encourage the transfer to developing

States of such technology and scientific knowledge so

that all States Parties benefit therefrom.’’

Article 266 on promotion of the development and

transfer of marine technology: ‘‘States, directly or

through competent international organizations, shall

cooperate in accordance with their capabilities to

promote actively the development and transfer of

marine science and marine technology on fair and

reasonable terms and conditions.’’

Article 270 on ways and means of international co-

operation: ‘‘International co-operation for the devel-

opment and transfer of marine technology shall be

carried out, where feasible and appropriate, through

existing bilateral, regional or multilateral pro-

grammes, and also through expanded and new pro-

grammes in order to facilitate marine scientific

research, the transfer of marine technology, particu-

larly in new fields, and appropriate international

funding for ocean research and development’’

Article 273 on co-operation with international orga-

nizations and the Authority: States shall co-operate

actively with competent international organizations

and the Authority to encourage and facilitate the

transfer to developing States, their nationals and the

Enterprise of skills and marine technology with

regard to activities in the Area.

Hoffman and Girvan (1990) suggested that TT to devel-

oping countries needs to be perceived in terms of achieving

three core objectives: the introduction of new techniques

by means of investment in new plants; the improvement of

existing techniques; and the generation of new knowledge.

All of these are valid and should be sustained through a

more proactive framework of systematic strategies high-

lighted in the ‘‘Framework for TID Strategies’’ section.

Framework for TID Strategies

The quest for a paradigm shift to sustainable use and

allocation of aquatic resources will undoubtedly lead to

technology innovations and developments in the manage-

ment and production of aquatic resources, focused on

efficiency and adaptation to local conditions.

Technological distance between developed and

developing countries is often best overcome by adaptive

technological effort (Evenson and Westphal 1995).

Vivid examples of technological initiatives adaptable to

local conditions include the Seawater Greenhouse

technology for creating fresh water from seawater in

arid regions and the proposed Sahara Forest Project

scheme that aims to provide fresh water, food, and

renewable energy in hot arid regions as well as re-

vegetating areas of uninhabited desert (Clery 2011). An

ideal sustainable TT should combine traditional wisdom

and techniques with modern science and technology so

that rural livelihoods are strengthened both ecologically

and economically (Swaminathan 1994; Kesavan and

Swaminathan 2006).

Several authors have stressed the need to promote con-

certed efforts for preserving natural ecosystems and

diversifying coastal economies, which can enhance

recovery from negative impacts and resilience to their

effects (Adger et al. 2005; Allenby and Fink 2005). There

is also a need to build adequate and continuing capacity to

manage transferred technology. Localized technology

innovation and development connotes a holistic approach

encompassing efficient, adaptive, and inexpensive tech-

nology application.

Given the challenges of globalization, local adapt-

ability in terms of specific needs, low levels of applied

technologies, inadequate skills, and technological mar-

ginalization among others, new framework strategies

proposed here aim to resolve these problems, to begin

with by identifying needs, growth, and development at

the local level before upscaling. Secondly, having rec-

ognized the complexities in the institutional dimensions

to management of aquatic resources and a successful

technology cooperation process, a key response would be

to carry out needs assessment, develop clear national

priorities for technology development, identify appro-

priate forms of cooperation, ensure an enabling envi-

ronment, and build capacity. Studies on drivers for and

barriers to environmentally sound technology adoption in

nine developing countries revealed that environmental

regulation and market pressure appear to exert more

influence than community pressure on the adoption of

environmentally sound technology (Luken and Rompaey

2008). Thus, the need to look into ways for robust

technology cooperation processes between developed and

developing countries cannot be over-emphasized. What is

required is technology that can be replicated and dis-

seminated through capacity building programs, with

necessary adaptations to local economies and cultures.

This, in the long term, will foster the blending of frontier

technologies with traditional knowledge to provide a pro-

nature, pro-poor, pro-women, and pro-employment ori-

entation to technology development and dissemination in

developing countries.

