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i GENDER TREATMENT IN GRADE NINE CLASSROOM INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITIES AND REPRESENTATION IN ENGLISH TEXTBOOK BY: Zenawi Nigussie Zewdie Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION In the subject CURRICULUM STUDIES in the COLLEGE OF EDUCATION at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA Supervisor: Dr Khabonina Grace Nkumane May 2020
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i
GENDER TREATMENT IN GRADE NINE CLASSROOM INSTRUCTIONAL
ACTIVITIES AND REPRESENTATION IN ENGLISH TEXTBOOK
BY:
Zenawi Nigussie Zewdie
Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION
In the subject
CURRICULUM STUDIES
in the
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
at the
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA
Supervisor: Dr Khabonina Grace Nkumane
May 2020
ii
DECLARATION
Student number: 4902-41-91
I declare that “Gender treatment in Grade nine classroom instructional activities and
representation in English textbook” is my own effort and that all the materials that I
have employed have been pointed out and recognised by presenting full references.
___________________________ ____________________ Signature Date
Mr. Zenawi Nigussie Zewdie
iii
DEDICATION
This research is dedicated to my late parents, my father, Mr Nigussie Zewdie and to my
mother, Mrs Ageredech Tachbelie.
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I thank God, for allowing me to accomplish this study. My deepest gratitude would be
extended to my supervisor: Dr Khabonina Grace Nkumane, who supervised, guided and
advised me during my doctoral study. Without her motherly help and fruitful advice, this
effort would not have been accomplished. Without tiring, she read my study, guided,
motivated me and gave her expert advice through the journey of this work. Dr Nkumane
is a highly capable supervisor. She replied quickly to my requests. I obtained knowledge
from her academic skills in qualitative case study approach. She has also made wonderful
changes to my life that words become limited for me to offer my gratefulness to her.
I am also pleased to offer my thanks to the principals of Chacha, Minjar, DebreSina and
Mekoy High schools, EFL teachers and Grade nine students in the same schools for their
cooperation while conducting this study. I am also happy to express my thankfulness to
those who assisted in shaping this thesis, and their care led to its success.
I would also like to thank my wife, Marshet Kebebew, for her moral support in this process.
Next, I am too glad to thank my kids: Bezawit, Mihretab and Tsedenia for their
understanding when I conducted this study especially during writing and reading my
research project.
Finally, I would like to recognise everyone who encouraged me not to give up and to keep
moving forward to completion.
v
ABSTRACT
The aim of this study was to explore how gender is perceived in classroom instructional
activities and how it is represented in the Grade 9 English textbook in Ethiopia. To do this,
the constructivist paradigm was used as a way of viewing the educational world.
Underpinned by the Sociocultural Theory (SCT) and Gender Schema Theory (GST), the
study was qualitative and used a multiple case study inquiry. The selection of participants
was through purposive sampling and data were collected through interviews,
observations and textbook review. The study was undertaken at four government high
schools, and the focus was on Grade 9 at Chacha, Minjar, DebreSina and Mekoy Districts
of North Shoa Zone in Amhara Region. Sixteen learners, four teachers and four principals
were interviewed. The findings concluded in two significant findings: 1) improper gender
treatment in classroom instructional activities, and 2) imbalance of gender representation
in Grade 9 English textbook. The first finding generated emerging themes, for instance
(a) imbalanced allocation of roles and responsibilities between girls and boys; (b) girls’
embarrassment by others; (c) girls’ incapability to manage group and use given
opportunity in classroom; (d) male domination and female subordination; (e) gender
policy implementation gap at school; (f) impediment of girls’ participation due to
patriarchal thinking; (g) challenges of traditional gender thinking in classroom; (h) parents’
practices and experiences affected learners’ practices and experiences in classroom; (i)
lack of girls’ recognition by others; and (j) self-overestimation seen by boys and self-
underestimation seen by girls. The themes for the second major finding include: (a) men
overrepresentation and women underrepresentation; (b) presence of gender-marked
vocabularies to enhance women’s passive role; (c) encouragement of traditional gender
representation by assigning women in baby-sitting, and domestic chores, such as
cleaning, cooking or shopping; (d) manifestation of man first-ness; and (e) imbalance of
pictorial representation between women and men. The study recommends that teaching
gender equality to the school community and society could be used to discourage gender
stereotyped and biased engagements. Female teachers should be role models for girls.
Educators should use gender-sensitive materials for the development of a gender-free
awareness by the young generation.
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Key Terms: Gender, textbook, instructional activities, gender stereotype, gender roles
and responsibilities, gender bias, gender inequality and equality, sociocultural, gender
schema, gender socialisation, social interaction, internalisation, language, treatment,
gender typing, representation.
vii
ABSTRAK
Die doel van hierdie studie was om te ondersoek hoe gender in
klaskameronderrigaktiwiteite ervaar word en hoe dit in die Graad 9 Engelse handboek in
Etiopië voorgestel word. Ten einde dit te doen, is die kontruktivistiese paradigma as
beskouingswyse van die opvoedkundige wêreld gebruik.
Die studie was kwalitatief, onderlê deur sosiokulturele teorie en genderskemateorie, en
die ondersoekmetode van veelvuldige gevallestudies is gebruik. Deelnemers is met
behulp van doelbewuste steekproefneming geselekteer en data is deur middel van
onderhoude, observasies en 'n handboekoorsig ingesamel. Die studie is by vier
regeringshoërskole onderneem, en die fokus was op Graad 9 in die Chacha, Minjar,
DebreSina en Mekoy distrikte van die Noord-Shoa sone in die Amhara streek.
Onderhoude is gevoer met sestien leerders, vier onderwysers en vier skoolhoofde.
Daar was twee beduidende bevindings: 1) onvanpaste genderbehandeling in
klaskameronderrigaktiwiteite, en 2) 'n wanbalans in gendervoorstelling in die Graad 9
Engelse handboek.
Verskillende temas het uit die eerste bevinding voortgespruit, byvoorbeeld (a) die
ongebalanseerde toekenning van rolle en verantwoordelikhede tussen seuns en dogters;
(b) die vernedering van dogters deur ander; (c) die onvermoë van dogters om groepe te
beheer en van gegewe geleenthede in die klaskamer gebruik te maak; (d) manlike
oorheersing en vroulike ondergeskiktheid; (e) 'n leemte in die implementering van
genderbeleid op skool; (f) belemmering van dogters se deelname deur patriargale denke;
(g) die uitdagings van tradisionele genderdenke in die klaskamer; (h) die invloed wat
ouers se praktyke en ervarings op leerders se praktyke en ervarings in die klaskamer het;
(i) gebrekkige erkenning van dogters deur ander; en (j) self-oorskatting onder die seuns
en self-onderskatting onder die dogters.
viii
Die temas van die tweede hoofbevinding het ingesluit: (a) die óórverteenwoordiging van
mans en onderverteenwoordiging van vroue; (b) die teenwoordigheid van
gendergekleurde woordeskat om vroue se passiewe rol te beklemtoon; (c) die
aanmoediging van tradisionele genderverteenwoordiging deur huishoudelike take soos
skoonmaak, kook en inkopies doen aan vroue toe te ken; (d) die manifestering van
manlike uitnemendheid/"eerste wees"; en (e) 'n wanbalans in die verteenwoordiging van
vroue en mans in illustrasies.
Die studie beveel aan dat die skoolgemeenskap en die gemeenskap in gendergelykheid
onderrig word ten einde genderstereotipering en bevooroordeelde optredes te
ontmoedig. Vroulike onderwyseres behoort 'n rolmodel vir dogters te wees. Onderwysers
moet gendersensitiewe materiaal gebruik om gendervrye bewustheid onder die jong
geslag te kweek.
ix
ISIFINYEZO ESIQUKETHE UMONGO WOCWANINGO Inhloso yocwaningo bekuwukubheka ukuthi ubulili bubonwa kanjani kwimisebenzi efundiswa emakilasini, nokuthi ubulili bukhonjiswa kanjani ezincwadini zesiNgisi ezibekelwe ukufundwa ebangeni lika-Grade 9 ezweni lase Ethiopia. Kulolu cwaningo kusetshenziswe i-constructivist paradigm njengendlela yokubheka ezemfundo. Ngokulandela ithiyori yezenhlalo namasiko i-sociocultural theory (SCT) kanye nethiyori i-gender schema theory (GST), ucwaningo lube yi-qualitative research kanti kusetshenziswe nocwaningo olubheka amacala amaningi i-multiple case study inquiry. Ababambe iqhaza bakhethwe ngokusebenzisa amasampula akhethwe ngenhlososo i-purposive sampling, kanti ulwazi luqoqwe ngokukuxoxisana ama-interviews, ukubhekisisa okwenzekayo (observations) kanye nokubuyekeza izincwadi zesiNgisi ezibekelwe ukufundwa ama-textbook. Ucwaningo lwenziwe ezikoleni eziphakeme ezine zikahulumeni, kanti kwagxilwa kakhulu ebangeni lika-Grade 9 ezifundazweni zasezweni lase Ethiopia okuyi-Chacha, eMinjar, eDebreSina, kanye namaDistrikhthi aseNorth Shoa Zone kanye nasezifundazweni zase Amhara. Kuxoxiswene ngama-interviews nabafundi abayishumi nesithupha, othisha abane kanye nothishanhloko abane. Kutholakale imiphumela emibili esemqoka: 1) ukungaphathwa kahle kodaba lobulili kwimisebenzi yokufundisa emaklasini, kanye 2) nokungabekwa kahle ngokulingalingana kodaba lobulili ezincwadini zesiNgisi ezibekelwe ukufundwa kubanga lika -Grade 9. Umphumela wokuqala uveze izingqikithi (themes) ezilandelayo, isibonelo, (a) ukungabiwa kahle ngokulingana ngendlela ehlelekile kwemisebenzi ngokubulili phakathi kwamantombazane kanye nabafana; (b) ukuhlazwa kwamantombazane okwenziwa ngabanye; (c), ukungabi nekhono kwamantombazane ukuhola amaqembu kanye nokusebenzisa amathuba emaklasini; (d) ukubhozomela kwabesilisa kanye nokuzithoba kwabesifazane; (e) igebe elikhona ngokusetshenziswa kwemigomo ebhekene nezobulili ezikoleni; (f) izihibe ezivimbela amantombazane ukubamba iqhaza ngenxa yemibono ebeka ukuthi abesilisa yibona ababalulekile (patriarchal thinking); (g) izinselele ezikhona ngezinkambiso zakudala maqondana nokucabanga ngezobulili emaklasini; (h) izindlela zezinkambiso zabazali zibe nomthelela kwizindlela zokwenza kanye nezipiliyoni zabafundi emaklasini; (i) ukungamukelwa kwamantombazane ngabanye; kanye (j) nokuzibeka phambili kakhulu kwabafana kanye nokuzibeka ezingeni eliphansi kwamantombazane. Izingqikithi (themes) zomphumela wesibili zibandakanya okulandelayo (a) ukumelwa kakhulu ngokweqile kwabesilisa kanye nezinga eliphansi lokumelwa kwabesifazane; (b) ubukhona besilulumagama i-vocabulary ephawula ngobulili nephakamisa nokungadlali ndima kwabesimame; (c) ukukhuthazwa kwezinkambiso zakudala zokumelwa kobulili ngokunikeza abesimame imisebenzi yokunakekela izingane kanye nokwenza imisebenzi yasendlini, efana nokuhlanza izindlu, ukupheka kanye nokuyothenga ezitolo; (d) umqondo wokubeka abesilisa phambili; kanye (e) nokungahleleki ngokufanele nokulingalingana ngokukhombisa ngezithombe phakathi kwabesimame nabesilisa. Ucwaningo luncoma ukuthi ukufundisa ngokulingana kwabafundi besilisa nabesifazane ezikoleni kanye nakwisizwe sonkana kungasetshenziswa ukudumaza umqondo wokubeka ubulili obuthile ngendlela nomqondo othize (gender-stereotyped) kanye nokwenza ukuthi abobulili obuthile kuphela okumele benze noma bangenzi imisebenzi ethile. Othisha besifazane kumele bebeyisibonelo kumantombazane. Abafundisi kumele basebenzise izincwadi
x
zokufundisa ezingenabandlululo ngokobulili ukuze isizukulwane esisha bsiondisise ngezokulingana ngokobulili.
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
xi
ATLAS Apple Technical Learning Administration System
BPA Beijing Platform for Action
CEDAW Convention on Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women
CEDU REC College of Education Research Ethics Committee
DED Doctor of Education
DFID Department for International Development
EFA Education for All
EFL English as a Foreign Language
FDRE Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
FGI Focus Group Interview
GST Gender Schema Theory
HC Hidden Curriculum
HIV Human Immunodeficiency Viruses
MCFA Marie Curie Fellowship Association
MDGs Millennium Development Goals
MOE Ministry of Education
NGOs Non-Governmental Organisations
PFA Platform for Action
ROTC Reserve Officers’ Training Corp
SDGs Sustainable Development Goals
SCT Sociocultural Theory
UK United Kingdom
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation
UNFPA United Nations Population Fund
xii
UNICEF United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund
UNISA University of South Africa
USA United States of America
USAID United States Agency for International Development
ZN Zenawi Nigussie
xiii
LIST OF TABLES Table 2.2.1.1: International Conventions……………………………………………….47
Table 3.2.1.2: Gender typing …………………………………………………………….74
Table 3.2.1.3: Strengths and limitations of GST ………………………………………78
Table 3.2.1.4: Social interaction ………………………….. ……………………………85
Table 3.2.1.5: Internalisation process …………………………………………………..87
Table 3.2.1.6: Difference between Vygotsky's theory and Paige’s theory…………..90
Table 5.1: Philosophical Assumptions and Research Paradigms…………………..127
Table 5.2: The Nature of Case Study Research Type ………………………………135
Table 5.3: Types of Case Study………………………………………………………...136
Table 5.4: Summary of Sample Characteristics ………………………………………141
Table 6.1: Example of how I analysed the data into segments, codes and themes...175
xiv
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 3.1: Gender Schema Theory ……………………………………………………71
Figure 3.2: Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory……………………………………...........80
Figure 3.3: Vygotsky’s Social Mediation ………………………………………………..82
Figure 6.4.2.1.1: Pictures of famous people………………………………… ……….273
Figure 6.4.2.3.1: Picking orange fruits from the trees by woman…………………278
Figure 6.4.2.3.2: Coffee roasting by woman …………………………………………279
Figure 6.4.2.3.3: Making ‘Injera’ for her family, local hotel ………………………..280
Figure 6.4.2.4.1: Keeping money in bank…………………………………………….281
Figure 6.4.2.4.2: Pictures of teenagers by doing favourite free-time activity……282
xv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION .............................................................................................................. II
DEDICATION ................................................................................................................ III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .............................................................................................. IV
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................... V
ABSTRAK ..................................................................................................................... VII
ISIFINYEZO ESIQUKETHE UMONGO WOCWANINGO .............................................. IX
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS .............................................................. X
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................ XIII
CHAPTER 1: ................................................................................................................ 24
ORIENTATION ............................................................................................................. 24
1. 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 24
1.2 BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH ................................................................. 24
1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT ..................................................................................... 27
1.3.1 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ................................................................................... 30
1.4 AIM AND OBJECTIVES ....................................................................................... 30
1.5 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS ................................................................ 31
1.5.1 RESEARCH DESIGN ......................................................................................... 31
1.5.1.1 Research paradigm ............................................................................... 31
1.5.1.2 Research approach ............................................................................... 33
1.5.1.3 Research type ........................................................................................ 34
1.5.2 RESEARCH METHODS ..................................................................................... 35
1.5.2.1 Selection of participants ........................................................................ 36
1.5.2.2 Data collection ....................................................................................... 36
1.5.2.3 Data analysis ......................................................................................... 37
1.5.2.4 Trustworthiness in qualitative research ................................................ 38
1.5.2.5 Ethical considerations ........................................................................... 40
(I) PERMISSION ....................................................................................................... 41
xvi
(II) INFORMED CONSENT ................................................................................................ 41
(III) PRIVACY ................................................................................................................ 41
(IV) ANONYMITY AND CONFIDENTIALITY .......................................................................... 42
(V) RELEASE AND PUBLICATION OF THE FINDINGS ............................................................ 42
1.6 CHAPTER OUTLINE ............................................................................................ 43
1.7 CHAPTER SUMMARY ......................................................................................... 44
CHAPTER TWO: .......................................................................................................... 46
CONTEXTUAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ................................................... 46
2.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 46
2.2 CONTEXTUAL FRAMEWORK ............................................................................. 46
2.2.1 POLICIES PROMOTING THE TREATMENT OF GENDER BETWEEN MEN AND
WOMEN ................................................................................................................... 47
2.2.1.1 International gender policies ................................................................. 47
2.2.1.2 Article 3 (3) of the EFA convention ....................................................... 51
2.2.1.3 The convention and gender .................................................................. 51
2.2.1.4 Ethiopian Constitution ........................................................................... 51
2.2.1.5 Ethiopian Education Policy and gender treatment ............................... 52
2.2.1.6 The national policy of Ethiopian women ............................................... 54
2.2.2 RECAP OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM ................................................................ 57
2.2.3 RECAP OF THE CRITICAL RESEARCH QUESTION ................................................ 58
2.2.4 RECAP OF THE RATIONALE FOR THIS STUDY ..................................................... 58
2.3 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ............................................................................ 59
2.3.1 DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS .............................................................................. 59
2.3.1.1 Gender ................................................................................................... 59
2.3.1.2 Curriculum .............................................................................................. 60
2.3.1.3 Hidden curriculum .................................................................................... 61
2.3.1.4 Treatment ............................................................................................... 62
2.3.1.5 Textbook ................................................................................................ 63
2.3.1.6 Instructional process ............................................................................. 65
2.3.1.7 Language ............................................................................................... 66
xvii
2.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY ......................................................................................... 68
CHAPTER THREE: ...................................................................................................... 68
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK .................................................................................... 68
3. 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 68
3.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ............................................................................ 69
3.2.1. GENDER SCHEMA THEORY (GST) .................................................................. 70
3.2.1.1 Cultural influence on gender schemas ................................................. 73
3.2.1.2 Gender typing ........................................................................................ 75
3.2.1.3 Gender socialisation .............................................................................. 76
3.2.1.4 Applicability of GST in this study .......................................................... 78
3.2.1.5 Critique of GST ...................................................................................... 79
3.2.2 SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY (SCT) ..................................................................... 80
3.2.2.1 The constructs of Sociocultural Theory ................................................ 82
(I) MEDIATION............................................................................................................... 82
(II) SCAFFOLDING (ENCOURAGEMENT, SUPPORT, GUIDE) ............................................ 84
(III) SOCIAL INTERACTION .............................................................................................. 86
(IV) INTERNALISATION ................................................................................................... 87
3.2.2.2 Applicability of SCT to this study .......................................................... 89
3.2.2.3 Critique of SCT ...................................................................................... 91
3.3 CHAPTER SUMMARY ......................................................................................... 92
CHAPTER 4: ................................................................................................................ 95
LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................ 95
4.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 95
4.2 LITERATURE REVIEW OF GENDER TREATMENT IN CLASSROOM
INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITIES AND REPRESENTATION IN ENGLISH
TEXTBOOKS ............................................................................................................. 95
4.2.1 WESTERN VIEWS ............................................................................................. 95
4.2.1.1 Gender treatment in instructional activities .......................................... 95
4.2.1.2 Gender representation in English textbooks ........................................ 99
xviii
4.2.2 EASTERN VIEWS ............................................................................................ 102
4.2.2.1 Gender treatment in instructional activities ........................................ 102
4.2.2.2 Gender representation in English textbooks .................................... 106
4.3.3 AFRICAN VIEWS ............................................................................................. 109
4.3.3.1 Gender treatment in instructional activities ...................................... 109
4.3.3.2 Gender representation in English textbooks ................................... 112
4.4.4 ETHIOPIAN VIEWS .......................................................................................... 115
4.4.4.1 Gender treatment in instructional activities ........................................ 115
4.4.4.2 Gender representation in English textbooks ...................................... 118
4.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY ....................................................................................... 120
CHAPTER 5: .............................................................................................................. 122
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS ..................................................................... 122
5.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 122
5.2 RATIONALE FOR EMPIRICAL RESEARCH ...................................................... 124
5.3 RESEARCH DESIGN ......................................................................................... 124
5.3.1 RESEARCH PARADIGM................................................................................... 124
5.3.1.1 Ontology ............................................................................................... 125
5.3.1.2 Epistemology ....................................................................................... 125
5.3.1.3 Axiology ................................................................................................ 126
5.3.1.4 Rhetoric ................................................................................................ 126
5.3.1.5 Methodology ........................................................................................ 127
5.3.1.6 The nature of constructivist paradigm ................................................ 130
5.3.2 RESEARCH APPROACH .................................................................................. 132
5.3.3 RESEARCH TYPE........................................................................................... 134
5.4 RESEARCH METHODS ..................................................................................... 137
5.4.1 SELECTION OF PARTICIPANTS ....................................................................... 137
5.4.2 DATA COLLECTION ........................................................................................ 142
5.4.2.1 Interviews ............................................................................................. 144
(i) Individual interviews ................................................................................... 146
(ii) Focus Group Interviews (FGI) ................................................................... 146
xix
5.4.2.2 Observation .......................................................................................... 148
5.4.2 .3 Documents .......................................................................................... 149
5.4.2. 4 Data recording procedures................................................................. 150
5.4.3 DATA ANALYSIS ............................................................................................ 151
5.4.4 MEASURES FOR TRUSTWORTHINESS IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH ................... 156
5.4.4.1 Credibility ............................................................................................. 156
(i) Triangulation .............................................................................................. 157
(ii) Member checking ...................................................................................... 158
(iii) Prolonged engagement in the field ........................................................... 159
(iv) Persistent observation .............................................................................. 159
(V) Peer debriefing ........................................................................................ 160
5.4.4.2 Transferability ...................................................................................... 160
(i) Thick description ...................................................................................... 161
(ii) Purposeful sampling .................................................................................. 162
5.4.4.3 Dependability ....................................................................................... 162
5.4.4.4 Confirmability ....................................................................................... 163
(i) External audits ........................................................................................... 163
(ii) Audit trail ................................................................................................... 164
(iii) Reflexivity ................................................................................................. 164
5.4.5 ETHICAL MEASURES .................................................................................. 165
5.4.5.1 Permission ........................................................................................... 166
5.4.5.2 Informed consent ................................................................................. 167
5.4.5.3 Privacy.................................................................................................. 167
5.4.5.4 Anonymity and confidentiality ............................................................. 168
5.4.5.5 Release and publication of the findings.............................................. 170
5.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY ....................................................................................... 170
CHAPTER 6: .............................................................................................................. 172
PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS ACCORDING TO EMERGING
THEMES .................................................................................................................... 172
6.1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 172
xx
6.2 RESEARCH PROCESS ..................................................................................... 172
6.3 DATA ANALYSIS ............................................................................................... 173
6.3.1 BIOGRAPHICAL DATA: PROFILE OF THE PARTICIPANTS .................................... 173
6.3.2 ANALYSIS OF DATA ........................................................................................ 174
6.4 PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS ........................................................................ 186
6.4.1 EMERGING THEMES CONCERNING GENDER TREATMENT IN CLASSROOM
INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITIES ..................................................................................... 186
6.4.1.1 Finding 1: Gender Roles and responsibilities in instructional
activities ............................................................................................................ 186
Sub-theme1: Gender expectation in the classroom context ........................... 187
Sub-theme 2: Teachers’ opinions about the leadership role between boys and
girls inside and outside the classroom ........................................................... 189
Sub-theme 3: Roles and responsibilities for girls and boys in school and
classroom context .......................................................................................... 192
Sub-theme 4: Girls’ and boys’ participation during discussions in the
classroom ....................................................................................................... 197
Sub-theme 5: Division of labour between boys and girls in school ................. 201
Sub-theme 6: Boys’ and girls’ confidence in the classroom context ............... 203
Sub-theme 7: Factors making girls passive during classroom discussions .... 205
Sub-theme 8: Awareness creation about gender issues by schools and
government .................................................................................................... 208
DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................ 209
6.4.1.2: Finding 2: Gender bias in classroom instructional activities ............ 218
Sub-theme 1: Boys’ and girls’ socialisation in classroom context................... 218
Sub-theme 2: Giving more encouragement for boys and girls in the classroom
context ........................................................................................................... 222
Sub-theme 3: Raising hands during classroom lesson .................................. 226
Sub-theme 4: Giving priority to boys and/or girls in the English classroom .... 227
Sub-theme 5: Better performer during the English class ................................ 229
Sub-theme 6: Boys’ and girls’ treatment in the English classroom ................. 231
Sub-theme 7: Being privileged in the classroom context ................................ 234
xxi
Sub-theme 8: Promoting gender-sensitive education and environment in
school ............................................................................................................. 236
DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................ 236
6.4.1.3 Finding 3: Gender stereotype against girls in classroom instructional
activities ............................................................................................................ 241
Sub-theme 1: Challenges facing girls in the classroom context ..................... 241
Sub-theme 2: Gender attitude between boys and girls in the classroom
context ........................................................................................................... 243
Sub-theme 3: Influence of traditional gender beliefs in the classroom
situation .......................................................................................................... 248
DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................ 252
6.4.1.4 Finding 4: Gender inequality in classroom instructional activities .... 255
Sub-theme 1: Giving opportunity for boys and girls in the English classroom 255
Sub-theme2: Differences between boys and girls during classroom
interaction....................................................................................................... 257
Sub-theme 3: Feeling superior during classroom discussions ....................... 258
Sub-theme 4: Providing special support for girls ............................................ 260
Sub-theme 5: Reasons for boys to underestimate girls .................................. 261
DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................ 263
6.4.2 EMERGING THEMES WITH REGARD TO GENDER REPRESENTATION IN GRADE
NINE ENGLISH TEXTBOOK (“ENGLISH FOR ETHIOPIA: STUDENT TEXTBOOK GRADE 9”
WRITTEN BY “DONNA BAILEY” 2005 (E.C).) ........................................................... 268
6.4.2.1: Finding 1: Portrayal of female and male characters in Grade nine
English textbook ............................................................................................... 269
6.4.2.2: Finding 2: Language use in relation to female and male characters 273
6.4.2.3: Finding 3: Activities performed by male and female gender ............ 276
6.4.2.4: Finding 4: Women and men pictorial representations ...................... 280
DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................ 281
6.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY ....................................................................................... 285
xxii
CHAPTER 7: .............................................................................................................. 287
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................... 287
7.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 288
7.2 SUMMARY OF THE STUDY .............................................................................. 288
7.3 SYNOPSIS OF THE RESEARCH FINDINGS ..................................................... 294
7.3.1 SYNOPSIS OF SCHOLARLY REVIEW FINDINGS FROM THE LITERATURE .............. 294
7.3.2 SYNOPSIS OF FINDINGS FROM THIS EMPIRICAL STUDY .................................... 296
7.4 RESEARCH CONCLUSIONS: RESPONSE TO THE RESEARCH
QUESTIONS ............................................................................................................ 299
7.4.1 HOW IS GENDER TREATED IN THE GRADE NINE ENGLISH CLASSROOM
INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITIES? ................................................................................... 299
7.4.2 WHAT IS THE IMPACT OF GENDER TREATMENT IN CLASSROOM INSTRUCTIONAL
ACTIVITIES? ........................................................................................................... 301
7.4.3 HOW IS GENDER REPRESENTED IN THE GRADE NINE ENGLISH TEXTBOOK? ...... 303
7.4.4 HOW DOES GENDER REPRESENTATION IN ENGLISH TEXTBOOK PROMOTE OR
AFFECT TEACHING AND LEARNING FOR GRADE NINE IN ETHIOPIA? ............................ 304
7.5 RECOMMENDATIONS ...................................................................................... 304
7.5.1 RECOMMENDATION FOR GENDER TREATMENT IN CLASSROOM INSTRUCTIONAL
ACTIVITIES ............................................................................................................. 304
7.5.2 RECOMMENDATION FOR GENDER REPRESENTATIONS IN THE ENGLISH
TEXTBOOK .............................................................................................................. 310
7. 6 AVENUES FOR FURTHER RESEARCH .......................................................... 313
7.7 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY .......................................................................... 314
7.8 CONCLUDING REMARKS ................................................................................. 315
BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................ 316
APPENDICES ............................................................................................................ 343
APPENDIX A: PROOF OF REGISTRATION ............................................................ 343
APPENDIX B: UNISA ETHICAL CLEARANCE LETTER .......................................... 345
xxiii
APPENDIX C: LETTER TO THE NORTH SHOA ZONE EDUCATION OFFICE FOR
REQUESTING PERMISSION TO CONDUCT RESEARCH IN FOUR DISTRICTS’
GENERAL SECONDARY SCHOOLS, ETHIOPIA .................................................... 348
APPENDIX D: LETTER OF PERMISSION TO CONDUCT RESEARCH IN FOUR
DISTRICTS’ GENERAL SECONDARY SCHOOLS, ETHIOPIA ............................... 350
APPENDIX E: LETTER FOR REQUESTING CONSENT FROM PRINCIPALS AND
TEACHERS TO PARTICIPATE IN INDIVIDUAL INTERVIEW .................................. 352
APPENDIX F: CONSENT FORM ............................................................................. 354
APPENDIX G: FOCUS GROUP CONSENT AND CONFIDENTIALITY AGREEMENT
FOR LEARNERS ..................................................................................................... 355
APPENDIX H: INTREVIEW SCHEDULE (INTREVIEW QUESTIONS) ..................... 356
APPENDIX I: EXAMPLE OF 1 TEACHER`S INTERVIEW ........................................ 361
24
CHAPTER 1:
ORIENTATION
1. 1 INTRODUCTION
Education is a very useful instrument for the movement of people to attain cultural,
social and economic development at a broad level (Ogato, 2013:365) and
(Abitew, 2019:403). Therefore, it is expected to design textbooks in a gender-
sensitive fashion (Dawson, 2000, cited in Egne, 2014:17) as well as girls and boys
who seat in the same schoolroom and learning from the same educator receive
very dissimilar education when classrooms are not gender-responsive (Nyevero,
2014:559).
This study aims at exploring and understanding how gender representation in the Grades
nine learners’ English textbook and gender treatment in classroom instructional activities
promote or affect the teaching-learning practice in Ethiopia. This is because the primary
focus of education is to change gender norms and stereotypes that foster inequality
(Ogato, 2013).
This inaugural chapter presents the context to the problem statement, the primary study
question and the sub-questions. The research aim and objectives are also outlined. This
study’s design and methods are briefly unearthed and elaborated in Chapter 4. A chapter
outline of the whole study, which gives a clear description of what a single chapter entails
is also presented. Finally, this chapter concludes with a summary of what has been
offered.
1.2 BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH
The gender issue is considerably crucial for creating political, economic and social
development in a country. This means that gender is a global issue that needs to be
attentively considered to bring about holistic development in a given country. This retells
us that the gender issue should be properly addressed in educational practices. This is
25
one of the integral components of social development because the responsibility of
education is to encourage a gender-responsive setting between men and women.
According to Genet’s and Haftu’s (2013:37) statement, the issue of gender in the
Ethiopian context has now become a significant issue, not only for the government but
also for other stakeholders concerned because of the culturally male dominant society
that has existed for an extended period. Therefore, education is one of the tools that any
country, Ethiopia included, can use to promote a gender fair treatment of its citizens
because “Ethiopia adopted laws and policies to ensure gender equality since 1991”
(Zewdu, Zenebe, Abraha, Abadi & Gidey, 2016:22).
To highlight the significance of gender, the Ethiopian Constitution presents essential
considerations to gender issues (Genet & Haftu, 2013:37). In accordance with the
provision that is enshrined about gender in the Constitution, the Ethiopian Ministry of
Education has taken a stand to address gender issues in the educational organisation in
general and in the overall teaching-learning materials’ preparation as well as in the
instructional activities, in particular.
According to the Education and Training Policy of Federal Democratic Republic
Government of Ethiopia (1994:29), gender issues, as highlighted in the content of the
curriculum, should “reflect the principles of equality of nations, nationalities and gender”.
This has its contribution to minimising the entrenched outlooks of the male gender in the
teaching-learning materials. However, there is still a perception that the issue of gender
has not been adequately addressed to the level outlined in the gender policy of the
country (Tamrat, 2013:149).
Scholars such as Ogato (2013:371) assert that the equal gender treatment across the
curriculum of a country’s educational system is to be significant for the successful
accomplishment of educational practices in general and classroom instructional activities
in particular. Therefore, a curriculum for a specific subject has to address equal gender
treatment. Due to that fact, such a balanced consideration in the given curriculum could
be used as an essential basis to successfully realise the teaching-learning process up to
the classroom level.
26
In view of this, the current study is concerned with how gender is represented in the Grade
9 learners’ English Language Textbook and treated in the classroom instructional
activities in the Ethiopian context.
According to the knowledge that the researcher has about gender representation in the
current English Curriculum, textbook and gender treatment in classroom instructional
activities, no sufficient research has been conducted to date particularly in the Ethiopian
context. Therefore, I considered that gender treatment is an extremely productive field of
research that can contribute to an understanding about gender representation in the
English language curriculum, learners’ English Language Textbook as well as gender
treatment in the classroom instructional activities.
If the issue is extended that gender representation is not addressed adequately in the
learners’ English Language Textbook as well as gender treatment in the classroom
instructional activities, then perhaps an investigation should focus on the root problem.
The core problem is how men or boys and women or girls are denoted in the language of
English instructional material and treated in classroom teaching-learning activities.
Therefore, this research was planned to explore problems on gender representation in
the Grade 9 learners’ English Language Textbook and gender treatment in the English
language classroom teaching-learning activities.
Mukundan and Nimehchisalem (2008:15) discuss that gender-biased textbook is the
reproduction of the hidden curriculum. Nonetheless, both curriculum and textbook should
be free from gender bias and stereotype. However, the researcher argues that the current
learners’ English Language Textbook and the classroom instructional activities are not
free from gender bias in the Ethiopian context. This means that there is concern about
girls’ and women’s inequality.
According to Zewdu’s, Zenebe’s, Abraha’s, Abadi’s and Gidey’s (2016:22) statement,
“Ethiopia adopted laws and policies to ensure gender equality since 1991”. This shows
that Ethiopia has made visible efforts to reduce gender disparity between girls and boys
or women and men. However, the instructional texts still emphasise differences in gender
portrayal. In this regard, the current study is believed to have a significant contribution to
27
English Language Education. Therefore, to investigate the problems, the classroom
teaching-learning activities and the instructional textbook used in Grade 9 are analysed.
This is to ascertain whether they are free from gender bias concerning gender portrayal
and treatment through the instructional activities.
1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT
Researchers such as Genet and Haftu (2013:50) suggest that although Ethiopia, like most
developing countries, strives to improve gender equality, equal treatment of boys and girls
in the actual classroom teaching-learning practices, both at primary and secondary
schools, remains inadequate. Ogato (2013:362) states that in the quest of trying to
improve gender equality, Ethiopia, which it is located in the Horn of Africa, surrounded by
Eritrea from the North, Kenya from the South, Somalia from the East and Sudan from the
West, has prepared a Women’s national policy and other regulations. Based on this,
different sectors have integrated gender issues in their working guides (Ogato, 2013:364).
Zilimu (2014:6) argues that most of the third world countries have a significant restraint
about gender discrepancies in terms of social and cultural structure. Ogato (2013) adds
that young women encounter not only negative perceptions concerning gaining education
access, but also face unequal gender relations in the English textbook and in the school
instructional activities. This shows how implicit and explicit men influences occur through
texts. These challenge learners in terms of framing their views of acceptable gendered
behaviours and their potential achievement as mature persons (Zilimu, 2014). Due to this
reason, learners’ minds may be strengthened by the fact that women need to be quiet
and discouraged. As a result, women who want to cultivate redemptive outlooks are
demoralised.
Genet and Haftu (2013:39) explain the term ‘gender’ as man or boy and woman or girl
categories. In light of this view, gender inequality ought to be alleviated through the
textbook as well as the classroom teaching-learning practice. Supporting this, Genet and
Haftu (2013:49) underline that in Ethiopia, the entrenched historical and cultural structure
approve the gender hierarchy where women are inferior to men. This view confirms that
this thinking is still reflected in the English textbook and instructional activities and the
28
gender difference is also still very explicit in social, cultural, political and economic
interactions through the society.
Concerning the above ideas, it has been empirically detected how “teachers reinforce
gender roles in the different expectations that they have for boys and girls in their classes”
(Allana et al., 2010:344). This means that studies have presented how school teachers
treat boys and girls differently. Based on this point of view, these researchers (Kane,
1996, cited by Allana, et al., 2010:344) also confirm that teachers have “the role of
instilling cultural values in children in their classes” because they “all grow up among the
influence of their family and cultures”. Within a given society, according to these authors’
(2010: Ibid) argument, attitudes, beliefs and behaviours of adults shape attitudes, beliefs
and behaviours of children. Consequently, as their study shows, it is commonly accepted
that a teacher may have her or his traditional beliefs, attitudes and instructional skills that
lead to unfair gender treatment in the teaching-learning activities. As Schmidt and Mestry
(2014:11) indicate, a child has the first close connection with its family members that is
central to a person’s social worthiness. In this situation, Mohammed (2016:27) says that
persons are exposed to cultural and social structures created by members of the
household and society; in this case, children learn what secondary and primary roles are
through their family bonds.
Due to this reason, it is clear that gender issues prevail in society and all areas of life.
According to the statements of Allana et al. (2010:344), gender concerns can be
minimised by changing the mentalities of the young people because they are think-tank
or standby to bring further change in their society in terms of their innovative ideas, views
and performances. Supporting this, Genet and Haftu (2013:38) say that “parents, schools
and teachers, community elders, religious leaders, governmental and non-governmental
leaders should work hard to help the society change the existing negative perceptions
and myths of women to create a gender-fair society”. In doing so, teachers should be well
educated to have comprehensive knowledge and skills concerning gender issues
because the issue of gender is not only a women’s issue but of the society as a whole.
Based on the statements above, the motive behind this research emerged from my
teaching experience, individual classroom observation during the instructional activities
29
and reading different books and research works. For example, my experience verifies that
girls and boys do not have the same role of classroom participation and responsibility.
This is because women have a social influence that originates from the gender
background of their society in the Ethiopian context.
Currently, there is no empirical evidence that was undertaken to show whether any of the
gender treatment in the classroom instructional activities and representation in the
English textbook promotes or affects the teaching-learning processes. This means that a
comprehensive study has not been conducted to investigate how girls and boys are
treated in the classroom instructional activities and how women and men are represented
in the English teaching-learning materials. Therefore, it is momentous for this research to
explore if the English textbook in the Grade 9 and the instructional activities in the
classroom endorse, undermine or discourage the construction and perpetuation of a
gender stereotype, bias and discrimination.
