Tantra, American Style

Tantra, American Style

From the Path of Power to the Yoga of Sex

Hugh B. Urban

What I tell you must be kept with great secrecy. This must not be given to just anyone. It must only be given to a devoted disciple. It will be death to any others.

If liberation could be attained simply by having intercourse with a śakti [female partner], then all living beings in the world would be liberated just by having intercourse with women.

– Kulārṇavatantra, II.4, II.117

Because the science of Tantra was developed thousands of year ago… many of the techniques are not relevant to the needs of the contemporary Western lover….So while I have retained the Tantric goal of sexual ecstasy, I’ve developed new approaches to make this experience accessible to people today. High Sex weaves together the disciplines of sexology and humanistic psychology to give Western lovers the experience of sexual ecstasy taught by Tantra but using contemporary tools.

– Margo Anand, The Art of Sexual Ecstasy 1

Surely few terms in the vocabulary of Asian religions hold such a tan-talizing, titillating or controversial place in the contemporary American imagination as tantra. A word that conjures up images of exotic eroticism, mystical ecstasy and Oriental intrigue, Tantra has entered fully into both Western scholarship and popular discourse as a whole. Not only are enter-tainers like Sting practicing their own varieties of Tantric sex, but Tantra has now become a major commercial enterprise, marketed as the ideal

1 Margo Anand, The Art of Sexual Ecstasy: The Path of Sacred Sexuality for Western Lov-ers (Los Angeles: Jeremy P. Tarcher, Inc., 1989), 7.

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wedding of spiritual transcendence with this-worldly pleasure. The phrase “American Tantra” is now a registered trademark, representing a popular line of books, videos and other “ceremonial sensual” merchandise. 2

Yet if we examine the history of Tantra and its transmission to this country, we find that it has undergone some profound transformations in the course of its long “journey to the West.” For most Americans today, Tan-tra is defined simply as “spiritual sex” or the use of sexuality as a means to religious experience. As the “exotic art of prolonging your passion play” to achieve “nooky nirvana,” it is praised as a much-needed liberation of sexu-ality for a repressive Western world. 3 This would seem to be an image of Tantra very different from the one we find in most Indian traditions, where sex usually plays a fairly minor, often “unsexy” role, and there is typically far more emphasis on initiation, transmission of esoteric knowledge and elaborate ritual. 4 What we see, in other words, is a clear shift in the imag-ining of Tantra as it has been imported to this country – a shift from Tantra conceived as dangerous power and secrecy to Tantra conceived as healthy pleasure and liberated openness. This shift is exemplified by the two pas-sages quoted above: the first, a quote from one the most important Tantric texts, the Kulārṇavatantra, warns of the perils of revealing Tantric secrets to the uninitiated. Tantra, it is true, involves rites of sexual intercourse and consumption of wine, but these must only be engaged in guarded esoteric contexts; in the hands of the uninitiated masses they would lead to moral ruin. The contemporary neo-tāntrika, however, takes the opposite position. Jettisoning all the old ritual trappings as outdated or irrelevant, the neo-tāntrika takes only the most expedient of these techniques, mixes them with contemporary psychology and self-help wisdom and adapts them to a consumer capitalist audience.

In what follows, I will briefly re-trace the genealogy of Tantra’s rapid growth in the U. S. The contemporary imagining of Tantra, I will argue, is the result of a complex feed-back loop or a game of “cross-cultural ping-pong” between India and the West, through which American authors have selectively appropriated elements of Tantra – above all, the focus on sex and transgression – and re-worked them in the context of uniquely American obsessions. But it is an image of Tantra that has now been re-appropriated by contemporary Indian authors as well, to give birth to neo-Tantric gurus

2 Paul Ramana Das and Marilena Silbey, “American Tantra,” 2010. http: // www.ameri-cantantra.org / See Urban, Tantra: Sex, Secrecy, Politics and Power in the Study of Religion (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), chapter 6.

3 Lynn Collins, “The Secret to Tantric Sex,” Cosmopolitan (May, 2000): 240.4 See especially David Gordon White, The Kiss of the Yoginī: “Tantric Sex” in its South

Asian Contexts (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003); Tantra, chapter 1.

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like Osho Rajneesh and other meldings of East and West in a new age of global capitalism. Finally, through the new medium of the Internet and the global language of html, Tantra has spread to every corner of cyberspace, with on-line temples, electronic initiations and the cyber-orgasmic flow of śakti through the subtle veins and cakras of the world-wide web.

In my analysis of American Tantra, I will employ some of the insights of Michel Foucault, along with more recent authors like Andrew Weeks and Angus McLaren, who have examined the intense proliferation of discourse about sexuality in the 20th and 21st centuries. As McLaren comments,

“Today’s media, while claiming to be shocked by the subversiveness of car-nal desires, deluge the public with explicit sexual imagery to sell everything from Calvin Klein jeans to Black and Decker power drills. Sexuality… has invaded every aspect of public life. Sexual identity has indeed become a key defining category.” 5 As Foucault argues, however, it is a misconception to suppose that the history of sex in the West is a progressive narrative of liberation from Victorian repression. On the contrary, the Victorian age witnessed, not so much a repression, but instead an intense proliferation of discourse about sex, which was categorized, theorized and medically classified in endless detail. Conversely, our own age is perhaps not the age of sexual revolution that it is commonly imagined to be. Our sexual liberation has been accompanied by new forms of regulation, as we all as backlash and conservatism. What has happened, however, is that we have produced an incredible body of discourse – a kind of “over-knowledge” or

“hyper-development of discourse about sexuality, science of sexuality and knowledge of sexuality.” 6 Hence, it is more useful to think of sexuality as a constructed, contested category, whose boundaries have been renegoti-ated in each generation. The category of “sexuality” is itself a fairly recent invention, a product of the late 19th century; 7 and it is one that it is by no means fixed or static, but has been newly imagined in the changing social contexts of the last 100 years.

Similarly, as André Padoux and others have argued, the category of “Tantrism,” as a singular, abstract and relatively unified “ism” is itself

5 Angus McLaren, Twentieth Century Sexuality: A History (London: Blackwell 1999), 1.6 Michel Foucault, Religion and Culture, Jeremy R. Carrette, ed. (New York: Rout-

ledge, 1999), 117.7 The term “sexuality” first entered the English vocabulary through an 1892 translation of

Richard von Krafft-Ebing’s classic work on sexual deviance (McLaren, Twentieth Century Sexuality, 224n).

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largely the product of Western scholarship since the 19th century. 8 And surely its equation with “spiritual sex” is a fairly recent Western invention. As I will argue, the American preoccupation with Tantra has gone hand in hand with our larger preoccupation with and anxieties about sexual-ity – as a source of fascination and titillation as well as a source of scandal, moral outrage and public censorship.

After a brief discussion of Tantra’s “journey to the West,” during the era of colonialism and Orientalist scholarship (part I), I will examine a series of four key transformations that have occurred in the transmission of Tantra to the U. S. First, I will examine the sexualization and scandaliza-tion of Tantra in the early 20th century, which began with the founding of the first “Tantrik Order in America” by the infamous Dr. Pierre Arnold Bernard (II). Second, I will look at the commercialization and commodi-fication of Tantra, which began with the sexual revolution of the 60’s and reached its climax in the teachings of the notorious “Guru of the Rich,” Osho-Rajneesh (III). Third, I will examine the homoeroticization of Tantra in the last two decades, as Tantric practices have been increasingly appro-priated by gay, lesbian and sado-masochist communities (IV). And finally (V), I will discuss the digitalization and globalization of Tantra in the new world of the Internet, where the seemingly global language of html opens a new cross-cultural circulation of knowledge and power between East and West.

8 André Padoux, “Hindu Tantrism,” in Encyclopedia of Religion, v.14, ed. Mircea Eli-ade (New York: MacMillan, 1986), 273. See John Woodroffe, Shakti and Shākta (New York: Dover, 1978), 54.


I. From Black Art of the Crudest and Filthiest Kind to The Art of Spiritual Ecstasy:

Tantra’s Complex Journey to the West

The Tantras [exert] great influence in later days… The worship assumes wild, extravagant forms, generally obscene, sometimes bloody… We cannot go further into detail. It is profoundly saddening to think that such abominations are… are performed as part of divine worship. Conscience, however, is so far alive that these detestable rites are practiced only in secret.

– J. Murray Mitchell and Sir William Muir, Two Old Faiths 9

Tantra, it would seem, lies at a pivotal intersection between Indian and American imaginations, at the nexus of a complex play of representations and misrepresentations between East and West over the last 200 years. Not only was it a crucial part of the Western “imagining of India,” particu-larly during the colonial era; but it has been no less crucial a part of the

“re-imagining of America,” particularly during the eras of sexual liberation, feminism, gay rights and sexual politics at the turn of the new millennium. To most contemporary Americans, the word Tantra is usually imagined as the Cult of Ecstasy or Yoga of Sex – a religious path that combines the physical experience of sexual pleasure with the spiritual experience of lib-eration. Yet anyone who reads the classic Tantric texts quickly realizes that it often takes quite some time to get to the juicy stuff. In fact, most Sanskrit tantras are fairly dry ritual manuals, and when they do happen to deal with the infamous “fifth M” of maithuna or sexual intercourse, it is usually just a couple of verses, surrounded by hundreds of pages of technical details. 10

What is most important to the authors of the Indian Tantric literature, I would argue, is not sex, but rather power – power on all levels of real-ity, cosmic, physical and socio-political alike. Most Hindu Tantric tradi-tions center around the goddess Śakti – power or energy which circulates throughout all of the manifest universe; she is the creative energy or force which radiates out of the supreme consciousness of Lord Śiva, generating the myriad forms of the phenomenal universe. “[T]he Tantric conceives of

9 J. Murray Mitchell and Sir William Muir, Two Old Faiths: Essays on the Religion of the Hindus and the Mohammedans (New York: Chautauqua Press, 1891), 53-4.

10 See Hugh B. Urban, The Power of Tantra: Religion, Sexuality, and the Politics of South Asian Studies (London: Tauris, 2009).

