Teaching low-income mothers to teach their children

Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 11, 101-l 14 (1996)

Teaching Low-Income Mothers to Teach Their Children

Dale L. johnson

University of Houston

Todd B. Walker Gloria G. Rodriguez

Avance, San Antonio, TX

The effectiveness of the Avance Parent-Child Education Program in teaching low-income, Mexican American mothers of infants to teach their own children was examined. In two program waves, 486 mother-child dyads participated in program or control groups. Significant program effects were found on Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME) scores, on view of self as teacher, and on videotaped mother- child interactions. Program participants became highly skilled teachers of their young children, and the results continued to be present at a l-year follow-up.

Because children of low-income families are at high risk for school failure, many early education programs have been developed to provide parent education and resources to reduce this risk (e.g., Andrews et al., 1982; Lazar & Darlington, 1982). Although there is some evidence demonstrating effectiveness (Lazar et al., 1982; Johnson & Walker, 1991a), it is questionable whether programs designed and implemented in the 1960s and 1970s will meet the needs of young children and their parents in the late 1990s. The research presented here is part of a larger evaluation of Avance, a parent education and family support program for low-income Mexican American mothers of infants.

Support for this research was received from the Carnegie Corporation of New York. Special thanks are also given to the University of Houston students who coded mother-child

interaction tapes: Katherine Alder, Eric Brown, Patty Daza, Timothy Meier, Carmen Siman,

Vicki Stulb, and Cheryl Wright. Correspondence and requests for reprints should be sent to Dale L. Johnson, University of

Houston, Department of Psychology, Houston, TX 77204-5341.

101

102 Johnson, Walker, and Rodriguez

Although Avance was begun in 1973, it is very much a program for the 1990s. Avance was a forerunner of current national initiatives, such as the Comprehensive Child Development Program and Even Start, that integrate two kinds of intervention strategies: (1) services designed to promote the optimal development of the child through parenting education, early childhood education, and high quality child care and (2) programs that promote family self-sufficiency through adult education, vocational education, and enhanced employment status (see Smith, 1995, for a description of these two generation programs). Through a focus on both developmental and employment goals, two generation programs strive to enhance the long- term outcomes of children. Avance is currently providing a wide range of supportive services to families in addition to parent education, and it is placing emphasis on helping mothers to improve their earning abilities.

An extensive evaluation of the program was carried out. Program goals were described by the staff, and the evaluation was designed to determine whether these goals had been attained at the end of the program and whether the program continued to show effectiveness 1 year later. The evaluation covered the following: (a) educational stimulation provided in the home, (b) mothers’ knowledge about community resources, (c) mothers’ knowledge about child rearing, (d) mothers’ attitudes and beliefs about child rearing,

(e) mothers’ attitudes toward education and role as a teacher, (f) mothers’ attitudes toward self, (g) mothers’ motivation for achievement, (h) social support, (i) effects on children, and (j) mothers’ involvement in education and employment. Evaluation details appear in the final report (Johnson, Walker & Rodriquez, 1991a). The research presented here examined one aspect of the program: the program’s effectiveness in teaching low-income mothers of infants to become good teachers of their children. It is assumed that positive maternal teaching will be associated with better preparation for school and, subsequently, greater school success.

Many programs have been designed to have an influence on child school performance by inclusion of parents in the program, assuming parents would become more effective teachers. The Avance program is similar to these projects in its concern for the inclusion of mothers in attempts to improve the educational readiness of low-income children. It differs from many projects in having a relatively large sample size, use of an experimental procedure, and assessment of outcomes with multiple measures. Furthermore, the Avance program has an explicit goal to help mothers become better teachers of their children.

