)ason Finch

« Swrlr,rNc HERE, sHRrNKrNc rHERE »: Drrxls onPucr rrv CsnprER I oF A PÅssÅ cn ro lxort

The opening chapter of A Passage to lndia (1,924) by E M. Forster(1879-1970) consists of a godlike aerial tour of the city of Chan-drapore (Forster 1978 :2-4). Chandrapore is based on Bankipore,visited by Forster in January 1913.r There is no narratorial ,I, inthis chapter and nor is the chapter written from the perspective ofone of the novel's characters, but the audience in 1924 knew verywell that this was Mr E.M. Forster, the author of Howards End.,writing.2The present paper offers a reading ofthe opening chapterof this extremely famous and widely-discussed novel, which wasForster's last and is often considered to be his masterpiece. Theapproach taken is to make use of the linguistic and philosophi.cal concept of deixis, or « the ways in which languages encodeor grammaticalize features of the context of utterånce or speechevent » (Levinson 1983 : 54). Deixis is commonly divided into anumber of categories, including those of person, time, place, dis-course and sociery and distinguished from adjacent phenomenasuch as anaphoric reference.

I In a letter to his morher of t5 January 1913, Forster (1983b : 179) describedBankipore as « horrible beyond words »; he stayed in the house ofan Indianwhile there. See also Forster 1983a | 179- 186.2 Throughout this article a distinction is made between 'Forster,, the DeadWhite Male found in university libraries and lecture ha.lls, and ,Mr Forster',a way of representing å teconstruction of how 1924 recipients might havecompleted the text. This contains the risk of seeming irritating or arch, butthe risk seems worth taking as a way ofidentiF/ing two quite different under-standings ofthe author of A Passage to l\dia.

Studla Romanica Tartuensia lVa

Place deixis, in everyday conversation, is most closely associ-

ated with the use of referents such as fhis and that, and here aad

there, to d,eqole a contrast between 'in or near the place where the

speaker and listener are' (proximal) and hway from or far fromthat place' (distal) (Levinson 1983:62,79-85; Levinson 1998; Sell

1998 : 53t; Yule 1996: 12-13). The most definite place-deictic ref-

erence within the chapter is the use of åere in the third sentence ofthe third paragraph:

There are no bathing-steps on the riyer front, as the Gangeshappens not to be holy here; indeed there is no river front, andbazaars shut out the wide and shifting panorama of the stream.(Forster 1985 : 3l) [my emphasisl

When Forster, or the narrator, says'here' at this point, we wonderif he does not in fact mear. there. (In other words, he is saying

something like 'in that place lindicated], distant from me, Forster,

and you, my audience, at the time I am writing this.') It may be,

however, that he means here i\ lhe sense of 'the place I am re-

porting from now, writing som€thing like a letter or.journalisticaccount for the consumption ofthose at home, in the manner of a

foreign correspondent.'Later reference which is apparently also place-deictic, at this

same micro- or linguistic-pragmatic level, turns out in fact to be

discourse deictic or anaphoric (Levinson 1983 :62,85-89).r There

is an example in the second paragraph:

Beyond the railrvay - whicb runs parallel to the river - the lancsinks, then rises again rather steePly. On this second rise is lai,:out the little Civil Station, and viewed åerce Chandrapore appears

to be a totally different place. (Forster 1978 : 2) Imy emphasisl

Hence and the parallel but archaic thence are an old-established

place-deictic pairing, to go together with this I that and here

there.a The sense of hence, since thence is more or less obsolete.

I On the distinction between micro- and macro pragmatics see Mey 200:

passia. On the pragmatic relationship between deixis and anaphora, rvith l!:former frequently turning into the latter over time in nåtural language us:

Mey 2001 r 56-60.a Herce is not mentio[ed by Levinson (1983) ill his discl.lssion of place dei\,!