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the world as power (śakti). As the goddess’ own self-effulgence, he believes the world is nothing but power to be harnessed.” 11 Thus the task for the Tantric is to arouse and channel the flow of energy that circulates through-out the universe, the human body and the social order. As Douglas Brooks argues, the primary concern for the tāntrika is “how one might harness and actualize the power perceived to be inherent in all things, including social relations. The dichotomies of impure / pure, and auspicious / inauspi-cious are… mechanisms for the expression of… episodic forms of power.” 12 Sex is indeed in some traditions one means of awakening and harnessing power; but it is by no means the only or even the most important one. In fact, if one examines most popular Indian books on Tantra today, it would seem that the most attention is given not to sexual pleasure but rather to the acquisition of supernatural abilities, attaining wealth and achieving all one’s worldly desires. 13

So how, then, did “Tantra” come to be defined as “spiritual sex?” This shift begins, I think, during the early colonial era, with the first discussion of Indian religions by Christian missionaries and Orientalist scholars in the 19th century. The Orientalist interest in the Tantras, I would argue, was a part of the broader concern with sexuality and its aberrations dur-ing the Victorian era. As Foucault and others have shown, the men and women of the late 19th century were by no means simply the puritanical prudes they are commonly imagined to be; on the contrary, the Victo-rian era witnessed an unprecedented new proliferation of discourse about sexuality – particularly in its socially deviant or perverse forms, which were now categorized in intricate detail. “Paradoxically, it was during the 19th century that the debate about sexuality exploded. Far from the age of silence and suppression, sexuality became a major issue in Victorian social and political practice.” 14

The first Orientalist authors, such as Sir William Jones and H. T. Cole-brooke, actually had relatively little to say about the Tantras. It was really not until the early 19th century, with the arrival of Christian missionaries like Rev. William Ward and Alexander Duff that the Tantras became objects of intense interest and morbid fascination. Above all, the missionaries

11 Douglas Brooks, Auspicious Wisdom: The Texts and Traditions of Śrīvidyā Śākta Tantrism in South India (Albany: SUNY 1992), xix; see also Woodroffe, Shakti and Shākta, 58; Urban, The Power of Tantra.

12 Brooks, Auspicious Wisdom, 149.13 On the role of sex in Tantric history, see White, The Kiss of the Yoginī; Urban, Power

of Tantra.14 Jeffrey Weeks, Sex, Politics and Society: the Regulation of Sexuality Since 1800 (Lon-

don: Longman, 1981), 6-7.


singled out the sexual element – particularly transgressive sexuality – as the most horrific aspect of the Tantras and the clearest evidence of their complete depravity. As Ward put it, the Tantras involve “a most shock-ing mode of worship” centered around the worship of a naked woman and rites “too abominable to enter the ears of man and impossible to be revealed to a Christian public.” 15

In most later European accounts, the Tantras were adapted to the Ori-entalist narrative of Indo-European history and the decadence of modern India. According to most Orientalist accounts, the history of India was a steady decline from a golden age, comparable to ancient Greece and embodied in the texts of the Vedas, down to a modern era of licentious superstition, embodied in the perverse rites of the Tantras. Throughout 19th century literature, we find the Tantras described in the most vivid lan-guage as “lust mummery and black magic” (Brian Hodgson), “nonsen-sical extravagance and absurd gesticulation” (H. H. Wilson), and “black art of the crudest and filthiest kind” in which “a veritable devil’s mass is purveyed in various forms” (D. L. Barnett). 16

This equation of Tantra with sex was only compounded with the West-ern discovery of the Kāma Sūtra and other erotic manuals. The leading figure in this new interest in Indian erotica was the famous Victorian Ori-entalist and explorer Sir Richard Francis Burton (1821-1890). Not only did Burton found a small secretive group called the Kama Shastra Society, but he also privately published the Kāma Sūtra (1883) and the Anaṅga Raṅga (1885), the first Hindu treatises on love to be translated into English (texts which could not be officially translated until the mid 60’s). 17 From Bur-ton’s time on, it seems, Tantra came to be increasingly associated and often hopelessly confused with the sexual positions of the Kāma Sūtra.

In the first decades of the 20th century, a few brave scholars made an effort to defend and re-valorize Tantra, arguing that there is far more to this ancient tradition than mere illicit sexuality. The most important figure in this moralizing reform of Tantra was John Woodroffe (a.k.a. Arthur Avalon), the enigmatic High Court Judge and secret tāntrika, who made

15 Ward, A View of the History, Literature and Religion of the Hindoos, v.1 (London: Kins-bury, Parbury and Allen 1817), 247.

16 Quoted in Avalon, Principles of Tantra: The Tantratattva of Śrīyukta Śiva Candra Vidyārṇava Bhaṭṭācārya Mahodaya (Madras: Ganesh & Co, 1960), 3-5. On Orientalist views of Tantra, see Urban, Tantra, chapter 1.

17 Nik Douglas, Spiritual Sex: Secrets of Tantra From the Ice Age to the New Millennium (New York: Pocket, 1997), 183-84.

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it is his life’s work to defend the Tantras against their many critics. 18 In Woodroffe’s rather sanitized, rationalized account, Tantra is a noble philo-sophical tradition, basically in line with the Vedas and Vedānta, and com-parable in its symbolism to the liturgy of the Catholic Church. 19

Despite Woodroffe’s attempts to present a sanitized and reformed ver-sion of Tantra, however, the equation of Tantra with sex would persist throughout the Western imagination, both popular and scholarly. And it was soon also identified and mixed with Western sexual-magical traditions, such as the work of the self-proclaimed “Great Beast, 666,” Aleister Crow-ley. For Crowley and his disciples, Tantric sexual practices were combined with various Western occult rituals in order to achieve both material and spiritual ends – from generating large amounts of money to conceiving a kind of spiritual fetus or magical child. 20

However, it was really in the 1960s and 70s that Tantra became fully identified with sexual liberation, now enlisted in the service of the counter-culture and the so-called “sexual revolution. “ As critics like Jeffrey Weeks argue, the period of the 60s and 70s represent something more complex than a simple liberation of the Western libido from its prudish Victorian shackles; rather, the freedom of sex in the age of promiscuity also brought all sort of new oppressions and bonds. Nonetheless, this period did witness an unprecedented new proliferation of discourse about sex, along with new fears about growing promiscuity among the youth. “[V]iolence, drugs and sex, three major preoccupations of the 1960s and 70s blended sym-bolically in the image of youth in revolt.” 21 The literature on Tantra was a key element in this discourse. Thus in 1964, Omar Garrison published his widely read Tantra: the Yoga of Sex, which advocates Tantra as the sur-est means to achieve extended orgasm and optimal pleasure: “Through… the principles of Tantra Yoga, man can achieve the sexual potency which

18 See Kathleen Taylor, Sir John Woodroffe, Tantra and Bengal: ‘An Indian Soul in a European Body?’ (London: Curzon Press, 2001). Taylor argues that “Arthur Avalon” is not simply a pseudonym for Woodroffe, but is rather the joint creation of Woodroffe and his Bengali collaborator, Atal Behari Ghose, who helped him translate most of the Sanskrit texts.

19 See Woodroffe, Shakti and Shākta, 587.20 On Crowley and his possible contact with Indian Tantra, see Urban, “The Omnipotent

Oom: Tantra and its Impact on Modern Western Esotericism,” Esoterica: The Journal of Esoteric Studies 3 (2001): 218-259, and “Unleashing the Beast: Aleister Crowley, Tantra and Sex Magic in Late Victorian England,” Esoterica 6 (2004): 138-192.

21 Weeks, Sex, Politics and Society, 255.


enables him to extend the ecstasy crowning sexual union for an hour or more, rather than for the brief seconds he now knows.” 22

At the same time, Tantra began to enter into the Western popular imag-ination in a huge way, as entertainers, musicians and poets began to take an interest in this exotic brand of Eastern spirituality. In 1968, Mick Jag-ger even produced a film called “Tantra” – a psychedelic journey through the five M’s. 23 However, this had already begun with beat poets like Allen Ginsberg – one of the first white hippies to begin to flood into India in the 60s – who saw Tantra as one of many ways of breaking through the repres-sive morality of middle class America. Tantra is thus categorized with other

“organized experiments in consciousness,” such as “jazz ecstasy” and drugs as a means of altering mental states and achieving “increased depth of perception on the nonverbal-nonconceptual level.” 24 For Ginsberg, India is the complete opposite of modern America; whereas America is sexually repressed, uptight, and overly rational, India is the land of spontaneous sexuality. And Tantra, embodied in the violent goddess Kālī, is the epitome of the sexually liberated Orient, beyond the oppressive prudery of Cold War America:

Fuck KaliFuck all Hindu GoddessesBecause they are all prostitutes[I like to fuck] … Fuck Ma KaliMary is not a prostitute becauseShe was a virginChristians don’tWorship prostitutesLike the Hindus. 25

By the 1970s, Tantra had come to be synonymous with sexual liberation and freedom on every level – spiritual, social and political alike. Accord-ing to a common narrative, widely repeated by advocates of New Age

22 Omar Garrison, The Yoga of Sex, quoted in Douglas, Spiritual Sex, 222. For a similar celebration of Tantra, see Philip Rawson, The Art of Tantra (Greenwich: New York Graphics Society, 1973).

23 “Tantra,” directed by Nik Douglas, produced with Mick Jagger and Robert Fraser (1968). Re-released as “Tantra: Indian Rites of Ecstasy” (New York: Mystic Fire, 1993).

24 Allan Ginsberg, Indian Journals, March 1962-May 1963 (San Francisco: City Lights Books, 1970), 93.

25 Ginsberg, Indian Journals, 80.

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and alternative spirituality, our natural sexual instincts have long been repressed by the distorted morality of Western society and the Christian Church. “For centuries organized religions have used guilt about sex as a way of exploiting people and the recent liberalization of sexuality has not yet succeeded in erasing this cruel legacy.” 26 Therefore, Tantra is the most needed path for our age, the means to liberate our repressed sexuality and re-reintegrate our bodies and spirits: “Sexual liberation implies the libera-tion of the whole being: body, mind and spirit. This holistic viewpoint is an essential ingredient to understanding the sexual secrets.” 27

This ideal of liberation through Tantric sex has been adapted for a wide range of agendas over the last few decades – as a key to self-fulfill-ment in the 70s, as a means to power and self-optimization in the 80s, and finally as one of the most exotic forms of “cybersex” now circulating through the world wide web. Yet whatever its form, Tantra has come to be defined not so much as the path of power but as the cult of ecstasy – the unique fusion of religion with sexuality, identified with diverse traditions from around the world, such as European sex magic, Wicca, and Kabba-lah. As Neo-Tantric masters, Paul Ramana Das and Marilena Silbey put it,

“Sacred sexuality provides us with a method of integrating the lust of sex with the love of spirit… Sex magic is what we now call ‘American Tantra.” 28

26 Anand, The Art of Sexual Ecstasy, 44.27 Anand, The Art of Sexual Ecstasy, 41.28 Paul Ramana Das and Marilena Silbey, “Celebrating Sacred Sexuality,” 1997.

http: // www.angelfire.com /ky / pawthakh / Celebrating.html.