This is the reason why I selected to carry out this study on gender issues across the
English textbook and the instructional activities using the Gender Schema Theory (GST)
(Bem, 1981a, cited by Starr & Zurbriggen, 2017:568) as well as the Sociocultural Theory
(SCT) (Scott & Palincsar, 2013, cited by Vanegas Rojas, Hoyos Giraldo, Martínez
Espinel & Gómez Anaya, 2018:6). The reason is that both theories can be considered
as a base or a fertile ground for gender unfair treatment and representation or gender-
fair treatment and representation or gender inequality or gender equality. For instance,
if sociocultural contexts are changed, people’s thinking about gender-fair or unfair
treatment and representation will be changed. Concerning this point, Genet’s and
Haftu’s (2013:37) research conclusion confirms that all concerned bodies have to
consider social and cultural factors which play a role to limit women’s participation
because this consideration may enhance their efforts about the elimination of the
negative perceptions that the society has.
Therefore, this study was carried out to describe gender representation in Grade 9
English textbook as well as gender treatment in classroom instructional activities in the
Ethiopian General Secondary Schools. Conducting research on this issue is essential in
order to recommend possible solutions about the current English textbook and classroom
30
instructional activities from a gender point of view as learners, both girls and boys, acquire
both acceptable and unacceptable behaviour from the textbook as well as from classroom
interactional activities.
1.3.1 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The main research question was addressed in this study and is based on different
researchers’ viewpoints on gender. For example, Mukundan and Nimehchisalem
(2008:169) state that gender should be equally treated in the classroom instructional
activities as well as in the English Curriculum and learner’s textbooks. Therefore, the main
research question of this study is:
How does gender treatment in classroom instructional activities and gender
representation in the English textbook promote or affect teaching and learning for Grade
nine in Ethiopia?
The following sub-questions emanating from the main research question were framed
towards confronting the research problem:
• How is gender treated in the Grade nine English classroom instructional activities?
• How is gender represented in the Grade nine English textbook?
• What is the impact of gender treatment in classroom instructional activities?
• How does gender representation in English textbook promote or affect teaching
and learning for Grade nine in Ethiopia?
1.4 AIM AND OBJECTIVES
31
This study aimed at investigating how gender treatment in the Grade 9 classroom
instructional activities and how gender representation in the Grade 9 English textbook
promote or affect teaching-learning in Ethiopia. The objectives of this research were to:
• Investigate how gender is treated in the Grade nine English classroom instructional
activities.
• Describe how gender is represented in the Grade nine English textbook.
• Determine the impact of gender treatment in classroom instructional activities.
• Explore how gender representation in English textbook promotes or affects
teaching and learning for Grade nine in Ethiopia.
1.5 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS
1.5.1 RESEARCH DESIGN
Merriam (2009:55) and Creswell (2009:21) define research design as a “blueprint” to carry
out a study including “the description of the research approach, study setting, sampling
size, sampling technique and methods of data collection and analysis” to answer the
research questions. As Merriam (2002:8) explains, the researcher may also follow a
research design as the “overall plan” for answering the research questions.
1.5.1.1 Research paradigm
“Paradigm is a basic set of beliefs that guide action” of the researcher (Guba, 1990:17,
as cited by Creswell, 2009:24). As Creswell (Ibid.) states, there are different paradigms,
such as positivism, postpositivism, constructivism, advocacy/participatory and
pragmatism. Among these paradigms, constructivism is relevant to this study because
gender is socially and culturally constructed. This is because “The basic nature of
constructivism is that learners actively construct their knowledge of the information or idea
of the subject presented to them rather than passively receive information from a source”
(Ekpenyong, 2018:150). Like the other paradigms, there are philosophically known
32
assumptions through constructivist paradigm in terms of “ontology, epistemology,
axiology, rhetoric and methodology” which are discussed below.
Creswell (2007:16 &18) explains the ontological assumption as the idea of multiple
socially constructed realities because qualitative researchers explore numerous features
of evidence from different characters’ viewpoints and practices. Therefore, participants
are expected to have subjective and multiple realities in the study.
Merriam (2009:8) states the epistemological assumption as the nature of knowledge that
is identified by subjective knowledge rather than objective knowledge. Creswell (2007;
2009) attests that researchers try to contact the participants that are studied because
researchers stay in the field to get more first-hand data.
The axiological assumption has its values by conducting research. According to
Creswell’s (2007 & 2009) statement, the researchers accept the nature of value-laden
information within the study and energetically report their subjectivity as well as the nature
of value-laden information collected from the field.
Creswell (2007 & 2009) explains another assumption that is known as rhetoric in terms
of using the selective language of research because qualitative researchers tend to
embrace the rhetorical assumption because the writing should be the style of personal
and literary writing.
The last philosophical assumption is the methodological assumption that refers to the
methods used in the processes of research for studying knowledge. Qualitative research
has its procedures which are characterised as inductive and emerging. These are
shaped by the researcher's knowledge and skills in gathering and analysing the data
(Creswell, 2003; 2007 & 2009, cited by Thanh & Thanh, 2015:26).
Therefore, the paradigm that guided the researcher in this study was “constructivism”
which is often combined with “interpretivism”. In this constructivist paradigm, as Mertens
(1998, cited in Creswell 2007:20; 2009:26) states, researchers are eager to understand
the existing situation in which they dwell and work. On the topic of the constructivist
paradigm, persons cultivate personal interpretations of their experiences. These
33
interpretations are various and multiple, which are used to lead the researcher in looking
for the complexity of views rather than the connotations into a few ideas because the
goal of the research is to rely on the individuals’ interpretations of the circumstances. As
Kamil (2000) and Adom and Ankrah (2016) posit, these personal interpretations are
often socially and historically negotiated. This means that the interpretations are not
merely reproduced by individuals but are shaped through contact with others and
through cultural and historical norms that work in the persons’ lives. Thus, a
constructivist researcher frequently addresses the interactional processes among group
members.
1.5.1.2 Research approach
The researcher employed the qualitative research approach because it is used to
investigate human experiences in a given topic by using specific methods to examine how
persons perceive and experience the world. As mentioned earlier, this study aimed at
investigating men’s or boys’ and women’s or girls’ treatment in the Grade 9 classroom
instructional activities and representation in the Grade 9 textbook of English in Ethiopia
in order to reveal the impact that this has on the English teaching-learning. Therefore, the
qualitative approach was relevant to this study because it allows a researcher to explore
participants’ attitudes, perceptions and feelings.
Creswell (2012), Silverman (2004) and Merriam (2002) highlight that the constructivist
paradigm is usually associated with the qualitative research approach which shows that
the “reality is socially constructed” (Willis, 2007, cited in Thanh & Thanh, 2015:25). They
also explain how qualitative researchers follow the inductive approach. That means that
they find out interpretative patterns based on the collected data. Therefore, the qualitative
approach is considered as the most valid inquiry technique in the social and human
sciences (Kamil, 2000) and education (Creswell, 2012).
Similarly, Given (2008: xxix) highlights qualitative research as an approach that is mainly
used to investigate new happenings by understanding persons’ beliefs, attitudes, or
meaning creation. Merriam (2009:3) concurs that the qualitative approach gives an
opportunity to a researcher who can enter into the individuals’ lived experiences or stories
34
about their lives. Moreover, Merriam argues that there is a difference between qualitative
and quantitative research because the qualitative one is not a rigid approach as the
quantitative one by its nature (ibid). The author also confirms that the qualitative one
follows an inquiry structure that aims to construct mainly a narrative report through the
expression of the researcher’s understanding in terms of a social or cultural phenomenon.
As Creswell (2012:16) puts it, non-numerical data in terms of words and pictures are the
target of qualitative research by relying on the collection of qualitative data. According to
his statement, in qualitative studies, different groups through different social
constructions that are used to influence how they comprehend their environment and
how they should perform construct realities. Guba and Lincoln (1994) and Ekpenyong
(2018:154), on their part, state that researchers who employ a qualitative study have
their argument about the construction of reality because they believe that “the reality is
socially constructed” because social behaviour follows socially constructed norms.
According to these scholars’ argument, there is a chief reason for conducting qualitative
research because the exploratory approach prefers to the explanatory one through this
study. As Creswell (2012) supports, there is a significant contribution through the use of
qualitative studies in the understanding of individual perceptions, attitudes and beliefs.
Furthermore, Stake (2010: 15) describes qualitative research as an interpretive approach
that provides an opportunity for multiple meanings. Supporting this, Yin (2011:8) says that
qualitative research involves studying the meaning of people’s lives, under real-world
conditions. Yin also explains that a qualitative study attempts to gather, mix and offer data
from different sources of evidence in any given study by the help of observations and
interviews and even by the inspection of artefacts and documents. Both Stake (Ibid.) and
Yin (Ibid.), thus, describe qualitative research as field-oriented as well as situational. This
means that the qualitative study covers the social, environmental and institutional
conditions through individuals’ lives. As they confirm, all social events may be strongly
influenced by these contextual conditions.
1.5.1.3 Research type
35
The research strategy, which is used in current research, is a case study type. The
rationale for this type of study is that the researcher can explore the in-depth of a
programme, an institution, a policy, an event, an activity, a process, or one or more
individuals by employing a strategy of case study inquiry (Merriam, 2009:X; Creswell,
2009:30). Some cases are bound by time, place and activity. Social scientists use a
variety of data collection procedures to collect detailed data over a continual period
(Merriam, 2009:40; Stake, 1995, as cited in Creswell, 2009:30).
Yin (2011:226); Creswell (2009:214) and Merriam (2009:48) state that a multiple
(collective) case research design gives more emphasis on an in-depth description of the
situation, followed by the data analysis for themes or issues. I hope that using qualitative
case study methods is appropriate to investigate gender treatment in the Grade 9 English
instructional activities and gender representation in the Grade 9 English textbook in
Ethiopia. According to Yin (2003:13), qualitative case study surpasses to bring us to an
understanding of an intricate subject or object and can have support to strengthen what
was previously known through previous research.
In case studies, Creswell (2009:178) discusses that the researcher provides a detailed
account of one or more cases. Although case study research usually relies on qualitative
data, multiple methods are also used. As Creswell (2009:30) explains, the case study
type is different from phenomenology because it emphasises on persons’ experience of
some phenomenon. The case study approach is also different from ethnography, which
gives more concentration on some cultural aspects. Moreover, the case study is not
similar to grounded theory because grounded theory focuses on developing an
explanatory theory. According to Merriam (2002:8), all pure case studies focus on real-
life contexts to show their commonality. Supporting this, Creswell (2009:202) reiterates
that the results of a case study are offered in the form of themes and sub-themes
supported by quotes.
1.5.2 RESEARCH METHODS
36
Creswell (2009:162) and Merriam (2002:8) explain that the qualitative approach provides
more attention to various logical assumptions, strategies of inquiry and procedures of
data collection, analysis, and interpretation. Qualitative processes rely on written and
visual data, which have unique steps through data analysis. The data analysis is
discussed below.
1.5.2.1 Selection of participants
In this study, I employed purposeful sampling to select the participants and sites of this
research. This is because purposeful sampling is commonly used to select participants
who give rich information that is appropriate for a detailed study because in qualitative
research “sampling is not an issue of representative opinions, but a matter of information
richness” (Guetterman, 2015:3).
A non-probability sampling includes purposive sampling (Merriam, 2009:77) which was
used to obtain qualitative data from teachers, principals and learners of the same schools
and examine how gender treatment in classroom instructional activities and gender
representation in the English textbook promote or affect teaching and learning for Grade
9 in Ethiopia.
Therefore, I employed a purposive sampling strategy consisting of an equal number of
girls and boys. This means that each sample is composed of girls and boys who
participated in learning and teaching processes to ensure variability among the
population.
Regarding the sample size of the study, four General Secondary Schools (Debre Sina,
Minjar, Mekoye and Chacha) that are situated in North Shoa Amhara Region were
purposefully selected. Therefore, the research participants consist of four school
principals, four English teachers and 16 learners who were purposively selected.
1.5.2.2 Data collection
37
The steps that data collection embrace, set the limits for the study, gathering data through
semi-structured interviews, non-participant observations and documents as well as
creating the procedure for recording information (Creswell, 2009:166).
Data collection instruments, which consisted of open-ended questions such as individual
interviews, focus group interviews, classroom observations and document review, were
employed to obtain the qualitative data.
Creswell (2012:206) points out that a qualitative approach is suitable for an in-depth
exploration of limited participants. Therefore, qualitative information was gathered in the
form of individual interviews, focus group interviews, classroom observations and
document review in General Secondary Schools located in North Shoa Zone, Amhara
Region. Participants were asked to reflect their experiences about gender treatment in
teaching and learning practices.
1.5.2.3 Data analysis
Qualitative data are the raw material for qualitative research that tends to follow the
exploratory model of the scientific method. As Creswell (2003) and Merriam (2002) put it,
in a qualitative case study, themes emerge through the data analysis. During the analysis
of qualitative data, I identified categories that described what occurred and the recurrent
themes from the data.
The data which were collected were analysed through thematic analysis which is used to
identify differences and similarities within the themes (Maguire & Delahunt, 2017:3352).
In addition, relations and interactions were observed and noted. To ensure that the data
were analysed thoroughly and objectively, the collected data were broken up into
manageable pieces and were sorted and sifted for types, classes, sequences, processes
and patterns. Merriam (2002:8) describes that case study encompasses an in-depth
report of the research participants and sites, followed by data analysis to construct
themes.
38
To help me with the handling of massive data that were collected, the interviews were
transcribed, coded and analysed using a Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis
Package, ATLAS. ti, version:7.1.4 .
1.5.2.4 Trustworthiness in qualitative research
Kamil et al. (2000) and Kothari (2004) point out that the natural setting is used to ensure
the trustworthiness of the data through qualitative approach. Supporting this, Given
(2008) and Creswell (2009) affirm that the concept “trustworthiness” is necessary for
researchers to define the advantages of qualitative terms out of the parameters that are
typically practical in quantitative studies.
According to Guba and Lincoln (1985), for this study, there are four qualitative terms that
are known in the qualitative research to construct trustworthy data. These terms include
“credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability” (Moon, Brewer, Januchowski-
Hartley, Adams & Blackman, 2016:2-3), which are used to establish and evaluate the
validity and reliability of qualitative data. As a result, these terms are discussed below.
(I) CREDIBILITY: Guba and Lincoln (1985 & 1994); Kamil, et al. (2000); Kothari (2004);
Given (2008), Creswell (2009) and Moon, et al. (2016) state that credibility is defined as
a measurement of the degree to which the research represents the actual meanings of
the research participants, or the “truth value” through a process of data analysis to
develop themes. These themes have to accurately depict the experience of participants.
They further elaborate that credibility may ‘be improved through member checking,
prolonged engagement, triangulation, peer debriefing and negative case analysis.
Accordingly, the researchers may give an accurate and rich description of the
phenomenon to produce a credible study.
In addition, scholars such as Merriam (1998) discuss the credibility of how the findings
are consistent with reality. Therefore, Lincoln and Guba (1985) encourage that credibility
should be taken as the most essential factor in founding honesty through carrying out a
study. As Moon et al. (2016:2) state, credibility is closely associated with internal validity.
39
A more detailed discussion of the requirements to promote credibility is covered in
Chapter 4.
(II) TRANSFERABILITY. As Guba and Lincoln (1994); Kamil et al. (2000); Given (2008),
Creswell (2009) and Moon et al. (2016) view, transferability which corresponds with
external validity, is used to describe the applicability of qualitative study from one context
to another context. In this regard, if a qualitative inquiry cannot be applied from one
context to another context, it may be unworthy. However, if the findings might be applied
to alternative contexts, a study has worthiness (Guba & Lincoln, 1994; Kothari, 2004;
Given, 2008; Creswell, 2009).
(III) CONFIRMABILITY. Guba and Lincoln (1985 & 1994); Given (2008), Creswell (2009)
and Moon, et al. (2016) describe confirmability as the extent to which the study results
could be confirmed or validated by others. It is also used to tell how the meanings and
findings correspond with the data to confirm the trustworthiness of the study. On the other
hand, confirmability is synonymous with an objectivity that is commonly used in the
assessment of a quantitative study (Moon et al., 2016:2). Therefore, the linking of the
data and their sources is essential to prove confirmability.
(IV) DEPENDABILITY. According to Guba and Lincoln (1981; 1994), Creswell (2009) and
Moon, et al. (2016), dependability is one the qualitative criteria which is used to ensure
trustworthiness because it makes the findings of the study to be consistent and repeatable
when it is replicated with the same participants in the same contexts. In other words,
qualitative researchers are expected to verify whether the findings are consistent with the
collected raw data. Therefore, what Given (2008:208) affirms is that the audit trail is vital
to confirm dependability by maintaining and preserving all transcripts, notes, audiotapes,
and more.
Concerning the above qualitative criteria, different data sources are used to triangulate
the data. Member checking is also useful to ensure the accuracy of the qualitative findings
(Moon et al., 2016). Therefore, the written document of the study should be taken to the
participants because it is used to determine whether or not they agree with the data
transcripts (Given, 2008:4; Creswell, 2009:177).
40
1.5.2.5 Ethical considerations
Applying for ethical clearance was mandatory because the ethical clearance from UNISA
ought to be obtained before commencing with data collection. Since the study required
the participation of human participants, such as school principals, teachers and learners,
I had to address ethical issues with the research participants. The participants were
informed what objective the study had and when they would be requested to take part in
the research process. It was also crucial for the researcher to ensure that the participants
of this research were unrestricted to independently decide to participate, or not to
participate.
In light of this, I anticipated any ethical issues that could arise during the qualitative
exploration process. Creswell (2009) points out that participants should be protected by
researchers because this is used to develop trust with them. The protection of the
participants is also used to promote trustworthiness of the research. Protecting research
participants is also very important because their organisations or institutions might reflect
misbehaviour and any offensiveness.
Generally speaking, McMillan and Schumacher (2010) and Creswell (2012) explain that
ethical issues are known in terms of moral perspectives or beliefs about doing right and
doing wrong. This means that morally proper and improper conduct reveals research
ethics that are very important during an engagement with participants or access to
documents. As Creswell (2003) states, ethical issues should be anticipated by
researchers because they may encounter them during their studies. Therefore, the
feelings, rights, values and desires of the participants need to be respected by a
researcher through the study process.
According to Creswell (2012), ethics also pertains to doing well and avoiding harm, and
respecting human rights. Concerning this, I needed to have moral integrity, which is
critically essential for assuring that the process of the research and my findings are
trustworthy and valid. As Given (2008) discusses, a researcher should avoid deception in
research rather than hiding it in carrying out a study project. The limitation is that the
41
participants’ willingness is required to participate in a research study for the purpose of
sharing their knowledge.
Therefore, it is very significant to give emphasis to the following important ethical
considerations that were taken into account in this study.
(I) PERMISSION
I wrote formal letters requesting permission to conduct this study. To obtain permission
from SRIHDC, CEDU REC, the Zone Education Office, and school principals, l submitted
the prescribed completed form and a letter requesting permission to conduct the
research. Therefore, individuals should give their permission during data collection
because permission opens the door to access research participants at study sites. For
this purpose, a letter is written by identifying the extent of time, the possible impact and
the results for the study (Creswell, 2003).
(II) INFORMED CONSENT
According to Flick’s (2010:41) statement, I developed a form of informed consent that
was given to participants because they had to sign it before they could engage in the
research. It is known that informed consent acknowledges that a researcher should
protect participants’ rights during data collection because participants have the right to
participate voluntarily, and they are also free to withdraw at any time. This is because
forced participation is unethical through the process of scientific study (Creswell, 2003).
In this regard, I communicated with the school principals and gave a letter for each
teacher and parent as well as for each learner to obtain their full consent and assent
respectively to take part in the research.
(III) PRIVACY
Researchers must not violate their participants’ right to privacy in any way (Flick, 2010).
The advantage of ethics is to maintain participants’ privacy that is established through
ethical research codes. In this study, I assured participants about their privacy during the
42
data collection process. Researchers should respect the privacy of participants because
the participants need the right to decide how much information they share and how it will
be used. For this purpose, informed consent is used to place the discussion about
participants’ privacy because participants demand an explanation of what kind of
information they are being requested to share and how that information will be protected
from other parties (Creswell, 2012; Flick, 2010). In addition, confidentiality is a common
way of assurance to protect participant privacy and not be disclosed to the unrestricted
sources.
(IV) ANONYMITY AND CONFIDENTIALITY
According to Given’s (2008) statement, “anonymity” is used to hide the name of study
participants because research participants do not want to be identified by other persons,
researchers or participants. The ethical codes of conduct also enforce researchers that
they need to protect participant’s privacy through the application of the techniques
“anonymity” and “confidentiality”. This is because “anonymity may protect the participants
from any detection of their privacy during the research and from the results” (Flick,
2010:268). For this study, I ensured that the selected participants’ names and responses
would not be identified through the transcriptions to conceal their identity. Therefore, both
“anonymity” and “confidentiality” are more relevant to conceal the privacy of the selected
principals, teachers and learners. For instance, if a participant is anonymous, she or he
cannot be classified as who they are.
(V) RELEASE AND PUBLICATION OF THE FINDINGS
As stated by different scholars, I targeted to disseminate and communicate my research
findings within the specific circles such as for academicians and professionals or within
the broader circles such as the community or public because “publication” reveals the act
of circulating written results. These days, publications are disseminated more through the
electronic system than print. According to Creswell (2003), research results can be
disseminated to individuals, departments, researchers, colleagues, agencies,
government institutions, or related bodies through articles, journals, books or reports.
43
Therefore, the findings of this study will be disseminated through seminars, workshops,
journals, articles and conferences. For this study, I should determine to employ and
adhere to the ethical issues of the research as outlined above.
1.6 CHAPTER OUTLINE
Chapter one is the introduction and overview of the entire study. The background of the
study from which the problem statement is based is presented. The significance of the
study is also discussed to indicate the motivation and importance of the study. The main
question, sub-questions, the aim and the objectives of the study are outlined. The
research design and methods are also provided. The chapter outline of the whole study
chapters is also presented.
Chapter two provides a contextual and conceptual framework, which presents a
discussion on the contexts that relate to the research topic “Gender treatment in Grade 9
classroom instructional activities and representation in English textbook” as well as the
national and international policies that promote gender equality in education. The chapter
also presents a conceptual framework in terms of definitions of key concepts.
Chapter three presents the theoretical framework that reinforces this study. The chapter
also highlights the theory that informs the study; namely, Sociocultural Theory (SCT) and
Gender Schema Theory (GST). The reason is that these theories are relevant to portray
gender treatment through classroom social interaction in terms of teachers’ and female
learners’ interaction as well as male learners’ and female learners’ interaction. This
means that SCT and GST play a vital role in identifying which gender (man and woman)
is socially, culturally and historically dominant through classroom interaction as well as in
the textbook.
Chapter four gives more attention to a detailed literature review of the research. The
related literature is also reviewed starting from the broad to specific approach such as
starting from Western, Eastern and then African countries, before focussing on Ethiopia.
The literature will predominantly look into gender treatment in classroom instructional
activities and how gender is represented in English textbooks. The literature will give a
44
clear indication of gender stereotypes against women and girls in both instances that are
in the manner of how gender is treated in instructional activities in the classroom and the
English textbook.
Chapter five provides a detailed description of qualitative research design and methods
employed in the study. In addition, the chapter presents a detailed discussion and
explanation of the study site, the participants, the steps and the procedures of how to
collect and analyse data.
Chapter six contains the process of data analysis and presents the study findings. The
collected data were debated, explained and interpreted. This chapter presents detailed
discussions of themes that emerged from the data.
Chapter seven, which is the final chapter, focuses on the significant findings, conclusions,
recommendations for further research and limitations of the study. It also gives the overall
summary of the whole study.
1.7 CHAPTER SUMMARY
This chapter delivered an introduction to the study. The background of the study
highlighted that English is one of the most common means of communication in most
parts of the world. In Ethiopia, it is used as a means of communication in some
governmental organisations. It is offered as a subject starting from Grade 1 and is used
as a medium of instruction in secondary schools and higher educational institutions or
tertiary level. Although enormous contributions attest to the importance of English in the
Ethiopian education system, based on my experience and observation, the English
textbook and the classroom instructional activities are not free from gender imbalance
hence the necessity of this investigation. The problem statement was explained, and the
main research question asked was: how does gender treatment in the classroom
instructional activities and gender representation in learner’s English textbook promote or
affect teaching and learning activities for Grade 9 in Ethiopia.
45
This study aimed at explaining the focus on how gender representation was portrayed in
the English textbook and gender treatment in the classroom instructional activities to
promote or affect teaching and learning for Grade 9 in Ethiopia.
A brief discussion of the qualitative research design and methods was presented, and
finally, the chapter outline of the whole study is provided in this chapter. The next chapter
presents the theoretical framework that was engaged as a lens for this research.
46
CHAPTER TWO:
CONTEXTUAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Chapter one presented the study background where I explained the crucial points such
as the research questions, aims and objectives of the study. In this chapter, I first explain
the contextual framework, including policies that are in place to encourage gender-fair
treatment between women and men in Ethiopia. Secondly, the definition of terms such as
gender as a concept which is used mostly in this study is also provided.
2.2 CONTEXTUAL FRAMEWORK
In the earlier discussion in chapter one, scholars such as Mlama (2005, cited in Nyevero
& Memory, 2014:561) and Barragan (2015:1) define gender as, “cultural attitudes and
behaviours that shape "feminine" and "masculine" behaviours, products, technologies,
environments and knowledge”.
Similarly, Guramatunhu-Mudiwa (2015:122) explains gender as, “the sociocultural
constructions that are attached to femininity and masculinity”. UNESCO (2015:8)
supports Guramatunhu-Mudiwa’s definition by explaining gender as a sociocultural
classification of women and men. According to UNESCO (Ibid.), the societal norms and
values are classified to define the roles that women and men should play in society. This
implies that gender is a social and cultural construct of persons based on the predictable
behaviour and roles that are assigned to a woman and a man by society.
In the same way, Ekpe, Eja, Eni and John (2014:16) describe gender as the allocation of
social roles respectively to men and women in specific societies and at specific times.
These researchers concur that economic, political, cultural and ideological factors
influence gender roles in various contexts by revealing imbalanced power affairs.
Alternatively, UNESCO (2015:11), in its report, points out that socialisation is used as an
instrument to learn gender roles that may be institutionalised through different systems in
terms of education, politics and economics, legislation and culture and traditions.
47
As reviewed by the other researchers such as Meyer (2014:95), the word gender plays
an influential role as categories in human life. These categories of gender distinguish the
man and woman act as a means of social regulation and the establishment of power
structures (Ibid.). Researchers such as Nyevero (2014:559) discuss gender equality,
which is taken as a prerequisite for progressing development and decreasing poverty
(ibid: 176).
As indicated by Guramatunhu-Mudiwa (2015:122), gender equality is used to create
sustainable and peaceful societies because it is one of the significant human rights. This
is the reason why gender is critical through education, population planning, health and
nutrition. This indicates that communal development is necessary for mothers because if
they are better educated, they may have a lower number of births, lower child mortality,
better nourished and better educated children, as reported by Save the Children Australia
(2016:5). As stated in UNICEF Ethiopia’s (2014:4) report, the issue of gender in the
Ethiopian context has more emphasis, not only for the government but also for other
stakeholders concerned because of the culturally man-dominant society that has existed
in the country for an extended period. Therefore, the following section reviewed various
policies, conventions and agreements about gender issues in Ethiopia.
2.2.1 POLICIES PROMOTING THE TREATMENT OF GENDER BETWEEN MEN AND WOMEN
This section presents global, national, education and women policies that encourage
gender equality in social, political and economic activities. However, in some
circumstances, I could not find the actual policy but instead, refer to a global policy that
regulates gender issues in all nations.
2.2.1.1 International gender policies
UNESCO (2015:7) recognises that the international gender policy seeks to promote the
equal realisation of dignity and human rights for girls, women, boys and men and the
elimination of poverty and injustice. Bank (2007:763) also explains that “gender policies
can take the form of legislation, programmes, regulations, administrative practices and
48
court decisions. In the global context, gender policies acquire forms ranging from
international conventions and declarations at global forums to programmes and projects”.
“The 1995 Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action” is accepted by UNESCO (Pavlic,
et al. 2000:46) to promote gender equality. Some statements among the 12 critical areas
of concern are relevant to the current study. These are:
▪ Disparities and inadequacies in and imbalanced right of entry to education and training;
▪ The disparity between men and women in power allocation and decision-making at all
levels;
▪ Women’s stereotyping and disparity for accessing and participating in all systems of
communication, especially in the media.
On the other hand, the preceding agreements like women’s rights and empowerment and
gender impartiality were combined through the Millennium Development Goals because
it was believed that they were essential for the community development by consolidating
them into a single set of core goals, targets and benchmarks. The primary target of MDGs
was to reduce gender inequality in teaching-learning systems by promoting women’s
impartial treatment and empowerment. In the MDGs, it was believed that development
could be enhanced if gender equality was practised adequately like other human rights.
Relating to the problem of research in this study, this policy obliges governments who
should be signatory through the protection of women’s rights, empowerment and gender
equality. Ethiopia pledged to this International Agreement. Therefore, Ethiopia has a
responsibility to ensure gender equality.
The three of the international conventions have the goals to clarify gender parity and
equality in “the UN Convention on Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against
Women (CEDAW), the Beijing Platform for Action (BPA) and the Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs)” (UNFPA, 2008:19) as follows:
Table 2.2.1.1: Adapted from the International Conventions
49
International Conventions Measures those governments have to take to guarantee
gender equality
a) CEDAW Elimination of discrimination against women in employment opportunities
and benefits of service
Ensuring gender equality in all areas of socioeconomic life such
as legal rights to contracts and property
Access to financial credit
Equality of women in national constitutions
Abolishing existing laws, regulations, customs and practices that
discriminate against women
b) BPA Ensuring women’s equal rights and access to economic resources
Elimination of occupational segregation and all forms of employment
discrimination
Promoting women’s access to employment, appropriate working
conditions and control over resources
Facilitating women’s equal access to markets, trade, information,
and technology
Promotion of harmonisation of work and family responsibilities for
women and men
Conducting gender-based research and dissemination of its
results for planning and evaluation
50
c) MDGs Ensuring gender equality and women’s empowerment
Ensuring universal primary education for both boys and
girls by 2015
Elimination of gender disparity at all levels of education by 2015
Reducing the maternal mortality ratio by three quarters between
1990 and 2015
Source: UNFPA (2008)
On the other hand, one of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)” was “gender
inequality”. As Sachs (2012:2206) states, some countries have made substantial
development towards achievement of the MDGs although the development is highly
variable across goals, countries and regions. According to CEPAL (2018:18) and Barbier
and Burgess (2017:6), in 2015, the General Assembly of the United Nations (UN) adopted
17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). These goals aim to set attainable targets
that can be achieved as a 2030 agenda for sustainable development. This means that in
post-2015, the world adopted a set of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) because
these goals are an essential idea and could help finally to move the world to a sustainable
trajectory (Sachs, 2012:2206). Sachs (2012:2206) also discusses that SDGs are the best
ways to build on the MDG successes and lessons. Therefore, SDGs consist of the 17
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which were formally adopted by the UN, in 2015
(Barbier & Burgess, 2017:1). Among the 17 SDGs, Goal 4: Quality Education and Goal
5: Gender Equality, are relevant for this study (CEPAL, 2018:18; Barbier & Burgess,
2017:1). If there is gender inequality through teaching and learning practice, quality
education cannot be achieved without equal treatment and participation between boys
and girls in school. Therefore, some of the goals are mentioned as follows:
d) SDGs End all forms of discrimination against all women and girls everywhere
Eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls in public and
51
private spheres, including trafficking and sexual and other types of
exploitation
Eliminate all harmful practices, such as child, early and forced marriage
and female genital Mutilation
Source: United Nations (2016)
2.2.1.2 Article 3 (3) of the EFA convention
By World Declaration on Education for All 1990, especially Article 3 (3) linking to the
universal access and promotion of equity states that different obstacles could hamper
women’s active participation through education. Therefore, these impediments demand
the most urgent priority from the governments and societies because education plays an
important role to exclude all gender stereotyping activities.
2.2.1.3 The convention and gender
The Convention on Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW)
can be a base to understand the importance of gender equality between men and women
to ensure women’s equal opportunities through political and public life.
There is an agreement that state parties should take appropriate measures. Human rights
and fundamental freedoms that are taken as other measures can also be a source of
enjoyment for women and girls (Pavlic et al. 2000:46). As Bayeh (2015:85) puts it, this
agreement fundamentally makes an effort to eradicate gender disparity.
Article 10 of the CEDAW Convention elucidates that through education, equal rights
between women and men should be ensured by governments by taking all appropriate
measures to eliminate discrimination against women. Specifically, the Article is also
crucial for equal career and vocational guidance. Women and girls can also access the
same curricula, examinations and educational facilities, sports and physical education
(ibid.).
2.2.1.4 Ethiopian Constitution
52
One of the significant documents addressing women’s rights is the Constitution of the
Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE). The Constitution, in its Article 35, states
that:
Women have equal rights to those of men in all spheres, including education,
employment, and access to resources and management of the same. These
include rights and protections equal to those of men; equality in marriage;
affirmative action; rights to full consultation in the formulation of national
development policies, designing and execution of projects, especially when these
affect the interests of women; the right to acquire, administer, control, use and
transfer of property; and the right of equal employment, pay and promotion
(FDRE, 1995:23, cited in Ethiopia case study report, 2015:10 & Zewdu, et al.
2016:22).
The emphasis is given on the importance of gender issues because it has been given
due attention by the Ethiopian Government. Therefore, gender issues are recognised in
the Constitution of the country. This is discussed in the following section.
2.2.1.5 Ethiopian Education Policy and gender treatment
These days, gender is an essential issue through the global context. Therefore, the issue
of gender is given attention by the Ethiopian Government in the Constitution of the country
(Bayeh, 2015:85). Following the provision that is enshrined about gender in the
Constitution, the Ethiopian Ministry of Education has taken a stand to address the issue
of gender in the system of education in general and in the overall teaching-learning
materials’ preparation as well as in the instructional activities, in particular.
Among the objectives of the Ethiopian Education and Training Policy, there is one aimed
at introducing the educational system, which is used to rectify the wrong understanding
about female education regarding its roles and benefits. From this idea, when curriculum
and books are designed and developed by professionals, special attention should be
53
given to gender issues. It further states that woman participants should be given equal
attention during teachers’ selection for training or career advancing.
According to the Education and Training Policy of Federal Democratic Republic
Government of Ethiopia (FDRE, 1994:29), the gender issue is revealed as the curriculum
content and should “reflect the principles of the equality of nations, nationalities and
gender”. This has helped to minimise the covert and overt messages of masculine
outlooks in the textbooks. However, it is still recognised that the issue of gender has not
been adequately addressed to the level outlined in the gender policy of the country.
In this regard, researchers such as Ogato (2013:365) have asserted that the equal
treatment of gender across the curriculum of a country’s educational system is to be
significant for the successful accomplishment of educational practices in general and
classroom instructional activities in particular. Therefore, a curriculum for a specific
subject has to address the equal treatment of gender. Due to that fact, such a balanced
consideration in the given curriculum could offer a strong basis for the successful
realisation of the teaching-learning practices up to the level of the classroom.
Following the Education Policy, the Education Sector Development Programme (ESDP)
has set its own goals. One of these goals, which are used to address the problem of
equity, is to reorganise the curricula to make it gender-responsive (Prime Minister
Office/Women’s Affairs Sub-Sector, 2004:6).
Even if making explicit efforts is visible to reduce gender disparity in the Ethiopian New
Educational Policy, English Curriculum and textbooks, the texts still emphasise
differences in gender treatment. It is because of this reason that this study may have a
significant contribution regarding gender treatment in English Language Education in
Ethiopia. In datum, the pedagogical or educational system has a responsibility to change
a child’s negative attitude towards gender-fair treatment to avoid children from carrying
negative attitudes about gender throughout their school life or social situations (UNESCO,
2015:13). This is because sociocultural factors that are considered as more influential
within social and cultural contexts affect the beliefs, outlooks and behaviours of learners
and teachers.
54
As UNFPA (2008:20, cited by Bayeh, 2015:85) describes the 1994 Ethiopian Education
and Training Policy, girls’ education is crucial for the comprehensive societal
development. It also focuses on the roles and contributions of women in development.
Therefore, the attitudes and values of society should recognise women’s potentials
(FDRE Education and Training Policy, 1994:11). The issues of gender impartiality should
be included through the policy because it is used to increase girls’ school enrolment ratio.
The other important factor is that preparing a gender-sensitive curriculum may also be
useful in reducing girls’ dropout and repetition rates (ibid: 13). The next section presents
the national policy of Ethiopian women that underpins this study.
2.2.1.6 The national policy of Ethiopian women
“Little by little, the egg begins to walk.”(Ethiopian saying)
The Prime Minister’s Office/Women’s Affairs Sub-Sector’s (2004:5) report highlights that
the strategic objective in the Beijing Declaration and the Platform of action is education
and training of women. The objective of this strategy clearly shows that education is not
only a human right, but it is also an essential tool for accomplishing the goals of
impartiality, growth and peace. By accepting this statement, Ethiopia has taken its
commitment to Beijing PFA seriously because Ethiopia has accepted the global treaties
on women’s rights such as the “Convention on Elimination of all forms of Discrimination
Against Women (CEDAW)” which gives equal rights and protection from discrimination
against women (ibid.:3).
In addition to being a participant through the significant conventions that are used to
protect women from marginalisation and other traditional gender belief, gender equity and
equality has taken as a significant role by the Ethiopian Government that has stated its
commitment by delivering a National Policy on Ethiopian Women (Prime Minister
Office/Women’s Affairs Sub-Sector, 2004:3).
As Ogato (MOWA, 2006, cited in 2013:362) puts it, Ethiopia had identified seven priority
areas that need to be tackled in order to ensure gender-equitable development. This is
for the reason that these areas of concerns were used to develop its National Action Plan
on Gender Equality. Among these areas of concern, the “Education and Training of
55
Women and Girls; Empowering Women in Decision-Making” (MOWA, 2006, cited in
Ogato, 2013:362) are relevant to the current study.
The Prime Minister’s Office/Women’s Affairs Sub-Sector’s (2004:2) report states that the
Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) issued the national Ethiopian Policy on
Women in 1993 and granted the equal right for women in its Constitution. Relating this
idea, Ogato (2013:367) explains that the 1995 Constitution of the Federal Democratic
Republic of Ethiopia clearly expressed women’s status in the Ethiopian society. Articles
that have revealed the efforts of the Ethiopian Government to achieve gender impartiality
are incorporated in the Constitution under 2.2.1.4 Ethiopian Constitution in this study.