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Strategies for Localized TID

In the face of current and projected global environmental

change and its effects on aquatic resources, the need for

effective management strategies is becoming a worldwide

issue, requiring both scientific and traditional knowledge-

based experience for resilience and adaptation. In this

framework, five TID strategies relevant to developing

countries are analyzed.

Strategy 1: Provision of Capacity to Manage TT

Technologies relevant to sustainable rural development

could be achieved through training and capacity building of

the rural communities, provision of microcredit for mic-

roenterprises, and establishing market linkages. In my

opinion, developing countries should be assisted in training

and helped to develop capacity to adopt clean technologies

for market-driven eco-enterprises. For instance, a remedi-

ation plan/program designed for a degenerated river should

not consider a single area; rather the entire catchment area,

including the upstream, central, and downstream sections,

should be included in evaluation for effective remediation.

Thus, ecological experts who are familiar with the local

environment play very important roles in TT teamwork.

Mastering development and application of clean TT in

industry and the services sector is therefore a key

requirement in developing countries.

Technology cooperation is rarely successful and sus-

tainable without some form of capacity building. Capacity

building efforts are made more effective when they are

extended, adapted, and localized (Measham 2007). This

includes the extension of education and training to other

groups, such as community or school groups, and the

inclusion of women and children; the methods and delivery

of education and training must be adapted to local condi-

tions and to the knowledge and skill levels of the trainees.

This can be achieved by developing local trainers. In the

twenty-first century, knowledge is power and the various

approaches toward evergreen revolution involve knowl-

edge empowerment of the farming and fishing communi-

ties (Kesavan and Swaminathan 2008).

Strategy 2: Bottom-up Approach in the Application of TT

for Sustainable Management

It is a fact that we cannot rely entirely on national initia-

tives or macro-economic policies to foster the sort of

economic growth and political stability that developing

economies so desperately need. Even when it comes to

international aid to these countries, a growing number of

voices are questioning the wisdom of the historical top-

down approach that delivers massive amounts of direct aid

to governments and to consultants and middlemen, instead

of investing in small farmers, businesses and communities

(Tougiani et al. 2009). In general, a bottom-up approach to

economic development is generally more effective. Bot-

tom-up approaches explore the specific material and human

resources of small communities to promote economic

expansion, a key to stimulating economic growth.

For instance, in assessing the impact of fisheries co-

management interventions in developing countries, a

comprehensive review of 204 cases by Evans et al. (2011)

reveals a lack of impact assessments, suggesting the need

for a change in management approaches. With respect to

transferred technology for sustainable management, the

technologies, timing, and locale-specific information con-

tent development are need based and should be chosen in a

‘‘bottom-up’’ manner.

Bottom-up approaches encourage local communities to

concentrate on local strengths, be they in materials, crops,

and culture or personnel skills to create distinctive products

which can then be effectively marketed locally or inter-

nationally. As already noted, knowledge is power and the

various approaches toward evergreen revolution involve

knowledge empowerment of the farming and fishing

communities. If the green revolution was top–down, the

evergreen revolution is essentially bottom–up and partici-

patory (Kesavan and Swaminathan 2008).

Strategy 3: Demystification of Technologies

A key component of any TT process is the effective

transfer of the skills and intangible know-how that ensure

production capability (UN 2001). Sustainable development

requires the implementation of appropriate environmen-

tally friendly technologies which are both efficient and

adapted to local conditions. Figure 1 shows a simple

pathway of the technology cycle for global development.

This starts from the need for growth and development in

developing countries and the role that TT from developed

countries can play. It proceeds through technological

capabilities for development, which ultimately result in a

number of positive attributes peculiar to developed coun-

tries. Key requirements include targeting the poor for

technology development and some sort of adaptation to

local conditions. According to Bell and Pavitt (1993),

technological capabilities are ‘‘the resources needed to

generate and manage change, including skills, knowledge

and experience, and institutional structures and linkages.’’