II. The Omnipotent Oom: Pierre Bernard and the Tantrik Order in America

In this day and age, when matters pertaining to the sexes are generally avoided, and we are taught that the sexual appetite is an animal craving that should be sub-dued… it is not surprising that the great majority of persons are blind to the vast importance of the sexual nature…[T]hey fail to realize that not only is the cause of our individual existence, but that it is the well-spring of human life and happiness.

– Pierre Bernard, Tantrik Worship: The Basis of Religion 29

The first man to bring Tantra to America – and also surely one of the most colorful characters in 20th century American history – was a mysterious, rather scandalous figure named Pierre Arnold Bernard. Infamous through-out the press as “the Omnipotent Oom,” Bernard claimed to have traveled throughout the mystic Orient in order to bring the secrets of Tantra to this country and so found the first “Tantrik Order in America” in 1906. Surrounded by controversy and slander for the sexual freedom he and his largely female followers were said to enjoy, Bernard is in many ways an epitome of Tantra in its uniquely American incarnations. 30

Although he would later concoct many tales about his birthplace and early life, Bernard was born with the name Perry Arnold Baker in 1876 in the small town of Leon, Iowa. Bernard would later make various claims about his travels in India and his studies in the mystic Orient, but most of his knowledge of yoga and Tantra appears to have come from a young Syr-ian Indian man named Sylvain Hamati. Hamati and Bernard first met in 1889, soon formed a guru-disciple relationship and eventually began teach-ing their own unique versions of yoga and Tantra to an eager audience of

29 Pierre Bernard, “Tantrik Worship: The Basis of Religion,” International Journal, Tantrik Order 5, no.1 (1906): 71.

30 The best work on Bernard by far is Robert Love, The Great Oom” The Improbable Birth of Yoga in America (New York: Viking, 2010). Other studies of Bernard include Urban, “The Omnipotent Oom,” Douglas. Spiritual Sex, 191f. Eckert Goodman, “The Guru of Nyack: The True Story of Father India, the Omnipotent Oom,” Town & Country (April 1941): 50, 53, 92-3, 98-100; Paul Sann, “Success Story: The Omnipotent Oom,” in Fads, Follies and Delusions of the American People (New York: Bonanza Books, 1967); Charles Boswell, “The Great Fuss and Fume over the Omnipotent Oom,” True: the Men’s Magazine (January, 1976).

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American seekers. By 1898, Bernard had become moderately famous as a master of self-hypnosis who could use yogic technique to place himself in a state simulating death. 31

In the early 1900s, Bernard established a Tantric circle in San Fran-cisco where he taught his own version of hypnosis and yoga. Even then, Bernard had become something of a scandal in the California press, who charged that the Academy “catered to young women interested in learning soul charming – by which they meant the mysteries of relations between the sexes.” 32 Sometime in the years 1906-7 Bernard also founded the Tantrik Order in America, with an accompanying journal – the Interna-tional Journal: Tantrik Order – whose charter document for initiation reads as follows:

As a tear from heaven he has been dropped into the Ocean of the Tantrik Brotherhood upon earth and is moored forevermore in the harbor of con-tentment, at the door to the temple of wisdom wherein are experienced all things; and to him will be unveiled the knowledge of the Most High…

Armed with the key to the sanctuary of divine symbolism wherein are stored the secrets of wisdom and power, he no longer lives upon the appear-ance… but has proven worthy to be entrusted with the knowledge… to soar above the world and look down upon it; to exalt the passions and quicken the imagination… to treat all things with indifference; to know that religion is the worship of man’s invisible power… to enjoy well-being, generosity, and popularity… He has learned to love life and know death. 33

After the San Francisco earthquake in 1906, Bernard left California and relocated to New York City, where he would open the headquarters of his new Tantrik Order on the Upper West Side. Teaching Hatha Yoga down-stairs and offering secret Tantric initiation upstairs, the Oriental sanctum quickly became an object of scandal in the New York press. The notorious

“Omnipotent Oom” was charged with abduction and falsely impersonat-ing a doctor, thereafter spending 104 days in prison. “I cannot tell you how Bernard got control over me or how he gets it over other people,” said one of the alleged kidnapees, Zelia Hopp, “He is the most wonderful man in the world. No women seem able to resist him.” 34 Similar controversy sur-rounded the “New York Sanskrit College,” which Bernard founded a few

31 Love, The Great Oom, 10-26.32 Quoted in Douglas, Spiritual Sex, 195.33 “Charter Document of the Tantrik Order in America,” International Journal, Tantrik

Order 5, no. 1 (1906): 96-7.34 Quoted in Sann, “Success Story,” 190. See Love, The Great Oom, 64-66.


years later. The press reported “wild Oriental music and women’s cries, but not those of distress.” 35

By the 1920s, Bernard had moved out to a large seventy-two acre estate in Upper Nyack New York – a former young girls’ academy which he renamed the “Clarkstown Country Club” and made the site of his own

“utopian Tantric community.” A sumptuous property with a 30-roomed Georgian mansion rounded by a wooded mountain and river, the Club was designed to be “a place where the philosopher may dance, and the fool be provided with a thinking cap!” 36 Eventually, he would also pur-chase a huge property known as the Moorings, and later open a chain of Tantric clinics, including centers in New York, Cleveland, Philadelphia and Chicago, as well as a Tantric summer camp in Westhampton, Long Island. His clinics were known for attracting the wealthiest, most afflu-ent clients – mostly professional and business men and women from New York, including members of the Vanderbilt family, composer Cyril Scott and conductor Leopold Stokowski, among others. According to Town and Country magazine of 1941, “Every hour of the day limousines and taxies drove up to the entrance of the Doctor’s New York clinic. In the marble foyer behind the wrought-iron portal… a pretty secretary handled appointments.” 37 Hence, it is not surprising that Bernard quickly achieved a remarkable degree of wealth and status:

Almost overnight, Oom found himself showered with more money than he had ever dreamed of and chieftain of a tribe of both male and female follow-ers … This tribe at the outset consisted of no more than a dozen members, but eventually it would number well over 200, and would carry on its roster some of the best-known names in America. 38

However, Bernard’s Tantric teachings were also surrounded with an aura of secrecy, teachings so profound they had to be reserved for the initi-ated few. As the International Journal, Tantrik Order states, quoting the Kulārṇavatantra: “The principal rites of Tantrik worshippers take place in secret with closed doors…’One should guard the Kaula system from unini-tiated beasts … just as one guards money… from thieves.’” 39 According to the police reports of a raid on Bernard’s clinic, entry involved a secret sig-nal and a complex series of taps on the bell. There also seems to have been

35 Douglas, Spiritual Sex, 195.36 Pierre Bernard, Life: at the Clarkstown Country Club (Nyack, NY: Clarkstown Coun-

try Club, 1935).37 Town and Country (April 1941), quoted in Douglas, Spiritual Sex, 198.38 Boswell, “The Great Fuss and Fume,” 31-2.39 Bernard, “In Re Fifth Veda,” International Journal, Tantrik Order, 5, no.1 (1906): 27.

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a hierarchy of disciples, with the lower-level initiates performing physical exercises downstairs, while the “Secret order of Tantriks,” engaged in the more esoteric rites upstairs:

Downstairs, they found a bare room where Oom’s physical culture clients, paying a $100 bite, toiled through exercises designed to produce the body beautiful. Upstairs… on canvas-covered mattresses, Oom’s inner-circle cli-ents participated in secret rites…[T]he upstairs customers, following physical examinations, had to pay large sums and then sign their names in blood before they could be initiated into the cult. 40

The popular press offers us some fairly vivid and probably rather imagina-tive accounts of Bernard’s secret Tantric rituals and the occult initiations into arcane esoteric techniques.

During Tantrik ceremonies, Oom sat on his throne wearing a turban, a silken robe and baggy Turkish pants, and flourished a scepter. While so engaged, he invariably smoked one of the long black cigars to which he was addicted…

A Tantrik ceremony involved the initiation of new members. “To join the order,” and Oomite later disclosed, “the novitiate must first have confessed all sins, all secret desires, all inner thoughts; must then promise to abide by Doc-tor Bernard’s orders and must finally take the Tantrik vow.”