Article 35, UNFPA’s (2008:20) report shows that Ethiopia accepted global treaties to
encourage gender impartiality that is vital to advance women’s lives. For this purpose,
different strategies and laws have been put into action because they have a positive
contribution to the effective implementation the global agreements. Among these is the
national policy on Women that was introduced in 1993 as the first policy because it has a
direct relation to women’s affairs.
On the other hand, Ogato (2013:359) explains that women have an effective role to play
on the fulfilment of the poverty reduction strategy. Due to this reason, gender may not be
separated from development because both are considered as cross-cutting issues in the
Ethiopian context (ibid.).Therefore, based on the strategies devised in the Education
Sector Development Programme (ESDP), different actions have been undertaken to
address the gender gap at different levels. One of these activities is the development of
the school curriculum that should be gender-sensitive or responsive. The New Education
and Training Policy (1994:11) states that education plays an important role to shape
society’s attitude and value about women’s contribution to development.
According to the Prime Minister’s Office/Women’s Affairs Sub-Sector (2004:3), the
Women national policy was formulated in 1993. Its principal aim was to address gender
disparity in the cultural, social, economic and political situations. Because of this reason,
strategies were developed to address gender issues. The emphasis of the policy is on
the rights of women to have their properties and women benefitting from their labour by
56
encouraging their access to essential social services. This Policy on Ethiopian
Women has its objectives. One of the objectives, which has relevance to this study, is:
“To eliminate, step by step, prejudices as well as customary and other practices, that are
based on the idea of male supremacy and to enable women to hold public office and to
participate in the decision-making process at all levels” (Ahmed et al., 2001:8).
However, in Ethiopia, different studies show that there is a national policy implementation
problem regarding Ethiopian women. In this regard, Tefera (2014: vii) carried out a study
to investigate institutional capacity in implementing the national policy of Ethiopian women
in Dilla town. His research findings confirm that the government failed to effectively
institutionalise the national policy in the local government in a way that could respond to
the women’s needs and problems in a localised manner. The failure was caused by the
limited institutional capacity such as shortage of human resource, lack of effective
leadership, professionals and experts; lack of adequate material resources such as
finance, office equipment and building for permanent office; limited policy knowledge and
understanding, absence of organisational objective, plan, vision, mission and values,
especially at the grass-root level.
Because of this, researchers such as Ogato (2013:359) assert that Ethiopian women
have low status in their society. According to the Ethiopian Prime Minister Office/
Women’s Affairs Sub-Sector’s (2004, cited in Ogato, 2013:359) report, Ethiopian women
“represent 49.8% of the population” and are the main contributors to the production of
food and other food products, yet they have not enjoyed “the fruits of development equally
with their male counterparts”. Ogato (ibid.) continues to discuss that women’s rights are
problematic because women are not able to access “land, credit and other productive
resources”. Prime Minister Office/Women’s Affairs Sub-Sector (2004, as cited by Ogato,
2013:359) shows that women face various challenges because they work for long days.
Because of this, they become exposed to illness since they are less educated than men.
Women are also less represented to act as leaders and decision-makers.
The World Bank (2007, as cited by Ogato, 2013:359) asserts that it was habitually
recognised that women’s social heroines are limited to home deeds such as preparing
food and raising children. Therefore, Prime Minister Office/Women’s Affairs Sub-Sector
57
(2004:13) states that women in Ethiopia, similar to other nations, are sufferers of different
types of problems and bad traditional deeds due to their gender. Man-controlled powers
such as social and traditional activities and economic disadvantages are some of the
problems that occur antagonistic to women in Ethiopia (Ibid.). On the other hand, Umeta’s
(2013:229) research explains that women are socially and economically underprivileged;
such variances are created mostly in the middle of man ruled families and woman ruled
families.
Generally, to eliminate problems contrary to women and daughters, the Ethiopian
Government has decided to take measures in generating a favourable environment for
the amendments of legitimate restructurings that are biased towards women. For
instance, the domestic /family/ law has been modified in a gender-responsive way (Prime
Minister Office/Women’s Affairs Sub-Sector, 2004:14).
2.2.2 RECAP OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
It is apparent that gender issues prevail through different areas of social life. According
to the statements of Allana et al. (2010:344), it is possible to minimise gender issues by
shifting the mind-sets of the younger age group because it is believed that they are open
to accepting further change in the society by bringing new ideas, views and practices.
Supporting this, Genet and Haftu (2013:38) say that different agents and concerned
bodies (teachers, parents, religious leaders, community elders, governmental and non-
governmental leaders) should make great effort to bring a change about the negative
perceptions of the society because this is very important to generate a gender unbiased
society. In doing so this, gender unbiased teachers are needed because gender is not
only an issue of women, but it is also the problem of society. In addition, in Colombia, as
Mojica and Castañeda-Peña (2016:140) indicate, “The school is considered as one of the
social places for the gendered cultural reproduction”.
Based on the aforementioned statements, the motive behind this research emerged from
my teaching experience, private observation of the classroom instructional practices and
reading different books and research works. For example, my experience verifies that
male learners and female learners do not have the same role of classroom participation
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and responsibility because the place of girls in the social order is affected by the cultural
experience of the societies in the Ethiopian context. If this condition persists, it can
generate undesirable results on the new age group.
2.2.3 RECAP OF THE CRITICAL RESEARCH QUESTION
The main research question addressed in this study is based on different researchers’
viewpoint on gender. For example, Mukundan and Nimehchisalem (2008:169) state that
gender should be equally treated in the classroom instructional activities as well as
represented in English Curriculum and learners’ textbooks. Therefore, the main research
question of this study was:
How does gender treatment in classroom instructional activities and gender
representation in English textbook promote or affect teaching and learning for Grade nine
in Ethiopia?
2.2.4 RECAP OF THE RATIONALE FOR THIS STUDY
In the Ethiopian context, women are culturally and socially less recognised for an
extended period now. Therefore, in Ethiopian society, gender disparity is one of the social
problems (Haile-Giorgis, 2008:1). The rationale is that socially and culturally constructed
gender beliefs and norms have an impact on gender-equal or fair treatment. These
traditionally perceived gender beliefs and norms are reflected in the classroom teaching-
learning processes. For instance, in the schoolroom context, girls are viewed as fewer
participants than boys. This view is driven by our socio-cultural context that does not
encourage girls to participate in different sociocultural settings actively. Due to this
reason, girls, who are influenced by traditional gender practices and norms, are socially
and culturally considered as introverts in their behaviour even if Ethiopia, like many other
countries around the world, has attempted actions such as improving access to
education, particularly for girls/women.
There are still immense and un-researched problems in the issue of gender within texts
and schoolroom communication concerning using gender-exclusive and stereotypic
languages that are mostly reflected in the current language teaching-learning materials
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as well as in schoolroom contexts. Even though Ethiopian policymakers, curriculum
designers and developers make efforts to alleviate gender problems, there are still visible
and invisible problems of gender treatment in instructional activities and representation in
textbooks based on clear evidence in instructional materials and in classroom interaction.
Therefore, I believe that conducting research in this area may contribute to the different
concerned bodies. These are educational administrators, curriculum developers,
designers and policymakers in the instructional materials preparation and use of English
educational content as well as for the classroom teachers’ and learners’ interactions in
Ethiopia. The next section provides a discussion of the conceptual framework relating to
the study.
2.3 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
This section provides the conceptual framework in terms of key concepts that relate to
the research topic: ‘Gender treatment in Grade 9 classroom instructional activities and
representation in English textbook’.
2.3.1 DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS
This section defines concepts to clarify the meanings of the key terms that are employed
in this research as they are comprehended from my standpoint.
2.3.1.1 Gender
The term “gender” is recognised as socially created and learned roles, behaviours,
opportunities, doings and qualities through socialisation processes that a given
community accepts as proper for men and women. However, the term “sex” is the
manifestation of biological differences associated with being male and female (Ekpe,
2014:16; Macé, 2018:320). Although Browne (2007:1) differentiates sex as a matter of
nature and gender as a matter of nurture, this study does not encompass biological
differences, but it aims to investigate how gender treatment in classroom instructional
practices and representation in learner’s English textbook promotes or affects the
teaching-learning practice for Grade 9 in Ethiopia. As Macé (2018:321) puts it, patriarchal
60
domination creates gender inequalities and discrimination of men and women. Thus,
gender is an essential dimension of social inequality because, through social patterns,
men dominate women. This depicts how gender stratification frequently takes the form of
patriarchy (Macé, 2018:322).
Gender has two main categories, which are masculine and feminine. What Karimi et al.
(2013:205) discuss is that sociocultural perspectives are related to traditional gender
issues because gender is by far discussed as shared structures of manliness and
womanliness, but being male or female is natural. In addition, Dereje (2013:146), on his
part, views gender as socially created with particular cultural and historical settings that
might be altered through time.
Supporting the preceding paragraphs, UNESCO (2015:7) underlines that gender should
not be simply understood as a common human feature, but it should instead be viewed
and appropriately treated in the curricula of a given educational system of a country. As
such, this treatment should also be reflected in the learners’ textbooks that will be used
as instruments in the classroom’s instructional activities.
2.3.1.2 Curriculum
According to Su (2012:153), the educational field gives more emphasis to discuss the
curriculum. She also states that the curriculum is used as a tool to attain particular
instructive goals and objectives because it shows what instructors are going to teach and
what learners are going to learn. Therefore, Su (2012:154) sees curriculum as a strategy
or a kind of outline for methodically applying instructive tasks.
Richards and Schmidt (2002:139) also describe the curriculum as lessons and academic
content that is accomplished in a school or a particular programme. Therefore, Su
(2012:155) defines curriculum as experiences that consist of “content + goals/objectives
+ methods + assessment/evaluation + extracurricular activities and learning environment
+ hidden curriculum + cultures”.
In addition, the curriculum is identified as formal or informal. UNESCO (2015) in ‘A Guide
for Gender Equality in Teacher Education Policy and Practices’ states that formal
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curriculum, which is referred to as prescribed or intended curriculum, is a set of objectives,
content, resources and assessment as formulated by a government or an educational
institution (ibid:9). Therefore, the formal curriculum can include textbooks, learning aids
and various technologies used by the teacher in the teaching and learning process (ibid:
58). On the other hand, informal curriculum which refers the hidden or unofficial
curriculum alludes to attitudes, values, beliefs, assumptions, behaviours and undeclared
agendas underlying the learning process as formulated by individuals, families, societies,
religions, cultures and traditions (UNESCO, 2015:9).
The above definitions come from the fact that there may be differences between what is
targeted by educational experts and what is practised in the schoolroom. Generally
speaking, especially for this research, a curriculum is operationally demarcated as the
scheduled interaction of learners with instructional content, materials, resources and
procedures for assessing the accomplishment of educational aims, as Marsh (2004)
supports.
2.3.1.3 Hidden curriculum
As stated by Sulaimani and Gut (2019:31), the concept of the Hidden Curriculum (HC)
refers to the unofficial, unintended values and unwritten processes that are used to teach
students. However, the formal curriculum involves learning activities, courses and lessons
in which students participate and skills taught by educators.
Similarly, Sambell and McDowell (1998: 391–392, as cited by Semper & Blasco, 2018:3)
define the concept of HC as ‘what is implicit and embedded in educational experiences
in contrast to the formal statements about curricula and the surface features of
educational interaction’.
Additionally, HC has come to be defined as the norms, values and social expectations
indirectly conveyed to students which are integral to the development of social skills
(Alsubaie 2015; Myles & Simpson 2001, Myles & Smith, 2005, as cited by Sulaimani &
Gut 2019:32).
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Therefore, HC is comprised of implicit cultural, social and academic information
transferred to students during their schooling. For this idea, gendered perspective is a
good example because the hidden curriculum helps teachers to transfer messages to
students about their feelings and directions that may be challenging for students to
understand (Semper & Blasco, 2018:4; Anyon, 1980, as cited by Sulaimani & Gut
2019:31).
HC involves the unspoken cultural and social knowledge that students acquire in the
learning environment (Alsubaie, 2015, as cited by Sulaimani & Gut, 2019:30). While in
school, students may acquire skills such as knowing acceptable and unacceptable
behaviour in the society, interaction and communication skills and how to interact with
persons from different backgrounds. Therefore, understanding HC is crucial for students
because it contains aspects of social behaviour which are essential for their future
success in society (Semper & Blasco, 2018:5; Sulaimani & Gut, 2019:32). Therefore, HC
plays an essential role to transmit socially and culturally constructed traditional gender
thinking from teachers to learners or from learners to learners through teaching and
learning processes in the school.
2.3.1.4 Treatment
In this study, treatment is operationally defined as a manner or method of equally handling
someone through instructional practices because equal treatment between boys and girls
creates a gender-sensitive environment, but mistreatment (mishandling) between boys
and girls creates gender differences. However, it may be seen as fair- or unfair- treatment
among sons and daughters in schooling and acquiring exercise. This means that it is
considered that there is fair or unfair treatment among female learners and male learners
during instructional activities. As Gharbavi and Mousavi (2012) say, it is the equitable
treatment that is necessary to reduce gender imbalance and increase gender sensitivity
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in instructional activities. Therefore, it is supposed that gender fair-treatment is needed to
avoid gender disparity and then create a gender-sensitive environment.
Therefore, if learners see gender-consistent beliefs and roles in the textbook and
classroom context, they consider that unequal gender treatment is a part of their daily
lives inside and outside the school. This idea strengthens that gendered ways of learning
and teaching spring from early childhood socialisation. However, what Subrahmanian
(2005) states is that ensuring equal handling and chance for men and women is significant
because it is indispensable to see how teachers handle male learners and female
learners in schoolroom interactions and how girls and boys resist differential treatment in
different instructional contexts.
2.3.1.5 Textbook
As researchers such as Lo (2015) put it, one of the most useful tools teachers and
learners possess is the textbook. This means that the textbook is one of the instructional
resources and programmes. According to Richards and Schmidt (2002:550), the textbook
is used to guide a teaching-learning practice in a specific subject in a specific setting. In
English language learning, textbooks are consisted of listening, reading, writing, speaking
and grammar skills. Therefore, a textbook is a tool that is utilised to learn a specific
course. This definition indicates that textbooks are often the central portion of studying a
particular subject, and they are supposed to motivate and support the learners’ learning
processes (UNESCO, 2015).
However, according to Lo’s (2015:17) statement, gender stereotypes can be perpetuated
in schools. This is done through gender representations of textbooks that favour men in
authoritative roles over women. This means that textbooks articulate stereotypical
thinking in questions of gender. As Lo (2015:11) puts it, there is a common trend in
textbooks everywhere in the globe where women are understated in text and images, and
when they make an appearance, they hold stereotypical roles in the household,
occupations and attitudes. These textbooks influence learners’ learning process because,
within textbooks, gender roles are portrayed.
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In the Global Education Monitoring Report, as the Policy Paper 28 (2016:12) gender bias
may be disseminated through textbooks because men and women are portrayed in
stereotypical and unequal stories and illustrations. According to Mukundan and
Nimehchisalem (2008), textbook writers have the responsibility to construct a social world
where children study about what individuals perform and how they connect because this
is an additional portion of the humanising consequence of textbooks. Therefore, if a
textbook is not handled sensibly, it might take to the separation of some classifications of
pupils based on gender role stereotyping. In this regard, Gharbavi and Mousavi (2012)
have found that the content of a text encompasses gender differences contrary to women
and the depictions confirm unfair portrayals of men and women. Supporting this idea,
Papadakis’s (2018: 56) study shows that the use of cartoon pictures in school textbooks
often replicates deeds under the limit of “gender-specific stereotypes”.
Furthermore, school textbooks (instructional materials) are essential materials to
implement classroom teaching and learning practice (Alsaif, 2016:226). In this regard,
Davies (1995, cited in Mkuchu, 2004) has studied that textbooks in all issues tend to be
in contrast to women. For instance, if the words employed are not similarly all-
encompassing of both girls and boys, then the textbook becomes gender unfair.
According to Sunderland’s (2011:43) statement, looking at the gender representation in
the textbook is not only of children and adults but also animals, folk/fantasy figures and
inanimate objects.
As Subrahmanian (2005) provides, social norms can be strengthened through textbooks
and teachers’ attitudes because it is believed that staying at home and taking principal
responsibility for domestic tasks is appropriate for women. However, playing leading roles
in the globe and public decision-making is appropriate for men. Therefore, Mkuchu (2004)
says that teaching-learning materials might reproduce the biased nature of languages.
However, in the USA, as Toçi and Aliu (2013: 32) provide, in school, textbooks are
essential to shaping children’s images because they learn how men and women are
represented in the text.
In addition, Mkuchu (2004) confirms that researchers who recognise a fair treatment
between girls and boys through educational practice had addressed the adverse effects
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of gender-typecast textbooks on readers. It is previously mentioned that a textbook is one
of the significant components in teaching-learning to create the basis of schoolroom tasks
which is used to offer the academic and technical knowledge about the subject matter
originating from the authorised or planned curriculum.
Therefore, textbooks strengthen gender-consistent attitudes and behaviours if they
contain the unplanned gender-biased messages. This justifies that learners are socialised
with traditional gender roles and stereotypes through textbooks that are used to develop
gender inequality. Consequently, Gharbavi and Mousavi (2012) affirm that textbook
writers should take into account gender equality, human rights and social justice to attain
the intended instructional objectives and set it free from gender bias.
2.3.1.6 Instructional process
Instructional process describes the instructional activities that provide the means through
which learners will achieve the stated objectives, or through which the teacher imparts
knowledge to learners. Likewise, Petrone et al. (2011) explain that the instructional
process as the teaching-learning activity starts with the definition of what the learners
should know and completes with the evaluation of what the learners know. Although
instructional processes include various learning styles and strategies, and teacher-
learner and learner-learner interaction, through this study classroom teacher-learner and
learner-learner interaction are explored.
According to Gagne (1985; as cited by Gharbavi & Mousavi, 2012), the instructional
theory is focused on a particular learning context because the instructional contents,
contexts and administrative constraints are components in the instructional process. For
example, the instructional contents show what can be learned in the teaching-learning
process. The instructional contexts include all types of learners and location that can
range from classrooms to workshops for learner-learner interaction and teacher-learner
interaction. Therefore, it is concluded that formal instructional processes may happen
through a textbook, pictorial material and schoolroom discourse.
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In addition, researchers such as Mukundan and Nimehchisalem (2008) and Gharbavi and
Mousavi (2012) recommend that instructional processes should promote gender equality
and classroom fair treatment of gender. However, gender biases are manifested through
instructional processes that affect gender-fair treatment during classroom interaction.
Due to this reason, instructional processes may perpetuate gender stereotypes.
Concerning this idea, Glanz (2008) considers instruction as a widely used application of
SCT. This means that formal instruction should connect the school to learners' lives.
On the other hand, Le (2004) and McCue (2012) argue about how much is needed to
raise learners' current schema and the content of lessons that would be taken from
learners' surroundings and familiarities. This confirms that the instruction must advocate
the significance of cultural artefacts through classroom learning and teaching processes.
In a similar vein, Cole (1996); Dalton and Tharp (2002); Moll (1990); Weitsch (l985 as
cited by Le, 2004) believe that such traditional resources, domestic activities and broader
societies provide knowledge that is entrenched in communities during the teaching-
learning process.
However, scholars such as Mukundan and Nimehchisalem (2008) and Gharbavi and
Mousavi (2012) opine that curriculum designers and implementers are expected to
differentiate whether the instructional materials and classroom instructional processes
are free from gender bias and stereotype because instruction should equally motivate
and encourage learners regardless of gender.
2.3.1.7 Language
Language is used as a means of communication that can be employed to state traditional
attitudes and values (Hall, 2014:253). In other words, language is a mode of social
communication by persons in a specific nation or sort of labours (Richards & Schmidt,
2002:283). In short, language is identified as a tool because it is used systematically to
communicate ideas or feelings through the use of conventionalised symbols, sounds,
gestures, or scripts having understood meanings. Besides, language is essential in
shaping and portraying perceptions and attitudes and is by no means neutral. For
example, collocation, which refers to two or more words recurring together in a text, has
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the potential to draw on gender stereotypes such as ‘pretty girls’ and ‘strong boys’, as
well as non-stereotypical associations (Sunderland, 2011:71).
Language reflects both individual characteristics of a person, as well as the beliefs and
practices of his or her community because language and culture are inseparable or two
sides of a penny. According to UNESCO’s (2015:60) statement, language is essential to
express men as assertive and women as submissive through a different culture. Similarly,
Gharbavi and Mousavi (2012) define language (classroom discourse) as highly significant
in the reproduction of, or resistance to unequal gender relations and social inequality.
Scholars such as Sunderland (2006) also argue that what people learn about gender and
how people perform their gender roles are both greatly reliant on the sociocultural and
historical setting where they live.
Sunderland (2006) also continues that language and gender shape diverse perceptions
and influence interpersonal, local, national and international relationships. This means
that language reflects how gender elements are portrayed in social interactions because
Mkuchu (2004) and Gharbavi and Mousavi (2012) explain that language is not only used
to reflect social values, but it is also a significant vehicle for communicating thoughts about
manliness and womanliness. Sunderland (2006) also explains how language provides
some persons with the supremacy to overlook others. Therefore, gender unfairness and
stereotype may be depicted through writing or speaking a language.
Language can be a critical element in the pedagogical processes. Therefore, eliminating
the use of gender insulting language is mandatory in teaching-learning practices because,
as Mlama et al. (2005:14) say, gender differences and inequalities may be strengthened
by language. In the classroom context, male dominance is also revealed through
language that lowers girls to an inferior position. Therefore, the study of Ojediran
(2012:314) indicates that women are undermined in various ways due to their varied
classes, cultures and races.
Mkuchu (2004), Sunderland (2006) and Söğüt (2018:10) state that if sexist and gender-
biased language exists in instructional materials, it still encourages stereotypical thinking
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in pupils’ mind-sets that men are superior to women in their social context. Instead,
language should be gender-neutral. The next section presents the chapter summary.
2.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY
This chapter delivered a general overview of the contextual and conceptual framework.
First, the chapter explained the contextual framework, including policies that are in place
to promote the fair gender treatment between men and women in Ethiopia. The chapter
also presented a contextual framework by recapping the research problem, the critical
research question and the rationale for this study.
Secondly, the chapter offered various ideas of gender that link to this research. A
discussion on what gender is and how it promotes and affects the teaching-learning
process was provided. This section discussed the conceptual framework in terms of key
concepts that relate to the research topic: ‘Gender treatment in Grade 9 classroom
instructional activities and representation in English textbooks’. The following chapter
presents the theoretical basis that underpins this research.
CHAPTER THREE:
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
3. 1 INTRODUCTION
Chapter two presented the contextual and conceptual framework, where I explained the
crucial points such as policies which are used to promote the treatment of gender between
men and women in this study. This chapter pays attention to the theoretical framework as
it forms a valuable base for any research work. Two relevant theories are taken into
consideration. These theories are the Gender Schema Theory (GST) and the
Sociocultural Theory (SCT). According to GST, parents can have their gender schemas
that are the most influential factors to shape the views of their children about gender. This
shows how gender stereotypes are formed during childhood. According to SCT, peers,
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adults and culture have influences on the development of a child. As explained by Scott
(2013:1), the Sociocultural Theory stands to describe how the individual mental
functioning is related to historical, cultural and institutional contexts. This means that SCT
affirms historical and cultural context as primary forces in cognitive development. SCT
indicates that the role played by gender schemas formed earlier in the life of a child has
a significant contribution later in the life of a child when the child is an adult. When young
children interact with parents, siblings, peers and teachers, they build knowledge that is
appropriate to their culture because the social, historical and cultural context has more
contribution to child development. This study thus explored the influence of various
sociocultural factors, such as gender beliefs, attitudes, stereotypes, roles and biases, on
gender treatment in the Grade 9 classroom instructional activities and gender
representation in the English textbook in the selected schools in Ethiopia.
3.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
This part highlights the theoretical frameworks that framed this research, namely the
Gender Schema Theory (GST) and the Sociocultural Theory (SCT). I understand that
these theories are interconnected with each other because both underscore the
collaboration central to a child (learner) and the environment. Thus, the first theory
indicates how children learn about what it means to be man and woman from the beliefs
they acquire where they live, as stated by Grysman and Fivush (2016:615). As Mencía-
Ripley, Schwartz and Brondolo (2016:267) and Jehan and Kirmani (2015:192) put it,
schemas are “mental structures which are hypothesised to influence attention, memory
and motivation”. What Bem (1981:355) asserts is that a schema is a mental construction,
a system of relations that organises and leads a person’s perception.
The Sociocultural Theory depicts the ideas of Vygotsky. Vygotsky (1978, cited by
Jarrahzade and Tabatabaei, 2014:34) argue that as the first step, the child obtains
information through acquaintances and exchanges with peers, adults and teachers (inter-
psychological plane), then later integrates and accepts this information (intra-
psychological plane).
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The rationale for the choice of these theoretical frameworks is to support this qualitative
case study research design. GST suggests that culture largely influences how children
(learners) develop their ideas about the approval of man or boy or woman or girl.
Additionally, the SCT illustrates how gender is publicly constructed and traditionally and
historically imposed on the child (learner) through social interaction.
In qualitative research, scholars such as Creswell (2009) and Cohen (2015) argue that
theory could typically function as a lens for the research or is produced through an inquiry.
As discussed in chapter one, this research planned to investigate how girls and boys are
treated in the classroom instructional activities and represented in the Grade 9 English
textbook in terms of sociocultural factors such as gendered beliefs, attitudes and
behaviours. In accordance with this view, the current study is framed through the lenses
of the GST that was first introduced by the psychologist Sandra Bem. Further, Vygotsky
and his followers created SCT.
When considering gender representation in the English textbook, it was hoped that the
study would indicate that whether girls and boys were assigned to different gender
responsibilities and roles based on the same classroom textbook (curriculum) and
instructional practices.
3.2.1. GENDER SCHEMA THEORY (GST)
This section intends to discuss GST. Before discussing GST in detail, it is crucial to make
clear that in Psychology and cognitive science “schema” is used to describe an
arrangement of knowledge or behaviour that organises classifications of knowledge and
the associations among them. In 1923, Piaget publicised the word “schema”. Then, the
notion was adapted into Psychology and education through the effort of the British
psychologist “Frederic Bartlett”. It was also included into schema theory by educational
psychologist “Richard C. Anderson”.
As defined by Karimi et al. (2013:207), Alani et al. (2016:20) and Endendijk, Groeneveld,
Pol, Berkel, Hallers‐Haalboom, Bakermans‐Kranenburg and Mesman (2016:2), GST was
first publicised by “Sandra Bem” in 1981. It was publicized as a cognitive theory to
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describe how persons develop sex-type in the social order and how sex-connected
individualities are preserved and transferred to other followers of a specific culture. These
researchers confirm that later, GST was familiarised by “Carol Martin” and “Charles
Halverson” in 1983. These researchers (ibid.) continue to state that men and women are
anticipated to be involved in cultural and social expectations of gender norms. However,
being deviants from the culturally and socially assigned norms, deeds make inferior
women’s performance rating.
According to GST, traditional values have a role for individual development because they
deliver the reference for the creation of masculine and feminine schemas, as declared by
Jehan and Kirmani (2015:192). In addition, Bem (1985, cited by Jehan & Kirmani,
2015:ibid.) explains that children are not only prepared to receive and organise data about
masculinity and femininity, but they also apply it in a familiar situation that describes
manliness and womanliness. In other words, GST suggests how young children are
significantly affected by gender beliefs of their families and communities concerning what
it means to be masculine or feminine in their culture because children observe masculine
and feminine-related behaviours and imitate them (Jones & Greer, 2011, cited by Killoran,
2017:8). For example, sons give high devotion to male gender-associated things and
daughters give high devotion to female gender-connected things because their metal
picture is built through these traditional gender understandings.
In another manner, Mahoney (2011), Karimi et al. (2013) and Endendijk et al.(2016) have
operationalised Bem’s (1981; 1983) GST which gives a theoretical framework for
exploring perpetual gender roles in the society and is related to the outlooks of masculine
and feminine behaviours based on generalisations of men being manly and women being
womanly. Therefore, GST (Bem, 1983, as cited in Endendijk et al. 2016:142) gives an
elucidation for how individuals acquire stereotypical views of man and woman
personalities and how individuals encourage fitting inside these roles. In addition, Aina
and Cameron (2011:12) argue that GST involves the creation of organised structures of
knowledge that influence how we perceive and treat boys and girls. As Jehan and Kirmani
(2015:193) say, a study has shown that gender schemas can influence the handling of
gender-associated information and can take to gender categories.
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From the above discussion, I understand that gender equality is either affected or
promoted by gender schemas. Therefore, my argument is that various sociocultural
contexts are the origins of gender schemas because it can be observed that the effects
of gender schemas can be observed on boys’ and girls’ imbalanced participation in the
classroom. For example, if teachers’, learners’ and principals’ gender schemas represent
boys as more capable than girls, they are likely to overestimate boys’ competence and
underestimate girls’ competence. Therefore, Figure 2.1 (below) depicts how gender
schema is affected by society’s beliefs about gender differences, as explained by Bem
(1981).
Figure 3.1: Gender Schema Theory (Adapted from Bem, 1981)
Society’s
beliefs
about the
traits of
women
and men
Gender
schema
Influences
processing of
social
information
Influences self-
esteem (only
behaviour or
attitudes
consistent with
gender
schema are
acceptable)
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The next section presents the sub-sections of GST that underpin this study, namely
cultural influence on gender schemas, gender typing, gender socialisation, the
applicability of GST in this study and the critique of GST in terms of traditional gender
beliefs.
3.2.1.1 Cultural influence on gender schemas
Researchers such as Karkhanis and Winsler (2016: 140) argue that culture plays a role
in transforming perception, role, stereotype, attitude, values, norms and beliefs to a child.
As Han, Shipilov and Greve (2016:6) support, culture embraces a set of communal beliefs
and norms detained by the followers in a culture, which is transmitted through
socialisation practice. In line of this view, Haines, Deaux and Lofaro (2016:8) debate that
gender typecasts are embedded in a given culture. This shows that gender and culture
are inseparable. Therefore, in various cultures, male domination and female
subordination are encouraged (Blumberg, 2009:349) because culture plays an important
role to enhance either gender equality or gender inequality.
As Endendijk et al. (2016:142) state, the term gender roles and stereotypes refer to our
ideas of what ways men and women are proposed to behave. It is stated that early
childhood is the critical phase of life for cognitive development (O'Connor, McCormack,
Robinson & O'Rourke, 2017:4717). What Mahoney (2011:4) provides is that kids acquire
about feminine and masculine roles and typecast from their surrounding culture and then
they form and develop their gender schemas. This shows that children strive to master
gender roles and stereotypes within their culture because culture teaches children what
acceptable behaviour, or unaccepted behaviour in their society is.
In addition to the above definition of gender roles and stereotypes, Halim and Ruble
(2010: 500) explain particularly gender typecasts as perceptions about the traits of men
and women, or sons and daughters.
As Alani et al. (2016:20) explain, gender roles and expectations are learned. However,
they can change over time, and they vary within and between cultures. Relating to this,
the children frequently observe the individuals surrounding them performing harmonising
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the traditional man and woman activities, which they see and copy because people are
shaped and moulded by their social environment.
Within different cultures, the traditional gender roles benefit from perpetuating gender
typecasts, such as men expected to stand as independent, self-assured, confident,
adventurous, hostile, argumentative, task-oriented and competitive. However, women are
expected to be passive, sensitive, reliant, emotive, expressive, gentle, friendly or
sociable, human-concerned and supportive because these expectations originated from
traditional gender beliefs, as stated by Sinclair (2015:16) and Zaidi (2016:16). What Halim
and Ruble (2010:505) provide is that instructional materials, like television and radio, still
deliver these stereotypic ideas that impart and strengthen traditional gender
responsibilities rather than non-traditional gender roles. Therefore, persons who break up
these gender rules can encounter reaction in the societal and economic reprimands.
It is important to observe also, for the interest of this study, how the culture shapes
teachers’ and learners’ beliefs, attitudes and behaviours towards gender treatment
through instructional processes. Due to this reason, what Abebech (2008:8) and Ogato
(2013:370) address is that the teachers’ self-esteem in the Ethiopian cultural context still
has its effect in the classroom instructional activities because Ethiopian teachers come
from the patriarchal system or male-dominated culture of the Ethiopian society. These
researchers also suggest that the result of these cultural and social feminine and
masculine beliefs and attitudes is evident in the current supremacy of boys in classroom
instructional activities, while girls are seen as passive recipients (ibid.). This means that
in the Ethiopian society, there is still a traditional hierarchy in the relationships among
men and women that sons and daughters reflect in the actual classroom interaction. From
this research, it is anticipated to explore how principals’, teachers’ and learners’ gender
schema encourages or discourages gender treatment in classroom textbook and
instructional processes because school textbook and classroom instructional activities
may teach boys and girls different forms of traditional masculine and feminine works and
duties. In other words, I explored the ways textbook presented either equality of both
genders or superiority of one gender over the other in the form of occupations,
illustrations, look, game/ pastimes, disposition, household roles and domestic activities
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because the text influenced the method we perceive. In general, the manuscripts, which
kids are exposed to, have an enormous impact on their outlooks and perceptions. Gender
typing is discussed hereunder.
3.2.1.2 Gender typing
Researchers such as Barragan (2015) define gender typing as a process by which boys
and girls develop psychological gender differences. As Barragan (2015:1) posits when an
identity is created, a feminine and masculine schematic child will show gender-tied
behaviours, or sex typecasts, such as daughters entertaining with toys and sons enjoying
sports. As Barragan’s (2015:1) statement is supported by Alani, Clark-Taylor,
Rogeshefsky and Cerulli (2016:20), they provided that when the gender representation is
advanced, kids are anticipated to act in habits reliable with traditional sex roles because
individuals learn gender-typed (male-typed and female-typed) skills and beliefs through
socialisation processes.
Similarly, Jehan and Kirmani (2015:193) state that the attainment of a traditional gender
function is gender typing because GST proposes that gender-grouping stems from kids
slowly internalising gender representations of what is gender-correct and -incorrect in
their tradition. Therefore, according to their statement, the method by which children gain
the gender beliefs, motivations, thoughts, feelings and behaviours which are considered
as proper for men and women inside their culture, is termed sex typing.
Table 3.2.1.2: Gender typing (Adapted from Bem, 1981)
Gender typing in early childhood • Gender typing is the process of
developing gender roles, or
gender-linked preferences and
behaviours valued by the larger
society.
• Around age two, children begin to
label their own sex and that of
other people. Children then start to
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sort out what the categories mean
in terms of behaviours and
activities.
In case of this research, gender typing is suitable to investigate in what way gender
treatment encourages or discourages gender-typed activities through classroom
instructional processes and textbook because schools can have a contribution to
perpetuating traditional gender beliefs and norms as family, peers and broader society
have influences on gender typing. This demonstrates how children become gender-typed
throughout their life. The next section presents gender socialisation.
3.2.1.3 Gender socialisation
Cruess, Cruess, Boudreau, Snell and Steinert (2015:3) define socialisation as a method
in which the child grows into an adult who respects their ecological laws, norms and
customs. Similarly, Crespi (2004:1) and O'Connor, McCormack, Robinson and O'Rourke
(2017: 4716) define socialisation as the way or method in which a person’s activities are
conditioned and shaped. However, female and male socialisation is a further strict
method of socialisation. Therefore, Cruess et al. (ibid.) explain gender socialisation as the
method through which children acquire the societal anticipations, outlooks and manners
related with one’s sex from their families, peers and teachers. O'Connor et al. (2017:
4716) also state that socialisation into the distinctions of gender is internalised into the
evolving identity of the child. As Crespi (2004:1) points out that through socialisation,
children acquire what is proper and improper for both women and men. In other words, it
is how children of various genders are entertained into their gender functions and
instructed on what is said to be man or woman because gender differences are learned
through socialisation (Papadakis, 2018:50).
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As parental socialisation affects children’s gender beliefs, teachers’ socialisation also
affects learners’ gender beliefs. Supporting this idea, Hanish, Fabes, Leaper, Bigler,
Hayes, Hamilton, and Beltz (2013: ii) assert that parents and peers are the sources of
gender socialisation. In addition to parents and peers, teachers are another source of
gender socialisation. As Hanish et al. (Ibid.) say that parallel to families, instructors have
sex anticipations, model gender functions and strengthen gender-typecast conducts in
their schoolrooms by categorising and organising schoolchildren in cluster actions. As
well as by generating dissimilar task centres for sons and daughters.
As Schwendenman (2012:20) points out, kids acquire their gender functions by the
players of socialisation, which are the “instructors” of community, such as parents, peer
clusters, institutes and the broadcasting. Regarding this point, all of the players might
strengthen gender typecasts. In addition, Schwendenman’s (2012:21) statement asserts
that schools are the places for building close socialisation of masculine and feminine
characters because the education that schoolchildren acquire about women and men in
school may influence how they perceive and what they consider regarding gender
impartiality.
For this reason, Ogunleye, Olonisakin and Adebayo (2015:89) say that children are
realised as dynamic participants through interactional practice to develop their gender
schemas because children construct knowledge about their gender identity based on
formerly known gender representations. Therefore, girls and boys have an active role in
their personal growth to construct traditional gender experiences through socialisation, as
pointed out by Karimi et al. (2013:207).
Based on the above points, it is evident that gender socialisation gives more emphasis
on developing gender schemas through different sociocultural contexts. In this regard,
there is the process of transmitting sociocultural gender beliefs and values (like gender
roles, stereotypes and bias) across generations that are known as a socialisation process
because the societies mostly share these sociocultural gender beliefs. For instance, early
childhood socialisation at home reinforces gender differences because one’s gender
socialisation is associated with the gender task expectations that women and men
internalise and try to meet. Thus, gender socialisation is suitable for this study because it
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helps to investigate how daughters’ and sons’ gender-consistent socialisation, in the
traditional form of manly and womanly beliefs or norms, affects or promotes gender
treatment through instructional activities in the school and classroom context.
3.2.1.4 Applicability of GST in this study
GST is applicable for framing this study because it depicts how children build their gender
knowledge during their childhood through daily social interaction. It is also during social
interaction that children identify which gender roles are appropriate to men and women.
As stated by Bem (1981), children develop a motivation within themselves to control their
behaviour to fit in the masculine or feminine characteristics that the culture has created.
In the Ethiopian culture, boys and girls learn from the socialisation process that women’s
subordination and men’s domination is a typical cultural process. Prominently, it is
believed that parents encourage gender-consistent behaviours for boys and girls because
they can frequently supplement to gender variances in capacity and self-awareness by
handling their boys and girls differently. Thus, gender schemas are constructed through
individuals’ interaction or socialisation with others. What Mencía-Ripley et al. (2015:267)
and Jehan and Kirmani (2015:192) elaborate is that gender schemas are associated with
individuals’ daily activities to gender-relevant events. This manifests the presence of
gender-grouping, which mentions every connection of matters, doings, functions, or
behaviours with single-gender or in other ways that conform to traditional typecasts.