The programs represented in the Child Survival/Fair Start initiative provide instances of less explicit assumptions of effects on maternal teaching behaviors (Larner, Halpern, & Harkavy, 1992). For example, Center for Developmental Education and Nutrition (CEDEN) program goals for mothers used the phrase “reinforced in their role as teachers” (Aracena, Adams, & Davis, 1992, p. 70), but none of the Fair Start programs specifically address

Teaching Mothers to leach 103

enhancing maternal teaching skills. This lack of explicit mention of teaching enhancement may be reflected in the programs’ evaluation results. One program (Clinton, 1992) found significant Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME) Factor IV (provision of appropriate play materials) effects at Year 1 and Year 2, but two others failed to find significant HOME differences (Aracena, Adams, & Davis, 1992; Nagy, Leeper, Hullett- Robertson, & Northrup, 1992). A fourth found significant mother-child interaction results for mother teaching and positive affect (Widmayer, Peterson, Calderon, Carnahan, & Wingerd, 1992). The meaningfulness of results remains in question because none of these projects successfully used random assignment to intervention and control groups.

Other programs have been based on the premise that parental involvement and teaching is important for a child’s educational readiness. These include a High/Scope home-based parent-infant program that found significant mother teaching effects using a mother-child interaction measure (Lambie, Bond, & Weikart, 1974). In addition, all three of the Parent-Child Development Centers (PCDCs) obtained significant end-of-program results with videotaped mother-child interaction methods showing improved teaching behaviors by the mothers (Andrews et al., 1982). In addition, the Houston PCDC had significant effects for HOME Factor IV. In contrast to these positive findings, an evaluation of Project CARE found no program effects on HOME scores at any of the five time-points examined (Wasik, Ramey, Bryant, & Sparling, 1990), and the Perry Preschool Program did not find significant mother teaching effects on a measure of stimulation provided by the home environment (Weikart, Deloria, and Lawser, 1970).

Olds, Henderson, Chamberlin, and Tatelbaum (1986) also found their nurse-visited mothers had higher HOME Factor IV scores. However, in another home-visiting program (Gray, Ramsey, & Klaus, 1982), no significant maternal teaching effects were obtained. In yet another program evaluation, Madden, O’Hara, and Levenstein (1984) found a significant increase in positive maternal interactive behaviors for two of three cohorts examined. However, in another evaluation of the Levenstein model carried out with Bermuda families, Starr and McCartney (1988) found no program effects on maternal teaching behaviors.

There are several other projects that have assessed their clearly stated goal of teaching mothers specifically to teach their children. Causby, Nixon, and Bright (1991) taught parenting skills to a small sample of adolescent mothers and found the trained group provided more positive interactions with their children than did the control mothers. Weistuch, Lewis, and Sullivan (1991) successfully used a language intervention program with mothers of preschoolers to enhance the language competence of their children. Resnick (1985) examined the effects of two prevention programs for high-risk mothers of young children. One program employed a life-skills,


esteem-building format, and the other life-skills and parent training. Neither program improved parenting skills. The absence of positive results was said to be the result of the short-term and low-intensity nature of the program.

This sampling of the results of mother teaching attempts has yielded mixed results, with some evidence of success and some failures. Why these mixed results have appeared remains a mystery. Most of the studies were done with small samples (with the exception of the PCDCs), and most have had a restricted range of measures. Several included maternal teaching almost as a peripheral issue to the core of the program.

The study reported here focused specifically on a program’s attempt to teach mothers to teach their young children.

AVANCE PARENT-CHILD EDUCATION PROGRAM

The Avance Parent-Child Education Program is a 9-month comprehensive center-based program with an in-home component. Avance offers parenting education and family support to parents and their birth to 2-year-old children. From September through May the mothers and children are trans- ported to weekly 3-hr classes held at the facility closest to their home. At the Avance Center mothers make educational toys, receive lessons in child growth and development, learn to see themselves as role models for and teachers of their children, and learn about social services located in the community. While mothers are in classes, children are in an educational day care setting. The toy-making class component provides opportunities for the development of self-confidence, socializing, and exposure to the idea that children learn through play. In addition, parents are visited once a month at home. The parent-child dyad is observed in a play situation with an Avance toy during which time the home visitor emphasizes to the parent the importance of her role as a teacher and effective caretaker. The visit is also used to provide the mother with individual assistance and support. Periodically, home visits are videotaped by program staff. These videotapes are reviewed by the participant and later by the entire class so the mothers can learn from each other.

Most mothers choose to continue with the Avance program for a second year. During this time they attend courses for English as a Second Language, prepare for the high school General Equivalency Diploma examination, take community college courses, or otherwise develop their vocational skills.