Iason Finch

is going from the indicated (either proximal or distal) place,.jSpatially, there seems little doubt that the Civil Station is distal,not proximal, here. Hence here is used to point elsewhere in thesame utterance and is therefore discourse,deictic or anaphoric,rather than to point outside the utterance, at an extra-linguisticcontext. It points to « the little Civil Station » which has iusi beenmentioned,

It could be argued that the same is true of the first åere dis_cussed above, but on reflection this does not ring true. The firståere has nothing so concrete within the utterance io refer back to,only some vague sense of 'the point on the Ganges at which Chan_drapore stands', bearing in mind both that we do not know whichpoint that is, and that we are fairly sure that we are in a noveland that Chandrapore could therefore be an invented place (it is,although one bearing a close relationship to the real city ofBanki_pore). It is therefore natural to look for another kind of deixis inthis äere, and to arrive at the reporter,s voice posited above. Thehere of <, the Ganges happens not to be holy heie , seems, in otherwords, a more contextual, outside-text, reference, serving to situ_ate speaker and listeners spatially in relation to one another andthe thing.described, although it undeniably proves to be ambigu-ous. Finally, as will be examined in more detail later, readers

-are

undoubtedly being shown an image ofthe real, non_literary, placeIndia, which we all (presumably) believe to exist.

Elsewhere in the chapter here and. there are used in a way pre_cisely opposite to the place-deictic use said by Levinson (l93ä , 8l)to be most frequently associated with them (« ... simple contrastson a proximal/distal dimension, stretching away from the speaker,slocation... »):6

5 See OED s.v hence seise Ll, thence selse I. Aiso Dote in reiation to deixisthat the two entries include an analagous sense relating to time, but that rheplace-related meaning is considered prior fur both words.6 Levinson Lnows thal - thrs is only sometjmes so -, but he does nol drs(ussany, use,oI åere and irere resembling that found in the passage from ForsteruDoer orscussron here.

261

S$dir l\oma nr ca Terruensii IVa

Houses do fall, people are drowned and left rotting, but the gen-

eral outline of the town persists, swelling here, shrinkltg there,

Iike some low but indestructible form of life. (Pass@ge to India,3I) [my emphasis]

The meaning ofthe two words in this sentence is most important-

ly that it does not matter precisely in which places the town ex-

pands and in which it contracts, or which parts of it are destroyed

by flood. The words are used to say that the distinction between

this point and that point (neither any more proximal or distal to

the speaker and his hearers than each other, and with a couple ofpoints standing metonymically for a whole host of equally unim-

portant points) is unimportant. They are used, that is to say, to

annihilate place-deictic reference.

Further implicature attaches to the same words.T First of all

they reinforce the Olympian or epic persPective of the opening

chapter: we are being shown a universe in miniature here. MrForster takes his readers with him in a balloon or on a cloud above

Chandrapore. The chapter could be described as a Prologue to the

rest of the book, contrasting strongly with the dialogue and real

ism of Chapter II, and paralleling the ritual described in Chap-

ter XXXVL The first chapter is the only one in the book not to

mention a single character's name. The here and' the therc in lhisrespect mirror the time reference of the same sentence's first two,

subordinate, clauses (u Houses do fall, people are drowned and left

rotting ... ») which use present tenses, first with an emphatic do,

then with two passive forms that conceal agency or dismiss it as ir-

relevant. Emphatic do here implicitly builds a contrast with places

where houses do rof fall in this way. As a result' do also becomes

another place-deictic reference (on a slightly more macro-deictic

level) since that place,lhe here of lhe audience, England, appears

in a shadowy way behind the description ofChandrapore The use

? Implicature is defined following H. Paul Grice as n . a different (oPPosite,

additional, etc.) pragmatic rneaning ofan utterance vdth resPect to the literal

meaning expressed by that utterance » (Koktovä 1998). The words quoted fit

this de6nition in that they apParently flout the Gricean conversational max

ims, but are naturålly interPreted such that lhe maxims are fulfilled- See aiso

Levinson 1983:97-166.