According to Bem (1983:604), GST interprets perception as a positive method in which
the interaction between received information and a person’s preceding schema
determines what is detected.
Therefore, this research aims to study how gender treatment is influenced by learners’,
teachers’ and principals’ gender schema, which is developed during childhood at home
and continued through teaching-learning processes at school and classroom level.
Regarding this idea, GST plays a significant role in exploring how school principals’ and
classroom teachers’ traditional gender schema affects or promotes gender treatment in
the instructional processes because both teachers and principals may have typecast
beliefs about the comparative capacities of sons and daughters. It also helps to
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investigate how their gender schema influences boys’ and girls’ classroom participation
and interaction. This is consistent with their social and cultural gender values and norms.
The next section presents the critique of GST.
3.2.1.5 Critique of GST
As Halim and Ruble (2010:508) assert that similar to cognitive-developmental theory,
GST sees kids as energetic builders of their schemas of masculinity and femininity.
However, masculine and feminine schemas are inclined to faults and misrepresentations
and differ by tradition and by personal shared familiarities and choices.
As criticised by Endendijk et al. (2016:2), GST has a limitation because it may not
elucidate the irregularity in results among sons and daughters. According to their
argument, sons and daughters vary in the degree to which they choose similar gender
roles, imitate similar gender examples and play with similar sex friends.
Table 3.2.1.3: Strengths and limitations of GST (Adapted from Bem, 1981)
Strengths of Gender Schema Theory Limitation of Gender Schema Theory
▪ It can explain why children’s
gender roles do not change after
middle childhood. The established
gender schemas tend to be
maintained because children pay
attention to and remember
information that is consistent with
their gender schemas
(confirmation bias).
▪ The theory depicts the child as
actively trying to make sense of
the world using its present
knowledge, and gender schemas
▪ There is too much focus on
individual cognitive processes in
the development of gender roles.
Social and cultural factors are not
taken into account.
▪ It is not really possible to explain
how and why gender schemas
develop and take the form they do.
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serve as an internal, self-
regulating standard.
In the case of this study, GST is valuable in this study because it is used to explore how
gender stereotypes, which are formed during childhood through cultural influences on
gender schemas, affect or promote the teaching-learning process. The following
subdivision provides another theory that reinforces this research that is the Sociocultural
Theory (SCT).
3.2.2 SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY (SCT)
The purpose of the Sociocultural Theory is to elucidate how a person’s mental activity is
connected to cultural, institutional and historical context. Hereafter, the target of the
sociocultural viewpoint is on the functions that involvement in social interactions and
culturally prepared tasks play in affecting mental advancement (Scott & Palincsar, 2013:1,
cited by Vanegas Rojas, Hoyos Giraldo, Martínez Espinel, Anaya & Brayan, 2018:2340).
In addition, Sociocultural Theory highlights social collaboration as a means for the
interchange of beliefs (Le, 2004:182).
This section attempts to discuss the relevance of SCT as a theoretical framework that
can be employed to explore the relationship between learners’, teachers’ and principals’
gender beliefs and attitudes through sociocultural contexts.
The reason is that the goal of a sociocultural analysis of gender is to understand how
specific features of culture influence the lives of women or girls and men or boys. Thus,
it is essential to identify critical elements of culture such as social status, social roles,
rules and expectations. It is also supposed that one of these cultural elements is a man-
centred bias that is reflected in the sociocultural settings to exclude women. My intent,
thus, was to explore how men and women are treated in learners’ English textbook and
the classroom teaching-learning practices. This is from Vygotskian’s sociocultural
perspective because it is believed that traditional socio-cultural values and norms justify
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the inferiority of girls or women and the superiority of boys or men that are cultivated by
gender activities that are typically assigned to women and men.
As provided by Noll (2010:8); Santrock (2011:461) and Jacobsen (2014:4), a
Sociocultural Theory is a developing theory in Psychology that appreciates the significant
contributions that the community provides to individual growth because this theory
highlights the social communication between emerging individuals and the tradition in
which they live.
According to Vygotsky (1978, cited in Lantolf & Thorne, 2006:209), SCT contends that
human cognitive development and higher mental function emanates from social
interactions. Therefore, SCT considers gender as socially imposed and culturally
constructed phenomenon because Vygotsky believed that mothers and fathers,
caregivers, friends, teachers and the traditional beliefs at large are accountable for the
growth of higher-order functions in students (Santrock, 2011:178). The following figure
shows how to put Vygotsky’s Theories into classroom practice by combining thought and
language with socialisation as a dynamic process.
Sociocultural theory/SCT/
Social, historical and cultural mediation
Social Interaction with others
ZPD and scaffold
Instrucion
Thought and
language
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Figure 3.2: Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory (Adapted from Le’s (2004) study)
The next section presents some constructs of SCT that underpin this study, namely
mediation, scaffolding, social interaction and internalisation in terms of traditional gender
beliefs and attitudes.
3.2.2.1 The constructs of Sociocultural Theory
(I) MEDIATION
As provided by Ebadi (2015:55), mediation is the central construct of Vygotsky’s SCT.
According to Lantolf and Thorne (2006:197), Vygotsky advocates the significance of tools
because humans never perform in a straight manner on the physical world without the
common tools. These tools are artefacts (languages) produced by individuals under
particular cultural and historical circumstances because language is the most prevalent
and influential representative instrument (cultural artefact) that individuals own to create
their relationship with the environment, each other and with themselves (Le, 2004:31). As
Rooke (2016:31) confirms in her study, SCT contends that language is a medium of
interpersonal interaction.
What SCT raises is that human mental functioning is essentially an arbitrated process
that is organised by traditional artefacts, deeds and notions, whether they are physical
(spade or computers) or psychological (vocabularies or other agents), which act as the
connector to the broader social and cultural situation. Vygotsky (1962, cited in Santrock,
2011:51) strongly argues that language is more influential in moulding human
understanding because language is a fundamental feature of SCT. This is also confirmed
in Allahyar’s and Nazari’s (2012:83) study.
Some studies by Tudge and Scrimsher (2003:221) suggest that traditional instruments
are the arbitrated means that function as the transporters of sociocultural structures, skills
and knowledge. In line with this, it is believed that families are the origin of the essentially
guided experiences that they can provide for their child to benefit from a lifetime of
learning because they are a child’s first mediators. This can be evidenced because a
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gender-biased mediation in the home can result in teaching-learning practices later in
school.
One of the mediating tools (artefacts) is textbooks because they are recognised as
building blocks of instructions and activities for teaching-learning practices (Terner, 2014,
as cited by Papadakis, 2018:50). Worell (2002:129) and Mlama et al. (2005:9) argue that
if textbooks are designed by men and operated by men, they are continually evaluated
and monitored by men. Due to this situation, educational institutions propagate men’s
supremacy. In other words, gender typecasting is still intensely entrenched in specific
textbook authors’ minds because male authors (Lee & Collins, 2006:10) write most
textbooks that are published and used. Because of this, all manner of gendered
personalities can be built in the actual schoolroom.
Generally speaking, Figure 2.3 (below) depicts how society, books, media and movies
are sources of psychological tools. The learners’ culture provides the meaning of these
tools. When learners pick up tools and skills from their environment and appropriate
them, they are internalising cultural knowledge. They can repeat these tools and skills to
talk themselves through processes. Coupling this process with metacognition leads
learners to increase their mastery of the higher-level order of thinking skills.
MM
Figure 3.3: Vygotsky’s social mediation (Adapted from Le’s (2004) study)
Mediation
using
psychological
tools
Mediation by a
teacher
through the
ZPD
Internalisation
-Learning skills
-Self-talk
Use of higher
mental process,
abstraction and
metacognition
Instruction leads development
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In this study, researchers such as Mushere (2013) assert that a curriculum is developed
and then given to schools to implement. This is true in the Ethiopian context because the
Ministry of Education (MOE) is authoritative for designing educational policies and the
standardisation of curricula and textbooks (artefacts). Thus, the English language is given
as a required subject to secondary learners and university students. As Mlama et al.
(2005, cited in Nyevero, 2014:561) state, in children’s schoolbooks (artefacts), women or
girls are represented as domestic workers and nurses and men or boys are represented
as leaders, chauffeurs, motorists and specialists. According to SCT, these pictures
strengthen gender roles, which are publicly built. Karimi et al. (2013:211) state that
sociocultural schoolroom researches incorporate the purpose of the textbooks as an
instrument in and beyond the classroom. Therefore, researchers such as Ogato
(2013:365) explain that sociocultural gendered beliefs, attitudes and behaviours, which
are reflected through textbooks, have an excellent role in the success and failure of girls
and boys. In this study, classroom textbook was identified as a mediating tool or artefact
because it is crucial to show how gender was treated through reading passages and
illustrations.
The next section presents how gender treatment affects or promotes the teaching-
learning processes through the process of scaffolding between boys and girls.
(II) SCAFFOLDING (ENCOURAGEMENT, SUPPORT, GUIDE)
Jafarigohar and Mortazavi (2016:77) define scaffolding as the provision of the assistance
and guidance to learners during the learning process that is designed to the desires of
the learners to help the learners achieve their learning goals. This is because scaffolding
promotes how a learner internalises knowledge in a shared activity. In other words,
scaffolding is a sociocultural belief that parents and teachers use as a support mechanism
for children. As Bataineh and Obeiah (2016:12) propose, when instructional scaffolding
is applied correctly, students are encouraged to capitalise on their creativity, motivation
and resourcefulness because, in instructional scaffolding, the essential feature is the peer
and teacher support. This indicates how scaffolding has an essential role in the classroom
and can help to contribute to virtuous teaching.
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According to Spolsky and Hult (2008:564), scaffolding implies that the knowledgeable
person (adult, teacher, or peer) tutors the less knowledgeable person (child, or student)
to complete a task he or she would be unable to do on his or her own. This signifies that
more knowledgeable peers assist the less knowledgeable learners. Teacher-scaffolding
is more successful in helping students improve their skills. What Bataineh and Obeiah
(2016:12) describe is that family- and peer-scaffolding is also vital in the process of
gender construction. This means that scaffolding in child development can contribute to
the creation of gender equality or inequality or gender-sensitive environment.
According to Taylor’s and MacKenney’s (2008) and Santrock’s (2011) statements, the
instructor delivers tasks that enable the pupil to construct the prior knowledge and
internalise new concepts by using scaffolding as an instructional technique in the
classroom. This means that individual prior experience can be seen as a socio-cultural
context for learning (O’Connor et al., 2017: 4717).
As justified by Vygotsky and his followers (1978, cited in Zimmerman & Schunk,
2003:451), scaffolding, at school and home level, can be used to promote or change
gender-stereotyped beliefs, attitudes and behaviours in the child’s development. For
instance, if gender-biased families develop a child at home, he/she reflects gender-
stereotyped beliefs, attitudes and behaviours at the school level because a child is the
product of the surrounding social and cultural context.
It is essential to see the classroom teaching-learning processes in terms of schoolroom
gender scaffolding regarding teachers’ and learners’ sociocultural experiences because
a person who learned the domination of men or boys and the subordination of women or
girls still perceives women/girls as inferior to men/boys because of scaffolding. Therefore,
scaffolding is used to illustrate how a classroom teacher equally or unequally scaffolds
boys and girls in terms of asking and answering questions, giving classroom feedbacks,
activities, tasks and comments; promoting responsibility, encouraging, facilitating or
motivating boys’ and girls’ equal classroom participation regardless of their gender. This
indicates whether teachers provide equal or unequal support between boys and girls at
the beginning of a new task or topic by providing models, prompts, coaching and
feedback. The next section discusses social interaction.
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(III) SOCIAL INTERACTION
Vygotsky’s theory stresses the critical role that social communications contribute to
mental growth (Vygotsky, 1978, cited by Allahyar & Nazari, 2012: 82), as he supposed
strictly that society has a crucial role in the procedure of children's learning. According to
Scott and Palincsar (2013), the central theme of Vygotsky's theoretical framework is
societal communication that has an essential role in cognitive development. Through
social interactions, children go through a continuous process of learning. This means that
Vygotsky admits that social interaction could take to continuing alterations in a child’s
belief and behaviour. However, Vygotsky notes that culture profoundly influences the
process of social interaction.
In this study, social interaction is seen as schoolroom interaction that denotes the
structures of spoken and unspoken communication and the kinds of social interactions
that happen inside schoolrooms, as mentioned by Richards and Schmidt (2002:85). The
research of Noll (2010:8) also indicates that sociocultural viewpoint focuses on the
importance of contributing to social interactions and traditionally organised events
because it plays in influencing individual psychological growth. What Santrock (2011:164)
emphasises is also that sociocultural perspective is sensitive to culture, context and the
social interaction that empowers instructive activity to progress.
On the other hand, Jarrahzade and Tabatabaei (2014:34) illustrate that the sociocultural
environment refers to social interactions, norms, beliefs and values in a community
related to gender treatment. In addition, Carter (2014:244) states that gender positions
are revealed through the interaction of individuals. As earlier stated, it is believed that
through social interaction in the classroom context, learners actively explore new
information to construct their meaning and knowledge. For example, gender roles are
constructed through different socio-cultural contexts because learners’ gender beliefs
shape and are shaped by their social interaction.
Table 3.2.1.4: Social interaction (Adapted from Vygotsky’s SCT, 1978)
• Children are social beings
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Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
• Develop through interactions with
parents, teachers, other students
• Social interaction is critical to
cognitive development
The process of social interaction is suitable to explore how gender is treated between
boys and girls through their classroom interactions with their peers and teachers because
it is believed that gender schema which boys and girls formed during their childhood,
plays a role through their social interaction either in or beyond the classroom context. This
affirms that Vygotsky’s SCT reinforces learners’ interactions with others during classroom
teaching-learning processes. As Behroozizad et al. (2014:219) say, learners bring
sociocultural experiences and knowledge to the classroom context, which can affect or
promote their social interaction through the actual classroom instructional activities.
Learners desire social interactions with others, including their instructor and classmates,
through the teaching-learning practices so that these practices may then progressively
be internalised. Therefore, these sociocultural experiences and knowledge may
encourage or discourage boys’ and girls’ classroom participation because the term
“gender” is socially and culturally determined by responsibility and relationships between
men and women. The next section presents the other construct of SCT that underpins
this study, namely internalisation in terms of traditional gender-consistent beliefs and
attitudes.
(IV) INTERNALISATION
Internalisation is one of the central notions of SCT. Vygotsky (1978, cited by Lantolf &
Thorne, 2006:206) states that the child first gains knowledge through interactions with
persons that is known as “interpsychological plane”. Thereafter, the child assimilates and
internalises in their mind on the “intra-psychological plane”. In other words, particularly
gender internalisation is a person's recognition of gender norms and values that are
established by people or groups who are dominant to the person through the process of
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socialisation. Therefore, internalisation involves the assimilation of gender beliefs,
outlooks, values, norms and the views of others into one's own identity.
According to Bem’s (1994, cited by Burn, 2016) statement, once children internalise social
“gender lenses,” gender develops an organised mental structure, and then the child
becomes encouraged to build their own gender identity. As a result, the prior experiences
describe the situation for later experiences because early childhood is the critical phase
of life for cognitive development (O’Connor et al., 2017: 4717).
Table 3.2.1.5: Internalisation process (Adapted from Vygotsly’s SCT, 1978)
Sociocultural Theory
Vocabulary
▪ Sociocultural
• Knowledge is socially
constructed by the child
and others within a culture
▪ Internalisation
• The ways a culture is
transferred from one
generation to the next
The Sociocultural Theory demonstrates that children interact with others and then
internalise gender beliefs and norms within their culture in the form of male domination
and female subordination. Kids are exposed to many factors which affect their beliefs,
outlooks and activities concerning their gender roles when they move through childhood
and then into adolescence (Zimmerman & Schunk, 2003:214). These gender beliefs,
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outlooks and conducts are usually learned and internalised in the household and are then
encouraged by the child’s peers, school familiarity and television watching. From this
point of view, gender internalisation is used to investigate how sociocultural factors
equally promote or affect boys’ and girls’ classroom participation in teaching-learning
processes because it illustrates how much men or boys and women or girls are impacted
by their traditional or non-traditional gender belief systems.
3.2.2.2 Applicability of SCT to this study
SCT is appropriate for framing this research because it provides a lens for the analysis of
classroom artefact (textbook) and classroom social interaction between boys and girls as
well as between teachers and learners. According to Vygotsky’s theory, like social,
cultural and historical factors shape human activities, gender shapes the way boys and
girls interact with their environment because it shows how sociocultural factors (gender
beliefs, attitudes, stereotypes, roles and biases) promote or undermine their social
interaction in the classroom context. This theory is also appropriate because it may be
used to explore ways of encouraging or discouraging gender treatment in classroom
instructional processes. What Santrock (2011) explains is that the communal thinking
structure handed down from an older person to a younger person expresses one’s social
links.
SCT also underlines the significance of social interaction in the development of individual
mental processes. This indicates that there is a relation between the individual and
society. According to Vygotsky’s SCT, the higher mental functioning drives from the
mastery of cultural tools because the environment is the source of psychological
development. SCT also notifies that textbook is seen as a mediating artefact (tool) which
is used as instructional material because the textbook can depict how boys and girls are
represented through it in the form of substance (content), illustrations (pictures) and
description (narration). If a textbook is not free from gender bias, it is expected to transmit
traditional gender beliefs for the young generation (children). However, gender unfairness
keeps persons from investigating the actions and benefits that are best appropriate to
their personality and capacities (Papadakis, 2018: 50).
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SCT encourages societal contribution to an individual’s cognitive development. What
Vygotsky’s SCT underlines is that prior knowledge is significant for individual’s further
learning (Scott & Palincsar, 2013, cited by Vanegas Rojas, Hoyos Giraldo, Martínez
Espinel & Gómez Anaya, 2018:6). However, it is not only prior knowledge to perpetuate
or prevent gender bias, but knowledgeable persons (experts, parents, peers and
teachers) also play an essential role to maintain or avoid gender bias. According to
Abebech’s (2008:4) statement, the Ethiopian culture emphasises the experiences of male
superiority and female inferiority for an extended period. For example, since a teacher is
a product of society, she/he may scaffold the learners to behave in socially acceptable
traditional gender behaviours.
I argue that sociocultural context creates fertile conditions for children’s traditional or non-
traditional gender development because children learn and internalise what is appropriate
or inappropriate to men /boys/ or women /girls/ in their culture through their socialisation.
This indicates how gender beliefs are cultivated through different sociocultural contexts.
If a sociocultural context is not free from gender bias, it can be challenging or unthinkable
to obtain gender impartiality. Since culture is a set of beliefs that society accepts as truth
without proof, individuals are the product of their culture. From this view, I understand that
gender is one of cultural or traditional beliefs which society develops through social
interaction and teaches children which role is appropriate or inappropriate for boys or
girls. Consequently, children learn what role is expected by their family, peer, teacher and
society at large in their culture. For instance, according to Gansen (2017:255),
communication in kindergarten encourages the building of gender identity.
According to Jacobsen (2014:4), these traditional beliefs impact on self-perception and
the perception of others. If the teaching-learning process is parallel to/ related to
traditional gender beliefs, gender-consistent beliefs and attitudes are reinforced through
instructional processes. Therefore, it may be difficult to ascertain how the school
community or agents become gender-sensitive or gender-neutral because they are a
product of their traditional gender beliefs. Therefore, students’ interactions may reproduce
or challenge normative expressions of gender (Gansen, 2017:257).
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Relating to the above point, boys, who are socioculturally anticipated to be agents,
breadwinners, confident, autonomous, dominant, activity-centred, may be more
dependent on their gendered views for increasing learning objectives. However, girls, who
are socioculturally anticipated to be communal, housewife, associative, sensitive,
obedient and nurturing, may be less dependent on their own decisions because they
accept the views of their families and other prominent persons to actively participate in
different socio-cultural activities (Littlejohn & Foss, 2009:376). This shows that boys and
girls occupy different social roles that are reinforced through different sociocultural
contexts.
What Allana et al. (2010:343) add is that traditional gender roles and expectations
influence learners’ classroom interaction and behaviour. Therefore, educators need to be
first responsive to challenges or accept traditional gender-consistent beliefs and
behaviours because sociocultural contexts are essential determinants to promote or
prevent sociocultural-historical knowledge and experiences of patriarchy.
3.2.2.3 Critique of SCT
Vygotsky (Scott, 2013:18) has given more emphasis on cultural and historical
experiences in his SCT. As Behroozizad et al. (2014:219) situate, scholars like Piaget
criticise Vygotsky’s SCT because the main focus of his SCT is not on the individual but
the individual’s surroundings. This indicates how Vygotsky's theory varies from Piaget’s
theory. For instance, Vygotsky gives more emphasis on culture, which may affect or
shape children’s cognitive development. This is opposite to Piaget's viewpoint of
worldwide stages and content of development. However, Vygotsky’s thoughts are
extensively practical in the field of education. The following table illustrates how
Vygotsky's theory varies from Piaget’s theory.
Table 3.2.1.6: Difference between Vygotsky's theory and Piaget’s theory
Piaget Vygotsky
-Sociocultural context: Little emphasis -Sociocultural context: Strong
emphasis
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-Knowledge: Individually constructed in
the social world
-Stages: Strong emphasis on stages
(sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete
operational and formal operational)
-Knowledge: Mutually constructed with
others
-Stages: No general stages of
development proposed (It is assumed
that children function and think in similar
ways throughout their life)
Human deeds that happen in a traditional setting may not be comprehended separately
from the gendered contexts. As Worell (2002:624) and Santrock (2011:155) explain, the
sociocultural constraints have been historically imposed on women because Vygotsky
views the social and cultural world as the basis of the growth of higher mental functions.
From this point of view, SCT is valuable in this study because it is used to explore how
gender schemas, which are formed earlier in a child’s life, play out later in the child’s life
in society when the child becomes mature. It is also used to see how history and culture
have an impact on gender treatment through sociocultural contexts. In addition, SCT
plays a vital role in investigating how gender-consistent roles are viewed in teaching-
learning processes because before boys and girls attend school, they have an
understanding and experience about their gender-consistent roles that a person is
expected to perform as a result of being a man or woman in their culture.
3.3 CHAPTER SUMMARY
This chapter delivered a general overview of the theoretical framework, including two
relevant theories that are taken into consideration. These theories are the Gender
Schema Theory (GST) and the Sociocultural Theory (SCT) that underpin this study. They
indicate how gender-consistent beliefs, attitudes and behaviours are created through
gender development. The two theories provide rationales why men or boys and women
or girls are differently treated in various contexts. The reasons for gender variances are
connected with sociocultural and personal influences and not due to natural influences.
Thus, the selected theories make a contribution to the analysis of sociocultural factors
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that positively or negatively influence gender treatment in teaching and learning
processes.
GST and SCT are suitable theories to explore how gender is managed in the classroom
and the textbook. The research problem that was identified for the study can also be
better understood and explored by using these theories. Therefore, these theories guided
the researcher through the research journey and offered answers to the study problem
and question.
GST explains how social ideas influence youngsters (learners) about what it means to be
a man or woman in their culture. This is because children construct their gender schemas
through interactions and observations of others, their environments and their culture.
According to Endendijk et al. (2016:2), these gender schemas are also employed to
organise and lead the child’s behaviour based on his or her social order and anticipations
connected to the child’s gender because children develop gender schemas to identify
themselves as boys or girls. In other words, gender schemas grow during babyhood and
are often related to typecast of manliness and womanliness. Therefore, learners may
have a gender schema that holds knowledge about which kinds of roles are appropriate
for women, and which types of roles are appropriate for men in their environments. This
means that there is an individual schema on the formulation of gender roles because GST
acknowledges gender differences within a given society.
The second intention of this chapter was to explain SCT, which emphasises the social
contact between developing persons (learners) and the culture in which they live.
According to this theory, mothers and fathers, caregivers, friends, teachers and the
traditional beliefs at large are responsible for the individual growth of advanced functional
order. For instance, if there is gender imbalance in the social structure, a child identifies
gender imbalance that is acceptable to men and women throughout his/her life. When
she/he becomes an adult, they reinforce male domination and female subordination. This
reveals how individuals who are publicly recognised as men and women play various
endorsed roles within the social hierarchy.
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Moreover, what the chapter presented is that the SCT reveals how boys and girls socially
and culturally cultivate various gendered abilities and outlooks and act differently.
Therefore, this theory is used to explore how boys’ and girls’ traditional gender roles
influence instructional processes. For example, it suggests that the homemaker’s role and
the caring of the kids and other internal household tasks are appropriate for women.
The SCT also illustrates how gender issues are contextually entrenched in cultural
tradition and history. These, in turn, affect our gender understanding, discerning and
practising. According to SCT, social interaction is critical to cognitive development.
Although cognitive growth varies across cultures, this interaction with parents, teachers
and other learners influences individual cognitive development because Vygotsky gives
more priority to the role of culture and language in cognitive growth. Therefore, individual
development is a product of cultural influences in terms of beliefs, customs and skills.
In conclusion, these two theories are associated with social interaction to develop gender-
consistent schemas that can place women in a subordinate position to men. This is
because the contexts at family and school levels have an essential contribution to the
sociocultural dissemination of gender biases, typecasts, roles and norms that are socially
and culturally constructed to maintain gender-consistent behaviours in the sociocultural
context of patriarchy. Therefore, these sociocultural influences have a considerable
influence on boys and girls treatment inside and outside the classroom. The next chapter
offers the literature review based on different empirical studies and books.
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CHAPTER 4:
LITERATURE REVIEW
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapter, the two theories that framed this investigation were discussed,
namely GST and SCT, and how each applies to this research. This chapter provides the
important works from the Western, Eastern and African nations and finally from the
Ethiopian context by looking at several research studies which were conducted on gender
treatment in classroom instructional activities and representation in English textbooks.
4.2 LITERATURE REVIEW OF GENDER TREATMENT IN CLASSROOM INSTRUCTIONAL
ACTIVITIES AND REPRESENTATION IN ENGLISH TEXTBOOKS
This section reviews several research studies conducted on gender treatment in
classroom instructional practices and representation in English textbooks, based on
literature from Western, Eastern and African countries. Therefore, the next section
presents the Western views about gender treatment in classroom instructional practices
and gender representation in English textbooks.
4.2.1 WESTERN VIEWS
In Western countries, this research looks at the following countries: the USA, UK,
Australia, Spain, Belgium, Germany, Greece, Canada, Chile, and Sweden and others.
Therefore, gender treatment in instructional practices and gender representation in
English textbooks is discussed in this section.
4.2.1.1 Gender treatment in instructional activities
This section reflects a few studies of gender treatment in instructional practices from the
previous overviews. In a classroom context, gender biases and discriminations are
manifested in terms of power relations between boys and girls because as Lundeberg
(1997, as cited in Marsh, 2005:218) contends, gender unfairness often exists in
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schoolrooms although it may be understated and not instantly perceptible. Regarding
gender bias in the home, Crowley et al.’s (1998, as cited by Marsh, 2005:218)
investigation concludes that teachers do not only explain scientific matters to boys than
to girls, but parents also do the same. This indicates how much gender bias is entrenched
within society. In “A Guide for Gender Equality in Teacher Education Policy and
Practices”, as UNESCO (2015:67) states, some words are used to qualify men as strong,
active, hard and rational and some words are used to qualify women as weak, passive,
soft and emotional. Teachers may also develop gender stereotypic perceptions based on
their cultural background because gender stereotype is not only prevalent in the
schoolroom context, but it is also revealed in the family context.
Aksu (2005:16) reviewed various studies to show how teachers, instructors and
professors tend to ask men or boys more recurrently than women or girls. Further, they
tend to respond more definitely to the questions of men or boys. This idea shows how
gender bias is reflected in teaching-learning practice. In Sweden, Powell’s (2016:62)
study indicates that girls and boys are treated differently in the schoolroom. Because of
this, girls are marginalised.
Chalabaev et al. (2009: 2469) and the International Labour Organisation (2016: xvii)
carried out a research to investigate various ways of gender unfairness in educator’s
anticipations comparative to physical exercises’ accomplishment. The finding of this
research indicated that educators’ anticipations of learners’ physical exercises
accomplishment were unfair in daughters’ physical exercises as related to the sons’ (Ibid:
2493). In Canada, Clover (2015:25) states that the school illustrates common biases and
notions of equality that may not be helpful. From this point of view, a different illustration
of bias about the impartiality of men and women can be seen in the school context.
In Chile, Río and Strasser (2013:231) researched the “Preschool Children’s Beliefs about
Gender Differences in Academic Skills”. Río (2013:233) reviewed different studies to
show that female learners had an inferior self-perception in Mathematics than male
learners. Río’s (2013:231) research participants indicate that a woman might perceive
Mathematics as difficult; she might do it poorly, and she might like it less than language.
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As UNESCO (2015:83) posits, “Girls perform domestic chores such as cooking, fetching
water and cleaning the home while boys tend animals and help in the fields”.
In the USA, Noll (2010:24) asserts that teachers’ gender views are highly dominant in
deciding how persons organise and describe everyday difficulties. This shows how
teachers’ gender beliefs shape their instruction. In relation to this idea, Noll (2010:95)
explored that a collection of individual experiences that persons participate in through
their survival takes to the expansion of individual outlooks. Therefore, teachers need to
comprehend in what way typecasts restrict the selections and chances for boys and girls
because stereotypes obscure their desires and variances (USAID, 2008:12). Additionally,
teachers must be aware of what the students bring to the classroom situation because
they are responsible for establishing gender-sensitive traits or behaviours.
Another researcher, in the USA, Hack (2014:565) carried out research to investigate the
role of gender typecasts in perceptions of laughing that men and women face. Thus,
Hack’s (2014:566-7) findings indicate that men and women traits might be evaluated
through facial expressions. Hack’s (2014:568) conclusion also justifies that facial
expressions are not only crucial as cues when assessing other people's dispositions, but
that the facial expressions also perpetuate gender stereotypes and social expectations.
In the USA, as Tester (2007:91) and Agénor (2018:2) mention, since perception is
extremely important to individual’s experiences, social norms impact teachers’
perceptions and attitudes about women and their ability. Relating to this idea, according
to Meyer (2014:97), education should be seen as inseparable from teachers and their
own educational and social background. In Georgia, as UNESCO’s report (2015:12)
presents the findings of some research, educators are perceived as holding traditional
attitudes through their mind. Because of this reason, they unconsciously generate and
perpetuate gender typecasts in the schoolroom. For example, their gender outlooks could
disturb what way they handle male learners vs. female learners in the schoolroom
concerning management because, as Worell (2002:89) states, early practices describe
the situation for future practices.
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In the UK, Marshall and Arnot (2008:176) argue that gender equality issues have become
a global commitment because equality between men and women is just fair and right. As
USAID (2012:20) and UNESCO (2015:10) clarify, gender equality ensures that boys and
girls enjoy the same status and have an equal opportunity to exercise their human rights
and realise their full potential to contribute towards political, economic, social and cultural
development and to benefit from the results. In addition, according to UNESCO’s Guide,
special treatment can be taken to reverse the historical and social disadvantages that
prevent female and male learners from dissimilar benefits.
As Clover’s (2015:20) statement indicates, gender equality means the same contribution
of both boys and girls “in all spheres . . . of public life”. On the other hand, the achievement
of gender impartiality does not mean an end itself, but it is considered as a precondition
for the attainment of sustainable growth (USAID, 2012). Thus, in Sweden, as Powell
(2016:3) puts it that gender impartiality is often distinguished as the same rights for
women and men and also has extensively developed through recognised political goals
and vision.
To promote a gender-responsive institutional and classroom culture, UNESCO (2015:72)
underlines gender responsiveness as a vital tool to shift imbalanced gender standards
because they affect teaching-learning practices. In this regard, in Sweden, Cuesta and
Witt (2014:20) state that gender-conscious teaching requires a public responsibility, which
highlights gender impartiality in exercise. Furthermore, their finding shows that gender-
sensitive education may motivate learners to an in-depth comprehension of the
imperatives they have as inhabitants in an independent society.
As Brody, Rubin and Maume (2014:1373) say in their study, even if women have obtained
significant advantages in accessing male-controlled professions such as administrator,
solicitor, surgeon, they become deprived in the place of work. These researchers’ findings
(ibid: 1395) show that while women bosses propagate stereotypic feminine behaviours,
they perform in ways that help uphold typecasts; they might be unable to find acceptability
as bosses. On the other hand, in Australia, Crerar (2014:45) carried out a study to
recognise the leading discourses and explore their inferences on the acceptance of
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science information by Australian girls. The results disclose that gender disparity in
science has continued in the 21st century.
Regarding gender-sensitive education, Forde (2014:369) has explored the idea of
gender-responsive instruction and its effectiveness in instructive policy because it plays
a vital role in promoting impartiality and fairness.
4.2.1.2 Gender representation in English textbooks
The subdivision of this unit reflects a small number of researches on gender
representation in schoolbooks from the previous overviews. The reason is that gender
stereotypic words such as doctors for men and nurses for women are depicted in
textbooks. In addition, active and productive roles are given to men, while supportive and
passive roles are allocated to women. For example, in Australia, as Bao (2016:7) states,
“Although prescribed gender roles are breaking down and women’s status is constantly
changing, some language textbooks have unwittingly contributed to stereotypes which
can shape learners’ perception of how women behave.”
In the UK, as Subramanian (2005:403) and in Turkey, as Söğüt (2018:10) states,
teachers, do not only play a role to reinforce social norms which are believed proper for
women to carry principal responsibility for domestic tasks by staying at home. However,
textbooks also encourage it. Furthermore, these researchers agree that boys are
privileged to play more central roles in the world of work and public decision-making.
In the Encyclopedia of Women and Gender, Worell (2002:36) states that gender
stereotypes in academic settings are found in the content of the curriculum (textbooks).
Because of stereotypic sociocultural factors, women have been excluded and ignored in
instructional materials. This means that there is a curriculum which ignores women’s
contributions to the knowledge base (for example, as authors and scientists) and which
ignores women’s experiences and perspectives in that knowledge base (Worell,
2002:36). Thus, gender biases can be taken as evidence in the gendered curriculum. In
addition, in Greece, Papadakis’s (2018:48) research findings indicate that the textbooks
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still disseminate stereotyped prejudices concerning gender roles in relation to the new
technologies.
As UNESCO (2015:1) reports, gender unfairness is mostly recognised as an unseen
impediment to ensuring women’s impartiality in educational textbooks. Therefore,
UNESCO (2015:61) recommends that “All instructional materials, whether textbooks,
handouts or workbooks, need to be examined to determine if they are gender-biased,
gender-neutral or gender-sensitive/responsive”.
Based on the above statement, a textbook plays a pivotal role in the learning and teaching
processes. In line with this idea, in Belgium, as Vantieghem et al. (2014:359) say, different
research studies point out that a female learner may dislike textbooks when they do not
have optimistic role models for her. Due to this reason, these researchers declared that
female learners could not be more assertive than male learners (ibid.). In Germany,
Kinnebrock and Knieper (2014:54) analysed visual press coverage on gender and power
constructions in visual political reporting. Their results show that the gender hierarchy in
visual reporting is no longer rigidly perpetuated. In line with this gender hierarchy, the
same researchers (ibid: 56) say that gender and power are not only represented in the
text, but images also convey meanings that are linked to these concepts.
In the UK, Unterhalter (2008:25) highlights that all gender typecasting in teaching-learning
ought to be excluded from achieving gender equality based on equal consideration
through a textbook. Additionally, women and men should be equally employed as doctors,
managers or teachers. As Sunderland (1992:83) explains, the written materials such as
dictionaries, grammar books and even versions of the Bible, are subjected to revision in
order to avoid gender bias in their content.
On the other hand, Lakoff (2003:162) confirms that language reflects and contributes to
the survival of the stereotype because society uses language to exchange ideas in
everyday social practice. This means that language does not only influence, but it is also
influenced by social practices relating to gender. In Germany, Endepohls-Ulpe (2012:1)
conducted a study on “Gender stereotypes and their gender-specific impact on academic
achievement”. The finding of this article offers an indication of real gender variances in
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educational attainment in Europe because textbooks contribute to students’ academic
achievement.
In the UK, as Colclough (2008:58) and in Greece, as Papadakis (2018:48) says, it is
believed that gender roles have developed from long-lasting previous practice, which
credits them with normative importance. In Spain, according to Oberst’s, Chamarro’s and
Renau’s (2016:83) statement, gender roles are inflexible because a person ought to
recognise how others anticipate him or her to act. Therefore, men and women are
responsible for various normative anticipations. These anticipations may take to gender
variances in manners.
In this regard, in Greece, Moula and Kabouropoulou (2014:315) conclude that children
realise several cultural products, like painting and fairy tales, which play an essential role
to transmit and strengthen the traditional gender roles. This idea supports that women
have lesser status and men have superior status. Thus, the relation between women and
men seems natural, even to women themselves because women’s inferiority and men’s
superiority are deeply ingrained in society’s minds (Papadakis, 2018).
From the above literature, it is evident that the challenge faced in teaching-learning
practices is that teachers address their gender attitudes before they can bring awareness
to the learners about gender-fair treatment in instructional processes. One of the
problems is that teachers and learners reflect their personal beliefs and attitudes towards
gender treatment in instructional practice (Papadakis, 2018). It is possible to see how the
traditional gender experiences of both teacher and learner affect the classroom teaching
and learning processes because instructors and learners come to the actual schoolroom
with traditional gender beliefs.
Based on these descriptions, I argue that teachers’ and learners’ perceptions of gender
treatment in classroom and school environments affect not only their teaching-learning
behaviour but also their judgements about the acceptability of male domination. However,
to reduce traditional gender differences in education, scholars suggest that instructors
and researchers should create a significant involvement in gender issues in teaching-
learning to increase equal participation of girls and boys in classroom instructional
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processes. This point is pertinent to the objective of this research. The next section
presents the Eastern views about gender treatment in classroom instructional processes
and gender representation in English textbooks.
4.2.2 EASTERN VIEWS
In Eastern countries, there are studies on gender issues. Among the few available
research are found in India, Japan, Malaysia, Iran, Philippine, Pakistan, Israel and other
countries. Therefore, gender representation in English textbooks and gender treatment in
instructional processes will be discussed in relation to these Eastern countries.
4.2.2.1 Gender treatment in instructional activities
This section contains a literature review on gender treatment in instructional processes in
Eastern countries. In India, Menon (2015:69) explains various gender roles that are
expected of girls and boys by their family or society at large. Based on this view, boys
have significant roles, whereas girls have minor roles in their society as well as in their
school environments. This means that a role is one of the characters that girls and boys
play in a school in general and in the classroom in particular. Therefore, in the teaching
and learning context, these roles are reflected through the actions and activities assigned
to learners in instructional processes.