The novitiate looks upon Doctor Bernard as a high priest–indeed, as a sort of man-god. He kneels before Doctor Bernard and recites: “Be to me a living guru; be a loving Tantrik guru.” Then all present bow their heads as though in church and repeat in unison: ‘Oom man na padma Oom.’ It is sung over and over in a chanting monotone, like the beating of drums in a forest, and is sup-posed… to induce a state of ecstasy. 41

There does appear to have been some need for the secrecy in Bernard’s Tantrik practice – particularly in the moral context of early 20th century America. According to most of the accounts that came out of Bernard’s Country Club, much of the spiritual practice there centered around the full enjoyment of the physical body and the liberation of sexual pleas-ure. As we read in the International Journal, Tantrik Order, the human body is the supreme creation in the universe and the most perfect place of worship: “The trained imagination no longer worships before the shrines of churches, pagodas and mosques or there would be blaspheming the greatest, grandest and most sublime temple in the universe, the miracle of miracles, the human body.” 42 Like dance, yoga or other forms of physi-

40 Sann, “Success Story,” 189.41 Boswell, “The Great Fuss and Fume,” 32.42 International Journal, Tantrik Order 5, no.1 (1906): 105.


cal expression, sex was for Bernard a spiritual discipline and a means of attaining the divine within the physical body. As Bernard put it, “Love, a manifestation of sexual instinct, is the animating spirit of the world” 43 (In his Tantrik journal Bernard even spells the word “Tantra” in devanāgarī characters comprised of tiny hearts). Yet in modern Western culture, the profound mysteries of sexual love have been stupidly repressed, relegated by self-righteous prudes to the realm of immorality. While most men and women today “are taught that the sexual appetite is an animal craving that should be subdued and concealed,” Bernard teaches that sex is in fact

“the well-spring of human life and happiness.” 44 According to one disciple, Bernard is thus among the only teachers in modern America who recog-nizes the natural beauty and power of sex, which is nothing other than an expression of our union with the Divine:

Sex is discussed naturally… Doctor Bernard believes that men and women can learn a lot about living by learning a lot about playing and loving. He teaches the Oriental view of love as opposed to the restrained Western idea. Love, in its physical aspects, is akin to music and poetry. It unites men and women with the infinite. 45

Apparently, Bernard also believed that for certain individuals - particularly overly-repressed women of the Victorian era –more drastic surgical meas-ures might be needed to liberate their sexual potential. Hence, sexually unresponsive or “desensitized women” could be helped by a form of par-tial circumcision in which the clitoral hood was surgically removed – an operation believed to improve female receptivity by exposing the clitoral gland to direct stimulation. 46

The popular press of the day took no end of delight in discussing and sensationalizing Bernard’s scandalous Tantric practices. Bernard’s clin-ics seem to have represent something terribly shocking yet deliciously transgressive in the early 20th century American imagination, somehow strangely tantalizing in a world where sex for the sake of procreation within heterosexual marriage is the unassailable pillar of decent society:

The rites are grossly licentious and are most often invoked in veneration of the Śakti, the goddess of female energy. But sometimes Oriental men with a yen for one another invoke them just for kicks. A couple skilled in the rites…

43 “Tantrik Worship,” 71.44 Bernard, “Tantrik Worship,” 71.45 Boswell, “The Great Fuss and Fume,” 31ff.46 Douglas, Spiritual Sex, 197.

454 Hugh B. Urban

are supposedly able to make love hour after hour without diminution of male potency and female desire. 47

It seems inevitable that Bernard’s Tantric clinics should have elicited some complaints from his neighbors and also attracted the attention of the authorities. F. H. Gans, who occupied an apartment across the way, summed up the neighborhood grievance: “What my wife and I have seen through the windows of that place is scandalous. We saw men and women in various stages of dishabille. Women’s screams mingled with wild Ori-ental music.” 48

After his brief rise to celebrity, followed by his descent into scandal, Bernard retired into a relatively quiet and comfortable later life. Enjoying an affluent lifestyle, he was known for his lavish celebrations, his gener-ous patronage of professional baseball and boxing, and his investment in sporting venues and stadiums. Eventually he would assume a respectable position in Nyack society, becoming president of the State Bank of Pearl River in 1931. With a fondness for collecting fine automobiles, such as Rolls Royces, Stutzes and Lincolns, Bernard is said to have been worth over twelve million dollars at his peak. “I’m a curious combination of the businessman and the religious scholar,” as Bernard described himself. 49 He died in New York City in 1955, at the age of 80.

In sum, we might say that the wonderfully colorful character of Pierre Bernard is of key importance for the history of Tantra for at least three reasons. First, he was a bold pioneer in the early transmission of Tantra to America, where it they quickly took root and flourished; second, he was one of the first figures in the reinterpretation of Tantra as something primarily concerned with sex, physical pleasure and bodily ecstasy; and finally, like so many later Tantric gurus, he also generated intense scandal and slander from the surrounding society, foreshadowing Tantra’s role in the American imagination a something wonderfully seductive, tantalizing and transgressive.

47 Boswell, “The Great Fuss and Fume Over the Omnipotent Oom,” 85, 91.48 Sann, “Success Story,” 190. See Love, The Great Oom, 59-62, 136-37.49 Douglas Spiritual Sex, 204.


III. From Sex Guru to Guru of the Rich: The Neo-Tantra of Osho Rajneesh

Tantra is a dangerous philosophy, it is a dangerous reli-gion. It has not yet been tried on a larger scale, man has not yet been courageous enough to try it on a larger scale because the society does not allow it…[T]he soci-ety thinks this is absolute sin… Tantra believes in joy because joy is God.

– Osho, The Tantric Transformation 50

The second American Tantric guru I want to examine here is one who represents an intriguing complement and juxtaposition to Pierre Bernard – namely, the infamous sex guru and guru of the rich, known in his early years as Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh and later simply as “Osho.” If Bernard was among the first Americans to travel to India and bring Tantra to the U. S., Osho-Rajneesh was one of the first Indians to travel to America and import his own unique brand of “Neo-Tantrism,” adapted to late 20th century American consumer culture. Whereas Bernard’s version of Tantra represents a sexualization of the tradition, Osho–Rajneesh’s version is a clear commodification and commercialization of Tantra. In this sense he is an example of a larger shift in Western attitudes toward sex in the latter half of the 20th century. As Weeks argues, it is too simple to assume that the late 20th century has been characterized by a radical revolution, with a complete breaking down of sexual prohibitions. Rather, what has taken place is more like a “commodification of sex,” as part of the larger expan-sion of capitalism to all domains of modern culture: “Sex had long been something you were. By the 1950s it was also something you could buy, not just in the form of prostitution, but in the form of glossily marketed fantasy… Not only was sex an area that could be colonized by capitalism, it was also one that could expand ever more exotically.” 51 This is much the same kind of commodification of ecstasy that we see in Osho-Rajneesh, the most notorious sex guru of the 20th century. If Bernard was the origi-nal American Tantric master for the dawn of this century, Osho is exem-plary of Neo-Tantra at the close of the millennium.

50 Osho, The Tantric Transformation (Shaftesbury: Element, 1978), 293.51 Weeks, Sexuality and its Discontents: Meanings, Myths & Modern Sexualities (London:

Routledge, 1985), 17, 23, 24.

456 Hugh B. Urban

Rajneesh offered everything Westerners imagined Tantra to be: a free love cult promising enlightenment, an exciting radical community and the opportunity to rise up in the hierarchy… Rajneesh slipped comfortably into the role of

“Tantra Messiah”… Largely because of Rajneesh, Tantra reemerged as a New Age Cult in the 1970s and 1980s. 52

Born in Kuchwada, Madhya Pradesh, in 1931 to a family of 12 whose parents died at an early age, Rajneesh Chandra Mohan was raised by his grandparents – an elderly, wealthy and high class Jain couple. From an early age, Rajneesh reports having various ecstatic experiences, finally achieving

“full enlightenment” at age twenty-one. While at college at Jabalpur, the young Rajneesh suffered a traumatic period of depression, anorexia and attempted suicide; yet he emerged from his crisis in an intense spiritual breakthrough to Self-realization – “an inner explosion,” as he put it, in which he left his body and realized his true inner nature. 53

After receiving his master’s degree in 1957, Rajneesh taught philos-ophy for nine years at the University of Jabalpur. In 1967, however, he decided he could no longer keep his enlightened knowledge to himself and so left the academic world to gather disciples and teach the spiritual life. His rather radical teachings quickly aroused enormous controversy in the Indian community, however, as he urged his disciples to indulge their physical desires, even as he attacked national heroes such as Mahatma Gandhi (whom he ridiculed as masochistic chauvinist pervert). 54 By 1971, Rajneesh had begun to call himself “Bhagwan” – Blessed One or God – -and built himself an Ashram in Poona, where he hoped to begin a new utopian community as the seed of a new civilization. Bhagwan’s lucrative new civilization, however, seen came into increasing financial and legal problems with the Indian government. In 1981 Bhagwan and his devotes were forced to flee the country, trailed by some $5 million in debts and a host of police and tax collectors.

52 Douglas, Spiritual Sex, 15.53 See Urban, Tantra, chapter 6; Lewis Carter, Charisma and Control in Rajneeshpuram:

The Role of Shared Values in the Creation of a Community (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-versity Press, 1990); Susan J. Palmer and Arvind Sharma, The Rajneesh Papers: Stud-ies in a New Religious Movement (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas, 1993); Yati, The Sound of Running Water; A Photobiography of Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh (Poona: Rajneesh Foun-dation, 1980); Hugh Milne, Bhagwan: The God that Failed (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1986); James Gordon, The Golden Guru: The Strange Journey of Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh (New York: Viking, 1987).

54 See Georg Feuerstein, Holy Madness: The Shock Tactics and Radical Teachings of Crazy-wise Adepts, Holy Fools, and Rascal Gurus (New York: Paragon House, 1991), 65.


Announcing himself as “the Messiah America has been waiting for,” Rajneesh took refuge in the United States, the land (as he described it) of freedom, opportunity and unfettered capitalism. After a brief stay in a New Jersey mansion, he and his followers bought a 64,000 acre ranch in Antelope, Oregon, which they dubbed their own new city and ideal society, “Rajneesh-puram.” Quickly growing into a remarkably lucrative financial complex, Rajneeshpuram amassed some $120 million in revenues in its short four year existence. Meanwhile, Rajneesh’s following had spread not only throughout the US but also Europe and India, claiming over 25,000 members at its peak, and growing into an enormously diverse, multifac-eted international business complex. 55

However, the group soon came into conflict with its American neigh-bors. They clashed first with the local residents of Antelope’s peaceful retirement community, whom they attempted to displace using terrorist tactics like dumping animal parts on the lawns of local officials and dis-tributing salmonella bacteria in local restaurants and grocery stores. By 1985, they had also come under serious investigation by the US govern-ment, specifically around the issue of the interlock of the Rajneesh Church and the city of Rajneeshpuram, and its claim to tax exempt status. Finally in 1986, the State Attorney General decided that Rajneeshpuram violated the Church-State Separation clause of the Constitution. Rajneesh and his disciples, meanwhile, had also come under investigation a variety of crimi-nal activities, which included counts of electronic eavesdropping, immigra-tion conspiracy, lying to federal officials, criminal conspiracy, first degree assault, attempted murder, burglary, racketeering and arson. The move-ment, the State Attorney General concluded, had become “sociopathic.” 56 Deported from the US and refused entry into virtually every country to which he applied, Rajneesh returned to his Poona ashram in 1987.