Although the program has an extensive list of goals, the prevention of school failure by fostering the early cognitive and motivational development of the child is one of the most important. It is expected that this will be accomplished by assisting the mother to become a good teacher and that, in turn, means that she prepare a warm, accepting environment for learning,

Teaching Mothers to Teach 105

place emphasis on language development and clear communication between parent and child, structure the specific teaching environment, engage in direct instruction when appropriate, and avoid intruding on the child’s exploratory efforts. In addition, it is expected that the mother will regard herself as a good teacher, will provide stimulating play materials, and, in general, make the home an educationally enriched environment. Program staff expect the Avance program to have positive effects on the ability of mothers to teach their children and that this should be apparent in their actual teaching behaviors and in their attitudes about teaching (Johnson, Walker & Rodriguez, 1991a).

METHOD

Participants The participants were 486 women who took part in the Avance program (n = 207) or were in the control group (n = 279). One year later, at Time 2, 361 women were available for assessment, and at Time 3, 313 women were available. At the beginning of the project all participants had infants between 1 and 24 months of age. The program was tested in two sites in San Antonio, Texas, Westside and Southside, with two cohorts, that is, annual groups, of participants each. Random assignment to groups was used at Southside, with eligible mothers asked if they would be willing to participate in either the program or the control condition, depending on chance selection. Both options were described. It the mother then agreed, she was assigned to the program or control group using a random numbers table. For the Westside site, owing to the long history of Avance in that site and the location’s popu- lation density, random assignment was deemed unworkable, and a matched group design was used. Families were selected from a housing project similar to that used for the program group. Groups were matched on the basis of child age, child gender, mother’s age, mother’s marital status, number of children, mother’s level of education, family annual income, and mother’s country of origin. Participants were tested before the program began (Tl), at the end of the first year (T2), and at 1 year follow-up (T3). The possibility of bias in original assignment to groups or of bias resulting from differential attrition was examined using all of the background characteristics in Table 1 and all assessment measures used in Tl in the analyses. No evidence of bias was found. Background characteristics of participants who were available for data collection at Tl and T2 appear in Table 1. The dropout rate was 47% for the program group and 10% for the control group. Dropout was higher for program participants because time demands were greater for them. The main reasons for dropping out of the program were moving too far from the centers to continue participation and obtaining employment with com- peting schedules. These factors had little impact on control group members,


Table 1. Baseline Demographic Characteristics of Program and Control Group Participants by Site

Westside

Exp Con

Southside

Exp COfl

MCI

Exp COll

n 56 118 54 133 106 98

Age 23.6 24.6 26.1 25.6 24.8 24.9

Number of children 2.4 2.7 2.5 2.4 2.5 2.5

Hispanic 100.0 95.7 100.0 95.5 100.0 96.9

First generation (%) 21.5 13.8 32.8 23.9 30.8 17.3

Years of education 9.4 9.4 10.3 9.9 9.6 9.7

High school dropout (o/o) 80.0 74.1 51.7 61.9 71.2 68.4

Coupled (%) 56.9 38.8 89.7 74.6 74.0 64.3

Annual income 5,862 4,655 10,848 8,445 8,271 7,070

Exp = Experimental group; Con = Control group; MCI = Sample of research subjects who participated in the mother-child Interaction sessions.

as data collectors sought them out wherever they were in San Antonio and scheduled data collection to accommodate working mothers, but as program completion was required to be considered an Avance graduate, dropouts were not followed. As noted above, dropouts were compared with stays for experimental and control groups and no evidence of biased attrition was found.

For the mother-child interaction a subsample of program participants was selected randomly from the total program group. These were matched with control participants using the same variables used to comprise the Westside sample for the main evaluation. Codable videotapes were available for 106 program and 98 control mother-child dyads, but the number available for use at either time period was smaller (see Table 4). Sites were com- bined for these analyses.

Procedure Three measures of teaching effectiveness were used to test the effects of Avance.

Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME). HOME (Caldwell & Bradley, 1984) is an observation/interview carried out with the mother in the home when the child is present. The Infant-Toddler version was used at Tl and at T2. At Tl and T2 the total score and Factor IV, provision of appropriate play materials, were used. Factor IV was used because it is the only HOME factor that is specifically designed to measure maternal teaching behaviors. At T3 the Early Childhood version was used with older children and the Infant-Toddler version with younger children, and standardized total scores were analyzed. Home total scores have been found to be the best predictors of later school performance (Bradley & Caldwell, 1984). HOME total scores measure the general provision of edu-

Teaching Mothers to leach 107

cationally relevant stimulation in the home. Staff were trained by a HOME expert, and interrater reliability correlations were above .80. HOME total scores can range from 0 to 45 for the Infant version and from 0 to 55 for the Preschool version. Scores can range from 0 to 9 for Factor IV. Other psycho- metric characteristics of HOME have been reviewed by Bradley (1992).

Mother-Child Interaction (MCI). The videotaped MCI with a free-play condition was used to examine interaction in a standard setting. Mothers interacted with their children in a book task, free play, and clean up. The free-play section of 5 min was used for the present analysis to simulate what mothers might do spontaneously with their children in their own home. The toys available were commonly found in the homes, control as well as program. Coding was done on 41 variables (Clark, Smith, & Leifer, undated). Of these, 11 maternal variables were selected for their relevance to maternal teaching style. These included measures of affect, communication, and cognitive stimulation. Variables selected were all of the maternal variables with the exception of the insensitive/ignoring codes, which were not used because their use required the occurrence of difficult behaviors on the part of the child, and these were rare. Child and dyad variables also were not used. Coding was done away from Avance research and program offices by especially trained coders who were blind to the group status of the participants. Coders included research assistants who were fluent in Spanish and English. Training continued until high levels of reliability were obtained. Ratings for each variable could range from 1 to 4. Intercoder correlations ranged from .78 to .96, with all but one above .80. Little validity informa- tion is available for this measure. In the Avance evaluation, MCI composite scores for communication and cognitive stimulation measured at T2 were positively correlated significantly with child Stanford-Binet Fourth Edition Composite and Verbal scores and negatively correlated with total child behavior problems when the tests were administered at ages 3 to 4 years. The maternal variables used in the analysis and the arrangement for com- bining variables into composite scores are shown in Table 2. The sample size are for those participants available at T2.

Early Learning Questionnaire (ELQA The ELQ (Kahn, Lopez, & Johnson, 1976) was used to assess the mothers’ attitudes about being teachers of their children. The ELQ is comprised of statements such as, “Parents should read to their children before they are three years old” and “Parents have a lot of influence over how children learn.” The ELQ has 9 items which have 4 response points; thus, scores can range from 9 to 36. The ELQ was available in Spanish or English. The test-retest (1 year) reliability was .53.

All data collection procedures were carried out by female, Hispanic research assistants whose linguistic fluency included Spanish and English. Data were collected in the research offices or the mothers’ homes.


Table 2. Mother-Child Interaction Variables and Composite Variables

Mother Behavior Variables Composite Variables

Positive affect Affect

Negative affect

Apathy

Social initiation

Quality of communication vocalizations

Amount of vocalization

Contingent praise

Encourage child verbalization

Communication

StructurcsImediates environment

Intrusiveness

Amount of teaching

Cognitive stimulation

Method of Analysis Two methods of analysis were used to examine the HOME and ELQ data. First, analyses for data from the two sites were conducted separately. For the HOME and ELQ analyses, analyses of covariance (ANCOVAs) employ- ing experimental condition as the factor were used with Tl scores controlled, even though no statistically significant group differences had been found. Second, data were analyzed with a priori orthogonal contrasts established to examine the main effect for experimental group differences (E, + Em vs Cr + Cm) and the simple effects within experimental condition by type of assignment (Er vs. Em; C, vs C,). In these analyses r refers to the randomized data from the southside and m to matched group data from the Westside.

The frequency distributions of the MCI variables subdivided by experimental condition (experimental and control group) were analyzed for equality using the x2 statistic. The MCI composite scores provided more normally distributed variables that were analyzed with one-way analyses of variance (ANOVAs) using experimental condition as the factor.