In Iran, Khadivzadeh et al,’s (2014:173) study shows that man’s superiority and woman’s
inferiority are regarded as a result of patriarchal norms because, in Malaysia, as
Hirschman (2016: 35) explains, “The concept of patriarchy embodies attitudes and
customs of male supremacy”. According to their study, most of the time, responsibility is
traditionally given to boys rather than girls because of the less role of girls in the teaching
and learning practice. For example, boys are given different responsibilities in the school
environment. These are group leaders, class monitors, students’ representative or
president. Regarding the academic hierarchy, in Malaysia, Mohd et al. (2011:63) argue
that when men hold the upper status in the school managerial structure, children incline
to observe role models that advocate that men hold higher positions and authority.
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In Japan, Collins and Hahn (2016:5) discuss that pupils who show a need to alter
inequalities are unable to see how their everyday options strengthen and are
strengthened by gendered typecasts. In Pakistan, as Allana et al. (2010:346) suggest,
gender discrimination is rooted deeply in society. From this point, if there is the gender-
based disparity, gender-based discrimination is present. This means that if there is
gender discrimination, women or girls are enforced to limit their choices. Therefore, girls’
inequality is viewed as a consequence of discrimination.
On the other hand, in the Philippines, Tantengco’s (2014:062) research findings reveal
that pointers of gender partialities are demonstrated in the classroom, syllabus and
instructive procedures. Scholars such as Salkind (2008) and Mohd et al. (2011) also
debate that gender biases lead to inappropriate gender treatment. For example, in Japan,
Isa and Chinen (2016:104) provide that gender-biased teachers discourage girls’
schooling. Another bias is also to focus on gender differences, such as viewing men or
boys as active and women or girls as passive. This justifies that there is a gender bias
that functions in the classroom context. Unless the instructive system is gender-
responsive, gender unfairness is observable in terms of sports, events, administrative
structures, resource and facility distribution and headship. Because of this problem,
promoting gender awareness in parents and teachers through training plays a vital role
to minimise gender discrimination and bias in society.
In Malaysia, Mukundan’s and Nimehchisalem’s (2008:168) findings indicate that men
speak more and often talk first, but they more recurrently exclude women from the
discussions they engage in with the members of their gender. Therefore, it is not
surprising if male dominance occurs in classroom interaction. Because this is traditionally
accepted that men dominate women by talking more, controlling topics and interrupting
them in a traditional society. In the Philippines, like Morales, Avilla and Espinosa (2016)
discuss, male learners like more puzzling communications with instructors; they lead
schoolroom tasks, and they also get more consideration than female learners.
Allana et al. (2010:344) discuss that teachers more frequently ask boys follow-up
questions; give more classroom attention and more esteem building encouragement to
boys. For example, when boys call out, teachers listen. However, when girls call out, they
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are told to “raise your hand if you want to speak”. Even when boys do not volunteer to get
involved in various tasks, teachers are more likely to encourage them to give an answer
or an opinion than they encourage girls. In other words, teachers call on and interact with
boys more than girls.
Collins and Hahn (2016:4) indicate how learners are segregated by gender in the
schoolroom when the instructor does not apply mixed-gender seating or other mixed-
gender groupings. However, in Japan, as Helverson (2016:7) states that EFL teachers
frequently utilise the common schoolroom administrative method of seating arrangement
to mix learners. Allana et al.’s (2010:344) study also provides that men or boys receive
positive feedback and remediation than women or girls. Men or boys are also allowed to
speak over women or girls, while women or girls encounter the largest hindrances in the
existence of gender partialities in the schoolroom. These behaviours send a very negative
message about the importance of girls’ contributions to classroom discussions.
In Israel, Mittelberg et al. (2011:1) conducted research to explore schoolroom issues that
contribute to the variances in the gendered arrangements of Mathematics outcomes for
Jewish and Arab Israeli students. The finding of this research indicates that if male
learners and female learners are differently approached and if instructors have gender
unfair beliefs and anticipations, learners’ Mathematics learning outcomes become
influenced along gender lines (ibid: 9). Menon (2015:68) also suggests that gender
disparity in the schoolroom may hurt both boys and girls. In other words, the statement
“Boys are better at science and math” has a message to strengthen gender typecasts
and it may discourage children from individual subjects and restrict their capacity to reach
their full potential.
For the effectiveness of gender impartial education, researchers such as Allana et al.
(2010:344) recommend that training teachers is essential to actualising gender equality
more effectively at school sites because education is a societal and institutionalised form
of practice. Education does not only have a significant contribution to building learners’
gender, but it also passes society’s dominant values. In addition, the school is one of the
institutions because school as an agent of socialisation perpetuates gender inequities
and inequalities.
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As Allana et al. (2010:346) recommend, Governmental and Non- Governmental
Organisations may play a crucial role in encouraging gender impartiality because they
should be cooperative with each other to challenge gender discrimination and promote
gender impartiality at all stages. This plays an important role to reduce the negative
attitudes and images towards women and girls.
In Israel, Arar (2014:281) carried out a study to examine the magnitude that the school
community observes as masculine supremacy and how the school encourages
discussion and socialisation about gender impartiality among women or girls and men or
boys. Findings indicate that a hidden education programme impacts how gender is
constructed in the Arab school because of a programme planned to preserve the present
hegemonic social hierarchy. Thus, Arar (Ibid) has concluded that schools should have a
responsibility to deconstruct the prevailing masculine domination, and they should
promote gender impartiality.
In Iran, Khadivzadeh et al. (2014:170) conducted a study on “The Influence of Gender
Role and Women's Empowerment on Couples' Fertility Experiences in Urban Society of
Mashhad”. The results of this investigation show that women should be empowered
because it is the most significant factor in determining productive manners. According to
these researchers’ (Ibid: 177) findings, if women’s or girls’ empowerment is increased,
their level of education and social interactions will be increased. If women’s or girls’
health-related literacy and understanding of social rights are increased, gender roles will
be changed, and quality of life and child-rearing will also be increased. This means that
women’s or girls’ empowerment improves women’s or girls’ ability to make fruitful
decisions.
Regarding “Teacher’s Role in Promoting Gender Equality in Class”, Menon (2015:64)
mentions that gender impartiality occurs when women and men are delighted in similar
positions and have the same chance to understand their social privileges and potential to
participate through political, economic, social and cultural progress as well as being
advantaged from the outcomes.
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In line with encouraging gender impartiality, the issue of gender is significant for bringing
social, economic and political progress in a country (Allana et al. 2010). This means that
gender is one of the essential issues that must be attentively considered to bring about
holistic development in a given country. According to Allana et al. (2010), this reminds us
that the issue of gender should be addressed appropriately in instructional practices that
are one of the integral components of social development.
Menon (2015:67) discusses that teachers and learners might have their own traditional
gender belief systems, which result from their familiarity, perception, practice and other
things in the classroom environment. Even though these traditional gender belief systems
hamper the acceptance of new ideas or practices, what Allana et al. (2010:346)
recommend is that gender unbiased language must be encouraged at all stages and also
through the institutions for pupils, teachers and school administrators.
4.2.2.2 Gender representation in English textbooks
This section presents how gender is represented in English textbooks in Eastern
countries. In Malaysia, Mohd et al. (2011:63) and, in Pakistan, Khurshid, Gillani and
Hashmi (2010:427) view the gender role as a depiction of women’s and men’s illustrations
in a textbook because the representation of men and women in a textbook shows their
roles such as domestic, care-taking, leadership, weaving or dressmaking.
In Pakistan, Allana et al.(2010:343) present the argument that culturally and socially
learned behaviours should be unlearned through the formal educational system. This is
particularly in the instructional materials and in the classroom teaching and learning
practices. However, in Malaysia, Mukundan and Nimehchisalem (2008:169) suggest that
textbook writers are expected to avoid unequal gender representation because traditional
gender roles are linked to a collection of typecast views that impact every part of societal
existence. They (2008:168) also found that gender is misrepresented in Malaysian Forms
1-4 English textbooks because boys outnumber girls.
In Pakistan, as Jabeen et al. (2014:57) confirm, textbooks play an essential role in
creating children’s socialisation because textbooks provide a gendered image of the
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world. This shows that girls and boys are assigned various roles and responsibilities
through textbooks. Concerning this point, in the Philippines, Tantengco (2014:063)
describes that men become leaders, decision-makers, policymakers and aggressors
while women become invisible in patriarchal structures and history.
Mohd et al.’s (2011:72) study found that gender stereotyping depicts biases between men
and women characters in the English language school textbooks. Likewise, David (1994,
as cited by Jabeen, Chaudhary & Omar, 2014:59) also explains that gender bias is
available in the texts so researchers may carry out in-depth analysis in terms of language,
content, and images to detect the areas of gender discrimination.
In addition to the above idea, even though it is expected that English language curriculum
ought to be neutral from gender typecasting, the result of Mukundan’s and
Nimehchisalem’s (2008:165) study shows that women’s images outnumbered men’s
images in all of the textbooks. In other words, the findings of their study (Ibid) show men’s
overrepresentation in all of the textbooks, which may be unfair against women, although
the writers were women. Similarly, in Malaysia, the findings of Mohd et al.’s (2011:71)
study reveal how a textbook encompasses imbalance of action verbs that are related to
men and women.
On the other hand, there is an argument concerning the existence and lack of gender
unfairness in the textbooks. As Sunderland (1994a, as cited by Mukundan &
Nimehchisalem, 2008:157) reminds, there are textbook authors, such as O'Neill, who
reject the presence of gender unfairness in the textbooks. In this regard, O'Neill (1994,
as cited by Mukundan & Nimehchisalem, 2008:157) contends that gender bias blocks the
textbook author's creativity.
The findings of Toçi’s and Aliu’s (2013: 37) study clearly show that in the textbooks,
women are presented in traditional practised roles such as dancers, nurturers, teachers,
hairstylists, aeroplane followers, and others that might not be present in the men’s
environment. On the other hand, men are signified as soccer actors, headwaiters,
aviators, safe-keepers, guitarists and space pilots.
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Similarly, Littlejohn and Foss (2009:429) explain that there are texts which indicate
disseminating gender typecasts both through their depiction of feminine characters and
through their notion of the feminine viewers as fascinated only in stereotypically feminine
subjects. As Jabeen et al. (2014:71) posit, from gender representation in textbooks,
young men acquire that they are more significant participants and also begin to internalise
the traditional typecast for women as reliant, inactive and obedient. However, Mohd et al.
(2011:71:63) argue that schoolbooks employed in schools need to provide both
masculine and feminine genders reasonably.
Jabeen et al. (2014:59) reviewed that curricula and textbooks in Pakistan and other South
Asian countries provide the existing gender typecasts and anticipated gender roles in the
social order. Moreover, Mohd et al. (2011:71) discuss that the methods in which men or
boys and women or girls are depicted in schoolbooks contribute to the pictures that the
pupils use to advance their roles as they are assigned in their community. This shows
how textbooks mould learners’ outlooks by transferring a social gender belief. Therefore,
according to Toçi and Aliu (2013: 33), authors must exclude typecasts from schoolbooks
because the existence of typecast opinions may create difficulties through children’s
growth. In the Philippines, Tantengco’s (2014:070) recommendation indicates that
textbook writers should find time to revise and renew the curriculum and further develop
and design a gender-fair curriculum. Therefore, this study shows how textbooks deal with
gender issues and hinder female learners’ active participation.
According to Mohd et al.’s (2011:64) statement, various researches were carried out
globally on the matter of gender disparity in schoolbooks. These researches indicate that
there is strong partiality towards a specific gender. To avoid gender inequality, Menon
(2015:65) proposes that appropriate and reliable gender-sensitive education can
encourage gender impartiality and ensure the excellence of teaching-learning practice.
Teachers are also expected to be examples for their learners about gender
responsiveness in the instructional process.
According to Toçi and Aliu (2013: 33), gender typecasts employed in schoolbooks are
indications that must be argued by taking into attention the children’s growth. They have
an essential impact on their gender role growth out of the household context because
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stereotypical opinions of both men and women develop in images, reading passages and
lexis. Instructors are expected to be conscious of the tools they employ not to transmit
gender-typecast matters in the schoolroom because it will assist learners to generate their
own opinions and make their own decisions without being influenced by the texts.
Generally speaking, through gender-sensitive curricular experience, it is believed that
learners develop a readiness to change their traditional gender attitudes. The next section
presents the African views about gender treatment in classroom instructional processes
and gender representation in English textbooks.
4.3.3 AFRICAN VIEWS
This section pays attention to the African literature review. In African countries, this
research looks at the following countries: Nigeria, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Ghana, South
Africa, Malawi and others. Therefore, gender treatment in instructional processes and
gender representation in English textbooks is discussed in this section.
4.3.3.1 Gender treatment in instructional activities
In Tanzania, as Zilimu (2014:4) says, gender unfairness in instruction arises when
instructors or teachers create expectations concerning behaviours, capacities or
favourites of learners based on their gender. For example, if learners are always seated
or lined up by gender, instructors are confirming that female learners and male learners
ought to be handled dissimilarly.
Likewise, in Zimbabwe, Nyoni’s (2008:4) empirical study examined how sociocultural
factors and practices impede upon behavioural change of Zimbabwean women in an era
of HIV/AIDS. In addition, Nyoni (Ibid: 38) reviewed that women have been familiarised to
trust what are acceptable roles and duties in their families because of culturally prescribed
roles and duties.
According to Chitando (2011:50) in South Africa and Ekpe et al. (2014:16) in Nigeria,
gendered power is reflected through the gender role that is viewed as a pattern or code
of behaviours or attitudes considered appropriate for women and men as determined by
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sociocultural and historical forces. Correspondingly, Chitando (2011:17) describes
patriarchy as a precise method of masculine supremacy established through the
dominant role of a father as the head of a household. This reveals how men occupy wider
ranges of social and occupational roles, while women are depicted mainly in domestic
and nurturing domains. According to the findings of Jimmy-Gama’s (2009: iii) research,
descriptions and instances replicating male-controlled gender role typecast that are
employed by instructors should be first identified and then eliminated.
Akita (2010:375) suggests that teachers might assist learners to learn how to reject the
distinct roles of men or boys and women or girls and create a broad discourse to build
more impartial interactions. Learners’ gender roles and associations have a greater
impact on schoolroom communications because schoolroom communication is a
significant component in the educational procedure.
Therefore, in Nigeria, Ifegbesan (2010:29) found that teachers and curriculum, in general,
reinforce social bias and discriminatory practices against women or girls through the
content and methods of teaching employed in schools so that the instructors may play an
essential role to investigate and encourage gender typecasts. In this respect, Ifegbesan
(2010:36) concludes that teachers are unaware and deny that they hold or perpetuate
biased perceptions of men and women. He suggests that instructors need to learn to
recognise and remove gender unfairness in their teacher-learner communications both
inside and outside the schoolroom. The other recommendation from Ifegbesan (ibid.) is
that educators must be able to choose gender unbiased instructive materials and texts
for use in their schooling as a stage to fight this unfairness.
Regarding the reinforcement of traditional gender roles, Ifegbesan (2010:36) investigated
that the instructive system does not only strengthen traditional gender roles, but it also
strengthens typecast outlooks towards gender typecasts. From the discussion of
Ifegbesan (2010:29), there are various types of gender stereotypes: self-stereotyping,
school stereotyping and family/cultural stereotyping by gender. Nyevero’s (2014:567)
finding shows that the exhibition of gender-typecast in schools is just an exhibition of
entrenched gender actions learned in socialisation at the household level. Nyevero (2014)
and Ifegbesan (2010) agree that gender typecasts occur in all social orders, human
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activities, occupations, line of business and organisations as well as in the household,
schools and office.
Zilimu (2014:5) explains that societal and traditional views and practices, such as
concerning female learners as educationally weak learners, do not only influence the
women’s or girls’ outlook towards learning but also the way instructors handle female
learners in schoolrooms. Therefore, in Ghana, Akita (2010:385) suggests that women
always fight gender bias and differences through their personal and professional lives.
Culture can have a significant contribution to the reinforcement of gender disparity. In this
respect, Jimmy-Gama (2009:35) reviewed how cultures build the guidelines, views,
standards and acceptable behaviours. These cultural systems can limit the students to
equally partake in the teaching-learning environment because culture has a significant
determinant role in the socialisation process for young people in the African gender
inequality context. In relation to this point, cultural norms that promote gender inequality
can disempower girls from active participation in the classroom. Learners also assimilate
their sociocultural familiarities with the comprehension of the societal powers that create
gender disparity on the closest stages. In South Africa, according to Chitando’s (2011:23)
cultural definitions, women or girls are depicted as performing minor roles in society.
Nyoni (2008:161) discusses that gender hierarchies are socially constructed so that
women’s or girls’ subordinations exist in many schools, just as it exists in society.
Therefore, it is recommended that teachers play an important role in challenging these
hierarchies, but first, they must comprehend that man domination, and woman
subordination exist and that they have a right and a responsibility to alter them. However,
Mlama et al. (2005:7) justify that various instructors follow their instructing approaches
that cannot offer the same opportunities for female learners and male learners to partake
in the instructional processes. Without precise comprehension of proper schoolroom
management and gender-sensitive instructions, girls cannot have the same learning
chances.
Researchers such as Peter (2010:28) in South Africa and Zilimu (2014:4) in Tanzania
strongly argue that gender is constructed into communal life through socialisation,
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interactional processes and institutional organisation. These researchers also confirm
that if social structures mould persons, persons, in turn, mould their social structures.
Their findings also recommend that the word gender itself is developed through a
particular environment that has a specific social structure. Furthermore, in South Africa,
Chitando (2011:34) argues that “gender is not handed down from heaven” because it is
socially and culturally constructed to show the imbalanced treatment of men or boys and
women or girls. On the other hand, the research findings of Akita (2010:3) reveal that
Ghanaian socialisation procedures put women at a lower status.
4.3.3.2 Gender representation in English textbooks
In Nigeria, Ifegbesan (2010:30) reviewed various textbooks that were authored by men.
In these textbooks, men are mentioned in a larger number than women in the use of
generic words, image portrayal and in professional roles. For instance, women are
depicted as merchants, hairstylists and typists, while men are represented in skilled
occupations such as doctors, scientists and engineers. However, Ojediran (2012: 162)
argues that girls learn their forthcoming roles as spouses and mothers because they are
expected to act as their mothers in society.
The other researcher, in Zimbabwe, Chitando (2011: ii) investigated how selected
Zimbabwean female writers narrate HIV and AIDS. Therefore, as her (ibid.) study
presents, male writers portray women as dependent on men because women are
disempowered in their society even though her findings (Ibid: 221) show that Zimbabwean
female creative authors attempt to arrest women’s fight against patriarchy in the situation
of HIV.
As Akita (2010:183) says, women or girls are engaged in various domestic activities that
highly restrict them from social interaction and mobilisation. What Nyoni (2008:40)
discusses is that men or boys and women or girls need to implement their socially and
traditionally recommended roles, which make them unequal because their society builds
these roles. In this viewpoint, he further elaborates that women’s communicative roles
are restricted to child bearing and child rearing duties. According to Ojediran’s (2012:2)
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discussion, women are negatively depicted by male authors so that this prevents their
assertion in a mainly male-controlled society.
In teaching and learning processes, instructional materials are essential. Concerning this
idea, Mlama et al. (2005:12) justify that instructive materials are essential to the
educational procedure and are critical for moulding young minds. However, they indirectly
transmit traditional and restricted gender roles. A textbook also has a message that
makes women weak, passive and submissive as they are mostly portrayed in domestic
activities, whereas men are portrayed as influential, confident and intellectual as well as
leaders in society.
There are different arguments regarding gender bias. For instance, Chitando (2011:169)
argues that “society is biased against women” based on cultural reasons which are
informed by patriarchal bias. To confirm this point, the author (ibid: 41) presents that male
authors reveal the patriarchal bias in most of their works. As Mlama et al. (2005:2) define,
the word “patriarchy” is a social and cultural belief system that encourages male
superiority over females as usual and God-given.
As Nyevero (2014:567) says, the school textbooks, when they portray boys and girls in
traditional gender identities, formalise gender bias in the learning and teaching
environment. Nyevero’s (2014:559) findings reveal that the selected primary school
English textbooks continue to perpetuate gender discrimination and bias. According to
Nyevero’s (2014:567) study results, “Deep-seated patriarchal ideologies limit the degree
of gender sensitivity of authors and also blind educators from identifying gender bias,
discrimination, and stereotypes in the teaching and learning process”.
Schmidt’s and Mestry’s (2014:14) findings also reveal that textbooks have a role in
transmitting gender bias. In this regard, Fardon and Schoeman (2010:307) have reviewed
that crucial consideration must be given to the role of the textbook as a transmitter of
gender unfairness within the context of varied power relations.
As Chitando (2011:19) states, male writers replicate typecasts in their social contact with
women. Therefore, in her study, she (Ibid: 101) confirms that women or girls are often
depicted in stereotypical pictures when they flout male-controlled customs. However,
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Chitando (Ibid: 50) discusses that African female authors have a desire to interrogate the
firm gender typecasts that are recognised and sustained by society.
Similarly, as various studies (Nyevero, 2014:561) show, “gender stereotypes were still
found in the textbooks, especially in illustrations”. Nyevero’s (2014:567) conclusion
indicates that “primary school textbooks still contain biases and stereotypes”. Therefore,
this study shows that “textbooks are still very far from being gender-responsive” (ibid.).
Mlama et al. (2005:1) discuss women and men who are stereotypically portrayed through
media, conversation, jokes or books because they represent their social roles according
to a traditional gender role or labour division. Gender stereotypes can be perpetuated in
different ways. One of them is by writers who disseminate gender typecasts that are
learned by traditional beliefs in their literature because authors have their own culture that
influences their descriptions of gender. In this regard, Chitando (2011:15) verifies that
writings are essential tools in discharging gender values and customs that are influenced
by traditional beliefs.
In addition, Ojediran (2012:156) confirms that female characters, in the identified plays,
show typecasts of women in limited traditional illustrations that reinforce their oppression.
Therefore, in the African society, Ojediran (Ibid: 279) says that women are only known in
their typecast relations with men as spouses and mothers, which makes them the
caretakers of the masculine gender.
As Mlama et al. (2005:8) state, various textbooks and teaching aids strengthen the
attitudes and beliefs of male superiority and female inferiority by depicting men as leaders
and women as helpers. Therefore, doctors, engineers and pilots are almost always men,
and nurses, cooks and secretaries are almost always women.
As discussed in this literature review regarding African views, I believe that gender
equality has an excellent role for breaking the traditional gender beliefs, attitudes and
behaviours. Therefore, gender fair-treatment should encourage the promotion of gender
equality.
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The next section presents the Ethiopian views about gender treatment in classroom
instructional processes and gender representation in English textbooks.
4.4.4 ETHIOPIAN VIEWS
Seeking to address questions about “gender treatment in instructional processes and
gender representation in English textbooks”, this section discusses empirical studies on
gender issues in the Ethiopian context. Among the few available researchers are Guday
(2005), Haile-Giorgis (2008), Ogato (2013), UNFPA (2008), Kifle (2013), Abebech (2008),
Abitew (2019), Tedla (2012), Pulerwitz et al. (2015), Tegegn (2011), Woldu, Tadesse and
Waller (2013), Enanu (2013), Zewdu et al. (2016), Yehualashet (2010), Semela (2014),
Azanaw and Tassew (2017), Beyene (2015) and Egne (2014).
4.4.4.1 Gender treatment in instructional activities
Haile-Giorgis (2008:49) says that, in the Ethiopian society, “the major responsibility of
childbearing falls on the shoulders of women”. In other words, women’s roles are that of
helpers to men. However, women are a cornerstone of economic and social growth. In
the Ethiopian context, women are disadvantaged in different situations. In this regard, as
Ogato (2013:358) and Abitew (2019:417) state, the Ethiopian women are underprivileged
in terms of economics, culture and politics because they cannot enjoy equal rights,
opportunities, decision-making practices and primary resources.
Different pieces of literature and scholars’ works show that women are still
underprivileged in different contexts. As Wondimu (2014:30) and Zewdu et al. (2016:20)
mention, in Ethiopia, women are considered as lower and subordinate to men because
men are considered as the primary source of income. As a result, they are disadvantaged
in economic, social, cultural and political aspects. The outcome of UNFPA’s (2008:26)
study indicates that Ethiopia is also known by gender inequality like other countries.
According to Haile-Giorgis’s (2008:1) and Abitew’s (2019:404) statement, various
research has shown that women in Ethiopia are underprivileged in various features of life
and that gender disparity is one of the structures of the Ethiopian society.
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As Prime Minister Office/Women’s Affairs Sub-Sector (2004:2) and Bermudez et al.
(2019:3) confirm, due to women’s lower status in the society and as a promise to gender
impartiality, the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) ratified the national
Ethiopian Policy on Women in 1993 and gave equal rights for women in its Constitution.
Kifle (2013:49) and Zewdu et al. (2016:20), in their articles, found that men took an
important role in the harvesting and threshing activities while women were limited to food
preparation, milking cows and keeping the house. From this finding, it is clear that the
patriarchal system affects women’s roles and responsibilities. This is supported by
Tgegn’s (2011:12) study. Thus, he confirms that the contribution and the roles of both
masculinities and femininities are determined by social norms. As UNFPA’s (2008:16)
and Abitew’s (2019:404) study exposes, the socialisation process determines gender
roles. Through socialisation, as Kifle (2013:49) and Abitew (2019:404) indicate, a baby
starts to learn gender roles in the family. Therefore, it is clear that gender roles are
familiarities that we have had starting from childhood.
Pulerwitz et al. (2015:132) judge the consequences of a community-based project in
Ethiopia. The results of Pulerwitz et al.’s (2015:136) study shows how gender norms and
violence are reduced over time so that there are definite shifts through social views. The
results of their research recommend that challenging unbalanced gender norms is a
significant component of intimate partner-violence avoidance strategies.
Abebech (2008:19), in her paper on gender in some English teaching and testing
materials, explains how her informants indicated that women or girls are not allowed to
stay out late and enjoy themselves. They are expected to help in the house all the time
and the family and teachers do not trust them. Concerning this, UNFPA’s (2008:21) study
on gender equality and women’s empowerment shows that Article 25 of the FDRE
Constitution explains that “all persons are equal before the law and prohibits any
discrimination on the grounds of gender”.
Woldu’s, Tadesse’s and Waller’s (2013:3) findings recommend that gender partialities in
households and communities are a significant barrier for women’s access to education.
Abebech’s (2008:23) study also concludes that “Although schools seem to serve both
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sexes equally, the traditional gendered view and the various kinds of biases are reflected
all through the teaching-learning process”. Relating to this idea, Haile-Giorgis (2008:7)
indicates that “if male supremacy is accepted, women face discriminatory practices”.
According to research studies such as that of Haile-Giorgis (2008:85), gender inequality
comes from the societal and cultural values that a person is attached to. Therefore, Haile-
Giorgis (2008:87) provides that “men’s attitude towards gender inequality can be
challenged first by challenging their mental status on the issue”. In this regard, Ogato’s
(2013:358) finding discloses that encouraging efforts are being made by the Federal
Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) to attain gender impartiality and women’s
enabling subjects in the process of social development. Thus, as explained by Ogato
(2013:364), the Ethiopian Government has been showing a significant effort in authorising
women through education.
As Guday (2005:43) and Birhan and Zewdie (2018:52) explain, gender stereotypes and
roles strengthen traditional gender beliefs that encourage early marriage as an
appropriate practice. Regarding this problem, the National Women’s Policy targeted to
ensure the impartiality of women with men, avoiding stereotypic and discriminatory
activities and facilitating women’s economic, social and political contribution in Ethiopia.
It also ensures women’s human, political, social and economic rights similarly as that of
men (Ethiopian Society of Population Studies, 2008; World Bank 1998; Sida, 2003, as
cited by Wondimu, 2014:35). According to Ogato (2013:369), the main objectives of the
national policy of Ethiopian women, introduced in 1993, include removing typecasts and
biased perceptions and practices that limit women’s impartiality. It includes generating
favourable situations for the equality of men and women.
Tegegn (2011:29) and Beyene (2015:11), on their part, have also stated how the
Ethiopian history and culture indicate gender structures in which women are inferior to
men. They also confirm that young people still reproduce patriarchal thinking. This reveals
that gender disparity is still very observable in all manners of contacts encompassing
social and economic links of the society. This means that the place of girls in the
community is affected by the social and traditional experiences of the people in the
Ethiopian context. However, Abebech’s (2008) finding confirms that the actual practices
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on the ground show that more boys participate than girls in classroom learning and
teaching practices.
As Semela (2014: 131) and Birhan and Zewdie (2018:52) state, women still perpetuate
to keep their traditional gender roles of nurturing and caring for their husbands. He further
explains that although woman involvement is low at all levels of the education system in
Ethiopia, in the present situation, their teaching careers have been increasing due to the
application of affirmative action policies.
Azanaw and Tassew (2017:12520) conducted a study on investigating the present
position of gender mainstreaming in agricultural extension. As their findings indicate,
female farmers have less access to extension services and low representations in local
organisations than male farmers, even though policy and law improvement provide
opportunities for gender mainstreaming. In this study, culture and ideology of the people
and the absence of awareness in gender mainstreaming are taken as limitations for the
implementation of gender mainstreaming in agricultural extension because the society
still exists in a male-controlled system that accepts women as dependents.
4.4.4.2 Gender representation in English textbooks
Literature shows how gender unfairness is reflected in different contexts. In this regard,
Abebech (2008:1) has found that women are less mentioned, treated as inferior and the
occupational roles given to them both in the textbook and the national exams are of less
respect and minimal. From this viewpoint, it is clear to see that English textbooks are not
free from gender bias in the Ethiopian context. This is a concern for girls and women. For
example, some activities are traditionally appropriate for women or girls, and some are
inappropriate for men or boys.
Due to this reason, Haile-Giorgis (2008:49) explains that, in the Ethiopian culture, “it will
be considered as taboo and immoral if the man enters into a kitchen and gives a hand to
his wife”. By the same token, as Ogato (2013:363) provides, the Ethiopian women often
have traditional, social and legal problems that restrict their decision-making ability in
agricultural and natural resource management.
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Gender roles and responsibilities are limited for both genders in different contexts. This
is also reflected in instructional materials. In relation to this, Abebech (2008:7) says that
“the occupational roles manifested in textbooks include women and limit the female
learners to a house-wife-mother capacity”. Tedla’s (2012:10) research also supports
Abebech’s statement that household activities strengthens women’s traditional role.
Regarding gender domination and subordination, there is still a big problem. Different
studies justify this. For example, Haile-Giorgis (2008: viii) conducted a research study to
examine how women and gender roles are portrayed in the popular serial drama ‘Yeken
Kiginit’. The outcomes of his investigation (Ibid.) disclose that women may be victims of
male chauvinism due to cultural prejudices created by society.
On the other hand, Tegegn (2011:12) provides that girls are marginalised not to access
education in a majority of developing countries. Haile-Giorgis (2008:76) confirms that the
“Ethiopian culture has made men biased towards women”. As he (Ibid: 97) puts it, the
drama ‘Yeken Kiginit’ has addressed gender disparities and discrimination.
According to Osaka (2003, cited by Abebech 2008:4), there are seven forms of bias in
instructional materials, such as “Invisibility, Stereotyping, Imbalance and Selectivity,
Unreality, Fragmentation and Isolation, Linguistic Bias and Cosmetic Bias”. As Abebech
(2008:5) discusses, one of the seven forms of bias is linguistic bias because “Language
and gender are inseparable for language play a major role in gender bias”.
Research conducted by Guday (2005:2) shows that traditional education was organised
for boys, not for girls. This situation has a significant influence on the expansion and
domination of the patriarchal community. It is used to maintain gender stereotypes. In
relation to this, women’s and men’s roles are culturally and socially cultivated. These
culturally and socially entrenched gender stereotypes are embodied in the Ethiopian
English textbooks. According to Abebech (2008:4), stereotyping is a type of bias that
casts men as active, assertive and curious, while portraying women as dependent,
conforming and obedient.
Enanu’s (2013: viii) study provides that “The 1994 Education and Training Policy”
incorporated gender impartiality subjects such as advancing girls’ school registration
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ratio, designing a gender-responsive curriculum and decreasing girls’ dropout and
reiteration rates. However, Haile-Giorgis (2008:97) investigated how male chauvinistic
attitude is affecting women’s equality in every aspect of life because most male characters
in the drama are representatives of the chauvinistic attitude practised among the society
in real-life situations.
Egne (2014:3) carried out a study to explore difficulties on gender impartiality in public
higher education institutions of Ethiopia. The findings of this study reveal that female
learners are still underrepresented in science disciplines in higher education in the
Ethiopian context.
4.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY
All the literature that has been used addressed the issue of gender treatment in
instructional practices and gender representation in textbooks. However, in some
countries, there are insufficient studies on this research issue except in Western
countries. This chapter offered various ideas of gender that link to this research. A
discussion on what gender is and how it promotes and affects the teaching and learning
process was provided.
The chapter dealt with the literature review that drew from previous intellectual work,
different official reports, academic papers and articles to comprehend gender treatment
in classroom instructional activities and gender representation in English textbooks in
different contexts.
The first part of the literature review covered the introduction. Then, the second section
reviewed several research studies conducted on gender treatment in classroom
instructional activities and representation in an English textbook, based on relevant
literature from Western, Eastern and African countries and finally the Ethiopian context in
terms of gender treatment in classroom instructional activities and representation in an
English textbook.
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In any context, gender issues refer to the social roles, responsibilities, rights and
obligations of men and women, as well as the connections among them, in a particular
social order and at a particular time and place.
As the reviewed literature depicts, many studies show that there is still a gender gap,
although many efforts have been undertaken to assure gender equality in various
countries. The gender gap is not only in teaching and learning processes, but it is also
reflected in different contexts. However, this gender gap is globally and nationally
revealed because of the rooted sociocultural factors about patriarchal systems in terms
of male domination and female subordination.
Therefore, in addressing the gender issue, the African context is different from the
Western context because in the Western context, various studies have been conducted
to address these issues. However, in the African context, studies are insufficient about
gender issues. This shows that the emphasis given on gender issues in the African
context is less than the emphasis given in the Western context. Women’s participation is
more increased in the Western sphere than the African sphere. However, there is still the
same problem in assuring gender equality in Africa and Western contexts due to
patriarchal thinking. In fact, the extent of gender challenges may be varied between
African and Western frameworks according to the reviewed literature.
Therefore, it can be concluded that a gender-responsive approach is mandatory in
different contexts. For example, schools and universities are expected to be aware that
gender impartiality exits among learners because they can equip their learners with
appropriate skills, knowledge and attitudes to make changes that lead to better gender
equality and respect for diversity. This study empirically explored both male domination
and female subordination as either true or false, especially in teaching and learning
processes. The next chapter presents the research design and methods that were
employed in this research.
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CHAPTER 5:
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
As presented in Chapter 1, this research was developed with an attempt to respond to
the study questions that were utilised to investigate gender treatment in classroom
instructional activities and gender representation in Grade 9 English textbook, in Ethiopia.
This chapter offers an explanation and validation of the study design that was adopted in
this research. It also provides the techniques that were employed in gathering and
handling data. This data yielded answers to the central question and sub-questions of the
research.
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This study aimed to investigate gender treatment in the Grade nine classroom
instructional activities and how it is represented in the Grade nine English textbook, and
the impact that this has on the teaching and learning of English in Ethiopia.
The subsequent sub-questions originated from the primary study question and were
formulated towards the research problem:
• How is gender treated in the Grade nine English classroom instructional
activities?
• How is gender represented in the Grade nine English textbook?
• What is the impact of gender treatment in classroom instructional activities?
• How does gender representation in English textbook promote or affect teaching
and learning for Grade nine in Ethiopia?
This chapter also discusses the research design and methods used. Then, an explanation
of the rationale for this empirical research is provided. The research design is also
provided with an explanation of the research paradigm that was undertaken.
Consequently, I discussed how gender is treated and represented in terms of the
qualitative approach.
A qualitative case study research is discussed. This qualitative case study was conducted
to investigate how gender is treated in the Grade 9 classroom instructional activities and
how it is represented in the Grade 9 English textbook. This qualitative case study research
was used to obtain a complete and in-depth comprehension of the issue under
exploration. Learners, teachers and principals were also the participants of this study.
A discussion of the utilised research methods is provided. The selection of participants is
also presented. A discussion of data collection instruments is furnished. This section
includes observational checklists, semi-structured interviews (individual and group) and
document analysis. Finally, the matter of data analysis is presented, as well as measures
of trustworthiness in terms of credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability,
respectively. In these subdivisions, an explanation of how data were scrutinised,
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triangulated for trustworthiness, coded and characterised is delivered. An account of the
ethical considerations of the study and the summary of the chapter are provided at the
end.
5.2 RATIONALE FOR EMPIRICAL RESEARCH
The term “empirical” study, as stated by the Webster’s Online Dictionary and Flick
(2009:313), is any study that originates its results on direct or indirect observation. The
empirical study tries to explain precisely the interaction between the instrument and the
entity being discovered in the natural settings in terms of interviews (Flick, 2009:313). In
this qualitative case study, the learners, teachers and principals were not only interviewed
but were also observed in the course of their day-to-day repetitive teaching and learning
practices by the researcher. Texts are also known as empirical material (Flick, 2009:66).
As Yin (2003:13) provides, the reason why this empirical research is necessary is that a
qualitative case study is “an empirical study that explores existing phenomenon inside its
actual context” and contributes to the accomplishment of this research.
5.3 RESEARCH DESIGN
Research design is defined by Merriam (2009:55) and Creswell (2009:21) as a structure
to carry out a study, which includes the explanation of research approach, study site,
sample magnitude, sampling procedure and methods of data gathering and analysis to
respond to a specific study question. Merriam (2009) explains that research design is the
researcher’s work plan for responding to the study questions.
Generally speaking, the study design in general multiple case study design, is the rational
order that links the empirical data to a research’s primary study questions and
conclusions. Therefore, the design is used as a means of conversing on four essential
collections of study matters, such as what questions to search, what data are appropriate,
what data to gather and how to scrutinise the outcomes.
5.3.1 RESEARCH PARADIGM
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A paradigm is a fundamental set of beliefs that leads to the act of the researcher
(Creswell, 2009:24). Merriam (2009:19) considers qualitative research as a kind of study
that includes several philosophical orientations and approaches. As Creswell (2009:37)
puts it, Lincoln and Guba delivere that the essential beliefs of five alternative study
paradigms in social science studies are: “positivism, postpositivism, critical theory,
constructivism, and participatory paradigms”. Each paradigm is presented in terms of
ontology, epistemology, axiology, rhetoric and methodology. These are discussed below.