of do described here constitutes Gricean imPlicature in that this

i", iå,,rr. ,.r*ur English present-tense form (which would be

:i;;;;;j. ;;r"råallyinvisible do enters the Enslish Present

simple usually either to correct another's negative assenion,oflhe

sort'houses do nol fall" to ansrver a question ('do houses fall?')' or

,;;r;;;;;;"" to the unusualness of the statement ('lt is really

,.*, "f

rf,"**l it mighl seem amazing' that houses falJ')'" ;;;;;?.t; ust" o[ tht word therefore invites readers to an

,*.r-,tt."qu.ui"n of why he is doing so' assuming tlll h" hjl-'

."t'rräaö r",t his weli-known grasp o{ elegant u*}t-n.:""q:

;;;, nu,u,ul *uy e[ xn5wqrinc the question and so maK-

t; ;;;;; ; ;.; ",.,:. ll'n: o:l'"':;Iiljil:

1'n'l'#i: *::'i:ihree Dossibilities' leading to th

:;1;å;i;;;;ni.,ioi"u n'i*ing nesative a a? l" fr" ol:::

*i.r" t "rt.- OO thus fall i' hence held in opposition to another

;;;; ;1.;;; ""t ln terms of tense' these first two claus€s use the

;iäi iJ;,;'i" io un otvtplun rime'PersPective' matchjns

Hä;ä;;; otvrnpi'n PIace-persPective' which couldtrc

o"r"pf.r*.i ,f-r*' this plaie is not lil(e ours' these things are natu-

,al oarts o{ life there when they would be obscenities at home'

'"' "i' ilit'rir- ,:, lndia was published in the year when Ramsay

MacDonald, Britain's first ever Labour Prime Minister' took

;ä:;;'ä;;;'t;; after world war one was a time 'h:1-" 1

,.,rrn,. ,nt,-t'"f p"litica) allegiancec ' took place (Marguand 2004.

ä;:'#; ä"lpltt fln'nti"t prohlem< Fabian Societv dreams oi

..ai"* p"", housing and squalor in London and other tsritish

.,t'.. i",l"a finallv to be becoming a realitv'n*l'l: ::l:-1,11,1

,;;,"*;tt., 2000 : 8 9' l6' 1 8 ) ' The abyss ever hovenng Derow

Howards End's Leonard Bast only an umbrella's length from the

;:il;;i;"it' äueen's Hall has moved to another continent'

thank goodness A final bit ol imllicature ro be mentioned is the

ffJlli;. il;i";-t"f'' 'r" background but to be brousht out

- F-rr- re"fiacDoidd't Th' Ä'* kening of India (1910) before his first

vlsit there in tstz-lst3 (stallybrass I978 : rx)rrrair of London poverty to be

u'fhere is a qreat difference betwe'

,.;":T;il" ';';'tso r'

"na rh..t to be found in smrth lelo lels' on

Booth see Booth 2005'35

Srudit' tlonranicrlrtuensiå lVa

later in the novel, of whether the lives of those people, beside the

river, are worth less than those of the ones who live on the rise

above it, the English.

Such are the place-deictic references at the level of individual

heres and theres i\ lhe chapter. To carry out a literary-Pragmatic

study, rather than just use Forster's words as linguistic examples, itis now necessary to move above them to look at the place-deictic

reference of the whole passage, with the triangular relationshiP

betlveen Forster (or his narrator-figure/voice in this chaPter) the

audience (keeping in mind that the question of which audience is

a murky point that demands further scrutiny) and Chandrapore

(the thing being described) as the main focus'o The chapter di-

vides into four paragraphs, whose contents can be summarised as

follows: the firsi is cåncerned with the city by the river; the second

with the Civil Station overlooking it; the third with the appear-

ance of the sky above both city and Civil Station; and the fourth

with the meaning ofthe s§ in the rvorld of Chandrapore'