RESULTS

Highly significant differences were obtained at both sites favoring the program participants on HOME total scores at both T2 and T3 and on Factor IV at T2. In the second analysis, with both sites included, the results were essentially the same. There were no effects for site.

MCI results were significant and favored the experimental group for amount of teaching efforts, quality of mother’s communicative vocalizations, encouragement of child’s verbalizations, amount of mother’s vocalizations, social initiation, contingent praise, and mother’s positive affect.


Table 3. Means, Standard Deviations, and ANCOVA Results for the HOME and Early Learning Questionnaire Measures by Project Site and Assessment Time

EXP

Westside Southside

Mean Mean

(SD) (SD) Con F EXP Con F

Time 1

HOME

Play materials

Total score

Early Learning Questionnaire

Time 2

HOME

Play materials

Total score


Time 3

HOME

Total scorea


5.1 5.6

(2.1) (2.0) 31.3 31.6

(6.0) (5.4) 26.2 26.4

(2.8) (2.5)

7.1

(1.4) 35.0

(4.5) 27.3

(3.1)

6.4

(1.7) 31.5

(5.8) 25.5

(2.5)

.34

( .7) 27.0

(3.0)

-.I5

(1.1) 26.3

(2.7)

2.6

0.1

0.2

7.4**

20.2***

4.7*

9.8**

2.4

5.6

(2.1) 33.1

(5.9) 27.0

(3.2)

7.6

(1.3) 36.9

(4.8) 28.1

(2.6)

.37

( .9) 27.7

(2.9)

5.4

(2.1) 32.3

(5.6) 27.1

(2.7)

6.8

(1.7) 33.8

(5.1) 27.3

(2.8)

~ .17

(1.0) 27.7

(2.9)

0.2

0.6

0.1

9.s**

15.6***

4.3*

II .9***

0.0

No/e. The means for Time 2 (end of program) and Time 3 (1 year follow-up) adjusted for Time 1 (program beginning) are presented with the corresponding standard deviations (in parentheses).

a The version of HOME used depended on child age. Standard scores were calculated in order to combine data for analysis from both versions of HOME.

*p< .05. **p< .Ol. ***p< ,001.

These results were obtained at T2 and T3. x2 results appear in Table 3. Sig- nificant group differences appeared on all measures except structures and mediates the environment and intrusiveness. On the MCI composite scores, there were significant differences on affect, communication, and cognitive stimulation at both T2 and T3 (see Table 4).

The ELQ results were significant at both sites at T2, but not at T3 (see Table 2). These results were obtained for analyses of sites separately or with both sites included. In the latter analysis, the control groups were found to differ significantly by site, F(1,308) = 6.73); p c .Ol, with the Southside having higher scores.


Table 4. Experimental and Control Cbi-Square Results on Maternal Coding Scales of Mother-Child Interaction Sessions

Time 2 Time 3

Positive affect

Negative affect

Apathy

Social initiation Quality of communicative vocalizations

Amount of vocalizations

Contingent praise

Encouragement of child verbalizations

Structures and mediates the environment

Intrusiveness

Amount of teaching efforts

***

** **

*** *** ** **

***

** *

** **

*** ** **

***

*p< .05. **p< .Ol. ***p< ,001.

Table 5. Experimental-Control Differences on Maternal Composite Scores of Mother-Child Interaction Sessions at Two Assessment Times

Time 2 Time 3

Exp CO&l F EXP Con F (n=91) (n = 83) (n = 89) (n = 80)

Affect 11.4 10.5 19.1*** 11.3 10.5 11.s***

(1.0) (1.6) (1.2) (1.8) Communication 17.3 14.9 23.7*** 16.4 14.2 25.0***

(3.0) (3.6) (2.6) (3.0) Cognitive stimulation 10.2 9.0 18.8*** 10.0 9.2 12.7***

(1.5) (1.9) (1.4) (1.6)

Exp = Experimental group; Con = Control group. ***p< ,001.

DISCUSSION

The program goals having to do with mothers becoming effective teachers of their young children were clearly attained as determined through three different measures of maternal teaching. Women in the program not only believed that they could be teachers of their children, they were able to put their beliefs into action with highly skilled interactions with their children.