But perhaps the most surprising aspect of the Rajneesh phenomenon lies not so much in his controversial career in America, but rather in his remarkable apotheosis and rebirth upon his return to India. A truly global Tantric guru, Rajneesh made the journey from India to America and back to India again, now achieving even more success in his homeland, perhaps in part because of his status as an international figure who had a massive US and European following. In the eyes of his followers, however, Rajneesh

55 On Rajneesh’s pro-capitalist spirit and the remarkably successful business structure of his movement, which developed into a complicated system of parent companies and sub-sidiaries, spread out through a range of secular and spiritual enterprises, see Carter, Charisma and Control, 77-8.

56 Carter, Charisma and Control, 225, 237.

458 Hugh B. Urban

was by no means a criminal but in fact a martyr and a hero who had been unjustly persecuted by the oppressive US government: “[The Ranch] was crushed from without by the Attorney’s General’s office… like the marines in Lebanon, the Ranch was hit by hardball opposition and driven out.” 57

As part of his transfiguration in India, he would also reject his for-mer Hindu title as “Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh,” a title that had asserted his divine, god-man status. Instead, he adopted the more universal title of “Osho” – a term which, according to some, derives from the Japanese term for master, and according to others, from the “oceanic experience,” described by William James. His message, too, became increasingly univer-sal, less controversial and more palatable to both Indian and Western audi-ences, and marketed to a global new age consumer audience. “My message is too new. India is too old, ancient, traditional. I am rebellious… I belong to no nation. My message is universal. “ 58 Osho died in 1990, after just a few years back in Poona, under circumstances which, according to some devotees, suggest that he may have been assassinated by the CIA because of his radical, threatening teachings.

Remarkably, however, Osho seems to have only grown in popularity in the years since his death. Indeed, he seems to have published more books and received more acclaim as a disembodied video image than he ever did while still incarnate. The Poona center, meanwhile, has grown into a hugely successful global organization: the “Osho Commune International.” Linked through its “Global Connections department,” the Commune runs a network of centers worldwide, including “Osho International” in New York, which administers the rights to Osho’s works. Describing itself as the “Esalen of the East,” the Osho Multiversity in Poona teaches a dizzy-ing array of spiritual techniques drawn from a smorgasbord of different traditions: astrology, Feldenkraus body work, Crystal energy, acupuncture, neo-Zen and other New Age activities. With an explicitly globalized reli-gious vision, the new Osho commune has taken Rajneesh’s iconoclastic message, combined it with a host of other more generic New Age ideals and marketed it to a global audience of spiritual consumers. 59 In sum, the character of Rajneesh seems to have undergone an incredible apotheosis in his later years, and particularly after his death – a transfiguration from

57 Swami Anand Jina, “The Work of Osho Rajneesh: A Thematic Overview,” in The Rajneesh Papers: Studies in a New Religious Movement, ed. Susan J. Palmer and Arvind Sharma (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1993), 54.

58 Osho, The Dhammapada, Osho.com, 2010. http: // www.osho.com / library / online-library-receptive-camouflaged-india-d7954deb-e08.aspx.

59 Jina, “The Work of Osho Rajneesh,” 55; cf. Sharma and Palmer, The Rajneesh Papers, 161


a scandalous Tantric sex guru into an international icon for a high-tech global movement and business enterprise.

In itself, Rajneesh’s philosophy was not terribly original, but was an elaborate synthesis of ideas drawn from an enormous array of sources. Bhagwan’s vast body of writings is itself a kind of postmodern pastiche: a wild hodgepodge of ideas drawn from a remarkable range of sources, from Plato to Śaṅkara to Lao Tzu to Sartre. His teachings are, as one observer put it, an eclectic “potpourri of counter-culturalist ideas: strive for love and freedom, live for the moment, self is important, you are okay… the fun ethic, God is within.” 60 An explicitly self-parodying, self-decon-structing Guru, Rajneesh claimed that his entire teaching was itself nothing more than a joke, a farce or a game– the ultimate game: “Nothing is seri-ous. Even your disappointments are laughable. To become a Sannyasin is to enter the ultimate game…[I]t is a play… it is the ultimate game… You have played at being a husband, wife, mother, being rich, poor… This is the last game. Only you are left.” 61

Rather than a religion in the conventional sense, Rajneesh taught a radically iconoclastic brand of spirituality – “an antinomian philosophy and moral anarchism.” 62 As a “religionless” religion, his was a path beyond conventional morality, beyond good and evil, and founded on the explicit rejection of all doctrines and values. “Morality is a false coin, it deceives people,” he warns, “… A man of real understanding is neither good nor bad. He transcends both.” 63 For Rajneesh, the cause of all our suffering is the distorting socialization or programming of cultural institutions, such as family, schools, religion and government. All meta-narratives or over-arching theories are only so many fictions, imaginary creations used by those in power to dominate the masses. True freedom can be achieved only by deconstructing all meta-narratives, liberating oneself from the confining structures of the past. One must be deprogrammed and de-hypnotized:

You are programmed by family, acquaintances, institutions. Your mind is like a blackboard on which rules are written. Bhagwan writes new rules on the blackboard. He tells you one thing is true and next the opposite is true. He

60 Bob Mullan, Life as Laughter: Following BHagwan Shree Rajneesh (Boston: Rout-ledge, 1983), 44.

61 Rajneesh, in Kate Strelley, The Ultimate Game (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1987).

62 Feuerstein, Holy Madness, 67.63 Rajneesh, Tantra: The Supreme Understanding (Poona: Rajneesh Foundation, 1975),

55, 6.

460 Hugh B. Urban

writes and writes on the blackboard of your mind until it is a whiteboard. Then you have no programming left. 64

In order to help his disciples achieve this state of de-programming and liberation, Rajneesh advocated a variety of yogic, meditative and other psycho-physical disciplines. Most of these, we might note, came at a sig-nificant cost; at the Oregon ranch, prices ranged from $50 for a one-day introduction to Rajneesh meditation, to $7500 for a complete three month re-balancing program. But perhaps the most important of these spiritual techniques was Rajneesh’s unique brand of “Neo-Tantrism.” As he defines it, Tantra is the ultimate non-religion or anti-religion, a spiritual practice that does not demand rigorous ritual or orthodox morality but instead frees the individual from all such constraints. “Tantra is freedom –freedom from all mind-constructs, from all mind-games […] Tantra is liberation. Tantra is not a religion […]. Religion gives you […] a discipline. Tantra takes all disciplines away.” 65 In this sense, Tantra is the ultimate form of rebellion for an age in which political revolution is not longer practical or relevant; it is not the rebellion of the masses against the state, but rather of the individual against society as a whole:

Tantra is a rebellion. I don’t call it revolutionary because it has no politics in it… It is individual rebellion. It is one individual slipping out of the structures and slavery… The future is very hopeful. Tantra will become more and more important…[N]o political revolution has proved revolutionary. All political revolutions finally turn into anti-revolutions… Rebellion means individual… It is for freedom–freedom to be. 66

In strongest contrast to established social institutions, Tantra does not deny life or the body; rather, it is the ultimate affirmation of physical-ity and passion. It is he supreme “Just Do It!” religion, which celebrates life in all its transience and contingency: “Tantra accepts everything, lives everything,” Rajneesh declares, “This is what Tantra says: the Royal Way – behave like a king, not like a soldier… Why bother about tomorrow? This moment is enough. Live it!” 67 Far from imposing moral restraints, Tantra celebrates human nature with all its failings: “Tantra says – If you are greedy, be greedy;”

64 A Sannyasin informant, cited in Carter, Charisma and Control, 48.65 Osho, Tantric Transformation, 4.66 Osho, Tantric Transformation, 6-7.67 Rajneesh, Tantra. 93, 157.


Tantric acceptance is total, it doesn’t split you. All the religions of the world except Tantra have created split personalities, have created schizophrenia… They say the good has to be achieved and the bad denied, the devil has to be denied and God accepted… Tantra says a transformation is possible….Trans-formation comes when you accept your total being. The anger is absorbed, the greed is absorbed. 68

Above all, Tantra centers around the power of sex – a power that is at once the most intense force in human nature and also the one most severely distorted by Western society. Because the traditional Christian West has suppressed sexuality, Rajneesh argues, it is sexuality that must be liberated if modern students are to fully actualize their inner most Self:

Freud… stumbled only upon the repressed sexuality. He came across repressed people. Christian repression has made many locks in man where energy as become coiled up within itself, has become stagnant, is no longer flowing.

The society is against sex: it has created a block, just near the sex center. Whenever sex arises you feel restless, you feel guilty, you feel afraid… That’s why I teach dynamic methods: they will melt your blocks. 69

In opposition to this life-denying, prudish Western attitude, Tantra is the path that accepts everything, above all, the sexual impulse. As the strong-est power in human nature, sex also becomes the strongest spiritual force when fully integrated. “Tantra says everything has to be absorbed, every-thing!… Sex has to be absorbed, then it becomes a tremendous force in you. A Buddha… a Jesus, they have such a magnetic force around – what is that? Sex absorbed.” 70 Thus many of Rajneesh’s practices involved group sex – “therapy intensives,” as he called them – which were “designed to bring about a catharsis followed by transformation of consciousness” 71 (Former disciple, Hugh Milne, also recalls that one of the most popular practices in the early movement was a form of ritual sex in which males would eat ripe mangoes from between the legs of female partners). 72

The ultimate aim of Tantric practice is to achieve this full self-accept-ance, to love ourselves wholly and completely, with all our sin, vice, greed and sensual desires and to realize that we already are “Perfect.” Once we

68 Rajneesh, Tantra, 190, 98-9.69 Rajneesh, Yoga: The Alpha and the Omega (Poona: Rajneesh Foundation, 1981), 157,

21. See Susan Palmer, “Lovers and Leaders in a Utopian Commune,” in The Rajneesh Papers: Studies in a New Religious Movement, eds. Susan J. Palmer and Arvind Sharma (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas, 1993), 127.