The first paragraph, ending with the sentence discussed above

(« ... some low but indestructible form of life ') is in essence a se-

ries ofgrammatical negatives («... nothing. scarcely no " not

.., no ... never ... no1 ...nq.. »), interspersed lvith lexical negatives

(«... rubbish... shut out... mean ... ineffective hidden filth '

stopped... mud.,. abased... monotonous. . excrescence ') The

place-deictic reference of a name requires attention Mr Forster

äoes not tell us, his Olympian companions, where we are' but

even before the reference to the Ganges in the second sentence

(and in case we had forgotten the title of the novel) the name

. Chandrapore » tells us that we are visiting India lndian cities

hav. *a.y n"m.r; it wouid be hard to pick a more stereoqpically

lndian one than 'Chandrapore' for a novel with an audience in

England. Those addressed are in England, and are pretending to

be visitors to India with Mr Forster for the duration of the novel'

Whether they are Mrs Munts, Leonard Basts or Evie Wilcoxes the

rest of the time, they can for a little while become free-thinking

ro My understanding of the triangular relationship between author' reade'

and ihing being desc.ibed is indebted to that ofRoger D' Sell (2000)'

lason Finch

Cambridge Arnoldians, well-connected and engaged in a disin-

ä.ri.a ,""-.r, for things as they truly are' by accompanying. Mr

Forster on the trip. The message of all the negatives is that things

"r. ""i "t rntgl, U. expected in that piace lt is not holy' there are

no bathing Hindus. the architecture is unimpresive *l ll":t-]tituf" ,.öp"Ufy f.cund decoration ln short' it lacks colour ?ro-

ä;;;;i;;;t"e who would later critique western orientalism'

ffi:;;;;;;the East to be drab' developmentallv arrested'

undemocratic"'-ä.-"..ona paragraph moYes into the heavens Where the

".r-;;;;;;.;i ,il. 6rlt could be that o[ a percePtive imperialist' it

l;;';;,n., clear that we are above such a ligure as much as we

ur. uior. tn. rrraiuns The Empire' in other words' is no longer.to

;;;;; "if-- within, buifrom without' with the possibilitv

oi ubolition. Our PersPective is not to be that of the colonist' but

.ilninl -i"a.i don or civil servant Iike Coldsworthy Lowes

ä'ä'"i"",'i"tt"r;, *t"g'' College menror' who accompanied

the writer on his l9l2- !913 visit (Heine 1983 : xiv xv-ru)' or Jonn

Mavnard Keynes Forster's iunior at King s' at the Indla umce

il",i".." ,roå ""a I908, and the lieasury durinS tlt y'11C..":1"

"r.s iö0, , n*r"*7). We see the view from the « Iittle Civil Sta-

tonl, i.flttf"d ln lts first mention' leaving a subtle sense ofmock-

"r, *i,t ,tt. reciPients oflhis message which wil) re-emerge when

Cåll".to, Turton and hi' wife' the ' little gods " 01 thrs enclave'

are introduced later (Forsler 1985 : 50) We hear that « " vreweo

;;;;,'å;;;;;"n"re appears to be a totallv different P1nss"» Thus

,i" ""r,

n^,,frrn* transmiucd about the Civil Station' and there-

;;;.';il"' ;il; iie I n glo- I ndian communitv more gcnerallv'

for which the Civil Slation metonymically srands' is that it sees

Chandrapore from a particular noint o[ view 'lhe clalm to goo-

Iike status of the Anglo tndian ierspecti'e is relativized through

,h. li,arury device of a narratorial Position above and oulsloe Ine

things being described "

G"-p"t;;;G; 'f Ditk"*'s Bleak House (Dickens 1971)' which

,t r-,rr,ntiu rlrnitu, na'ative device a'saulrs a claim to pscudo-divine rule over

other"humans, in Dickens'\ La\e lhal ol the Iaw'