A key concept in the ‘technological capabilities’ approach

to enterprise development is ‘technological learning’ and

the concept of the ‘learning firm’ (Cohen and Levinthal

1987; Marlerba 1992), describing the way in which enter-

prises acquire and enhance these capabilities. For Bell and

Pavitt (1993), technological learning refers to ‘‘any process

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by which the resources for generating and managing

technical change (technological capabilities) are increased

or strengthened.’’

To overcome some of the challenges of introducing

GMOs, there would be a need to explore more possibilities

to ensure a safe and fair management of agricultural and

aquatic biotechnology as a global public good. The need

for a strong commitment from non-governmental organi-

zations, governments, and industry to design a common

strategy for the optimization of this emerging technology in

developed and developing countries cannot be over-

emphasized. Public acceptance of GMOs or products

derived from them is likely to be a matter of education, by

demonstrating that they are safe to eat with the approval by

regulatory agencies and competitive prices. Part of the

largest concern about GMOs is that it is the poorest who

have the least choice about managing the risks which are

still unknown and which, even if applied locally, may

prove to have global impacts.

In general, technological capabilities have been speci-

fied in various ways (e.g., Dahlman and Westphal 1983;

Dahlman et al. 1987; Lall 1992, 2004). Technological

capabilities are particularly important as they are the basis

for the creativity, flexibility, and dynamism of an economy.

Strategy 4: Local Adaptation of Transferred Technology

Because successful projects create real development, when

introducing a new technology, preference should be given

not only to the most economical and/or efficient solution,

but also to the one that emerges as having the best rela-

tionship with the local social and cultural framework

(Esposto 2009). For technology to add to capacity in

developing countries, then it should not only be transferred

but also be adapted to local conditions to meet local needs.

Technology transferred to developing countries often

encounters rapid breakdowns due to inadequate capacity

and unfavorable local environmental conditions. This paper

suggests that among other requirements, for sustainable

development to be a development paradigm in developing

countries, the target should be at least 80 % local tech-

nology growth and 20 % TT.

Also response to technological marginalization will

require, among other factors, sustainable industrial progress

through the application of ‘‘safe-fail’’ and not ‘‘fail-safe’’ TT

and management techniques at appropriate national, sec-

toral, and enterprise levels (Redford and Taber 2000). The

‘‘safe-fail’’ approach to TT is based on the premise—where

things work, we amplify them; where they fail, we dampen

their impact. As we move from a fail-safe design strategy to

one of safe-fail experimentation, we do not assume that we

can know in advance what the right solution is, but we do

understand a process by which that solution can be discov-

ered through action rather than reflection. One hundred

percent (100 %) transferred technology is more likely to end

up as partially failed technology in developing countries.

Strategy 5: Growing Technology From the Grassroots

Ramanathan (2002) in his paper on ‘‘Successful transfer of

environmentally sound technologies for greenhouse gas

mitigation…’’ argues for technologies relevant to the local

needs of the developing countries and sufficient expertise

made available in the local market to maintain the tech-

nology. This is still far from been achieved, going by the

present situation in developing countries. Thus, grassroot

Fig. 1 Technology cycle for

global development

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TID strategic approaches should be encouraged in devel-

oping countries, as it bridges the gaps between technology

and human development, thereby fostering the global quest

for sustainable development. However, in growing tech-

nology from the grassroots, the need for a participatory

approach cannot be over-emphasized. Participatory

approaches to development interventions, pioneered by

writers such as Chambers (1995, 1997), have now largely

entered mainstream thinking. They are even advocated by

such institutions as the World Bank, and the technique of

‘Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)’ is now ubiquitous.

Through the application of PRA techniques, local situa-

tions can be assessed for community technology develop-

ment. However, the limitations of participatory methods

become a problem where exaggerated confidence in their

efficacy leads to their being used exclusively and uncriti-

cally (Pelkey 1996). According to Biggs and Smith (1998),

technology development processes typically involve con-

flicts over the direction, pace, and significance of change.

Therefore, coalition building should be a priority for

individuals and organizations participating in technology

development. If we really want to give efficient support to

a population in need, more complex and locally oriented

approaches to problems are needed (Esposto 2009).