5.3.1.1 Ontology
The ontological assumption is a view of how one perceives the nature of reality because
ontology raises fundamental questions about the nature of reality and the nature of human
beings in social contexts. There are different assumptions to look at the world as the
exterior of an individual. Merriam (2002:3) argues that qualitative researchers hold the
notion of many realities and report on these many realities by discovering numerous forms
of evidence from various persons’ viewpoints and practices. This means that when
researchers carry out qualitative studies, they are accepting the notion of many realities
because various researchers hold various realities. Therefore, qualitative researchers
research intending to report these manifold realities when they are studying persons
(Creswell, 2007:16 &18).
5.3.1.2 Epistemology
As Merriam (2009) states, the epistemological assumption is a belief in the style to
produce, comprehend and employ the knowledge that is believed to be tolerable and
valid. This means that epistemology, which is used to show in what way we know what
we know, refers to the ways to acquire the knowledge that is acceptable in certain
paradigms. Merriam (2009:66) also explains that epistemology is good to explore our
notions about the nature of knowledge and its structure.
126
As Creswell (2007:18) says, with the epistemological assumption, doing qualitative
research means that researchers attempt to attain as near as possible the participants
being studied. He further explains that, in exercise, qualitative researchers carry out their
researches in the "field" where the participants live and work because these are significant
settings for comprehending what the participants are talking about and doing. It is also
important to say that the longer researchers stay in the research site; the more they
understand utilising first-hand data (ibid.).
Petty et al. (2012:379) mention the case study similar to Yin (2009). These authors posit
that a case study appears as a “positivist epistemology”, while the others (Stake, 1995;
Bassey, 1999; Simons, 2009) define case study from an interpretivist/constructivist
viewpoint. In relation to interpretivist/ constructivist epistemology, Gray (2013:20) asserts
that “A theoretical standpoint related to constructivism is interpretivism”. This means that,
in terms of epistemology, interpretivism is strictly associated with constructivism (ibid: 23).
Therefore, the constructivist epistemological position is appropriate for this study.
5.3.1.3 Axiology
According to Creswell’s (2007 & 2009) statement, axiological assumption shows what
values go into knowledge. The axiological assumption is also considered as the function
of values in a study. Creswell (2007:18) asserts that all researchers fetch values to
research, but qualitative researchers are interested in making those values more obvious.
This is the axiological supposition that characterises qualitative research. He further says
that the qualitative researchers acknowledge the value-laden nature of the research
rather than the value-free nature of the research and enthusiastically report their values
and biases as well as the value-laden nature of data collected from the research site
(Ibid).
5.3.1.4 Rhetoric
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Creswell (2007 & 2009) explains rhetorical assumption as the language of research
because qualitative researchers tend to hold the rhetorical supposition that the script
needs to be personal and fictional in form.
5.3.1.5 Methodology
According to Merriam (2009) and Creswell (2007), the methodological assumption is the
process of the study. Methodology stresses on the best means for obtaining knowledge
about the world. Creswell (2007:19) states that the steps of the qualitative methodology
are categorised as inductive, developing or evolving, and moulded by the researcher’s
familiarity in gathering and analysing the data. He adds that the reason that the qualitative
researcher follows is inductive, from the bottom up, rather than offered down entirely from
theory or the viewpoints of the inquirer (ibid). Merriam (2009:15) supports the idea that
the process of a qualitative study is inductive. This means that researchers collect data
to construct conceptions, hypotheses, or theories rather than deductively testing
hypotheses as in positivist studies. The following table presents the philosophical
assumptions and research paradigms.
Table 5.1: Philosophical Assumptions and Research Paradigms
Paradigms Ontological
Assumptio
n
(nature of
reality)
Epistemologic
al Assumption
(knowledge/
ways of
knowing)
Axiological
Assumptio
n
(Ethics and
value
systems)
Methodological
Assumption
(research
strategies)
Positivism Realism.
There is a
“real,”
objective
Objectivist. The
researcher can
and should,
avoid any
Objectivity is
good, and
subjectivity
Tends towards
quantification and
controlled
experiments(Experim
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(very rare in
qualitative
study)
reality that is
knowable
(Stable,
external
reality, law-
like)
One defined
reality, fixed,
measurable,
and
observable
partiality or
impact on the
consequence.
Outcomes, if
done well, are
true. (Objective,
detached
observer )
Genuine
knowledge is
objective and
quantifiable.
The goal of
science is to test
and expand
theory.
is inherently
misleading.
Value-free
and
unbiased
Values are
emotive and
therefore,
outside the
scientific
inquiry.
ental, quantitative,
hypothesis, testing)
Deductive
Process
Cause and effect
Context-free
Postpositivis
m
Critical
Realism.
There is a
“real,”
objective
reality, but
humans
cannot know
it for sure.
Modified
objectivist. The
goal is
objectivity, but
pure objectivity
is impossible.
Results are
“probably” true.
Emphasis is
on the
objective
researcher,
value-free;
subjectivity
and bias
lead to error.
Includes both
qualitative and
quantitative methods.
Seeks reduction of
bias through
qualitative validity
techniques(e.g.
triangulation and
correlation research).
Constructivis
m/
Interpretivism
Relativist.
All truth is
“constructed
Researcher and
participants are
linked,
Researcher’
s subjective
values,
Generally qualitative
research methods
through dialogue
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” by humans
and situated
within a
historical
moment and
social
context.
Multiple
realities that
are socially
constructed
by
individuals
(Subjective
and multiple
realities/
meanings
as seen by
participants
in the study
that exist
perhaps on
the same
data)
constructing
knowledge
together.
Researcher
interacts with
that being
researched.
(Qualitative
researchers as
close as
possible to the
participants
being studied in
the field where
the participants
live and work
and become
insiders.)
intuition,
and biases
are
essential;
learning
participants’
subjective
ideas is
valuable
(Value-
laden and
biased
nature of the
study).
Inductive
Process
Mutual
Emerging design
Context bound
Shaped by the
researcher’s
experience in
collecting and
analysing data.
Critical
Theory
Historical
realism.
Reality can
be
understood,
Knowledge is
mediated
reflectively
through the
Focused on
participant dialogue,
uncovering
subjugated
knowledge and
130
but only as
constructed
historically
and
connected
to power.
perspective of
the researcher.
linking it to social
critique.
Advocacy/
Participatory
Varied The distinction
between
researcher and
researched
breaks down.
Insider
knowledge
highly valued.
Works with
individuals on
empowerment and
issues that matter to
them. Tends towards
social, cultural or
political change,
using any appropriate
method.
Pragmatism Varied.
Pragmatists
may be less
interested in
what “truth”
is and more
interested in
“what
works”.
Accepts many
different
viewpoints and
works to
reconcile those
perspectives
through
pluralistic
means.
Focuses on a real
world problem, by
whatever methods
are most appropriate
and tends towards
changes in practice.
Source: Adapted from Cresswell, 2007; Merriam, 2009; Given, 2008
The next subdivision is devoted to an investigation of the constructivist paradigm, which
was more suitable for this study.
5.3.1.6 The nature of constructivist paradigm
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I chose a paradigm that was used to guide my study. As mentioned in the above diagram,
there are different paradigms. Among these research paradigms, constructivism is
selected for this research. According to Searle (1995, as cited by Baxter & Jack,
2008:545), “constructivism is constructed upon the premise of the social construction of
reality”.
On the other hand, Denzin and Lincoln (1994, as cited by Creswell and Miller 2000: 125)
reveal that “the constructivist or interpretive position was developed during the period of
1970 to 1987”. They affirm that constructivists rely on pluralistic, interpretative,
unrestricted and contextualised perspectives towards reality. Thus, the constructivist
paradigm of this research guided the researcher when he conducted this study.
In the constructivist paradigm, Creswell (2007:20 & 2009:26) says that persons look for
the comprehension of the environment where they live and work because they cultivate
subjective interpretations of their familiarities. According to the argument of Gray
(2013:20), in constructivism, truth and interpretation are not present outside the world but
are generated by the subject’s contacts with the world. Meaning they are built not
discovered. Therefore, subjects build their understanding in various ways, even in relation
to the same phenomenon. As Morse and McEvoy (2014:4) explain, constructivism states
that meaning is built by the contacts between individuals and their surroundings.
Creswell (2007:21) further argues that these subjective meanings are often settled
publicly, historically and traditionally. This means that they are not merely reproduced on
persons but are formed through contact with others and through historical and traditional
norms that work in persons’ lives. Baxter and Jack (2008:545) support that constructivists
assert that truth is relative and that it is reliant on one’s viewpoint. As Golafshani
(2003:603) says, in qualitative research, constructivism views knowledge as socially
constructed and may change depending on the circumstances.
Generally speaking, this shows that “the reality is not a lone construct but manifold
constructs” (Newman & Benz, 1998:197). Thus, constructivist researchers often talk
about the processes of contact among persons. What Gray (2013:24) strengthens is that
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“Meanings come from the process of social contact”. As a result, meanings are not static
or unchanging but are reviewed on the origin of experience.
5.3.2 RESEARCH APPROACH
To respond to the central study question and its sub-questions, it is significant to employ
a related and suitable study approach. Harwell (2011:148) and Crowe, Inder and Porter
(2015:1) describe that qualitative study approaches aims at exploring and
comprehending the familiarities, standpoints, and considerations of participants.
Here, the researcher employed the qualitative research approach because a qualitative
study is used to search the human elements of a particular issue, where particular
methods are employed to scrutinise how persons perceive and familiarise the
environment. As mentioned earlier, this study aims to explore gender treatment in the
Grade 9 classroom instructional activities and how it is represented in the Grade 9 English
textbook in order to reveal the impact that this has on the teaching-learning of English.
The qualitative approach is, thus, relevant to this study because it permitted the
researcher to investigate the gender attitudes, perceptions and feelings of the research
participants.
Creswell (2012), Silverman (2004) and Merriam (2002) highlight that the qualitative study
is the method usually related to the constructivist paradigm, which emphasises the
socially constructed nature of reality. They also explain how the approach acknowledged
by qualitative researchers, tend to be inductive, which means that they find a pattern of
meanings on the source of the data that they have gathered. Therefore, the qualitative
study approach is considered as the most valid method of inquiry in social and human
sciences (Kamil, 2000) and education (Creswell, 2012).
In social science research, Given (2008:327) states that inductive reasoning is a particular
relevance in the qualitative approach. This means that induction is the main component
of systematic reasoning in qualitative studies. As a result, the process of a qualitative
study is mainly inductive, with the researcher producing meaning from the data gathered
in the research site. In addition to this understanding, Creswell (2009:164) argues that
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qualitative research approach is interpretative research approach because qualitative
researchers build an interpretation of what they observe, hear and comprehend.
Given (2008: xxix) highlights qualitative research as an approach which is usually
employed to investigate new phenomena and to arrest persons’ considerations,
emotional state, or interpretations of meaning and process. Merriam (2009:3) concurs
that qualitative study offers a researcher the opportunity to go into the individuals’ present
familiarities or stories about their lives. Moreover, Merriam argues that the qualitative
study is not a rigid approach as a quantitative study by its nature. She also confirms that
the qualitative study follows a system of investigation which needs to construct a holistic,
mostly narrative description to inform the researcher’s understanding of a public or
traditional phenomenon.
Creswell (2012:16) and Crowe et al. (2015:1) put it that pure qualitative study is
dependent on the gathering of qualitative data (i.e., non-numerical data such as words
and pictures). According to his statement, in the qualitative study approach, various
groups are supposed to build their different realities or viewpoints and these social
constructions, in return impact how they “see” or comprehend their environments and how
they should act. Guba and Lincoln (1994), on their part, state that qualitative researchers,
in general, argue that “the reality is socially built” because social behaviour follows socially
constructed norms. According to these scholars’ argument, one of the leading causes for
carrying out qualitative research is that the study is exploratory rather than explanatory.
As Creswell (2012) supports, qualitative researches are the best at giving to a more
significant comprehension of beliefs, views, outlooks and processes of gender treatment.
Furthermore, Stake (2010: 15) describes qualitative research as an interpretive approach
that provides an opportunity for multiple meanings. Supporting this, Yin (2011:8) says that
a qualitative study approach includes examining the meaning of persons’ lives, under
real-life settings. Yin also explains that the qualitative study approach attempts to gather,
assimilate and present data from a multiplicity of sources of evidence as a portion of any
specific research, such as the importance of interviews and observations and even the
review of documents and artefacts. Both Stake (ibid.) and Yin (ibid.), thus, describes
qualitative research as field-oriented as well as situational. This means that the qualitative
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study approach includes contextual circumstances—the public, organisational and
surrounding conditions within which societies’ lives take place. As they confirm, these
contextual circumstances may powerfully affect all human actions. In the following
section, a case study research type is discussed.
5.3.3 RESEARCH TYPE
The research strategy, which is employed in this research, is a case study research type.
The rationale for choosing this research type is that case studies are a plan of inquiry in
which the researcher studies the details of a programme, incident, activity, process, or
one or more persons (Gravetter & Forzano, 2015:590; Merriam, 2002:8). Cases are also
restricted by phase, place and action, and researchers gather in-depth data employing a
variety of data gathering techniques over a continued period (Creswell, 2009:30).
Anderson et al. (2014:89) further explain case studies as descriptive, exploratory or
explanatory analyses of a person, group, event, policy, project, decision, or organisations.
As Kothari (2004), Creswell (2009) and Pearson et al. (2015) state, a multiple case study
contains an in-depth description of the research site or persons, followed by an analysis
of the data for themes or issues. The researcher hopes that using qualitative case study
type is appropriate to investigate gender treatment in the Grade 9 English instructional
activities and gender representation in the Grade 9 English textbook. According to Yin
(2003), qualitative case study research type outshines at enticing us to a comprehension
of a complicated matter or thing and may increase familiarity or supplement strength to
what is already known through the preceding study.
Similarly, Baxter and Jack (2008: 550) reveal the reason why a multiple or collective case
study will permit the researcher to examine in every setting and across settings. Thus, in
a multiple case study research type, researchers are scrutinising several cases to
comprehend the similarities and differences among the cases. Merriam (2009: 49) also
affirms that the more cases incorporated in a study and the higher the difference across
the cases, the more convincing an interpretation is probably expected. The incorporation
of various cases is, in fact, a known strategy for increasing the external validity or
generalisability of research results.
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Stake (1978:386) explains a case study research type as in-depth investigations that are
planned to produce a thorough and systematised picture of the unit under research. This
is consistent with Creswell et al. (2007:246) who define case study research type as a
qualitative method in which the researcher investigates a confined system (a case) or
manifold restricted systems (cases). This happens over time through comprehensive,
detailed data gathering, including various sources of data (e.g., observations, interviews,
audio-visual material, and documents and reports) and reports a case description and
case-based themes.
In a case study research type, Creswell (2009) discusses that the researcher offers a
comprehensive interpretation of one or more cases. Although case study research type
typically depends on qualitative data, various methods are also employed. Case study
research type may also be employed to explore exploratory, descriptive and explanatory
research questions. This shows that case study research type is different from
phenomenology, which emphasises on persons’ familiarity with some phenomenon;
ethnography that highlights some part of the culture; or grounded theory that emphasises
on emerging an explanatory theory (Yin 2003). According to Merriam (2002:8), what all
pure case studies have in common is an emphasis on each case as an entire unit (i.e.,
case study research is holistic) as it occurs in its everyday context. Supporting this,
Creswell (2009) reiterates that the case study results are provided in terms of themes and
sub-themes substantiated by quotes.
As Merriam (2009: 49) and Stake (1995, as cited by Anderson et al., 2014:91) puts it, a
case is described as a phenomenon happening in a restricted or identified environment
and is the element of analysis. Stake (2005, as cited by Merriam, 2009: 48) identifies
three types of case studies, differentiated by the researcher’s interest, such as “intrinsic,
instrumental, and collective”. However, for this study, collective or multiple case studies
were chosen because, in collective or multiple case studies, a number of cases are
studied to explore an occurrence, persons, or general situation (ibid.).
Merriam (2009: 50) also explains that “Multisite case studies can be challenging to
manage”. However, to minimise this challenge, Bogdan and Biklen (2007, as cited by
Merriam, 2009: 50) suggest conducting research in a single site at a time rather than
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concurrently gathering information from numerous sites because conducting more than a
single site at a time may become confusing. There may be excessive names to recall,
numerous information to handle. After the researcher finishes his primary case, he will
find that in multiple case studies, successive cases are straightforward. The primary case
study would have presented a focus to explain the boundaries of the others. The next
table illustrates the nature of a case study research.
Table 5.2: The Nature of Case Study Research Type
Methodology Purpose Unit of Analysis Data Sources
Case Study In-depth description
and analysis of a case
An event, person,
or programme
Multiple sources, such
as interviews,
observations,
and documents
As presented in the following table, different scholars have suggested different typologies
for case studies.
Table 5.3: Types of Case Study
Scholars Types of case study Description
Stake(1995) Intrinsic case study The case is known, rather
than selected, as
commonly exists within a
programme evaluation.
Instrumental case study The case is chosen for its
capability to support an
overall understanding of a
phenomenon.
137
Collective case study Two or more representative
cases are chosen.
Yin(2014) Exploratory case study A form of a pilot study to
report to a later study.
Descriptive case study Gives a complete,
contextualised account of a
phenomenon.
Explanatory case study Planned to shed light on
causal factors taking to
account specific events.
Source: Pearson (2014:3)
5.4 RESEARCH METHODS
The research method provides a direction and framework for developing specific
procedures for the research site and participant selection, data collection and analysis,
measures for trustworthiness, ethical measures and finally a summary of the chapter.
5.4.1 SELECTION OF PARTICIPANTS
According to scholars such as Creswell (2012:142), employing sampling techniques is
essential in selecting research sites and participants. Because of this idea, the sampling
technique that the researcher employed to carry out this research was non-probability
sampling. Given (2008:562) and Cohen et al. (2007:113) define non-probability sampling
as a known technique in qualitative studies in which researchers employ their judgement
to choose a sample. Therefore, among the known sorts of non-probability sampling
techniques are “convenience sampling, purposive sampling, and snowball sampling”
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(Given, 2008:562). For this study, purposive sampling was employed to select the study
sites and participants.
Given (2008:562) and Ritchie and Lewis (2003:107-108) explain purposive sampling as
a procedure in which research participants are chosen because they meet the principles
that have been prearranged by the researcher as appropriate to address the study
question (e.g., individuals of a specific age or other demographic classification). As
previously mentioned, purposeful sampling was employed for the selection of research
sites and participants for this research. As Creswell (2012:45) writes, purposeful
sampling is usually employed in qualitative studies because it involves choosing study
sites and participants according to the desires of the research. In that, researchers select
sites and participants who provided rich data that were appropriate for an in-depth study.
Supporting this idea, Patton (2015, cited by Guetterman, 2015:4) explains that
purposeful sampling involves selecting information-rich cases.
Therefore, this research was carried out in four General Secondary Schools, which are
located in North Shoa Zone, Amhara Regional State in Ethiopia. A sample size of the
study is also discussed in this section because, primarily, small sample sizes are
acceptable for qualitative research. This is because the purpose of a particular qualitative
case study research is to search for understanding a phenomenon in-depth and in detail
rather than to seek generalisations based on large sample sizes (Marvasti, 2004 &
Creswell, 2007). Thus, this study used a small number of participants. In other words, the
sample of this research does not represent the wider population, but it allows an in-depth
understanding and interpretation regarding the case.
According to Creswell (2012:206), to ensure variability among the population, consisting
of equal numbers of girls and boys, each sample is composed of active female and male
learners participating or involved in learning and teaching processes in the same Grade
level. This is because it helps the researcher to decide how gender relations are
constructed in relation to female learners’ classroom roles.
Firstly, it was stated how research sites were selected under this section. Selecting the
research site was the beginning of the present study. When I decided on my empirical
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study, I began to think about the research sites. The researcher selected schools that had
Grade 9. However, according to the purpose of the study, government schools were
selected because these schools were located in different rural districts. Additionally, most
of the private schools were currently teaching below Grade 9, except one school that was
located at the Zone town.
However, I made it a point that despite location differences, the schools must have similar
social, economic and cultural settings to uncover if there are any differences with the
practices and the perceptions of the people against gender bias and discrimination across
the locations. On my inclusion criteria list, I made sure that each school was a government
school. Therefore, I followed the criterion based on purposive sampling for the nomination
of the schools. I also decided upon taking Grade 9 because it is the period of continuation
to secondary level.
With the above-stated criteria for the selection of the high schools, I began my search in
four schools. Within Amhara Regional State, North Shoa Zone has 24 rural Districts. Each
rural District has one general secondary school. Among these rural General Secondary
Schools, four government schools were purposively nominated for this study because
these schools were not as far as the rest of the schools. They could be easily accessible
with one bus travel and the selection criteria would not have much difference.
However, three high schools are located within North Shoa Zone Town level. These high
schools are found near my residence because I live in this town. Besides, I thought that
there might not be much difference between the social, cultural and economic stance
between the people of the Zone town level and the rural District town level. Therefore, the
researcher dropped the Zone town high schools and selected the four rural District high
schools. The rest of the high schools are far from my residence. Since they are located
in rural District town, it was a challenging task unless the researcher could find
somewhere to stay during the research period.
Thus, I decided on choosing four government schools. These schools are located within
North Shoa Zone, Amhara Regional State. The school A is located in Tarma Ber District.
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School B is located in Angola and Tera District. School C is located in Minjar and
Shenkora District. Moreover, school D is found in Ansokiya District.
Secondly, as mentioned under the selection of research sites, before nominating research
participants, my first task was the selection of the sections after selecting schools. In each
school, there were 15 sections (from A to O). From school A, section A, B, C and D were
taken. From school B, section A, B, C and D were selected. From school C, section A, B,
C and D were chosen. From school D, section A, B, C and D were selected to balance
the number of sections from four schools. If the data collected were not saturated in these
sections, I continued until my data became saturated. When the participants’ responses
were redundant, I stopped my data collection process. Scholars such as Creswell
(2012:251) consider saturation as the point where the qualitative researchers have
identified the major themes and no new information can be added to their list of themes
or to the details for existing themes.
Thirdly, purposeful sampling was applied to choose participants who were willing and
available to be studied (Marvasti, 2004:9; Creswell, 2007:118). The participants of this
study included four teachers, 16 learners and four school principals in the same Grade
level. This means that they all belonged to Grade 9 General Secondary Schools. Four
teachers and four principals were selected for face-to-face interviews. Sixteen learners
were identified for focus group interviews because qualitative interviews were used to let
the participants describe their beliefs, attitudes, perceptions and experiences of gender
treatment and representation.
After observing all the periods of section A, B, C and D in each school for one whole day
and after the discussion with the English teachers, I selected learners based on the
criteria of their gender and classroom activity. Two girls and two boys from each school
were purposively selected in four schools, respectively; in total, eight girls and eight boys
consisted of the 16 learners.
Therefore, the target population of this study were learners, teachers, and principals of
North Shoa Zone selected General Secondary Schools. Therefore, a total of four
teachers were purposively selected from Grade nine based on the selection criteria such
141
as the subject they taught and as the classroom teacher from four schools, respectively.
This means that from each school, one English teacher who taught English subject in
Grade 9 was selected for individual interviews. To balance gender composition, from
school A, one male English teacher was chosen. From school B, one female English
teacher was selected. From school C, one male English teacher was selected. From
school D, one female English teacher was nominated.
Similarly, from each school, one school principal was selected based on their gender for
an individual interview. From school A, one male principal was chosen. From school B,
one female principal was selected. From school C, one male principal was nominated.
Moreover, from school D, one female principal was selected. Therefore, participants were
selected from four General Secondary Schools in North Shoa Zone Amhara Region by
using purposive sampling. From each school, one principal, one English teacher and four
learners were selected in the same Grade level. In addition, the class level and the
English textbook were purposively identified for this study.
In general, I made informal talks with the selected participants before probing into my
research. Girls and boys were informally interacted with during tea breaks or in the
morning before the class started or after school. They talked about family, area of
interests and school participation in a friendly manner. They were also inquisitive to learn
about me and I perceived this as friendly. This made me more at ease to interact with
them while interviewing them. I also informed them about the purpose of my research
before interviewing. Likewise, teachers were also approached informally during their off
periods and tea breaks. All the participants were informed about my objective and with
their consent. Interviews were recorded by an audio-tape-recorder whenever needed.
Additionally for confidentiality, pseudonyms have been employed in case of all
participants. The selection and number of participants are presented in the table below:
Table 5.4: Summary of Sample Characteristics
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Schools’
Location
Angolela
& Tera
District
Tarma Ber
District
Ansokiya
District
Minjar &
Shenkora
District
Total
Girls 2 2 2 2 8
Boys 2 2 2 2 8
Teacher(Female) 1 1 2
Teacher(Male) 1 1 2
Principal(Female) 1 1 2
Principal(Male) 1 1 2
Total
Participants
24
5.4.2 DATA COLLECTION
Data collection was conducted through individual interviews, focus group interviews,
classroom observation and document (textbook) review. Therefore, the research was
carried out in real sites using a blend of observation, interviews and documents.
According to Creswell’s (2009:166) statement, the data gathering procedures encompass
identifying the boundaries for the research, gathering data through unstructured or semi-
structured observations and interviews, documents and visual materials, as well as
creating the protocol for recording data.
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To collect information, both primary and secondary sources of data were employed. The
primary sources were learners, teachers and principals, whereas the secondary source
was the Grade 9 learners’ English textbook.
In this study, the participants took part in the semi-structured individual interviews and
focus group interviews. Therefore, for participant interviews, it included three categories
of participants: four English teachers who are currently teaching English subject in Grade
9, four principals who are currently managing the schools and 16 learners in Grade 9.
As Creswell (2012:16) points out, a qualitative approach that depends on the gathering
of qualitative information in terms of words and pictures allows a detailed investigation of
a few persons. Therefore, research techniques were identified as data collection
instruments, which consisted of semi-structured individual interviews, focus group
interviews, classroom observation and document (textbook) review were employed to
attain the qualitative information in General Secondary Schools located in North Shoa
Zone, Amhara Regional State.
As Daniel (2011:182) and Creswell (2012:465) point out, qualitative researchers mainly
collect manifold forms of information. The data collection in case study research allows a
detailed investigation of a few persons, illustrating on multiple sources of data, such as
observations, interviews, documents, and audio-visual materials (Marvasti, 2004:17 &
Creswell, 2009:186). At that point, the researchers revise all of the information, create a
sense of it and organise it into groups or themes that cut across all of the sources of
information.
To confirm the validity, I triangulated the data by gathering data from multiple sources.
Given this, qualitative data were gathered in the subsequent ways: (1) observational field
notes of learners’ participating and interacting with peers in the classroom context; (2)
focus group interviews; (3) individual interviews; (4) audio-tape recordings of teachers’,
principals’ and learners’ interviews; and (5) documents (learners’ English textbook).
Patton (1999:1192) provides that blends of an interview, observation, and document
analysis are anticipated in fieldwork. Studies that employ merely a single tool are more
susceptible to faults related to that specific tool.
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Therefore, this study employed numerous sources and approaches to gather information,
which includes semi-structured interviews of teachers, school principals and learners,
non-participant observations and document reviews. This means that I interviewed four
teachers, four principals and 16 learners from all selected schools to understand their
gender beliefs, attitudes, experiences and perceptions in learning and teaching
processes.
In qualitative studies, Yin (1994:52) and Daniel (2011:411) discuss that information
gathering sources are essential to the result of any research. For instance, interviews give
honest quotes from persons about their familiarities, beliefs, emotional state and
understanding of gender. Therefore, I employed a diversity of information assembling
methods, such as face-to-face interviews, non-participant observations and document
review to collect as numerous viewpoints and information as possible. In addition to this,
I also employed focus group interviews to gather information from learners in Grade 9.
In the following subdivision of this chapter, I concisely described the tools I used in
gathering information for this research.
5.4.2.1 Interviews
As Creswell (2009:214) says, “qualitative interviews means that the researcher conducts
face-to-face interviews with participants, interviews participants by telephone, or involves
them in focus group interviews with six to eight interviewees in each cluster”. As Turner’s
(2010:754) statement shows, interviews provide in-depth information about participants'
experiences and viewpoints of a particular topic.
As Turner (2010:754) and Creswell (2009:214) explain, interviews are carried out on a
semi-structured basis with the assistance of a timetable of questions and subjects
because semi-structured interviews are used to examine participants’ experiences and
individual opinions of traditional gender treatment and representation. I conducted all the
interviews. For instance, semi-structured interviewing was centred on the use of
instruction during the interview, which is a transcribed list of open- ended questions and
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topics that were included. Using an interview guide made it possible to have some control
over what one wanted from an interview.
Formal interviews ranged from 45 minutes to one hour and were conducted at a time and
place that was most appropriate for participants. Previous observations and document
review led the interview questions. Learner interviews, in the form of formal interviews,
were primary to this study as the central questions have to do with learners’ beliefs,
experiences, interests, attitudes, perceptions and assumptions of gender treatment within
classroom interactions. An interview procedure was also employed for formal interviews.
The questions in the protocol served as a guide.
I conducted the individual interviews with teachers and principals as well as the focus
group interviews with learners in the selected schools. The research period was from
June to October 2017. For the duration of the research, I spent 30 days in each school.
Being in the research field made me able to understand and contextualise traditional
gender treatment in terms of gender role and responsibility, gender bias and
discrimination, gender stereotype against girls and women and gender inequality versus
equality within the sociocultural frames of the school community. By staying in the school,
I managed to obtain background information of the participants based on ongoing
observations. These were how gender was treated through female learners’ to male
learners’ interaction and learners’ to teachers’ interaction inside and outside the
classroom context, as well as what roles and responsibilities were given to girls or women
and boys or men in the classroom as well as in the school context.
For example, I could see how daily learning activities were performed by girls and boys
and how both girls and boys worked hard every day. For that reason, ongoing observation
helped me to observe ongoing activities through participants’ daily interactions in the
selected groups. This gave me an in-depth comprehension of the setting and meaning.
Therefore, I used semi-structured individual interviews with open-ended questions to ask
for responses from four teachers and four school principals. The benefit in employing
semi-structured interviews was that it gave me freedom and flexibility to do amendments,
probe and request for elucidation.
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In general, two types of interviews were employed in this research– individual interview
with four teachers and four school principals as well as focus group interviews with 16
learners.
(i) Individual interviews
According to Kothari (2004:97), an individual/personal interview involves an exchange of
ideas between a participant concentrating on the study questions and me. Namely, the
study questions related to participants’ gender beliefs, insights, thoughts, and particular
familiarities of gender in learning and teaching practices. Only four English teachers and
four school principals were involved in individual interviews. Another advantage of
conducting face-to-face interviews was that I had the opportunity to discuss responses
and attaining direct elucidation from participants.
Moreover, the advantage of doing individual interviews was that I could pay close
attention to each participant. For instance, if a participant does not understand the
meaning of the question or the researcher feels that he/she does not answer fully, the
researcher can ask the question differently or probe him/her (Merriam, 2009:100 &
Creswell, 2009:170). On the other hand, an individual interview was reactive in the way
that the information given from a participant depended on the relation between the
participant and me.
The interviews with teachers and principals were carried out in their schools because this
location was appropriate for both the participants and me. The interviews lasted
approximately 45 minutes and were recorded with an audio-tape recorder.
(ii) Focus Group Interviews (FGI)
As stated by Merriam (2009:93), FGI is an organised and detailed group interview that is
employed to gather qualitative information. This means that focus group investigation is
a type of qualitative technique employed to collect rich, descriptive information in a small-
group structure from participants who have approved to ‘focus’ on a topic of shared
interest.
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Regarding FGI, Creswell (2009:218) provides a statement that a focus group interview is
a procedure of gathering information through interviews with a collection of persons,
typically four to six. Therefore, in this study, the number of participants, for FGI, ranged
from four to six. The emphasis of FGI was on comprehending participants’ familiarities,
interests, outlooks, perceptions and expectations of gender treatment.
In the same way, Given (2008:352) shows that FGI is an excellent way to comprehend
the insights and opinions of participants because interpersonal communication is useful
in highlighting cultural values or group norms about gender treatment. As mentioned
before, I employed the snowball method to get the participants for the FGI.
Generally speaking, FGI is meant to investigate individuals’ knowledge and familiarities:
what persons consider how they ponder, and why they meditate that way (Wilkinson &
Birmingham, 2003 & Creswell, 2009). The method can also be employed to investigate
how societies’ attitudes or views are constructed. In this way, FGI was well-suited for this
qualitative study which centred on the gender treatment between male learners and
female learners in the school as well as in the classroom context. According to Marvasti
(2004:22), in FGI, the researcher poses questions from several participants concurrently
to motivate the conversation and comprehend the meanings and norms that trigger those
group responses.
As a result, I selected four group leaders for four FGI and asked them to invite learners
whom they thought could openly and comfortably speak about traditional gender beliefs,
perceptions and behaviours in the English classroom learning and teaching practices.
Then, the participants seemed encouraged to discuss issues with each other, to ask each
other questions, add comments on each other’s opinions or experiences and share their
views and experiences. Concerning this, I conducted a series of FGI with learners.
Each learner in the class of selected schools who was given consent forms provided
assent to participate in the FGI. Therefore, 16 learners were involved in the FGI. In each
general secondary school, four learners were involved in each FGI. These groups were
configured in heterogeneous gender.
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Therefore, I conducted four FGI with both male and female learners. All discussions were
held in one of each school’s offices or free classroom. The FGI lasted 1:30-2 hours and
were recorded with an audiotape recorder. I attended all discussions and observed the
participants’ body language, expressions and then the general atmosphere.
5.4.2.2 Observation
As expressed by Newman and Benz (1998:58), observation is the most recurrent data
gathering technique employed in a qualitative study. According to Creswell (2009:214),
qualitative observation means that the researcher writes field notes on the conduct and
deeds of persons at the study site and registers observations.
Moreover, various scholars such as Wilkinson and Birmingham (2003) and Creswell
(2007) explain that observation is made up of the existing situations of persons, the types
of labour being performed and the sites where the labour is performed and spatial
restrictions that successfully limit movement, existing space and other types of presence.
For this study, as Kothari (2004:96) and Newman and Benz (1998:197) discuss, I selected
to utilise non-participant observation which included me deliberately not participating in
any of the common deeds of the group under exploration, keeping instead an observant
and skilfully detached role and rapport with the participants of the group during
observations.
It is essential to note the difference between participant and non-participant observations.
As Newman and Benz (1998:59) describe:
In participant observation, the researcher is a consistent participant in the actions being
observed; while in non-participant observation, the researcher is not a participant in the
continuing actions being observed. As paralleled to participant observation strategies, the
validity of non-participant observation strategies is more extensive because there is no
reactivity among the issues to the existence of the researcher although this reduction in
unfairness does not avoid the other bias effects.
According to Kothari (2004), Newman and Benz (1998) and Creswell (2007), researchers
may involve non-participant observation for several reasons because the researcher may
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have restricted or no access to a specific group and consequently may not have the
chance to be involved in participant observation. As Kothari (2004:96) states, non-
participant observation, when the onlooker observes as a distant representative without
any effort on his share to familiarity through partaking in what others feel, the type of this
observation is often termed non-participant observation.
As Newman and Benz (1998:197) write, non-participant observation is reflected in a study
situation where the researcher gathers information as an outsider and does not partake
in continuing actions. First, I went to the school and showed the letter to the school
principal because it was significant to obtain entrance permission to the study sites. Then,
the school principal informed the teacher to get prepared to partake in the research and
to inform his classroom learners to give their informed consent. After the classroom
learners had expressed their willingness to be observed, I started my classroom
observation. Thus, to improve a thorough comprehension of how learners interact with
their teachers and peers, I observed learners and teachers during instructional time and
took observational field notes. During four weeks in each school, observations occurred
for three to four hours a day, five days a week in order to become immersed in the context.
5.4.2 .3 Documents
As Merriam (2002:13) states, “Documents, whether official records, texts, photographs,
video-recordings, or personal diaries and journals, are a valuable information source”.
Therefore, documents are available means of qualitative data collection. This means that
document analysis is the review of the transcribed text. Therefore, Given (2008:232)
confirms that a document is a text-based folder that may encompass the prime
information (gathered by the researcher) or the ancillary information (gathered and
archived or printed by others) as well as photographs, diagrams and other pictorial
materials. In this regard, both Creswell (2007:141) and Given (2008:232) emphasise that
documents establish the centre for the most qualitative study. According to Ritchie and
Lewis (2003:4), the typical approach to the analysis of documents primarily centres on
what is confined within them. Although documents consistently hold data, it is also evident
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that each document goes into human action in dual relations. Therefore, documents
provided data on how gender was represented in the selected English textbook.
5.4.2. 4 Data recording procedures
As stated by Creswell (2009:169), before going to school, I submitted a letter to the Zone
Education Office to obtain permission from the education officers. After obtaining a
permission letter from those officers, I went to the school and showed the letter to the
school principal because it was significant to obtain entrance to the study sites by looking
for the consent of doorkeepers, persons at the study place that gave entrance to the site
and let the study be conducted. Then, the school principal informed the teacher to get
prepared to partake in the research and to nominate learners who had rich data about
gender treatment in the English classroom context. After the participants had expressed
their willingness to participate, they were asked to give their informed consent to
participate in the study.
I identified participants for FGI by using the purposeful method. Moreover, I considered
gender compositions in each group to be one of the most significant factors to allow
comfortable discussions regarding traditional gender beliefs, attitudes and roles. In order
to obtain various opinions about the topic, I initially selected participants in Grade 9.
Therefore, I purposively selected two female and two male participants who were all older
than 16 years of age. Moreover, I made a schedule and chose the place where the FGI
was held.
Procedure for data collection: The procedure that I utilised in data gathering included
the following:
• My first contact with the Zone Education Office was through a letter of permission.
• A supportive letter from the Zone Education Office was given by me to the selected
District Education Office and then to the school principal. These letters stated the purpose
of the research and the protocol that I followed in ensuring the participants’ confidentiality
and anonymity.
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• Through the school principal, the permission and consent letter was distributed to be
purposefully selected English teachers and learners during my arrival at the site.
• The whole period of my fieldwork was about four months. Personally, I hoped that I
spent more time on the study site to conduct more schoolroom observation.
• As soon as I arrived at the schools, I set up programmes with potential participants. The
focus group interviews with the learners were conducted in the opposite shift with
permission from the teachers, learners and principals. They were all done in the school
compound that was allotted me by the school principals. Each focus group interview took
between 50 minutes and 1:30 hours.
• The face-to-face interviews, with teachers and principals, were conducted in the schools.
In addition, an agreement form was read to the learners at the commencement of each
focus group interview.