I

Studir Ilon)rnica Tartuensie IVa

Also in the same paragraph the encounter of newcomers withChandrapore is mentioned. A relationship ofplace emerges perhaps

not expected by the readership until they accompanied Mr Forster

on this journey, in that the distinction between people which matters

turns out not to be that between white and brown, or English and

Indian. Instead it is that between those who are always here, whether

lndian or Anglo-Indian, who accept the naturalness of Cha ndrapore-

as-here contained in « Houses do fall, people are drowned and left

rotting », and those who come from outside, who can therefore see

clearly and be properly outraged. The sentence about people's hous-

es and lives collapsing into the river now becomes, arguably, a piece

of indirect libre (Free lndirect Discourse) in which first-person and

third-person are blurred, rather than narration in a voice close to

Forster's own (McKeon 2000 : 485). It becomes, that is, a statement

of the fatalism of both rulers and ruled in Chandrapore, which

could have been voiced by either The anger that Forster aroused

among some Anglo-lndians with Å Pa ssage to lndiahad to do withtheir beliefthat he did not really know the place because he had not

spent enough time there or got to know Anglo-lndians well enough

(Stallybrass 1978 : mii-xxiii; Furbank 1978 : 126-130). Forster's case

is diametrically opposed: it is a virtue not to know India too well as

only in this way is it possible to have a persPective on it. The category

of newcomers includes Forster himself, emphatically not a Rudyard

Kipling writing from the inside of colonial service, nor even a Le-

onard Woolf (or later George Orwell) writing as a colonial service

protestor, who has seen the inside aad come out to tell the tale. We

know him as the author of Howards End, and this is his long-awaited

Indian novel; those with decent memories will recall his articles on

India from the time after his first visit, before the Great War (Kirk-

patrick 1965 : i 1I-112). The recipients ofhis message, or implied au-

dience (depending on your terminology) are also newcomers, who

have consented to go to India with Forster; as, intradiagetically, are

the novel's newcomers Mrs Moore (« I think you are newly arrived

in India », perceives Dr Aziz) and Adele Quested (Forster 1985 : 43).

Where the c§ below is all negatives, the CMI Station is at this stage

neutral (n it provokes no emotion »), but there is a hint ofthe farcical

in its sensible planning and the red brick Club building.

I--__lason Finch ' 267

What the two worlds (both lherp rhe Civil Station not more 4s

,;';;;;;,';;" is rhe same skv rhi' in the rhird paragraph is

the authentic exotic' rvhat the traveller will have desired in travel'

ffiä;'iltä.o"t'u't *ith the tndian ciry of the first Para

äil -,;' il;;';; ::'.T::::'tli:ll,lH; iiii. ;,,1'ål;white... white . orange Purple

il;;;;,;;;;k "'åf hi""in"bold' and in some opinions ill-

"a"o"l, "***t tnto symbol and evocation ''z

'-'rt; f.;;;ti paragraph again speaks from above' on the Power

"{,i: 'i; ln;;l;'tj' v"iro"'r'"ao*s the bicvcle'' dinntrs'and

:il.;:i;;;nt'r ll's openins' There are undertones both ol

the Ianguage of the Civil Station and that of the lndian city; h^et-

ä;t'ä'"' ;';;, "u'*:l.ol::;i;';'',1'J::,*-.ä"""ä'i:liiperspective '' Cho":'lt t-t-llTl

n'", "i,,.r"ry ,t ."*,i.rr ""on whether a linguistic-Pragma

."Ui"r, 't'pt.ft;ed'

paitly on whether one interPrets the lines

'"ä".,i'""'* *o*":'r'::.:TI1:l[fl":äI:*:::# :i

individual characters in a Ictlo

lil:'ö;' ;,,;'-v .""'* :l"ll:, [: :ilX ::111"::i,'Jilndians of ChandraPore could s'

il'ff'lää;.,"lno',no" " ) while the iast''"*: "r Ih"".:Y",." .'"- .å?,"i"t"g the extraordinarv caves "' could be those 01 a

t*.i,, guia.uoor''' T:'": ll:i,li;:Jil':::i:,',,T:I::fl:ironv' since one Point of the n(jå?; X;;;o'ain"'v rnt otherness o[ place' as in ' swell-

ing here' shrinking lhere '' once aBain turns out to be Precisely

notT#iur, line ot the chapter is further a direcr *P:illl-ill'

t,r"l;;;;;;;l echo of rhe lansuase of rhe tourist gurdeDooK'