Examples of Localized TID Strategies

An overview of the TID strategies, operations, and lessons

is presented in Table 2. The transfer of outside knowledge

and the promotion of traditional knowledge have proven to

be sustainable in some developing countries. A good

example is the ‘‘biovillage’’ model of the M.S. Swamina-

than Research Foundation (MSSRF) (http://www.mssrf.

org/ecotech/ecotech-biovillage.html) in India (Kesavan and

Swaminathan 2006). Here, pro-poor orientation is achieved

by employing interventions that improve the livelihood

security of the resource poor through empowering them

with technology and skills.

The biovillage paradigm is a good example of TID stra-

tegic approaches dealing with some of the challenges of TT

(ecotechnology) especially in developing countries,

addressing major socio-economic problems to meet the goal

of sustainable development. It is considered as ‘Technology

in Action,’ where sustainability is ensured through appro-

priate interventions/technology dissemination that is envi-

ronment friendly and provides opportunities for ensuring

livelihood security (Kesavan and Swaminathan 2006).

Coastal communities can access both the land and marine

resources for developing ecotechnologies and eco-enter-

prises. The coastal biovillage paradigm, therefore, takes into

account both the marine- and the land-based natural

resources for developing eco-enterprises, as well as training

and capacity building of the local communities. Harnessing

leading-edge technologies and blending them with the tra-

ditional wisdom and ecological prudence of the rural farm-

ing, fishing, and tribal forest dwellers by the MSSRF resulted

in technologies which are pro-nature, pro-poor, pro-women,

and pro-employment oriented. Some of the features and

approaches to the biovillage model are synthesized in

Table 3, and the processes and operations of the biovillage

model are fully reflected in the five strategies proposed as

approaches to TID for sustainable aquatic resource man-

agement in developing countries. Another recent TID-rela-

ted initiative in India is the CSIR-800 Tech Villages concept.

The Australian Council of Scientific and Industrial Research

(CSIR) launched the CSIR-800 programme with the aspi-

ration of improving the lives of 800 million Indians through

Science and Technology interventions. While CSIR-800

works in the technology arena, it recognizes societal needs as

equally important.

China’s experience in creating millions of farm jobs

through its Rural Township Enterprise Program has been

successful. This provides insight into the diversification of

work opportunities in villages (Swaminathan 1994) and

could be adopted in some other developing countries.

An example of an innovative response to the introduction

of genetically modified aquatic products in developing

countries is the selective breeding of Nile Tilapia at the

International Institute for Living Aquatic Resources Man-

agement (ICLARM), now known as The WorldFish Centre,

an international, non-profit, non-governmental organization

that works with partners to reduce poverty and hunger by

improving fisheries and aquaculture in developing countries.

This breeding led to a strain called Genetically Improved

Farmed Tilapia (GIFT) that significantly outperformed the

most widely farmed strains of Tilapia in Asia, both in terms

of growth and survival rates (yield potential is 25–78 %

higher, depending on local conditions). Tilapia (sometimes

known as ‘‘everybody’s fish’’) is popular especially among

resource-poor fish farmers because it is vigorous and toler-

ates crowding. It eats almost everything, from rice bran to

weed and even sewage. The selective breeding of Nile

Tilapia adapted to the local conditions in these countries is a

good example of localized technology innovation and

development strategies for sustainable management of

aquatic resources.

The environmental impact of such fish in different

regions is assessed by ICLARM in various stages and

accompanied by ex ante and ex-post monitoring. The

potential impact on biodiversity cannot, however, be

investigated to the same extent as would be possible in

developed countries with the means to collect the data

required. To date, no negative impacts of GIFT have been

reported.

ICLARM’s policy is to determine trade-offs between

different types of research (an all embracing impact

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assessment). In the case of the GIFT-impact assessment,

the farmed Nile Tilapia is compared to alternative uses of

natural resources for food production (ICLARM 2001).