5.4.3 DATA ANALYSIS
Merriam (2010) and Creswell (2013) say that qualitative study is based on qualitative
information and inclines to follow the exploratory approach of the scientific process. In a
qualitative study, Merriam (2002:14) explains that “data analysis is simultaneous with data
collection”. In addition, regarding the process of data analysis, as mentioned by scholars
such as Creswell (2007:150), qualitative data analysis is done simultaneously with
collecting information, constructing interpretations and preparing reports. From the
qualitative perspective, Merriam (2009:171, 175-76) defines data analysis as the
procedure of creating sense out of the information by merging, dropping, and interpreting
what individuals have uttered and what the researcher has observed and read. Therefore,
it is the course of building meaning.
As Merriam (2002:5) and Stake (1995, cited in Creswell, 2009:30) state, qualitative case
study research encompasses an in-depth account of the study site or persons, followed
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by an analysis of the data for themes or subjects. Therefore, in a qualitative case study,
themes emerge through the data analysis (Ibid.). This means that during qualitative data
analysis, the researcher would attempt to recognise groupings that pronounce what
occurred, as well as general themes repeatedly occurring in the data. Even if I tried to
employ a Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Package, ATLAS ti, version:7.1.4
for the handling of qualitative data which were collected through the interviews,
observation and document review, I also utilised thematic analysis to transcribe, code
and analyse the collected data.
According to Daniel’s (2011:106) statement, the qualitative study may be seen as a
“thematic analysis” in which qualitative information is written through particular thematic
codes produced from the theory and combined during analysis. For this study, data
gathered by interviews, observations and document reviews have been scrutinised by
using thematic analysis to identify differences and similarities within the themes (Graff
et al., 2018:3; Crowe et al., 2015:2). There are six steps which are prescribed by Braun
and Clarke (2006, as cited by Graff, Christensen, Poulsen and Egerod, 2018:3) in
carrying out a thematic analysis as guidelines for this study.
Through the six steps of thematic analysis, qualitative data may be identified, analysed,
and reported. However, the data should not be employed as prescriptive, linear, and
inflexible rules (Judger, 2016:2 & 3). Therefore, thematic analysis is used to build
established, meaningful patterns (Braun & Clarke, 2006, cited by Maguire & Delahunt,
2017:3354). The six steps or phases are as follows: Phase 1: Becoming familiar with the
data, Phase 2: Generating initial codes, Phase 3: Searching for themes, Phase 4:
Reviewing themes, Phase 5: Defining and naming themes, and Phase 6: Producing the
report (Braun, Clarke, Hayfield, and Terry, 2019:60-69 & Eynon, O’Donnell, and
Williams, 2018: 8-9).
What Given (2008:867) and Graff et al. (2018:3) are saying is that data are reduced and
analysed through the steps of thematic analysis because qualitative data are fragmented,
classified, abridged, and rebuilt in a way that arrests the significant notions within the
dataset. In addition, Merriam (2002:14) and Judger (2016:2) provide that relations and
interactions are observed and noted. To ensure that, they say the data collected ought to
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be broken up into manageable pieces and will be sorted and sifted for types, classes,
sequences, processes and patterns.
Given (2008:868) and Eynon et al. (2018: 8) further discuss thematic analysis as a
crucial method to evaluate data saturation in the data gathering process. Normally, data
were analysed through the process of reoccurrence to obtain and build themes. I also
assessed the interview texts based on recurrent statements, phrases, and words.
On the other hand, Vaismoradi et al. (2016:100) discuss the differences in qualitative
content and thematic analysis as two approaches of qualitative descriptive research.
These researchers say that both qualitative content analysis and thematic analysis are
collections of procedures employed to scrutinise textual information and clarify themes.
Smith and Firth (2011:4) and Crowe et al. (2015:2) also describe the thematic analysis as
an interpretative procedure, whereby information is scientifically examined to classify
patterns in the data to give an educational account of the phenomenon. Supporting this
idea, Maguire and Delahunt (2017:3352) discuss thematic analysis as a procedure of
classifying patterns or themes within qualitative data.
In inductive data analysis, Creswell (2007:38 & 2009:164) writes that qualitative
researchers construct their patterns, classifications and themes from the bottom up, by
arranging the data into increasingly more abstract units of data. He further argues that
the inductive process shows functioning back and forth between the themes and the
database until the researchers have established a complete collection of themes.
Therefore, the analytic process and salient themes have a purpose because they are
used for making readers have access.
Merriam (2009:183) and Moral, de Antonio, Ferre and Lara (2015:10) state that the
construction of categories is highly inductive. As Newman and Benz (1998:195) describe,
inductive reasoning is a type of thinking which advocates facts that flow from specific to
general. First, I repeatedly read all the texts to increase acquaintance with all the data.
Then, themes were noted, and the transcripts in ATLAS.ti identified units of meanings.
The codes were determined based on the contents of the data because coding was
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conducted sentence by sentence. Some of the units of meanings were revised, and new
ones were created.
Then, I combined these codes and created themes. After the coding process, I
summarised units of meanings into a short text and then found crucial quotes to reflect
the meaning. Finally, based on Merriam’s (2009:227) and Judger’s (2016:3) statement, I
integrated the insights from the summarised units of meaning into generalised
descriptions that reflect significant factors. This means that qualitative researchers often
have a role in reporting various quotes and presenting numerous viewpoints on themes.
For transcription and initial reading of transcription, all of the interviews were recorded
with an audio-tape and transcribed verbatim. The interview plan showed that all interviews
should be conducted in English.
Regarding coding and categorisation of responses, scholars such as Yin (1994:15), Given
(2008:521), Kothari (2004:18), Creswell (2009:164) and Moral et al. (2015:11) say that
qualitative researchers establish analytic units to form classifications and then
theoretically organise findings connected to a phenomenon or human knowledge that is
under exploration. In addition, classifications may be perceived as an intermediary step
in an ongoing process of separating and connecting units of meaning based on
qualitatively collected data.
The process of data analysis may have an association with the two terms “code and
coding” because they are essential during data analysis. Thus, codes are stated as
concepts and identification by distinct criteria (Given, 2008:85). In relation to this idea,
before data gathering, codes can be established, or they may inductively emerge through
the coding process. On the other hand, coding is known as the process of segmenting
and labelling text to form descriptions and broad themes in the data (Creswell, 2012:243).
In a qualitative study, scholars such as Given (2008:85) discuss coding as the inductive
procedure of producing thoughts and ideas from uncooked information such as interview
transcripts, field notes, archival materials, reports, newspaper articles and art. In general,
the coding practice is related to the phases that the researcher employs to classify,
organise, and systematise thoughts, concepts and classifications revealed in the data.
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Consequently, coding involves classifying possibly exciting actions, structures, phrases,
behaviours, or steps of a procedure and differentiating them with labels. As a result,
coding and themes seem interconnected because themes may be developed through
coding and coding may be developed through themes.
In this research, after the data gathering, I transcribed both individual and focus group
interview data. Then I read the transcripts to familiarise myself with the collected data and
re-listened to the recordings to have a comprehensive understanding of the data, and I
re-read the text until I was comfortable. Next, I produced the first codes from the collected
data that had a repeated pattern by identifying the preliminary codes because these
codes were more multiple and detailed than themes. I labelled related sentences together
with essential words that reflected similar or relevant concepts originating from the
transcript that was integrated through the refinement of the iteration. Many of the codes
were redundant to understand, but through the coding process the data were reduced or
simplified (Moral, et al. 2015). In other words, when new codes were added by refining
the iterated initial codes, former codes were deleted or reformulated (Judger, 2016:3).
After generating initial codes that were refined by adding, deducting, combining or
splitting potential codes, I combined similar codes to have a list of anticipated themes.
Then, I revised the themes to identify whether they fit together in terms of their coherent
patterns because some existent themes might collapse into each other; other themes
might need to be condensed into smaller units (Graff et al., 2018:3). At this stage, I recited
and re-recited the data to specify if the existing themes linked back to the dataset. Next,
I defined and named the current themes that were delivered in the last analysis, as stated
by Graff et al. (2018:3). Here I identified whether the existing themes covered sub-themes
because it was significant to think themes through the entire image and as independent
themes. At this step, I wrote an in-depth analysis to recognise the story of each theme. I
reviewed the final themes, and then I began the process of writing the last research
report. When I wrote the final report, I determined which themes made meaningful
contributions to responding to the study questions that were refined later as final themes.
According to Creswell (2003:159), interpretation means to assign significance or coherent
meaning. Thus, the process of data interpretation is used to interpret the research findings
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that are presented in a descriptive way which is supported by straight quotes from the
participant. This process enabled me to draw empirical conclusions and
recommendations. Producing interpretation or meaning from the analysed data is a final
step (Lincoln & Guba, 1985, cited in Creswell, 2009:176). According to the interpretative
nature of the qualitative inquiry, researchers make interpretation of what they see, hear
and understand (Creswell, 2009:164; 2007:39), but their interpretations cannot be
separated from their backgrounds, history, contexts and prior understandings. After a
study report is delivered, the readers make the interpretation as well as the participants
because they may offer other interpretations of the study. This shows how multiple views
of the study problem can emerge (Creswell, 2009:164).
5.4.4 MEASURES FOR TRUSTWORTHINESS IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
According to Shenton (2004:64), a qualitative study is further distinguished by its
“trustworthiness” which is increased when data analysis and conclusions are triangulated.
As Kamil et al. (2000:214) and Given (2008:895) describe, a qualitative study ought to
discuss the procedures being used to assure trustworthiness. Yin (1994:32) also says
that the trustworthiness of the information comes from the strong attention on the real-
site. Therefore, in a qualitative study, trustworthiness is a very important term because it
permits researchers to explain the merits of qualitative terms out of the parameters that
are mainly practical in a quantitative study.
Guba and Lincoln (1981 & 1985) also propose four qualitative terms that are recognised
in the qualitative research to create the trustworthiness of qualitative information. These
terms include credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability. As Shenton
(2004:64) confirms, these criteria are more relevant words for founding and assessing the
validity and reliability of qualitative information. I used this through combining document
review, interviews and observation to facilitate trustworthiness through triangulation of
data sources and participant viewpoints. Due to this reason, these terms are discussed
hereunder.
5.4.4.1 Credibility
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As suggested by Guba and Lincoln (1985, as cited by Shenton, 2004:64; Moon et al.
2016:2), credibility, which is used in preference to internal validity, is seen when the
researcher examines the data through a procedure of reflecting, selecting, discovering,
evaluating its applicability and interpretation and finally emerging themes and essences
that accurately portray the study’s familiarity.
Creswell (2009:178) also says that credibility is recognised by member checking where
the researcher sends participants their text for review and verification. Each participant
had to match their text. Accordingly, as Kamil et al. (2000:80) assert, “A researcher is
expected to make her/his research credible by accurately and richly describing the
phenomenon in question”. As Graff, Christensen, Poulsen, and Egerod, (2018:3) mention,
credibility is also attained when the previous research findings are agreed with the current
study results.
In light of this, when the data were gathered from various sources, the data were
triangulated and used to build a coherent justification for the themes, but it was presented
in the findings. According to Given (2008:139) and Creswell (2009:185), member
checking will be used to decide the correctness of the qualitative results through taking
the last report to participants to determine whether these participants agree that they are
correct and persistent with their views and insights of the research phenomenon. Shenton
(2004:68) adds that member checking is employed to determine the truthfulness of the
qualitative study results by taking back the last report to participants to determine whether
these participants feel that it is correct.
As various scholars such as Creswell and Miller (2000:126) write, qualitative researchers
aggressively include validity plans into their study. Therefore, techniques that are
essential for establishing credibility include the following components.
(i) Triangulation
According to Given (2008:340) and Creswell (2012:259), qualitative researchers may
collect their data from multiple sources of data by employing multiple data gathering
techniques. This is because this method is fundamental to compensating for the
limitations of each technique of data collection through triangulation. Throughout the
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process of data gathering and analysis, I needed to be certain of my study results and
create meanings as truthful. In this study, interviews, observations and document reviews
were not only triangulated with each other but also the interviews (teachers –learners---
principals) were also triangulated because triangulation provides a holistic
comprehension of the condition and generally converging conclusions.
According to Patton (1999:1195), the viewpoints of study participants are triangulated
from various points of view; for example, in gender treatment, I triangulated teachers’,
learners’ and school principals’ views. In the context of this study, the study sites were
triangulated based on the participants’ taking part in various schools to decrease the
influence on the study of specific school factors peculiar to one school. As Shenton
(2004:66) says, findings may become more credible in the eyes of the reader if the same
results emerge at various sites.
In general, scholars such as Creswell (2007:208) and Merriam (2010:216) propose that
various data need to be triangulated by the qualitative researcher through the examination
of evidence from the sources and use of it to construct a coherent justification for themes.
Several sources of data were used to establish converging themes that might assure the
validity of the study. Thus, findings were validated by me to determine the credibility of
the research results through triangulation or member checking.
In this research, I employed triangulation to validate data gathered from different
participants in terms of interviews, focus groups, observation, and document review and
for different sites such as school A, B, C and D because they were highly significant for
this research. In addition to girls and boys who were interviewed, the outlooks of teachers
and principals about gender treatment were mandatory. I also triangulated gender
treatment in classroom instructional activities and gender representation in the textbook
by using two theoretical frameworks.
(ii) Member checking
To conduct satisfactory member checking, I took back the transcriptions to the teachers,
the learners and the school principals. The reason for this was that these participants
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needed to prove and validate the information whether the contents of their discussions
were correct or incorrect (Given, 2008:501; Cresswell, 2007:208 & 2012:259). This
means that member checking was used to decide the accurate results of the qualitative
study because the researcher should take the last report back to participants to determine
whether these participants view them as correct. The researcher should take back the
refined product to the participants because they check its accuracy, but not the raw
transcripts (Shenton, 2004:68). This technique was done by making continuous
interaction with participants in the research and giving them an opportunity to remark on
the study results.
Similarly, Newman and Benz (1998:52) state that to attain the accuracy of the data, both
the data and interpretations regularly are checked through member checking. Relating to
this idea, I returned the last report to the interviewed participants to be checked by them
because this ensured that the final transcripts were correct.
(iii) Prolonged engagement in the field
It was proper for the researcher to stay not only one month for each school but also some
few days in the selected schools. These few days were employed for proving, checking
and validating data from transcripts and the English textbook through individual and focus
group interviews with some of the participants.
Therefore, I exhausted a long time in the study site. Regarding this, Given (2008:690)
states that the qualitative researcher gains a detailed comprehension of the phenomenon
under the research and may also express facts about the field and the persons that give
trustworthiness to the narrative interpretation. What Newman and Benz (1998:510) and
Shenton (2004:65) add is that if the researcher is more familiarised with study participants
in their real location, she/he may have more accurate or valid findings. In this study, I
invested enough time to familiarise with the research site and context to build
trustworthiness because ongoing commitment in the study site with participants was
essential to get rich data, as supported by Korstjens and Moser (2018:2).
(iv) Persistent observation
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I applied this strategy to recognise those features and components that were most related
to the research problem under this study. Extended engagement in the field makes the
inquirer open to the multiple influences, but persistent observation makes the researcher
recognise those features and components in the location that is the most appropriate to
the study subject (Korstjens & Moser, 2018:2-3). In addition, extended engagement gives
scope. However, persistent observation gives depth (Lincoln & Guba, 1985:304).
Therefore, I took a prolonged period to collect data through persistent observation in the
field of this study.
(V) Peer debriefing
As Lincoln and Guba (1985: 308) describe, “peer debriefing” gives an opportunity to the
inquirer because they can test their growing comprehensions and expose themselves to
examining questions. Otherwise, the research results might remain only implicit within the
inquirer's mind. Qualitative researchers are also expected to look for support from other
colleagues who are willing to offer logical guidance because peers are required to give
feedback that helps the inquirer to increase the excellence of the research findings.
As Creswell (2009:178) states, the researcher uses peer debriefing to enhance the
accuracy of the account that is important to check the accuracy of the findings. An
interpretation that is beyond the researcher is done and utilised by another person
because this strategy adds validity to a study’s description. In this study, peer debriefing
was built as an external reader through the process of this study. Therefore, I worked with
my colleague who held impartial views of the study for the examination of the transcripts,
document and recorded interviews. In addition, giving my research findings to my
colleague, who is a member of the academic staff, helped me to obtain his comments.
5.4.4.2 Transferability
Shenton (2004:69, cited by Moon, Brewer, Januchowski-Hartley, Adams & Blackman,
2016:3) and Anney (2014:277) mention transferability as in preference to external
validity/generalisability. According to these researchers, transferability shows the extent
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to which the qualitative study results can be transferred and applied to other contexts
with other participants. It is also equivalent to generalisability. Concerning this, Kamil et
al. (2000:446) and Given (2008:895) say that research is considered worthless if it
cannot be practical to broader contexts. However, if the findings can be applied to
alternative contexts, a study becomes worthy.
Supporting the above idea, Given (2008:886) and Moon et al. (2016:3) state that the
findings of the study could be practical to other situations which are used to assure
“Transferability” of the research. However, it should be beyond the scope of the research
context. Transferability is also increased or facilitated by recognising the link between the
participants and the study context as well as the contextual boundaries of the findings.
In this research, a precise and in-depth account of the setting and culture, nomination
and characteristics of participants and data gathering and analysis were provided to
reinforce transferability (Moon et al., 2016:2). Therefore, I hoped that the findings of this
research could apply to other contexts, organisations and other participants. Techniques
for establishing transferability should include the following two components to enhance
the research transferability:
(i) Thick description
I described participants’ behaviour, experiences and context under this study to make it
clear to outsiders. As Given(2008:886) writes, through using thick description, the
researcher offers the reader a full and purposeful description of the condition, participants
and research design so that the booklovers can make their determinations about
transferability because it allows identifying how well the research context fits other
contexts. In other words, thick description briefly portrays all the study procedures such
as an intensive and extensive set of details regarding methodology, data gathering, and
the context of the study up to the production of the final report. This is because thick
description supports other researchers to reproduce the research with parallel situations
in other settings. The researcher who has the responsibility to give thick descriptions of
the research must gather thick descriptive data to ensure the transferability of the
qualitative investigation (Anney, 2014:278).
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According to Shenton (2004:69), the qualitative researchers need to use a rich and thick
description that is important to convey the findings. This description may transport readers
to the setting and give the discussion an element of shared experiences. Moreover,
Miller’s (1997:42) and Moon et al.’s (2016:2) statement shows that if rich and thick
descriptive results of the research are presented, readers have an opportunity to decide
whether the findings might be transferable or comparable to their contexts.
I utilised thick description by including participants’ feelings, actions and meanings about
gender treatment in classroom instructional activities because thick description gave me
an opportunity to explain the context of practices and discourses in society. The thick
description was also applied through the data analysis and interpretation in this study.
The thick description was applied by providing cultural context and meaning of
participants that they place on actions or words with reference to gender treatment
through data analysis and interpretation.
(ii) Purposeful sampling
As discussed under the selection of participants in this chapter, Given (2008:886) states
that purposeful sampling was essential to selecting the participants who had rich data
and to collect relevant information in this study which enables the result of this study to
be transferable or applicable to other contexts.
5.4.4.3 Dependability
In this study, I confirmed that the results of this research are dependable and could be
recurrent. As Shenton (2004:69, cited by Moon et al., 2016:2) mentions, dependability,
which is used in preference to the reliability, is a very accurate conception in the
qualitative setting. Here, the researcher places his research process and instruments
because others may try to gather information in similar circumstances (Guba & Lincoln,
1985; Creswell, 2009). This means that if parallel circumstances are practical, a parallel
description of the phenomenon should be obtained.
Therefore, to establish dependability, the audit trail is essential through keeping and
preserving all transcripts, notes, audiotapes, and more (Kamil et al. 2000; Kothari, 2004;
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Given, 2008; Creswell, 2009; Moon et al. 2016:2). In general, dependability is used to
make the findings stable over time (Anney, 2014:278).
5.4.4.4 Confirmability
Under this research, I am neutral because the results of this research are shaped by the
information collected from participants and not by my unfairness, inspiration or interest.
According to Anney’s (2014:279) discussion, confirmability signifies the extent to which
the research results might be confirmed or validated by other researchers. Moreover,
Shenton (2004, cited by Moon et al. 2016:3) mentions that confirmability, which is used
in preference to objectivity, shows the necessity to confirm that the interpretations and
findings link to the data. Therefore, confirmability was ensured by joining the data to their
sources. Techniques for establishing confirmability would be discussed as follows:
(i) External audits
Scholars such as Given (2008:42) provide that external audits are significant to assess
the accurateness of the study. External audits also assess how much the data support
the research findings, interpretations and conclusions. This shows that the external audit
plays an essential role in assessing the honesty of research. In other words, an external
auditor confirms that the study is dependable from a methodological standpoint.
Moreover, the study is not only evaluated for its confirmability by reviewing the data
analysis and interpretations, but it is also assessed whether or not the findings precisely
signify the data (Miller, 1997:3; Korstjens & Moser, 2018:3).
As Creswell (2009:178) explains, qualitative researchers use an external auditor to review
the whole study. However, the external auditor is distinct from a peer debriefer because
this auditor is not acquainted with the researcher or the study. Therefore, she/he is
expected to give an unbiased assessment of the study through the procedure of the study.
Due to this reason, Dr Betegeorgis Mamo was an external reader of my study to audit the
procedure because he was expected to check the study’s dependability and
confirmability. He also audited whether pseudonyms were used to protect anonymity.
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(ii) Audit trail
According to Korstjens and Moser (2018:2), an audit trail is employed to examine the
study process and product from the beginning of a study project to the reporting of the
research results. Therefore, a thorough audit trial needs to be kept for cross-checking
the documents such as raw data, observation and interview notes, documents and
records gathered from the study site. Supporting this idea, Given (2008:42) confirms that
all the study phases should be documented to be examined by the auditor.
This study was audited through data collection, data discount and examination, data
rebuilding, and blending products through my supervisor’s feedback, comments and
suggestions. This means that the audit trail was undertaken starting from the research
problem identification up to the distinction of the research findings. Therefore, my
supervisor in terms of theoretical and conceptual frameworks, research methodology,
data presentation and interpretation, the research findings and the conclusions to confirm
its findings audited my research’s process and product. In other words, the audit trail was
used throughout all phases of this study because this is important to ensure the
confirmability of the research findings.
(iii) Reflexivity
Reflexivity is an outlook that is used to show the context of knowledge construction
because the researcher has an impact on every step of the research process (Cohen &
Crabtree, 2006; Kelly, Helmich, Dornan, Vries-Erich & King, 2017: 3). As Creswell
(2009:178) and Kelly et al. (2017: 3) explain, describing unfairness that the researcher
brings to the research is used to assure the accurateness of the results because the
researcher may reflect his/her background, suppositions, standpoint and activities
through the research process. Creswell (2009), Shenton (2004) and Kelly et al. (2017)
also assert that the researchers make a brief of how their background in terms of their
gender, culture, history and socioeconomic origins mould the interpretation of their
research findings.
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In this study, I was critically aware how my background, stand, assumption and behaviour
influence the procedure of my research because, in reflexivity, the researcher reflects his
views, contexts and biases that can affect the research process. In fact, in reflexivity,
although there was an indescribable problem of humanity that might be reflected through
the researcher’s experiences and interests to inform, direct and to encourage the study
(Korstjens & Moser, 2018:2), I made a great effort to avoid my biasness through the
procedure of this research.
5.4.5 ETHICAL MEASURES
Under ethics, I believed that discussing ethical research issues was essential in applying
for ethical clearance from UNISA. Since the present investigation commanded the
contribution of human participants, such as school principals, teachers and learners, I
had to state certain ethical issues with them. I, thus, confirmed that the participants were
informed about the aim of this study. It would also be crucial for me to ensure that the
participants felt free to create liberated decisions. Therefore, after applying to the UNISA
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION ETHICS REVIEW COMMITTEE for ethical clearance, I
obtained the Ethical Certificate from UNISA COLLEGE OF EDUCATION ETHICS
REVIEW COMMITTEE in ‘Ref: 2017/08/16/49024191/14/MC’. This is attached as
Appendix B.
In light of this, the researcher needs to expect any ethical issues that can occur during
the qualitative study procedure (Creswell, 2009:183). Researchers must protect their
study participants by increasing trust with them, encouraging the integrity of the study,
protecting against misbehaviour and any unpleasantness that could show on their
organisations or institutions and manage the new confusing problems (Given, 2008:242).
Creswell (2012:279) describes that ethics are related to moral principles about what is
correct and what is incorrect from an ethical viewpoint. According to McMillan and
Schumacher (2010:160), moral principles of the study are concentrated on what is
ethically appropriate and inappropriate when one involves participants or when there is
demanded contact to archival data. In addition, Mack et al. (2005:8) state that researchers
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must expect the moral issues that can occur during their investigations. Therefore, I have
a responsibility to respect the privileges, wants, values and wishes of the participants.
According to Creswell (2012:23), moral principles relate to performing well and removing
hurt and respecting human rights. Concerning this, Merriam (2010:230) argues that the
ethical honesty of the researcher is a critically significant part of convincing that the study
procedure and researcher’s findings are honest and valid. Creswell (2012:271), on his
part, argues that a study is expected to be free from deception while carrying out a study
project. The limitation is that their wish to partake in research is determined by a
researcher’s voluntariness to share his or her familiarity.
It is, thus, very significant to emphasise the following critical ethical considerations that
were taken into account in this study.
5.4.5.1 Permission
I wrote formal letters to request consent. To obtain permission from SRIHDC, CEDU
REC, the Zone Education Office and school principals, I submitted the prescribed
completed form and a letter requesting permission to conduct this research (Appendices
C & D). I obtained permission from the North Shoa Zone Education Office to carry out
the study in the selected schools in Ethiopia. Therefore, through information gathering,
the consent of persons in authority provided access to research participants at the study
sites. For this purpose, a letter should be written by identifying the extent of time, the
possible influence and results for the study (Creswell, 2009:92).
For example, Merriam (2010:122) proposes that the procedure of gathering information
through observations may be divided into three phases: “entry, data collection and exit”.
Attaining entry into a research field starts with attaining the reliance and consent of those
who can accept participation. This stage is simply accomplished through a joint interaction
of who can endorse the researcher to the “gatekeepers” involved.
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Therefore, I obtained the permission of principals, teachers, girls and boys before
recording the discussions. All participants were willing to be recorded during individual
and focus group interviews.
5.4.5.2 Informed consent
I followed the ethical principle of access and acceptance in the process of getting
informed consent. In Appendices E and F, participants’ consent was provided. It is
realised that informed consent is closely related to permission to deal with gaining access
to do the required research. I prepared an informed consent form for participants to sign
before they partook in the study. This form confirmed that participants’ privileges should
be secured during information gathering to participate voluntarily and to withdraw at any
time so that the individual will not be coerced into participation (Given, 2008:278).
In this regard, I communicated with the school principals and gave a letter for each
teacher and learner to obtain their full consent respectively to take part in the research.
As Merriam (2010:162) states, “The first is obtaining informed consent; traditionally,
participants sign a statement indicating their willingness to participate and need to be 18
years old or over to give this consent”.
After granting the permission, I got consent from school principals and school teachers to
carry out the research as spelt out in the letter in the appendices (Appendix E). Learners
who partook in the study signed the focus group consent and confidentiality agreement
form (Appendix F) which clearly stated the purpose of the study, that the participants were
willing and that they could discontinue their participation at will.
5.4.5.3 Privacy
In the Appendices C and D, I submitted a letter to the North Shoa Zone Education Office
for requesting consent to carry out the study in four Districts’ General Secondary
Schools, Ethiopia. I obtained a consent letter to carry out the study in four Districts’
General Secondary Schools, Ethiopia. I have tried to bring together the major elements
of trustworthiness as I understand them into a format that can be employed as a
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methodical reference for novice qualitative researchers as well as assessors of
qualitative studies.
According to Given (2008:278), privacy is described as the privilege to be left alone. It is
essential that researchers do not violate the right to privacy of their participants in any
way. The advantage of ethics is to maintain participants’ privacy. Most study ethical codes
have created the need for privacy to study participants. In this study, the participants were
assured of their privacy through the information gathering procedure.
As Mack et al. (2005:31) put in their writing; researchers are expected to respect the
privacy of participants because participants have the right to decide how much
information to give and how it will be employed. As Creswell (2012:148) discusses, a
researcher should not only give participants an explanation about what kind of individual
information they are requested to impart. However, they should also inform them how that
information will be secured from other parties and how it will be employed because it is
significant to guard the privacy and confidentiality of persons who partake in the research.
Given (2008:111) also asserts that offering confidentiality is used to assure the
participant’s privacy because the researcher should not publicly disclose the information
that he/she collected from the research participants.
The locations in which all the focus group interviews and individual interviews were held
promoted an atmosphere of free expression of all participants who participated in the
investigation. For instance, the focus group interviews were held in free classrooms with
an unlimited level of privacy. I was specific that boys and girls had fear in giving their
accomplished familiarities. The individual interviews with teachers and principals were
held in the free office without any disturbance. Therefore, to observe privacy, anonymity
and confidentiality of participants, I used letters with numbers and pseudonyms than real
names for schools, principals, teachers and learners.
5.4.5.4 Anonymity and confidentiality
In Appendix E and G, the intention of this research was precisely explained to research
participants. I also confirmed that their names or identity were kept confidential. I also
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made clear to teachers, principals and learners that any information from interviews and
observation was not transferred to any other third parties and that the purpose of
collecting such data was for the research only.
Given (2008:692) and Mack et al. (2005:51) say, anonymity means that a study
participant’s identity and response cannot be branded. Through ethical codes of conduct,
researchers are expected to design strategies that are used to guard participant’s privacy,
anonymity and confidentiality. For this study, the participants should be well informed that
anonymity should be given to them because their names would not be mentioned in the
transcripts to guard the security of confidentiality. Surmiak (2018:7) explains anonymity
as one of the forms of confidentiality, which consists of concealing the identity of study
participants.
In this fashion, confidentiality is not only significant, but anonymity is also considered as
one of the significant elements of the study. Therefore, privacy was guaranteed to the
selected principals, teachers and learners. When a participant is unidentified, it means
that anyone cannot classify him or her. Supporting this idea, Given (2008:692) asserts
that a “pseudonym” is a false name given for anonymity to an individual, a group, or a site
because several moral codes highlight the significance of “anonymity” and
“confidentiality”. Therefore, researchers regularly employ “pseudonyms” as a means to
this conclusion. Creswell (2009:96) also adds that the researcher will confirm the
anonymity of the participants in that they will not be asked to identify themselves or write
their names on the questionnaires.
Ethical approval letter from UNISA was presented to the North Shoa Zone Education
Office. The letters specified the aim of my research and the procedure that I followed in
confirming the confidentiality and anonymity of my participants. I also used pseudonyms
to maintain participants’ anonymity. Data are stored both as hard and soft copies at my
home. Transcriptions of interviews, focus group discussions, classroom observations
and document analysis is kept as hard copies in a file clearly labelled confidential and
kept in a lockable steel cabin and soft copies are captured in a flash that are also kept
by using a password. These will be kept for five years.
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5.4.5.5 Release and publication of the findings
As different scholars (Given, 2008; Mack et al., 2005; Creswell, 2009) state, study
findings may be disseminated and communicated in academic and professional circles,
or the broader public by publication which is used to circulate written results.
Progressively, publications are dispersed by electronic means as well as in print.
According to Creswell (2009:97), study findings can be circulated in the form of reports,
articles in professional journals, or other avenues outside of academic circles to
colleagues, agencies, government institutions, or related bodies. For researchers within
academia, the publication is used to ensure the quality and sustainability of persons,
departments and universities in international journals and books. Finally, the findings of
this study will be disseminated through seminars, workshops, journals, articles and
conferences.
In general, for the aim of this research, I determined to employ and adhere to the ethical
issues of the research as defined above. The research results will be disseminated to
participants through seminars, workshops, journal publications and conference
proceedings. A copy of the thesis will also be given to each of the sampled schools to be
available at the library so that school principals and teachers access results and
recommendations of the research. For learners, I arranged to meet each participant and
then explain to them how the study results and recommendations will be presented. The
benefits of the study to the learners will also be highlighted.
5.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY
In this chapter, I discussed and elucidated the research design and methods of the
present research. In section 4.2, an explanation of the rationale for this empirical research
was given. In section 4.3, the research design was presented with a description of the
research constructivist paradigm in terms of ontology, epistemology, axiology, rhetoric
and methodology that were adopted for this study. In section 4.3.2, it was elucidated that
the investigation used a qualitative study approach to investigate the extent to which
teachers, learners and principals perceived and treated gender, based on their traditional
gender beliefs, attitudes and experiences.
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In section 4.3.3, a qualitative case study research type was discussed because this
qualitative case study was conducted to assess how gender was treated in classroom
instructional processes and was represented in the Grade 9 English textbook. This
section also described a multiple (collective) case study type that contained an in-depth
account of the situation or persons, followed by an analysis of the data for themes or
subjects, which was used for the present study.
In section 4.4, a discussion of research methods was provided. Section 4.4.1 presented
the selection of research sites and participants by using purposive sampling. In section
4.4.2, data collection instruments were discussed. This section included semi-structured
interviews (individual and focus group), observation and document analysis. Finally, in
sections 4.4.3 and 4.4.4, the issue of data analysis in terms of thematic analysis in order
to identify differences and similarities within the themes, as well as measures of
trustworthiness in terms of credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability
respectively were explained. In these sections, a description of how data would be
analysed, checked for trustworthiness, coded and categorised was delivered. In section
4.4.5, the ethical considerations of this study were descriptively presented in terms of
permission, informed consent, privacy, anonymity and confidentiality as well as the
release and publication of the findings.
In the next chapter, I present data analysis with a comprehensive account of the interview
and observational data attained from the participants and the analysis of the respective
document (textbook) using the methods described above.
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CHAPTER 6:
PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
ACCORDING TO EMERGING THEMES
6.1. INTRODUCTION
In chapter four, the research design and methods were discussed and explained in terms of
the constructivist paradigm and the qualitative case study research type. This chapter
presents and discusses the study results of the collected data.
I discussed the findings under two major themes which are: themes concerning gender
treatment in schoolroom instructional activities and themes with regard to gender
representation in the Grade nine English textbook. The title of the Grade nine English
textbook is “English for Ethiopia: Student Textbook Grade 9” which was written by “Donna
Bailey”. Under each major theme, I then present the relevant findings and sub-findings. At
the end of findings, there is a discussion wherein the findings are juxtaposed with the
findings of the literature review.
6.2 RESEARCH PROCESS
The initial procedure that I utilised in data gathering incorporated the subsequent:
• My principal interaction with the Zone Education Office was through a letter requesting
permission.
• A supportive letter from the Zone Education Office was taken by me to the selected
schools in each district and then to the school principals. These letters detailed the target
of the research and the procedure that I followed in confirming the confidentiality and
anonymity of the participants.
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• Through the school principal, the permission and consent letter were distributed to the
purposefully selected English teachers and learners during my arrival at the site. The whole
period of my fieldwork was about four months.
• When arriving at the schools, I set up schedules with the prospective participants. The
focus group discussions with the learners were conducted in the morning shift with consent
from the teachers and their parents. The discussions were all done in the school compound
that was allocated to me by the school principals. Every focus group interview ranged from
1:30 and 2hours.
• The face-to-face discussions with teachers and principals were conducted in the
schools. Additionally, an agreement form was read to the learners at the start of each focus
group interview.
Although two male English teachers and two female English teachers who were teaching
English subject in Grade nine were selected for an individual interview, it was impossible
to get female English teachers. Therefore, the four English teachers were male. In addition,
even if I planned to interview two female principals and two male principals, I did not get
female principals. Thus, the four participant principals were male principals. Although I
invited one female vice-principal, she was not willing to do the individual interview.
However, I found eight female learners and eight male learners as I planned for the focus
group interviews (FGI).
6.3 DATA ANALYSIS
6.3.1 BIOGRAPHICAL DATA: PROFILE OF THE PARTICIPANTS
This section briefly outlines the profiles of the 24 participants. For the sake of this research,
the participants are stated as learners, teachers and principals. Of the 24 participants, four
were male English teachers who were currently teaching English subject in Grade nine,
who were selected for the individual interviews.
Four English instructors each from various secondary schools were invited to be a part of
my study in North Shoa Amhara Region of Ethiopia. They willingly agreed to partake in this
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research. The instructors had a medium schooling experience of 12-27 years. Their English
schooling experience was from 8-15 years. Of the 24 participants, four were Grade nine
English teachers. They had a first degree in English and worked from 12-27 years. All of
them were male teachers in the absence of the willingness of female teachers. They had
been teaching English at General Secondary Schools for six years at the time of the
interview.
Among the 24 participants, four were school principals. They had a first degree in school
administration and they had from 15-25 years’ work experiences. All of them were males
in the absence of female principals.
The four schools that comprised the school population such as teachers, principals, and
learners were government schools: DebreSina Secondary School, Chacha Secondary
School, Mekoy Secondary School and Minjar-Arerti Secondary school. The participants
selected were a combination of teachers, learners and principals aged between 16 and 48
years. Most of the participants had been learners who were currently attending their
education in Grade nine. Of the 16 learner participants (eight female learners and eight
male learners), 12 of them were living in the rural area, whereas the remaining four lived
in the woreda /district/ town at the time of the interviews.
6.3.2 ANALYSIS OF DATA
To initiate the process of data analysis, I read the data from interview transcripts many
times to familiarise myself with the response of each participant to the different study
enquiries. I followed the inductive data analysis approach, as explained by MacMillan and
Schumacher (2010: 367). The advantage of inductive data analysis was that the themes
and conclusions emerged from the data were not forced preceding to data gathering.
According to Braun and Clarke (2006, as cited in Graff, et al. 2018:3), thematic analysis
has six steps for classifying, examining, and reporting patterns (themes) inside qualitative
data. The steps that I followed in my data analysis were as follows: 1) reading the
transcribed interviews to get understanding of the entire data, 2) producing initial codes in
inductive approach according to meaning of units across the whole dataset, 3) shortening
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all related codes into prospective semantic themes and sub-themes. Themes were
perceived significant if they were seen recurrently in the data or if a theme caught a
significant feature of the study question, 4) reviewing the potential themes, 5) defining and
giving names to the themes and 6) generating the report.
In analysing and interpreting the experiences of teachers, learners and principals who
participated in the research, particular recurrent themes originated and were investigated
in more detail. In order to familiarise the reader to the significant results of the study which
were informed by the evolving themes, a summary of findings has been presented in Table
5.1 (below).
Table 6.1: Example of how I analysed the data into segments, codes and themes
Emerging themes concerning gender treatment in classroom instructional
activities
Segments: Participant’s
responses Codes
Categories/themes
Learners are expected to
participate actively and
equally, whether they are
male or female.
When we compare boys
with girls, more
responsibility is taken by
the boys in our classroom
and our school because
boys have high
confidence.
In my class, the girls’
number is higher than
boys’ number, but they
-Gender expectation
-Leadership role
-Pressure situation
-Roles and
responsibilities
-Participation
-Division of labour
-Confidence
-Girls’ passivity
-Girls’ expectation of
boys
-Gender roles and
responsibilities in
instructional
activities
176
have less participation and
roles.