70 Rajneesh, Tantra, 100.71 Feuerstein, Holy Madness, 70. See Palmer, “Lovers and Leaders,” 111.72 Milne, Bhagwan, 186.

462 Hugh B. Urban

accept our sensual, desiring nature, once we release the pent-up sexual side of ourselves, we discover that we are already divine. We already possess truth, freedom and infinite power within ourselves. We already are “God:”

This is the most fundamental thing in Tantra, that it says you are already perfect… Perfection does not have to be achieved. It simply has to be realized that it is there. Tantra offers you enlightenment right here and now–no time, no postponement. 73

Ecstasy is your very nature. You are truth. You are love. You are free-dom….If you can stop all doing for a single moment the energy converges and explodes… Then you become a god. 74

As the ideal wedding of sensuality and spirituality, Tantra is also the per-fect integration of materialism and transcendence. Not only was Rajneesh un-opposed to the accumulation of wealth, but he even saw it as a the natural manifestation of spiritual attainment. With his ideal of “Zorba the Buddha,” he conceived of a new kind of perfect man or total being, who would combine the spirituality of the Buddha with the sensuality and materialism of Zorba the Greek. Indeed, Rajneesh was an ardent defender of American-style capitalism – which he saw as the expression of individ-ual self-determination and free will – and an outspoken critic of socialism – which he saw as the symptom of laziness of the masses and the jealously of the have-nots: “the creation of wealth is the task of genius … Socialism is the jealously of the masses, of the have-nots against the few who succeed in doing something for mankind.” 75 As Rajneesh put it, in his typically unapologetic style,

I don’t condemn wealth. Wealth is a perfect means which can enhance people in every way and make life rich in all ways. The materially poor can never become spiritual. 76

People are unequal and a fair world has to give people full freedom to be unequal.

Capitalism has grown out of freedom. It is natural phenomenon. 77

Tantra is the unique path which does not separate, but actually inte-grates and synthesizes the quest for spiritual liberation with the desire for

73 Rajneesh, Tantra, 100.74 Rajneesh, The Goose is Out (Poona: Rajneesh Foundation, 1982), 286.75 Mullan, Life as Laughter, 48.76 Rajneesh, cited in Laurence Grafstein, “Messianic Capitalism,” The New Republic,

20 (1984): 14.77 Rajneesh, Beware of Socialism! (Rajneeshpuram: Rajneesh Foundation International,

1984), 15, 19.


material wealth. Rather than denying and repressing the physical senses or even materialist greed, Tantra seeks the active wedding of worldly pleasure and spiritual liberation, physical bliss and divine transcendence: “Tantra has a very beautiful thing to say and that is: First, before you start serving anybody else, be absolutely selfish. How can you serve anyone else unless you have attained your inner being? Be absolutely selfish!” 78

In sum, Osho-Rajneesh was able to appropriate Tantra in a form that was remarkably well-suited to the socio-economic situation of late 20th century America – the situation that some have described as late capital-ism, post-Fordism, post-industrial society, or even “hyper-capitalism.” 79 As Bryan S. Turner, Mike Featherstone and others argue, the late 20th century has witnessed a significant shift from an earlier mode of capitalism – based on the Protestant ethic of inner-worldly asceticism, hard work, thriftiness and accumulation – to a new form of late capitalism or postindustrial society – based on mass consumption, physical pleasure and hedonistic enjoyment. In consumer culture the body ceases to be an unruly vessel of desire that must be disciplined and subjugated; rather, the body is the ultimate source of gratification and fulfillment. “The new consumptive ethic… taken over by the advertising industry celebrates living for the moment, hedonism, self-expression, the body beautiful, progress, freedom from social obligation.” 80 At the same time, the late capitalist world has also witnessed a progressive extension of the logic of the marketplace to all aspects of culture. In the market-like conditions of modern life, everything tends to become a commodity that may be bought and sold, from art to politics to religion itself. 81 Now forced to compete in the commercial mar-ketplace alongside secular businesses, religion itself tends to become yet another consumer product within the supermarket of values. The religious believer, meanwhile, is free to choose from among a wide array of possible beliefs and piece together his or her own personalized spiritual pastiche:

Max Weber’s metaphor… of religion striding into the marketplace of worldly affairs and slamming the monastery door behind, becomes further trans-formed in modern society with religion placed very much in the consumer marketplace … Individuals [are] able to select form a plurality of suitably

78 Ranjeesh, Tantra, 109-110; see Osho, The Tantric Transformation, 260.79 On the concept of late capitalism, see Fredric Jameson, Postmodernism: Or, the Cul-

tural Logic of Late Capitalism (Durham: Duke University Press 1991); David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity (London: Blackwell, 1989).

80 Mike Featherstone, Consumer Culture and Postmodernism (London: Sage, 1991), 114.

81 See Jameson, Postmodernism, x.

464 Hugh B. Urban

packaged bodies of knowledge in the supermarket of lifestyles… The tendency in modern societies is for religion to become a private leisure pursuit pur-chased in the market like any other consumer lifestyle. 82

Thus, with its ideal wedding of spirituality and physical pleasure, divine transcendence and material prosperity, Rajneesh’s brand of Neo-Tantrism would appear to be a striking example of what we might call the “spiritual logic of late capitalism.”

IV. An American Obsession: Appropriations of Tantra by Gay, Lesbian and

S&M Communities

To fully understand Tantra you must be willing to renounce all your previous prejudices and conceptions of what is proper and improper. You must open your-selves up to experience the new and the exotic.

– Dax Michaels, The Definition of Tantra (2000)

Virtually all the major Tantric traditions of India are fundamentally het-erosexual traditions. The basis of most Tantric metaphysics is the creative union of male and female principles, Śiva and Śakti or Kṣṇa and Rādhā, from which all the manifold forms of the universe unfold. Hence the path to liberation lies in the re-unification of the male and female principles, re-integrating Śiva and Śakti through the union of male and female partners. Tantra would therefore appear to be deeply heterosexual, even an extreme form of heterosexuality, which takes conventional South Asian ideas of male and female identities to their furthest, most essentialist limits. 83

Remarkably, however, one of the most important trends in contempo-rary American Tantra has been the homosexual appropriation of Tantra – that is, attempts to reinterpret Tantric practice for the needs of gay, les-bian, trans and even S&M communities. After all, Tantra is a method that affirms sexuality, while at the same time offering alternatives to normal

82 Featherstone, Consumer Culture, 112-3.83 On the largely heterosexual and male-dominated nature of Tantra, see Urban, The Power

of Tantra, chapter 4. One of the few important exceptions is case of Ramakrishna, who, as Jeffrey J. Kripal has argued, had profound (and deeply ambivalent) homo-erotic impulses: Kali’s Child: The Mystical and the Erotic in the Life and Teachings of Rama-krishna (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998).


marital relations, procreation and childbirth. One need not search far, in fact, to find a wide range of gay authors arguing for Tantra as a usable technique and even a guiding philosophy for homosexual lifestyles.

As such, the gay appropriation of Tantra is a key part of the larger role of homosexuality in modern American culture – what Jennifer Terry has dubbed “an American obsession.” 84 It is perhaps no accident that Western discourse on Tantra emerged at roughly the same time as discourse on sexual perversions in medical, scientific and psychological literature. The very term homosexuality was not coined until the late 19th century, a time when there was an increasing desire to classify, categorize and so control all possible forms of sexual deviance, from nymphomania to necrophilia, erotomania to spermatophobia. 85 Thus the Western interest in the “devi-ance” of Eastern traditions like Tantra was a key element in the wider dis-course about sexual dysfunctions like homosexuality. Similarly, the rise of interest in Tantra during the 60s and 70s coincided with the rise of gay and lesbian rights movements and the search for a uniquely gay identity; both

“Tantric” and “gay” were once taboo, transgressive terms that were later appropriated and re-deployed with a sense of pride to identify an emerging counter-culture. 86 Just as many men and women with same sex preferences proudly identify themselves as gay, lesbian or queer, so too, “Tantra” has become less a stigma of perversion and more an index of sexual chic.

Both respected scholars and popular gay and lesbian authors have undertaken this bold gay interpretation of Tantra. In the scholarly realm, one of the foremost authorities on Tibetan Buddhism and a former trans-lator for the Dalai Lama, Jeffrey Hopkins, has recently come out of the closet and published a gay interpretation of a Tibetan sexual manual. Tak-ing the explicitly heterosexual sexual manual, the Tibetan Arts of Love by Gedun Chopel, he has published his own re-translation of the text from an explicitly homosexual perspective; thus we find masculine pronouns sub-stituted for feminine, and male anatomy for female. For Hopkins, Tantric

84 Jennifer Terry, An American Obsession: Science, Medicine and Homosexuality in Modern Society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 1-26. See Steven Sei-dman, ed., Queer theory / sociology (Cambridge: Blackwell, 1996), 33-40.

85 See Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality, v. I (New York: Vintage, 1980), 43. Foucault dates the origin of the term to Carl Westphal’s Archiv für Neurologie, in 1870. “[T]he psychological, psychiatric, medical category of homosexuality was consti-tuted from the moment it was characterized… less by a type of sexual relations than by a certain sexual sensibility… The sodomite had been a temporary aberration; the homo-sexual was now a species” (ibid.).

86 On the positive re-appropriation of the labels gay, lesbian and queer see Terry, An Amer-ican Obsession, 367-73; Steven Seidman, ed. Queer theory / sociology.