In this vein, another suitable example of aquatic bio-

technology being pursued as an important option in

addressing food security is from Cuba. Cuba is a particu-

larly interesting case following the end of the Cold War,

Cuba could no longer rely on trade with other communist

countries, but was unwilling to join the capitalist world. In

the search for a strategy to overcome food insecurity and

dependence on food imports, the government launched a

National Food Programme in 1989. This combined the

promotion of biotechnology with traditional conservation

methods and with local low-input practices. In the mean-

time, transgenic varieties of all important food crops are

currently under development in Cuba. The first transgenic

product that has become available as food for consumers in

2000 is a genetically modified Tilapia, a transgenic fish that

grows faster (Lehmann 2000). Other nations that have

developed transgenic fish include the USA, Canada, EU,

China, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan. It is still too

early to judge the success of Cuba’s approach, but it is

certain that lessons drawn from their experience will help

to design appropriate strategies for other regions which

may wish to adopt a similar strategy.

Considering the vast interest in the technology, it is

anticipated that transgenic fish will represent a new gen-

eration of broodstock, which will enhance the capacity and

intensity of aquacultural output.

All of the above-mentioned platforms and other new

emerging technologies will undoubtedly generate the

‘‘gene revolution’’ that will contribute to future food

security.

Germany‘s contribution through the Deutsche Gesell-

schaft fur Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ, formerly

GTZ) program on sustainable sanitation (ECOSAN) is

another good example of technology development and

adaptation for sustainable aquatic resource development in

developing countries. It provides valuable guidance on

CWs for wastewater and greywater treatment in developing

countries and countries in transition. The ecological sani-

tation (ECOSAN) approach is able to address child health,

which needs to be improved through better household

sanitation and wastewater treatment, and also sustainable

management and safe recycling of important resources

such as water and nutrients (Robert and Robert 2004;

Table 2 Overview of TID strategies for sustainable management of aquatic resources in developing countries

TID strategies Operation/process Examples/lessons References

1. Provision of

capacity to manage

TT

Training and capacity building of the

rural communities, provision of

microcredit for the microenterprises

and establishing market linkages

China’s Rural Township Enterprise

Program. Biovillage and CSIR 800

Tech village programs in India. Evolves

evergreen/ecological revolution

involving knowledge empowerment of

the rural (farming and fishing)

communities. Pro-poor orientation

improves the livelihood security of the

resource poor through empowering

them with technology and skills

Kesavan and Swaminathan

((2008) and Measham (2007)

2. Bottom-up

approach in the

application of TT

for sustainable

management

Exploring the specific material and

human resources of small communities

to promote economic expansion

‘‘Sustainable sanitation –ECOSAN’’

program of the GIZ. CWs. Key features

are adaptation to local conditions, cost

effectiveness, and adequate capacity for

local management of water resources

Esposto (2009), Biggs and

Smith (1998), Tougiani et al.

(2009), Robert and Robert

(2004)), and Okurut (2000)

3. Demystification of

technologies

Effective transfer of the skills and

intangible know- how that ensure

production capability. Strengthening

technological capabilities

GIFT selective breeding of Nile Tilapia

adapted to the local conditions

UN (2001), Bell and Pavitt

(1993), and ICLARM (2001)

4. Local adaptation of

transferred

technology

New technologies that emerge as having

the best relationship with the local

social and cultural framework

Seawater Greenhouse technology. Sahara

Forest Project scheme. Aims to provide

fresh water, food, and renewable energy

in hot arid regions as well as re-

vegetating areas of uninhabited desert

Clery (2011), Evenson and

Westphal (1995), and

Ramanathan (2002)

5. Growing

technology from the

grassroots

Harnessing leading-edge technologies

and blending them with traditional

wisdom and ecological prudence

The ‘‘biovillage model’’ of M.S.

Swaminathan Research Foundation

(MSSRF), India. Bridges the gaps

between technology and human

development, and fosters quest for

sustainable development

Swaminathan (1994), Kesavan

and Swaminathan (2006), and

Ramanathan (2002)

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Okurut 2000). In developing countries, CWs are flexible

systems which can be used for single households or for

entire communities. As more and more regions are expe-

riencing droughts or flooding due to climate change, water

recycling and resilient technologies are key aspects to

adapt to these effects of climate change. Also, based on

past experiences of GIZ with CWs in diverse countries

such as the Philippines, Syria, and Albania, CWs are

considered as a suitable technology for sustainable waste-

water management especially for developing countries.