The program mothers also were found to provide a more educationally

stimulating environment for their children as assessed by the HOME procedure. This was true as a general stimulation effect (HOME total score) and for the provision of play materials factor score. The latter was expected to occur owing to the emphasis that Avance places on the use of toys as learning tools.


The mother-child interaction findings supported the Avance expectations that mothers will provide more cognitive stimulation in the sense of doing more teaching and structuring and mediating of the environment for learning. In addition, it was found that the mothers provided an affective context that is conducive to learning. The program mothers provided more positive affect both at the end of the program and 1 year later. Program mothers also communicated more effectively. They verbalized more, their quality of communication was higher, they used more contingent praise, and they were more encouraging of their child’s verbalizations.

It is of interest that the MCI results were in accord with those for HOME. Each method has special strengths and weaknesses. HOME is carried out in a natural setting, the family home, but as data collectors cannot be kept blind to the family’s group status the possibility of observational bias is present. The MCI recording was done at the research laboratories, a rather artificial setting, but tape coding is fully blind, avoiding any rater bias. That the two methods yielded similar results argues for the robustness of the results.

At the attitudinal/belief level, the program mothers more often said they regarded mothers as teachers of their children, This is what might be expected from participation in a program that makes this point in many ways weekly over a period of 9 months. Furthermore, the Avance-trained mothers were more likely to view themselves as effective teachers. They developed a greater sense of competence as teachers.

The positive results obtained raise the question of why they appeared so consistently for Avance and why results of other parent education programs have been so mixed. The answer may be found in examining the degree to which programs have goals for teaching mothers to teach and then specifically provide the relevant training. Nearly all Avance sessions included toy- making classes that not only taught how to make interesting and cognitively stimulating toys, but brought forward the point that through these toys and in other ways the mother was a teacher of her child.

The dropout rate of 47% for participants in the program is high, but not different from some other parent education, family support programs such as the Parent-Child Development Centers, which had dropout rates of at least 50% (Andrews et al., 1982). We found in our survey of women who left the program that the chief reason was that they had obtained employment and could no longer continue. Avance and work schedules conflicted, and employment plus ordinary household and family responsibilities placed such demands on time that there was no extra time for participation in a parent education/family support program. For very low-income families the prospect of additional income from the mother’s employment is highly attractive, for many, more attractive than continuing in the program. Ironi- cally, at a time when families seem to be in need of parent education and family support resources, they also have little time available for these re-


sources. The problem is a challenge not only for Avance, but for all parent education/family support developers.

The results obtained are similar to those obtained at the end of the program for the Houston Parent-Child Development Center (Andrews et al.,

1982), and it might be noted that the Houston program had positive effects on both school achievement (Johnson & Walker, 1991) and child behavior problems (Johnson & Walker, 1987) that were present at a 5 to &year follow- up. These findings may bode well for similar long-term outcomes. Further- more, in accord with the practice followed in most contemporary parent education programs, the Avance program requires less participant time. Avance requires approximately 150 hr in the first year compared with a total of 550 hr for the Houston PCDC.

Policymakers may find these results interesting and useful, especially the demonstration that mothers can be helped to become effective teachers of their young children. There have been many calls for greater involvement of parents in the education of their children. The Avance program involves parents very early in the child’s life and helps parents to understand that they are important teachers.

In the introduction, Avance was called a “program for the 1990s.” There are several program features that prompt this statement. Avance focuses on family strengths, It creates a sense of community for families that does not end with the completion of a particular program, but continues for as long as is desired by families. It has a staff organization that places culturally sensitive staff members, many of whom are previous participants, in posi- tions to teach and assist individuals similar to themselves. (For more on Avance, see Walker, Rodriquez, Johnson, & Cortez, 1995.) A major inno- vation, and a feature that distinguishes it from earlier programs, is the emphasis in the second year on helping mothers improve their educational and vocational skills (Johnson, Walker, & Rodriquez, 1991b). This was done in recognition of the fact that most of the women will at some time seek employment, and, as may be seen in Table 1, with less than a high school education on average there are at a disadvantage educationally. Avance has been successful in enhancing both child-teaching skills and vocational prospects.

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Teaching low-income mothers to teach their children

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