466 Hugh B. Urban

Buddhism is not only a powerful spiritual path that is “sex friendly” – that is, making positive use of sexual pleasure “to gain insight into the reality behind appearances, which is like the sky;” 87 but Tantric techniques can also be adapted for non-heterosexual purposes in the service of gay spir-ituality. As Hopkins explains in his preface,

Since gay persons need care, support and encouragement from their own community, I felt that in addition to translating … a Tibetan heterosexual sex manual, I needed to live up to my responsibilities to my own community. Thus I present a guide to gay sex infused with my perspectives from India and Tibetan culture. 88

Buddhist Tantra, Hopkins thinks, can and should be appropriated by gay males today; because it does not separate body and spirit but rather affirms the continuity between physical, emotional and spiritual realms of awareness, Tantric Buddhism has a place for sexual pleasure and orgasm as insights into the true nature of reality. Thus it represents a much-needed source of healing and reintegration for a fragmented modern Western psy-che which has so long tended to sever the spiritual and sexual, the physical and transcendental planes:

During sex it is possible to gain awareness of more profound levels of mind… The focus on the mind of clear light does not turn sexual acts into metaphors of reunion with the divine. Rather, ordinary sex is viewed as a basis for devel-opment into extraordinary insight. The sky-experience of the mind of clear light stands behind the scintillating descriptions of erotic acts, beckoning the participant to taste reality. 89

If gay Tantra has now penetrated the academic world, then it is not surpris-ing to find it entering the popular non-academic side of American culture, as well. For example, we can now surf the “gay-tantra.com” web-site and browse its Tantric gift shop for a variety of goods, such as Sex Toys, Cock Rings, Whips, Dog Collars and Riding Crops. Both Tantra and homosexu-ality, many gay authors argue, have been known to humankind for millen-nia and can be found everywhere from ancient Greece to Native America. Yet they have long been repressed, denied and marginalized by mainstream religious and social institutions, and are only just now beginning to be rediscovered the modern West:

87 Jeffrey Hopkins, Sex, Orgasm and the Mind of Clear Light (Berkeley: North Atlantic Books, 1998), 71-2.

88 Hopkins, Sex, Orgasm and the Mind of Clear Light, xii.89 Hopkins, Sex, Orgasm and the Mind of Clear Light, 107.


Tantric sexual techniques have been used in India for centuries. The basic idea involves using sexual energy to expand and explore. Anyone and everyone is capable of Tantric sex, all you need is patience and imagination… Sextasy is the orgasmic openness achieved in sexual communion. 90

The Tantric path, however is also the most radical path, one that will take the practitioner beyond all known categories of moral and immoral, acceptable and unacceptable, good and evil, taboo and transgression: “To fully understand Tantra you must be willing to renounce all your preju-dices and conceptions of what is proper and what is improper.” 91

But it is not only gay men who have turned to Tantra as a legitimation for their alternative sexual practices; lesbians have also found in Tantra a powerful image of liberation and empowerment. As the path of śakti or female creative energy, Tantra seems to many lesbians a celebration of the divine power of the female body, a power that is at once the creative source of life and also radically free, transcending patriarchal control. As Diane Mariechild argues,

Love between women can be a celebration of and an initiation into the female creative spirit… When we open to the great feminine, the holy space that is the foundation of the world, making love becomes sacred. Lesbians hold the form of woman power at its most profound. Many lesbians seek to identify ourselves from an inner source of woman wisdom … Woman loving woman can be an alchemical process which reaches into our very cells. 92

Again, lesbian Tantra is here celebrated as a liberation and empowerment – this time liberating women, as the true embodiments of śakti, from the oppressive binds of male control.

We know ourselves as “virgin,” meaning one-in-herself, belonging to no man. Lesbian sacred sexual love has the potential to awaken and reunite us with the divine source of our being… Through the power of love we come to know ourselves as both mothers / creators of our lives and as daughters / caretakers of the earth. 93

Finally, it is not surprising that the Tantric cult of ecstasy has also been appropriated by the more extreme end of the alternative sexual spectrum,

90 Dax Michaels, “The History of Tantric Massage,” http: // www.tantricmassage.com / the- history-of-tantric-massage.htm.

91 Michaels, “The Definition of Tantra.”92 Diane Mariechild, “Lesbian Sex,” Tantra.org, 1996. http: // www.tantra.org / les-

bian-kama-sutra /93 Mariechild, “Lesbian Sex.”

468 Hugh B. Urban

particularly in the Sado-masochist world. According to many advocates, S&M is something far more than a sexual practice that involves a certain degree of pain or bondage; rather, it is a method of optimizing sexual stimulation in order to achieve the most intense states of ecstasy. Accord-ing to some authors, it is a way to reach mystical states that far transcend ordinary physical pleasure. One of its more outspoken proponents, Fakir Musafar, even compares S&M with Indian religious techniques known to yogis or millennia. The Nāth Siddhas and other yogis have long employed methods for stretching the penis, through the use of weights, chains and ropes; through such techniques they are able to achieve prolonged states of sexual arousal, yet without orgasm, thus using sex as a springboard to higher states of ecstasy: “The net result is that they become sexual with no physical way of orgasming. They are capable of going up to much higher levels of ecstasy and prolonging it.” 94 Like Tantra, Musafar argues, S&M is a controlled method of using sex to achieve ecstatic experiences, one that works by intensifying desire while at the same time postponing orgasm.

You can go into an altered state with the sexual thing. When it results in orgasm, you never discover there’s a higher ecstasy beyond ecstasy…[E]roti-cism is the best possible way to reach God, to get into another world. Without sexual arousal it would be impossible to escape the human condition, but if we get stuck there, then it gets to be a limitation. If you push the ultimate, deny a physical orgasm, you are making constructive use of sexual energy. 95

But this S&M interpretation is perhaps only the logical conclusion of a long trajectory of American appropriations of Tantra in this century: in its American forms, Tantra has from the beginning been about radical trans-gression, the violation of taboos and the use of sexual stimulation to reach intense states of ecstasy. S&M is perhaps just a new reading of Tantra in an age where we have a new set of taboos to be broken and a new array of laws to be violated with titillating pleasure.

94 Kristine Ambrosia and Joseph Lanza, “Fakir Musafar Interview,” in Apocalypse Culture, ed. Adam Parfrey (Los Angeles: Feral House, 1990), 108. For a good discus-sion of the psychology of S&M, see Jessica Benjamin, The Bonds of Love: Psycho-analysis, Feminism and the Problem of Domination (New York: Pantheon, 1988), 3-10, 219-224.

95 Ambrosia and Lanza, “Fakir Musafar Interview,” 108.


V. tantra.com: The New Vernacular Language of Tantra

on the World-Wide Web

If you want to integrate your sexual and spiritual nature into one healthy, juicy, magnetized whole… all the while enlarging your options for a more multidi-mensional sex life… then welcome to the frequency of Sacred Sex… and our version we call American Tantra.

– Paul Ramana Das and Marilena Silbey, “Sacred Sexuality” 96

American Tantra has crossed virtually every boundary through its gay, les-bian and sado-masochist interpretations, perhaps the last barrier to cross is the virtual one – the realm of digitalization and the world-wide web. One might argue that html has emerged as the vernacular language of Tan-tra for the new millennium, a global language that transmits Tantric texts and images to all corners of the planet at the click of a mouse. Circulating through a new network of veins (nāḍī s) and energy centers (cakras) com-prised of telephone cables and computer terminals, the Tantric śakti has assumed a new form in the digital energy running through the world-wide web. As Douglas puts it, “Tantra is like the Internet- expanding exponen-tially, links everywhere, innovative, cross-cultural, knowing no boundaries and changing day by day.” 97

The role of the Internet within the realm of religion is a vast and difficult question only now beginning to be explored. For many critics, the Internet is simply the latest example of the progressive loss of genu-ine human community in the face of mass culture, consumerism and an increasingly depersonalized, dehumanizing technocracy. 98 For its propo-nents, however, the Internet opens a new world of possibilities for creating alternative religious communities and imagining new forms of spiritual authority which transcend traditional barriers of class, wealth, gender and

96 Das and Silbey, “Sacred Sexuality: Explore and Enjoy Divine Fantasy,” Omplace.com. http: // www.omplace.com / articles / Sacred_Sex.html.

97 Douglas, Spiritual Sex, 347.98 See Arthur and Marilouise Kroker, Hacking the Future: Stories for the Flesheating

90s (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1996), 78.

470 Hugh B. Urban

race. 99 As Jennifer Terry points out, the Internet, like all technology, can be used in all sorts of creative and subversive ways never dreamed of by its creators. This medium originally designed for US military use is now one of the primary vehicles for the spread of a wide range of New Age and new religious movements. With its general anonymity and the possibility of logging on without any indication of gender or physical appearance, the Internet offers remarkable new possibilities for re-imagining the self. Not only are there now a myriad of on-line temples and shrines; but there are also thousands of new “imagined religious communities” proliferating on the web, offering an alternative form of collective experience, unbounded by geographic location and freed of the barriers of wealth, class, gender or race. 100

The Tantric cyber surfers have been among the first to capitalize on the new possibilities of the Internet. As Rachel McDermott suggests in her study of the Tantric Goddess Kālī, we are now witnessing a remarkable global dialectical play between Indian and Western imaginations, between ancient Tantric traditions and 21st century net-surfers, mediated by the new world of cyber-space. 101 In the last few years, the teachings and rituals of Tantra have become among the most widespread of the various alterna-tive spiritualities available on the Net. Through the seemingly egalitarian medium of the Internet, they profess to offer a more accessible, non-elitist brand of Tantra, available to anyone regardless of status or education. One need only enter the word “tantra” into any search engine to generate sev-eral hundred sites, bearing titles such as “Sacred Sex–Karezza, Tantra and Sex Magic,” “Extended Orgasm: a Sexual Training Class,” “Ceremonial Sensual Pleasuring,” or “Oceanic Tantra. In his recent volume, Spiritual Sex, Nik Douglas includes an appendix with some 20 pages of on-line sex-magic possibilities, concluding that

99 See Mitch Kapor, “Where is the Digital Highway Really Heading?” Wired July-Aug. (1993): 53.

100 Jennifer Terry and Melodie Calvert, Processed Lives: Gender and Technology in Everyday Life (London: Routledge, 1997), 7. See Bruce Lawrence. “God On Line: Locating the Pagan / Asian Soul of America in Cyberspace,” in Susan Mizruchi, ed. Religion and Cultural Studies (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001), 236-254; Erik Davis, Techgnosis: Myth, Magic + Mysticism in the Age of Information (New York: Harmony Books, 1998).