We learned in the first line' in opinion itated with utter blandness'

ii. i.?'"^, t"å'''ouai traveller effaced/erased' that Tart

r'om-t''

:;r;":.',;;t;i, oI cnandrapore Presents nothing :It1*::inary. , Not long befo re e eaxage to tndia' Forster had published his

" " "ilft ff" -t"" t

" --tic - Roger Fry wrote to Virginia Woolf

,t.Lf.. U."i-"' o*lished (slallvbras§ lq8' :Yl^,,-. ,,h. iprm is derivedfx"'l..I::il:;"'::":ä';ä; ;;.,:,; pragmarics {the term is derived

*.,- tt4ikt "ii S"khtin) qee Sell lc98 : 532

Studiå Rom,nicå Tarruensia lva

own guidebook covering Alexandria, which was itself a calculated

homage to the pre-war guidebook typified by Baedeker and Mur-ray (Forster 1986 : to<i), a key Part of the European experience ofthe continent in his pre-w ltalian novels. In his first novel, Where

Angels Fear to Tread (1905) , the town of Monteriano is introduced

through a fictional Baedeker entry in the first chapter (Forster 1975

: 1l-12); Chapter I1 of A Room with a View (1908) is entitled " In

Santa Croce with no Baedeker » (Forster 1977 : 14-28). Among

other things, and almost completely unknown to Forster's 1924

audience, Chandrapore reverses the relationship of c§ and water

applied by Forster to Alexandria, where city is given life by water

(here water kills) and bathing seems always u Perfect » (here it is

non-existent, and would be religious-public-corporate, rather than

liberating-sexual-individual ifit did) (Forster 1986 : 196).

What becomes clear, then, is that the heres and theres of the

text, at the level of words rather than whole utterance, are quite

misleading about the actual place-deictic reference of A Passage

to lndia, Chapter L The triangular relationship in the chapter is

that between Forster (who I have here divided into Forster, dead,

the object ofcritical dissection and university discussion; and MrForster, alive in 1924 in my rather cartoony image of the percep-

tions of 1920s British novel-readers) his audience (easily divisible

into at least three heterogenous groups: first the 17,000 in Britain(and 54,000 in America) who bought, and maybe read, the novel

in 1924, many of them influenced by the leading reviewers ofthe day; second today's readers, mostly university students; and

thirdly, importantly, Indians, whose readings add a great deal ofcomplexity to an understanding of deictic here and there \n the

novel), and Chandrapore, the thing being described.

The relationship between an imagined, living 'Mr' Forster and

an imagined 1924 audience, in which the reciPients are taken by

the sender on a visionary iourney into the sky above Chandrap-

ore, as a prelude to the author's characteristic ironic social comedy

beginning in ChaPter II, has been the focus here. It would be.lust

as possible to write about the relations between Indians now and

a canonical, dead Forster. We find routes towards this deixis ofutterance in bits ofthe text which do not at first sight seem Place-

rasoDrinch.;;-l

deictic in Levinson's pragmatic linguistic sense: in fragments suchas n houses do fall, and « newcomers cannot believe it to be as

meagre as it is described », rather than in overtly deictic referencewords, åeres and theres, or ,ålses and fhafs. Text-deixis proves tobe tucked away, recalcitrant. We are subtly encouraged to accept

the newcomer-outsider perspective on India as the most desirableone. Indeed, it is the only one offered in this chapter: there is littlegenuine heteroglossia on display here. The Anglo-Indian and thenative are alike rhere,within that world, and therefore incapable ofjudging it. From here, it is not a long way to the view that disinter-ested reason should prevail o'r'er imagined ethics, sentiment andgreed in answering the question ofwhat is to be done about India.And it is another short step to the notion that it is men like thoseForster was at Cambridge with, men like Dickinson and Keynes,

who should be making the decision.

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