The main features are adaptation to local conditions, cost

effectiveness, and adequate capacity for local management

of water resources. GIZ accordingly follows an integrated,

potential-oriented approach to promoting the enterprise

innovation. This approach is geared to (national) innova-

tion systems within which innovation and technological

progress form a central basis for knowledge-based eco-

nomic development (Wetzel 2000; Beharrel et al. 2002).

Lessons drawn from these examples of localized TID

strategies are that steps taken toward aquatic resource

productivity enhancement should concurrently address the

conservation and improvement of soil, water, biodiversity,

atmosphere, and renewable energy sources, among others.

This is discussed in the context of linking sustainable

aquatic resources with food security for poor rural and

coastal communities in developing countries. In a way,

these seem to fulfill the urgent need to usher in an Eco-

logical Revolution as sequel to the Agriculture Revolution

and the Industrial Revolution to save humanity and planet

Earth, which are at a crossroads (Clarke 2006).

For localized technology to fully deliver the gains of

sustainable aquatic resource management in the face of

current technological challenges, the need for innovations

and knowledge cannot be over-emphasized. Knowledge

and its application in innovative products and processes are

becoming the most important competitive factor to main-

tain or increase competitive advantages. Although the

success of innovation systems depends on a number of

country-specific factors such as market conditions, entre-

preneurial capability, public infrastructure, and cultural

norms and values, innovation systems are increasingly

subject to external influences, such as foreign direct

investment, international (trade) agreements, and interna-

tional research cooperation. Also innovation capability will

depend on how different actors work together efficiently

and effectively in a system to generate and market new

ideas.

Concluding Remark

As effective aquatic resource management strategies are

considered in the context of current and projected global

environmental change, it is important to understand if and

how advances in technology have impacted global aquatic

resources and how ecosystems have changed over time.

This paper highlights localized technology innovations

and development strategies to neutralize technological

challenges for sustainable management of aquatic

resources, especially in developing countries. Proposed

TID strategies, among others, recognize the need for

provision of localized capacity to manage technology

through knowledge empowerment for largely illiterate,

unskilled, and resource-poor rural and coastal communi-

ties and technology development through cooperation.

Finally, these strategies are examined and implications

are considered for training, education, and participatory

technology development.

Acknowledgments Much of this work has been inspired through

my participation as an invited early career speaker at the 17th Asian

Symposium on Ecotechnology on November 11–13, 2010 at Unazuki

International Hall ‘‘Selene,’’ Kurobe, Japan, and open discussions

with lecturers and speakers, particularly with the works of Dipak

Table 3 Features of the ‘‘biovillage model’’ approach of M.S.

Swaminathan Research Foundation in TID strategic approaches for

sustainable development (synthesized from http://www.mssrf.org/

ecotech.html)

Features Content and approaches

Biovillage key

components

Participatory Technology Development (PTD)

mode of TTs

Training and capacity building

Grassroot institutional building

Micro financial services

Partnership and linkages

Technological

challenges

Diffusing environmentally sound technology

Harmonizing the needs of the present with the

future generation

TID strategic

approaches

Appropriate blends of traditional ecology and

frontier science

Identifying and involving actors according to

different situations, capacities, and priorities

of rural areas and regions

Adaptive participatory research and

development

Ensuring institutionalization with local

community for continuity

Invention/technology dissemination

Derived benefits Strengthening and diversifying the existing

livelihoods

Identifying alternative livelihoods for the

resource poor

Eco-entrepreneurship

Pro-nature, pro-poor, and pro-women

orientation

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Gyawali and M.S Swaminathan. I have enjoyed a fellowship support

from the United Nations University Institute for Advanced Study on

Sustainability (UNU IAS), Japan.

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