101 Rachel F. McDermott, “Kālī’s New Frontiers: A Hindu Goddess on the Internet,” in Encountering Kālī: On the Margins, in the Center, at the Extremes, ed. Rachel F. McDermott and Jeffrey J. Kripal (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), chapter 12.


the enormous variety of sexual fantasy scenarios offered in the media, over the phone, and on the Internet tells us that nowadays nothing is off limits… Using the information superhighway we can get on with finding out who we really are… what our sexual fantasies really are and how we want to live them out. We can do this interactively and anonymously, irrespective of country bor-ders… In the years ahead, Tantra data on the information superhighway will lead spiritual travelers directly to their goal. 102

Thus we find a proliferation of “ritual spaces,” in which individuals discon-nected in physical space can enter virtual temples to participate in on-line Tantric pūjās. Not only may we now visit the “Kālī Mandir,” where we are invited to experience cyber-darśan and perform a virtual pūjā, by offer-ing fruits and flowers up to the computer screen; but we can also use the Tantric web to “greatly increase [our] sensual and sexual pleasure” and “deepen [our] intimate relationships.” 103 One of the most remarkable of these online offerings is “American Tantra,” which promisess a “third mil-lennium” vision of Tantra for a post-modern globalized, on-line audience.

American Tantra (tm) is a fresh eclectic weaving of sacred sexual philoso-phies drawn .. from around the world, both ancient and modern …”Ameri-can” mean[s]… fresh, innovative, fun, free, multicultural, creative, energetic, optimistic… We are innovative teachers… of this exciting blend of Sex and Spirit in a New Paradigm Relationship. In American Tantra (tm) it is vital to embrace our sexuality… and celebrate it in every aspect of our daily life… [M]aking love is a galactic event!

We intend to co-create neo-tribal post-dysfunctional multi-dimensional sex and spirit positive loving and juicy generations of gods and goddesses in the flesh. On the Starship Intercourse we greet and part with: ORGASM LONG AND PROSPER! 104

Ultimately, its advocates claim, the on-line rituals and cyber-sexual encoun-ters of the Internet offer truly transformative, even utopian possibilities. As Douglas suggests, they help “re-program” the human “bio-computer” itself, to re-write the psychic software of individuals who have been sexu-ally deformed or badly programmed by mainstream Western society:

We can access Tantric knowledge by reprogramming our biocomputer. By exploring our true spiritual potential as dynamic and creative sexual beings, we can rid ourselves of confining sex- or gender -negative conditioning.

102 Douglas, Spiritual Sex, 323.103 True L. Fellows, “Tantra: The Path of Ecstasy,” 2000. http: // www.blisstantra.com /104 Paul Ramana Das and Marilena Silbey, “Celebrating Sacred Sexuality: American

Tantra (tm),” 1997. http: // www.angelfire.com / ky / pawthakh / Celebrating.html.

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Our bodily ‘hardware’ is desperately in need of spiritual ‘software’ , of new spiritual programming. tantra can best be viewed as an extremely well-tested spiritual software designed specifically for this time, software that, when correctly implanted, imparts world happiness and spiritual liberation in this lifetime 105

Here we seem to be witnessing the birth of a new vision of the human body itself, reconfigured for the digital era. This is perhaps the ultimate fantasy of creating an alternative, incorporeal body, a cyber self, in which telephone wires and cables become the nāḍī s of this virtual subtle corpus, computer terminals become the new cakras or nodes of energy, and the flow of vital prāṇa becomes the infinite stream of information transmitted by digital code. As Arthur Kroker suggests, this is the digital generation’s version of the age-old struggle between the material and the immaterial, between the corruptible flesh and the desire to transcend the body in an incorruptible other-world: “Not something new, digital reality continues anew a very ancient story: the struggle between two irreconcilable ele-ments in the human drama–the unwanted reality of the decay of the flesh and the long-dreamed promised land of escape from body organic of the pre technological body… that’s the utopia and futility of digital reality.” 106

Ultimately, as we see in the “American Tantra” site, the human body itself becomes a kind of terminal in this world-wide web of flowing energy, a virtual temple of erotic ecstasy, bursting with “high-frequency vibra-tional engorgement:”

American Tantra (tm) offers easy, fun ways to celebrate the body and spirit as divine temples of loving expression.. American Tantra (tm) is designed to enhance energetic states of intimate communication, passion and pleasure… for contemporary people who choose to expand the frequency of love and light in their lives. This new paradigm “weaves” together lust and love… hon-oring our bodies as temples of divine pleasure… channeling our spiritual / sex-ual… aspects of being into a new frequency of living love and light. 107

In short, if html is in some sense a new “Tantric language for our glo-balized, technological age, then the message it teaches is also a rather new one. In an ironic twist, it is precisely through the Internet, by participating in on-line ecstasy, achieving cyb-orgasm via mouse and video-screen, that

105 Douglas, Spiritual Sex, 308, 19.106 Arthur and Marilouise Kroker, Hacking the Future: Stories for the Flesh eating

90s (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1996), 33.107 Das and Silbey, “Celebrating Sacred Sexuality.”


we are said to achieve the ultimate physical experience, to achieve the full-est realization of our bodily and sexual nature.

Conclusions Primitive Passions in a Postmodern World

I have a vision for the future where all the necessary sex education will be available for everyone… No one will ever go hungry for sex because there will be sex kitch-ens all over town serving sex instead of soup… We will learn how to use orgasm to cure disease as some of the ancient Tantrics and Taoists did. … In the future, every-body will be so sexually satisfied, there’ll be an end to violence, rape and war. We will establish contact with extra-terrestrials and they will be very sexy.

– Annie Sprinkle 108

Deep down, the US, with its space, its technological refinement… is the only remaining primitive society. The fascinating thing is to travel through it as though it were the primitive society of the future.

– Jean Baudrillard, America 109

Our venture into cyberspace has brought us full circle – from East to West and back again; we have retraced what F. Max Müller long ago called

“that world wide circle through which, like an electric current, Oriental thought could run to the West and Western thought return to the East.” 110 For we have journeyed from the American appropriation of Tantra, with its re-definition of Tantra as “spiritual sex,” to the re-exportation of “Neo-Tantra,” which has been repackaged for a global marketplace and appro-priated by a wide of array of spiritual consumers. In the process, Tantra has undergone a series of profound transformations. No longer an esoteric path centered on acquisition of power, Tantra has been not only publicized, but also sexualized, commercialized and globalized, emerging as a brand

108 Gary Morris, “An Interview with Sprinkle,” BrightLightsFilms.com, 2010. http: // www.brightlightsfilm.com / 16 / annie.html.

109 Jean Baudrillard, America (London: Verso 1988), 7.110 F. Max Müller, Biographical Essays (New York: C. Scribner’s Sons, 1884), 13.

474 Hugh B. Urban

of spirituality that seems remarkably well-suited to consumer culture at dawn of the new millennium.

It is in precisely this sense that Tantra would seem to be the ideal reli-gion for American culture at the turn of the millennium – as the most radical and transgressive form of spirituality which violates every known taboo and oversteps every possible social restriction. Thus we now find performance artists like the notorious Annie Sprinkle – a self-proclaimed

“Post-Porn-Modernist “ – who uses her live performances of Tantric sex as a vehicle for absolute liberation from all forms of sexual taboo. 111 As one South Asian-American, Hakim Bey explains, Tantra is thus the most pow-erful path for our own age of darkness, death and power in the Kali Yuga:

Her age must contain horrors… To go thru CHAOS, to ride it like a tiger, to embrace it (even sexually) & absorb its shakti… this is the faith of the Kali yuga. Creative nihilism. For those who follow it she promises enlightenment and & even wealth, a share of her temporal power. The sexuality & violence serve as metaphors in a poem which acts directly on consciousness… they can be openly deployed & imbued with a sense of the holiness of every thing from ecstasy & wine to garbage & corpses. 112

This dialectic of Tantra, I would argue, is an extreme form of the larger role of sexuality in contemporary American culture. As Foucault observes, it may not be the case that we in the modern West have liberated sexual-ity in some radical way; but it does seem that we have intensified our discourse about sex, talking and arguing and fantasizing about it as an endless source of titillation. At the same time, our generation has taken sex to the furthest possible extremes – to extremes of transgression, and excess, not resting until we have shattered every taboo: “We have not in the least liberated sexuality, though we have… carried it to its limits: the limit of consciousness, because it ultimately dictates the only possible reading of our unconscious; the limit of the law, since it seems the sole substance of universal taboos.” 113 Thus, one might well argue that we are now living in a kind of “post-orgy world” – “the world left after the great social and sexual convulsions” – which has broken every imaginable taboo and yet left us in a strange “undefined state,” in which we are left questioning our very being. For after all, what is there left to do after every taboo has been violated and every forbidden desire indulged? 114

111 Annie Sprinkle, Post-Porn Modernist (San Francisco: Cleis Press, 1998), 193.112 Hakim Bey, Instructions for the Kali Yuga, in Apocalypse Culture, 87.113 Foucault, Religion and Culture, 57.114 Baudrillard, America, 46.


In this sense, much of the contemporary American fascination with Tantra is very similar to the contemporary fascination with the primitive, which Marianna Torgovnick has explored. As Torgovnick suggests, the West has long defined itself against its Others – whether in the form of primitives, savages, or exotic Orientals. Yet the primitive has always held a deeply ambivalent Janus-faced role in the Western imagination – at once demonized and denigrated as backward, uncivilized, retarded or danger-ous, and yet also romantically celebrated as somehow more fully in tune with nature, the sacred and the mystical, ecstatic dimensions of experience. Hence as Torgovnick persuasively argues, this primitive, ecstatic and irra-tional dimension has, in some fundamental sense, always been a deep part of the Western imagination itself. When we turn to the “primitive” in our quest for the oceanic or ecstatic experience, we are in fact searching for a displaced part of ourselves that we have projected onto the exotic other:

The West has repeatedly tried to displace… the oceanic, severing it from the perceived self and projecting it outward. But the projection has never really worked. The time for denial seems long past. The recognition is overdue that primitivism is much more about us than about them. … It is time to realize that the quest for ecstasy is as much a part of Western fears and desires as it is a part of… their people. 115

So too, I would argue that our American fascination with Tantra has less to do with any actual Indian practice than it has to do with our own uniquely American fantasies, obsessions and repressed desires. Sex, I would argue, is not in fact the central preoccupation of most Tantric texts, where secrecy and the acquisition of power are typically far more important. But sex is very much a contemporary American preoccupation, one that continues to drive us in our own primitive passion for the elusive ideal of bodily and spiritual ecstasy.

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115 Marianna Torgovnick, Primitive Passions: Men, Women and the Quest for Ecstasy (Chicago: University of Chicago, Press, 1998), 219.

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