Sometimes there is a role
division in the class. For
example, boys are
ordered to clean the
blackboard, to work heavy
tasks in the school
compound and girls are
ordered to clean the
classroom. During
classroom cleaning, girls
become responsible for
cleaning the classroom,
but boys are onlookers.
Most of the time, boys are
frequently assigned as
group leaders. In the
society, a girl is
considered as inferior.
-Socialisation
-Classmate
-Encouragement
-Gender-sensitive
education and
environment
-Raising hands
-Giving priority
-Better performer
-Ways of treatment
-Being privileged
-Gender bias in instructional
Activities
177
-Challenges
-Gendered attitude
-Traditional gender
beliefs
-Reinforcement
-Gender stereotype against
girls in instructional activities
-Opportunity
-Differences
-Feeling superior
-Special support
-Underestimation
-Perception
-Gender inequality in
instructional activities
Emerging themes about gender representation in Grade nine English textbook
The title of the textbook is “English for Ethiopia: Student Textbook Grade 9” Written by
“Donna Bailey”, 2005 (E.C).
Quotes from the textbook Codes Categories/themes
“Hamila did badly in her
geography exam.”(P.40).
“Weizero Hinia, Head of the Arts
and Crafts Department of
Asosa secondary school…”
(p.41)
“He never visits his children”.
(p.43)
“…., a man needs no weapons
except his own body,” he
began. (p.49)
“..., the story is about Nosipho, a
secondary school student who
lives with her mother and her
-Characters’
portrayal
-Portrayal of female and male
characters in Grade nine English
textbook
178
young brother, Mondi.
Nosipho’s classmate, Phindile,
has come to the house and is
giving Mondli his first lesson in
karate.”(p.49)
“…the Simien fox is mainly a
solitary hunter of rodents…”
(p.61)
“I could feel my heart beat as I
went into the headmaster’s
office.”(p.78)
“Doctor: The nurse will dress this
wound. You must come back…
she can change the dressing
….”(p.87)
“…men have several
wives.”(p.90)
“…women often do not have the
confidence, knowledge or
economic independence to
protect themselves” (p.92).
“…story of Mr Tolossa…” (p.97)
“…the autobiography of Camara
Laye and is about his childhood
in Guinea” (p.97)
“The popular Ethiopian singer
Tilahun Gessesse …” (p. 102).
“Liben wanted to be a doctor
although he didn’t work hard
enough at school.” (p.104)
179
“Gifti wanted to be a pop star
since she watched Ethiopian
Idols on television.” (p.104)
“Girmay must pass his exams
before he can train to be a
doctor.”(p.104)
-Has she seen the new film? (P-
31)
“Nardos Tafesse /M/ is a 19-
year-old model from Ethiopia.
…she received five crowns in
the five contests …” (p.114)
“Kenenisa Bekele is the fastest
runner in Ethiopia.”(p.125)
“Halima is the prettiest girl in the
class.”(p.125)
“…..the view of the proud old
man who is the speaker in the
poem…” (p.125)
“…Gebre…, he trained as a
carpenter. He got a
government grant to set up a
workshop and started
employing a few untrained
workers, whom he trained up.
… (p.135)
“…, Tadesse Tessema has
opened Ethiopia’s first vehicle
assembly plant… he says his
country needs to be less
dependent …” (p.136)
180
“…, when I/M/ heard of my win on
the Ethiopian National lottery, I
was speechless… and hoped
to become a doctor… (p.148)
“…, the chief and his elders
perform … The chief gives the
people his New-year message
and thanks God for taking his
people…” (p.162)
“Provincial Governor Abebe/M/
awarded…” (p.185)
“Dr Louis –Gerard Gilles, a
former senator, said as he
helped survivors.”(p.187)
“The man with the weapon…
symbolises honour and power.”
(p.169)
“The teacher was pleased that
the boys behaved very politely
in class. (p.168)
My sister always dresses
beautifully. (p.168)
181
I have many brothers and
sisters.(p.151)
The Ethiopian stars Feyisa Lelisa
and Astede Bayisa
shine...(p.102)
He or she... (p. 1, 12,15,119,138,
164,196)
...uncle and aunt... (p.130,146)
...his or her... (p. 1,
54,134,139,173)
the men and women(p.155,165)
Your mother or father (p.111)
Neither Kasech nor
Berihun(p.179)
...the woman and the man...
(p.243)
...men and women... (p.243-
44)
Policeman(p.196,197, 224)
-Order of
mention
-Gender-
marked
vocabulary
-Language use in relation to
female and male characters
He has gone to the bank. He
should be back soon. (p-31)
She has been to do some
shopping… (P-31)
“She can play tennis.”(p.150)
“Halima could be playing
basketball…” (p.156)
“I /M/ kicked the ball to Ahmed,
then he headed it into the
net.”(p.158)
“…, Sara was very good at
drawing.”(p.143)
-Gendered
Activities
-Activities performed by male and
female gender
182
“If I were a boy, I would go out
and play football.”(p.147)
“Ibrahim often goes to Dejene’s
house to do his homework.
There they can do their
homework together.”(p.124)
-I /M/ usually help my father on
the farm. (P-236)
I /M/….play football with my
friends … (p-236)
She has not worked all day. (P-
30)
“Ayantu wanted to run in the
Olympic Games because she
saw Derartu Tulu win a gold
medal.” (p.104)
“…she makes large brewing pots
which she sells in the market…”
(p.100)
“Nuru sometimes plays the
piano.” (p.43)
two male images and two female
images (p.1-2)
two male images and two female
images (p. 2)
three male images and two
female images(p.7-8)
six male images and six female
images (p.29)
seven male images and two
female images (p.37)
183
five male images and four female
images (p.39)
three male images and four
female images (p.41-42)
thirty male images and 18 female
images(p.45-46)
three male images and one
female image (p.50)
two male images and No female
image (p.54)
four male images and three
female images (p.55)
four male images and two female
images
(p.58)
No male image and two female
images (p.72)
No male image and one female
image
(p.73)
two male images and one female
image
(p.83)
three male images and six
female images
(p.84)
one male image and No female
image
(p.87)
ten male images and eight
female images (p.88-89)
-Gender
illustrations
-Women and men pictorial
representations
184
one male image and one female
image
(p.93)
three male images and two
female images (p.98)
two male images and four female
images (p.99)
two male images and five female
images (p.110)
No male image and one female
image
(p.113)
No male image and one female
image
(p.114)
one male image and two female
images
(p.117)
No male image and one female
image
(p.135)
six male images and four female
images (p.137)
six male images and two female
images (p.141)
one male image and two female
images
(p.145)
No male image and one female
image
(p.157)
185
nine male images and no female
image (p.161)
one male image and no female
image
(p.163)
one male image and five female
images
(p.166)
three male images and one
female image
(p.178)
seven male images and seven
female images (p.180)
sixteen male images and two
female images (p.181)
two male images and two female
images (p.188)
five male images and two female
images (p.195)
three male images and no male
image
(p.205)
three male images and three
female images (p.209)
one male image and no male
image
(p.214)
one male image and no female
image
(p.221)
186
No male image and one female
image
(p.222)
four male images and two female
images (p.224)
nine male images and two
female images (p.226)
The discussion of the results below deliberates on the categories or themes that emerged
from the data. The discussion contains direct quotes extracted from the verbal responses
of the participants from the in-depth interviews.
6.4 PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS
In the following subdivision, I present the results of this empirical research. First, data
analysis of each finding was done. At the end of each finding, a discussion was provided
where the finding was linked to literature or to the theoretical frameworks that underlined
the study.
6.4.1 EMERGING THEMES CONCERNING GENDER TREATMENT IN CLASSROOM INSTRUCTIONAL
ACTIVITIES
Themes that emerged concerning gender treatment in classroom instructional activities
were the following: gender roles and responsibilities in instructional activities, gender bias
in instructional activities, gender stereotype against girls in instructional activities and
gender inequality in instructional activities.
6.4.1.1 Finding 1: Gender Roles and responsibilities in instructional activities
In the classroom context, gender roles and responsibilities were manifested in terms of
power relations between women and men. This section consisted of sub-findings in terms
of gender expectation, leadership role, pressure situation, roles and responsibilities,
participation, division of labour, confidence and girls’ passivity. The participants were
187
asked to express their outlooks with regard to gender treatment in classroom instructional
activities.
Sub-theme1: Gender expectation in the classroom context
On the same issue, Teachers A, B, C and D who were teaching English subject in Grade
nine, expressed what girls and boys were expected to perform in the classroom context.
They similarly narrated that:
Students are expected to participate actively and equally whether they are male or
female. But, both boys and girls may not actively and equally participate in the
class… (Source: In-depth Interview)
Although the four teachers reported that they expected both male and female learners to
perform equally and actively in the class, they also highlighted that girls and boys did not
have active and equal participation because of girls’ time-constraints since they had
extra-activities in their homes.
With regard to girls’ expectations concerning boys taking decisions in the classroom
context, Teacher A stated that:
In my opinion …I think girls fear what will be the consequence if they take decision. So
boys give the decision to girls. … (Source: In-depth interview).
Teacher B presented the same opinion:
Most of the time, the decision is taken by boys but the chance is given for both equally.
This is the cultural influence on girls. (Source: In-depth interview)
In addition, Teacher C reported a similar idea:
…Mostly girls expect the answer to be told by boys...For instance, if we have certain
topic to discuss and have got certain issue, girls mostly expect to be expressed or
188
presented by boys…due to the traditional gender belief of their society. (Source:
In-depth Interview)
Teacher D also added that:
…When girls are doing the tasks together, they simply listen and even they are
waiting the decision of male students about the task that they are doing because
they depend on male students. I think female students believe that male students
are their framework to prove something. (Source: In-depth Interview)
From the above data, the four teachers similarly responded that girls expected boys to
take decisions instead of taking decisions by themselves in the classroom context. This
showed that girls were dependent on boys’ leadership because they believed that boys
might do better than they might.
It was clear that learners were unanimous in expressing their observation and experience
with regard to girls’ expectation of boys to take decisions in the classroom context.
Learners-A1, A2, A3 and A4 in School A and Learners-C1 and C2 in School C similarly
shared the teacher’s opinion: “… girls expect answers from boys or others because they
have less self-confidence….” (Source: Focus group interview)
In School B, Learner-B1 and in school C, Learner- C3 had a similar narration:
…Since girls are afraid of making decision, boys decide for girls whether the
answer is correct or incorrect. If a male group leader says, “This is correct answer”,
the group members especially girls admit and accept what a group leader says…in
our traditional culture, boys are accepted by the society because the society
believes that boys’ saying is right rather than girls’ saying. (Source: Focus group
Interview)
Learner-C4 further stated:
189
When girls do their homework, they hesitate about the right answer. Then…girls
are ready to copy the right answer from the boys because girls believe that boys
are correct and better than them by doing their homework properly. (Source: Focus
group Interview)
In School D, Learner-D1 explained that:
The major reason why girls expect decision from boys is that girls have less motivation to
do the tasks... (Source: Focus group interview). In the same way, Learner-D2 stated her
opinion as: I think girls expect decision from boys because boys do not fear to speak in
the class… (Source: Focus group interview).
Learner-D3 and Learner-D4 equally expressed their response as:
“Girls do not believe that they are right or correct about their works.” (Source: Focus
group interview)
The above data proved that girls expected decisions to be made by boys because
traditionally boys did not fear to ask and answer questions in the class.
Sub-theme 2: Teachers’ opinions about the leadership role between boys and girls inside
and outside the classroom
This sub-finding discussed the points regarding boys as family leaders and girls as
childcare and group leaders in the classroom context. Participants were interviewed about
their opinion on the leading role of boys and girls inside and outside the classroom. In this
regard, Teacher A stated that boys were expected to behave like family leaders, while
girls were expected to attend to childcare:
In my opinion, nowadays, women and men can lead their family; whereas, in the
previous time the indoor works had been given only for women and the outdoor
works had been given for men. (Source: In-depth Interview)
Teacher B and C reiterated:
190
…both boys and girls can do indoor and outdoor activities. Of course, in our
family’s backgrounds, all outdoor activities are dominated by men because
women are expected to do in the household tasks, just like food cooking, child
caring, house cleaning. This cultural thinking comes in the classroom within
students’ mind because they are one of the societies… (Source: In-depth
Interview)
According to Teacher D’s statement:
...if we encourage female students, they can do like male students. But they know
in mind they cannot do things as boys because they hear for a lot of time as they
cannot do things like that of boys enough…depending on their previous Grade-8
results… I will get a better Grade result of boys, not girls. But girls are more group
leaders than boys because nowadays their number is higher than boys in the class.
The only problem girls face is that most of them are not confident even if they are
willing to organise and lead something… (Source: In-depth Interview)
Learners-A1, A3 and A4 like Teacher D’s opinion narrated:
According to our Grade eight examination result, our homeroom teacher assigns
a group leader… If girls are assigned as a group leader, their voices are not well
heard for the group members. But if a group leader is a boy, the group members
listen what he says. Because of this, most of the time boys are frequently assigned
as group leaders. So…boys are the dominant leaders because girls are very
loaded through their social life…in sport, teachers give different activities because
they assume girls are weak and boys are strong to play football. But girls prefer to
play volleyball. (Source: Focus group Interview)
Regarding group leader in a classroom, participants described that they selected the
group leader based on students’ previous results rather than their sex. Principal-C had
similar statements about who handled pressure situations in his school:
…But most of the time, boys chair the class rather than girls. I think this displays
that male learners have mostly the leading role in the classroom because girls
191
have deep-rooted cultural background problems in the society. For instance,
when they go back to their home, they are always busy by doing household
activities, like washing dishes, preparing food, caring children and keeping
animals. (Source: Individual Interview)
Teacher B also reiterated that societal practices influenced who would take the leadership
roles in a school context:
Even if we give the chance for both girls and boys equally, most of the time
boys become the group leaders as well as the class monitors. Because our
society believes that boys are stronger than girls. For example, in our society,
boys or men are the leaders of the society. Because of that, this trend
influences our school. (Source: In-depth Interview)
Teacher C shared Teacher B’s statement:
Mostly, boys who are active enough in the group are assigned as group leaders
because without shyness they can express their feelings by confidence. But most
girls need to keep silent. Due to this reason, I give the chance for the boys.
Therefore, according to my experience and observation, group leaders are
dominated by boys. In addition, the homeroom teachers as well as the whole class
do not expect girls can carry out the activities. They still assume girls cannot
control or manage the classroom or the group properly. In this case, they do not
nominate girls to be a group leader. Because of this, they give priority for boys
than girls. (Source: In-depth Interview)
From the above narration, boys and girls had an equal right to lead in a classroom context
but because of their shy nature, girls lacked confidence and then boys emerged and
dominated as leaders. Further, they agreed about the influence of this cultural thinking in
the classroom instructional activities because students came to class with this traditional
thinking in their minds and chose boys as group leaders. Therefore, girls and boys in a
classroom context reflected what they did at their homes because they were members of
their societies.
192
Furthermore, during the actual classroom teaching-learning practice, I observed a
significant impact of traditional culture on the leading role of female students due to the
prevalence of gender typecasts in the social order. The finding indicated that men or boys
due to cultural pressure that hindered students’ equal participation on the leadership roles
dominated leading roles.
Sub-theme 3: Roles and responsibilities for girls and boys in school and classroom
context
Participants testified that girls were willing to accept responsibility, but boys were not
willing to take responsibility. In this regard, in school A, Teacher A recounted what tasks
and duties were suitable for male learners and female learners in the classroom context:
In my opinion…in school context… when we give responsibilities for students
like class monitor and leader of different types of clubs, girls are willing to do
these things. But boys are not willing to do what you have given them. The
only thing that girls do have is willingness. …But in practice, girls are not
successful because they don’t have confidence to do that thing, but boys do
more activities than girls. (Source: In-depth Interview)
Teacher B contended that:
In the real context ...the chance is given for boys and girls equally but according
to our school context, boys are more actively participate than girls. ...If we
compare the leader of each club or committee, boys participate more than
girls…Because we have trend in our home and in our surrounding society that
men are responsible for every activity inside and outside home. This rooted habit
influences us and our students in our school… (Source: In-depth Interview)
Teacher C further stated:
In my case…girls give more attention for those activities than boys. Boys are
more careless because they spend their time by watching film, football and
193
playing a ball with their friends…For instance, in rural area, boys harvest the
crops rather than girls because their families believe that boys are stronger than
girls. So parents prefer to order boys to work in the farm and girls to work in the
house, like cleaning things. Starting from their childhood, girls have learned how
to clean the house materials from their mothers. Because of this, girls are willing
to clean the classroom. So certain actions are given for boys and certain actions
are given for girls. For example, simply I order boys to bring a chair or a table
from somewhere because I believe this work is for boys, not for girls. So in the
classroom, mostly responsibility is given for boys. (Source: In-depth Interview)
According to Teacher D:
Boys carry much responsibility because we teachers and the society believe that
boys are better to shoulder responsibilities than girls. So boys have major role in
the classroom because boys feel they are competent and girls feel they are not
competent. This makes boys feel higher and girls feel lower. Actually, the reason
is the influence of social belief. For instance, if teachers order to clean the
classroom, female students first clean the classroom because they themselves
believe that they are good at cleaning. This comes from our background
experience. (Source: In-depth Interview)
By the same token, Principals-A, B and D described who took more responsibility in the
school activities:
In school, due to our cultural influence, mostly we focus on men or boys to give
responsibility even though some women or girls successfully discharge their
responsibility, but we think that men or boys successfully discharge their
responsibility rather than women or girls…because men or boys do not fear and
shy to express themselves; whereas, women or girls are ashamed and hide
themselves starting from their childhood... (Source: Individual Interview)
According to the above narration, the participants agreed that boys discharged more
responsibilities and roles than girls. Their argument was that men or boys were
traditionally confident and stronger than women or girls because women or girls were not
194
successful in carrying out responsibilities but they showed willingness. This showed that
girls had a social influence to accept roles and responsibilities in the classroom. This
affected the classroom instructional activities because the entrenched traditional gender
belief in the society was internalised in the mind of boys and girls starting from their
childhood.
Learners as the teachers and principals had similar responses with regard to taking the
leadership roles and responsibilities for women or girls and men or boys in the school and
classroom context. Learners-A1, A2, and A4 in School A and Learners-C1 and C2 in
School C similarly stated who got responsibilities in school and in the classroom:
The boys have more roles and responsibility than the girls because girls think they
are lower than boys due to their fearfulness. Even if girls have high number than
boys in the classroom, they have cultural burden in the society. Because of this,
they are not willing to take responsibility… When we compare boys with girls, more
responsibility is taken by the boys in our classroom and in our school because boys
have high confidence. For example, when we see the role of girls in our group,
they have secretary role, not a managing or presenting role the group work…
(Source: Focus group interview).
Similarly, in school B, Learners-B2 and B3 shared the above response:
When we see different types of clubs, mostly boys are more participants. Boys have
ability to control students because they are aggressive and strong. Many of students
embarrass girls when girls are leaders. During classroom cleaning, girls become
responsible to clean the classroom but boys are onlooker...because they do not
have experience to clean their house. (Source: In-depth Interview)
Learner-B1 further confirmed who was frequently a group leader in his classroom:
Of course, boys and girls have equal responsibility in the classroom. But the
leadership is given to boys because a girl is remained out of the group leader…
When girls become group leader, students cannot be ordered for girls. But students
195
listen male group leader than female group leader… (Source: Focus group
interview).
In addition, Learner-B2 explained:
I agree that female class monitor and group leader is not heard/ accepted by
classroom students. Students do not listen or hear female group leader. Because
students see girls as inferior to boys or they consider girls as incapable. So a girl
does not speak for the second time in front of students. For instance, if a female
monitor listed a boy’s name to give it to the teacher or school principal because of
his disturbance of the classroom, a boy frightens her even batters her out of the
classroom. Due to this reason, she is fearful to be a group leader. So the rest girls
become fearful to be group leader and classroom monitor. (Source: Focus group
Interview)
During FGI, Learners-C1, C2 and C3 confirmed their opinion about the leadership role in
group work:
…boys have high leadership role… When we see the principal tasks of the learner
in our school, boys are better to take leadership role than girls. But if girls have a
better role, they can take leadership roles. For example, in a class, there are two
classroom monitors. The first monitor is a boy and the second monitor is a girl…
So group leader is given for boys…this comes from traditional thinking. In our
previous time, the leaders of the countries are men. We have this traditional
thinking that men are leaders. So students hear from their parents that men are
the leader of the family and the country. (Source: Focus group interview).
On the contrary, in School D, Learners-D1, D2 and D3 congruently mentioned who mostly
became a group leader in the classroom context:
Most of the time, boys are the leaders of the classroom. Even if the number of girls
is greater than boys, boys play a role by leading the class. Even though some girls
196
become a group leader, most of them are not active… the first class monitor is a
boy and the second monitor is a girl because when a class monitor is selected, a
boy has got high voices of students in the class. I think students believe that boys
can manage the class rather than girls. (Source: Focus group Interview)
By the same token, Learner -D4 narrated:
.... It is believed boys are powerful and forceful…In my society men are leaders in
‘Kebele’, ‘Idir’ or in other committees and organisations. So we are familiarised with
this trend… (Source: Focus group Interview)
By the same token, Principals-A, B and D discussed what roles were assigned to female
and male learners in his school:
We do not strictly give more emphasis for girls than boys…In classroom, we make
to be selected one boy and one girl for class monitors, but the first monitor is a boy
because students in the classroom mostly give their voice or hands for boys rather
than girls… In co-curricular activities, mostly priority is given boys because we
think that boys can effectively perform their responsibility even if we know that
women can perform better than men in every aspect of responsibilities. …In traffic
club, male learners are more effective than female learners because male learners
can confront or defend hard pressure on the street. This role demands power.
Because of this, mostly female students participate in HIV/AIDS and gender clubs.
This may be related to our traditional gender thinking. (Source: Individual Interview)
The data in the above narration showed that learners and principals agreed that boys
were the first class monitors and group leaders. Therefore, participants affirmed that boys
were the first than girls to lead the group and present the idea of the group because they
did not worry about making mistakes. However, girls took up the role of being a secretary
in the group because girls were fearful and frightened to be group leaders. This pointed
out that girls limited themselves not to be group leaders and classroom monitors.
According to participants’ assertions, this belief came from their traditional thinking that
men were the leaders of the family and the country so boys and girls were familiar that
men were leaders in ‘Kebele’, ‘Idir’, committees and organisations. As a result, it was
197
believed that boys were powerful and forceful due to the influence of their traditional
gender belief.
Similarly, Principals-A, B and D believed that men successfully discharged their
responsibility rather than women because men do not fear and are not shy to express
themselves. On the contrary, women are ashamed and also hide themselves starting from
their childhood even though some women successfully discharge their responsibilities. In
other ways, Principal-C said that both male and female learners discharged their
responsibilities by coming to school on time and attending classes. However, Principal D
stated that traffic club was given only to male learners because they could confront hard
pressure on the street, and HIV/AIDS and gender clubs were given only to the female
learners.
Sub-theme 4: Girls’ and boys’ participation during discussions in the classroom
In the above three sub-themes, e.g. gender expectation in classroom context, the leading
role of male and female learners in and out of the class, roles and responsibilities for
women and men in the school and classroom were discussed. The fourth sub-theme that
emerged was girls’ and boys’ participation during discussions in the classroom.
In the following data, Teachers A, B, C and D similarly articulated that girls had low
participation and boys had high participation because of girls’ fearfulness to participate
as equal as boys. This is due to their cultural influence, which might create social anxiety
in their minds. Therefore, participants narrated on girls’ and boys’ participation in the
group discussion as follows:
Boys are dominant participants. Even if the number of boys is less than girls, boys
are more participants in group and class discussion…because girls may fear their
classmates when they say something. Also their classmates maybe laugh at
them…
…girls have low participation because they shy. Due to this reason, they choose
to be quiet. So boys… can express their feelings, ideas during discussion
knowingly or unknowingly… But girls need to hide themselves to express their
feeling or opinion freely…I think they have background influence and obstacles
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that affect their participation… So the traditional thought what in their mind is
always challenges them not to do better …that increases unequal participation
between boys and girls... (Source: In-depth Interview)
According to the data, girls had less participation in group discussions in the classroom
because they were silent and embarrassed. This in turn encouraged unequal contribution
of male learners and female learners in the actual schoolroom instructional activities that
affected the teaching-learning process. In the same way, when I saw each student’s
participation during classroom discussion, most of the time girls feared and shied away
from speaking in front of their classmates.
With regard to girls’ and boys’ participation in classroom discussion, Learners-A1, A2, A3
and A4 in School A unanimously explained their opinion about a dominant participant in
the classroom discussion:
Boys dominantly participate in discussion. As a whole class, boys are participants.
In the English class, their participation is greater than girls. Girls’ participation is
less than boys...due to the influence of their society, their parents and their friends.
(Source: Focus group interview).
In School B, Learner-B1 like, Learners-A1, A2, A3 and A4 in School A and Learners-C3
and C4 in School C explained their opinion about the dominant participants in the
classroom discussion:
Boys are courageous to speak English in the class and out of the class whether
they are correct or incorrect when they answer and ask questions but girls fear
their mistakes…because others laugh at them. But boys have self-confidence than
girls and high participation in classroom discussion. (Source: Focus group
Interview)
In School D, Learners-D1, D3 and D4 congruently supported the above narration about
the dominant participants in the classroom discussions:
Boys are dominant participants than girls because they have fewer burdens in their
house. But girls have more burdens. Because of this, girls looked down themselves
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because they assume they are not as equal as boys… In our society, if men fear,
it is embarrassed…Some female students think that they will not be successful in
education because when they see the former female students, they do not continue
their education and they discontinued and went to Arab country to work as house
servant… (Source: Focus group Interview)
In the above narration, learners similarly agreed that boys were dominant participants, but
girls were less-dominant participants due to their fearfulness and ashamedness of
speaking the English language in classroom discussions. The participants routinely
believed that this might be the influence of their society, parents and friends. Furthermore,
school principals were interviewed on who was an active participant in various school
committees and activities hereunder. So Principals-A, B and C similarly explained:
…men are mostly active in different committees which are found inside and outside
school. Women have different tasks in their house. Because of this, they are not
active to explain properly what they feel in different committees and
organisations…So men are more active than women…For example, among eight
departments, six departments are led by male teachers and two departments are
led by female teachers. Even though the chance is given for women, they fear to
confront the challenges. (Source: Individual interview).
Principal D also supported Principals-A’s, B’s and C’s outlook who was an active
participant in various school committees and activities:
…During meeting, I see men who raise their hands and participate by expressing
their ideas. In school committees, men are the first participants. Most of the time,
women prefer to keep silent because they are reluctant to forward their ideas and
feelings. They mostly hide themselves… (Source: Individual interview).
Principal D as an active member of various school committees noticed that women in
school committees remained quiet and never voiced their opinions or ideas in the open
and sometimes hid themselves. This is the case even in the school context. Girls are
fearful and shy away from speaking out. The above data endorsed that girls still had many
traditional influences in their background experiences that could affect their participation
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in the classroom teaching-learning activities. This meant that boys were dominant
participants, while girls were less-dominant participants due to their anxiety/fearfulness of
making mistakes. The finding underscored how traditional gender belief, in the society,
hampered girls’ classroom participation because it was the cause of girls’ fearfulness and
the hindrance of girls’ participation.
In terms of handling pressure situations in school, Principals-A, B, C and D similarly
indicated that they provided the leading position for male learners rather than female
learners to assign class monitors because girls were assigned as vice-classroom
monitors.
Most of the time, we give priority for men...Or the leading position is given for boys
rather than girls because girls are assigned as vice-classroom monitor. This by
itself shows that we give secondary position for girls. This is brought from our
traditional thinking...
According to our tradition, the experiences show that we are male dominated
community. Because of that reason, men dominate and handle more pressure in
our school and also in the surrounding area. Women mostly perform what man
decided… (Source: Individual Interview)
Principal D also provided who handled pressure situations in his school:
Especially female teachers are reluctant to accept responsibility because they push
responsibility towards male teachers. This is the result of cultural influence starting
from childhood in our school. Because of this, men are willing to accept pressure
situations rather than women. So women underestimate themselves to do as equal
as men. (Source: Individual Interview)
According to the participants’ narration, this showed that boys were mostly dominant in
the classroom since girls had deep-rooted cultural background problems in their society
and when they went back to their home, they were always busy with household activities
such as washing dishes, preparing food, caring for children and keeping animals. In
addition, as the participants expressed, female teachers were reluctant to accept
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responsibility in school. The finding showed that traditional gender belief affected women
to accept and discharge responsibility in and out of the schoolroom due to the influence
of entrenched cultural background experiences in their society.
Sub-theme 5: Division of labour between boys and girls in school
Regarding to the division of labour between boys and girls in the schoolroom, Teacher A
stated his perception on the division of labour among male and female learners in the
schoolroom:
In my perception, most of the time, there is no division of works in the class
because there is not gender-based exercise. But even if the number of girls is
very high, their domination is really less because girls are not confident to say
something and to become successful. Maybe this is the influence of their
traditional culture when they grew up around their environment. (Source: In-depth
Interview)
Teachers-B, C and D acknowledged that:
…, for example, cleaning the board or arranging chairs, tables or desks,
performing drama in the school, I select girls for female characters and boys for
male characters. So boys are represented as fathers who act as family leaders,
doctors or teachers, pilots, judges, engineers, policeman, bank manager and work
outside the house, but girls are represented as mothers, or wives who work
domestic activities and act as nurse, teacher or secretary based on their
background experiences in their society. (Source: In-depth Interview)
In the above narration, it was clear that three of the four participants did not perceive
division of labour in the classroom even though they underlined the domination of boys
and the subordination of girls due to the influence of the traditional culture. However, one
of the four participants perceived division of labour especially in terms of performing
drama by representing girls as janitor, nurse, wife, mother, teacher and secretary;
whereas, boys are represented as father, doctor, teacher, bank manager, pilot, judge,
engineer and policeman. In the same way, learners shared their experiences with regard
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to division of labour among men and women in the schools. In School A, Learners-A1,
A2, A3 and A4, in School C, Learners-C1, C2, C3 and C4 and in School D, Learners-D1,
D2, D3 and D4 had similar perceptions about division of labour among men and women:
There is some division of labour based on the ability of the students. When we
see the ability of girls and boys, the boys have high ability to carry the heavy
objects or to transfer a heavy object from one place to another place. Naturally
boys are stronger than girls. For example, boys play football and girls clean the
house. If the labour demands force, boys do that labour… Boys are selected to
carry stone for a fence or other purpose because our society believes that boys
are forceful and powerful to do heavy works. But if there is a classroom cleaning
activity, girls are selected and ordered by the teachers to clean the classroom.
But boys are observers when girls clean the classroom. (Source: Focus group
Interview)
In addition to the above participants, in School B, Learner-B1 explained how he perceived
a partition of work among men and women in his school:
Yes I perceive it. For example, if boys clean the classroom, they feel inferiority
because they think that traditionally house cleaning is given to only girls. So they
consider that cleaning is women’s activity in their society. (Source: Focus group
Interview)
In the above narration, the participants also narrated that boys were selected for carrying
and transferring heavy objects from one place to another because it was believed that
boys were stronger and powerful to do heavy work. On the contrary, girls were selected
and ordered by the teachers for classroom cleaning, but boys were observers when girls
cleaned the classroom.
Concerning the division of labour between opposing gender, school principals were
interviewed about their perceptions. Principal-A described what his opinion was about
people’s opinions that husbands and wives should share activities equally in housework
such as cooking, washing dishes and housecleaning:
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I think these activities are given for women but I disagree because I do not believe
that the activities are not given only for women or for men. This indicates that there
is no labour division among boys and girls because both can do the same activities,
like cooking food, washing clothes or cleaning the house. In a rural area...men do
not perform women’s activities and women do not perform men’s activities. So this
is the result of our traditional culture. (Source: Individual Interview)
Principals-B, C and D similarly explained what his opinion was about people’s opinions
that husbands and wives should share activities equally in housework such as cooking,
washing dishes and housecleaning:
That is right. We have to share all activities in house, but really we can’t do
that…First of all I am busy in my career at school and my wife also does not allow
me to do some other activities like shopping things from the market, cooking food
in the house… Mostly I hear the father is the source of income…In the society,
women are frequently engaged by indoor activities; whereas, men are engaged by
outdoor activities… (Source: Individual Interview)
According to the above narration, Principal-A disagreed with regard to the activities that
were given only to women or to men because this indicated a division of labour. As he
stated, in the rural areas, men did not perform women’s activities and women do not
perform men’s activities due to their traditional culture. On the other hand, Principals-B,
C and D highlighted that men are viewed as providers in society. Even their wives do not
allow their husbands to assist with shopping in the market or helping with cooking at
home. They also stated that men were associated with outdoor activities and women had
to pay attention to indoor activities.
Sub-theme 6: Boys’ and girls’ confidence in the classroom context
Teachers A, B, C and D similarly responded about boys’ confidence in the English
classroom:
…In our society, chances are given for boys in most activities. So boys brought
this idea into our school. Even if few girls lift their hands to request and respond
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questions through the English lesson, boys confidently participate in requesting and
replying questions in the schoolroom… Boys confidently stand in front of the
students to express what they have in their mind freely…This is a cultural factor
that influences girls to make things without timidity and fearfulness. Girls’
background experience is the most obstacles to do some sort of activities by
standing in front of the others. So due to lack of confidence, girls have less
participation in the English classroom. (Source: In-depth Interview)
The four teachers concurred that boys are confident enough to answer and ask questions,
to present a lesson or a speech in front of the classroom without shyness and worrying
about their mistakes. The participants also highlighted that the boys’ confidence is backed
up by the fact that they are given chances to participate in most activities in society so
they carry this participation from society to the school context. This confirmed that boys
did not care about their mistakes when they asked and answered questions because girls
did not get the chance to mention their opinions and converse with boys equally in their
society. This sociocultural thinking cultivated the traditional gender belief that highlighted
male domination and female subordination. The data collected from the participants
highlighted that boys were more confident because of the societal influence; while, girls
were not confident to do things because of this cultural factor. As the researcher, I also
observed that boys were confident in asking and answering questions during the English
lesson, but girls struggled with fear.
Learners like all participants had shared their opinions about their observation on boys’
confidence in the English classroom. In School A, Learners-A1, A2, A3 and A4, in School
C, Learners-C1, C2, C3 and C4 and in School D, Learners-D3 and D4 congruently
confirmed the boys’ confidence in the English classroom:
…boys are confident to speak words in English and participate in English;
whereas, girls have no confidence to speak in English. When boys participate, they
are confident…to actively participate in the class…So boys have self-confidence
to respond any questions…When boys speak, teachers more encourage them
even they make mistakes. Due to this reason, boys are motivated to participate
more and more…But even if girls want to ask questions, they fear and shy their
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teacher to raise their hands and ask questions… Boys are courageous
and…confront their teachers by asking questions. Whether girls know or do not
know, they are not willing to participate. They prefer to be silent. (Source: Focus
group Interview)
In the above narration, learners reiterated that boys are confident to speak in English
while girls lack self-confidence. However, these learners also emphasised that teachers
encourage boys to participate more even if boys make mistakes. Due to this reason, boys
were motivated to increase their participation, knowledge and skill. The learners put it that
girls then become shy to speak because they are shy and they are afraid of their teachers
to ask questions so they remain silent. In School B, Learner-B1 stated his observation
about boys’ confidence in the English classroom:
...If some girls are asked to read a passage, they face a reading problem even if I
do not identify the reason. When I see boys, they speak without fearfulness.
(Source: Focus group Interview)
In School D, Learners-D1 and D2, unlike the above participants, had explained their
observation about boys’ confidence in the English classroom in a different manner:
I disagree on this idea because some boys and some girls are passive and some
female learners and some male learners are active to partake in the class. So the
participation of boys and girls is not consistent because it depends on their ability.
(Source: Focus group Interview)
Two of the participants in School D brought a different version of the boys’ participation
in the English class. They argued that some boys are passive just like some girls and they
emphasised that the boys’ participation depended on the ability of those asking questions
at a particular time in class. According to these learners, it is not that all boys are active
participants in class. As two of the participants said, teachers encouraged boys more
even when they made mistakes.
Sub-theme 7: Factors making girls passive during classroom discussions
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Teachers A, C and D similarly added other factors that made girls passive when they
discussed in a group of learners:
Yes, of course, girls are passive…the factor that makes them passive is their
thinking because girls think when they speak if they make mistakes, maybe others
laugh at them. Maybe some teachers may insult them when they make mistakes.
Due to that reason, girls prefer to be silent than to say anything else… another
factors that make them passive are their inferiority complex and social
anxiety…The other factor is that their families do not give chances as equal as boys
because they believe that girls are not allowed to talk more and more in their
society. They are allowed only to prepare food and treat the whole families and also
care the children and fetch water. (Source: In-depth Interview)
From the above, one can deduce that again girls keep quiet because they are frightened
of having faults and of being laughed at by other classmates. The teachers highlighted
the issue of the inferiority complex and social anxiety that made girls to be silent in class.
The other issue was the home or family environment that does not provide balanced
opportunities to sons and daughters concerning self-expression. The societal belief that
girls are not allowed to talk a lot in society also compelled families not to encourage girls
to talk and this can clearly be seen to be carried over to the school environment.
In other ways, Teacher B discussed that:
…all girls are not passive and all boys are not active. So it is possible to say that
some girls participate actively and others are passive and some boys participate
actively and others are passive. But when we compare the girls’ number, boys are
the most active participants. This is the truth because their passivity depends on
the traditional belief of their society and family. (Source: In-depth Interview)
Teacher B asserted the same observation as the learners D1 and D2 from School D
argued that “all girls are not passive and all boys are not active.” He drew attention to the
fact that some girls participate actively and others were passive like some boys. The most
important point raised by Teacher B was that the passivity of the learners depended on
their traditional or the society or the families from which they came from.
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With regard to factors making girls passive during discussion in the classroom context, in
School A, Learners-A1, A2, A3, A4 stated what factors made girls passive during
discussions:
…when girls are discussing with their friends, their shyness and fearfulness are
low because they are their friends and know well each other. But when they
present something in front of the students and the teachers, they are afraid and
ashamed…But boys have self-reliance to discuss their ideas in front of the
class…Boys talk more freely in the class but girls are afraid and ashamed. Girls do
not have freedom in our culture (Source: Focus group Interview)
The above narration again points out to the freedom of girls to talk that is not encouraged
by their culture. Girls are only free to express themselves when they talk to other girls
who are their fiends because they are comfortable around them.
In School B, Learner-B2 responded that girls were frequently absent from the school
because their parents needed them for domestic activities such as looking after children,
keeping cattle and sheep, giving support during farming and crop harvesting and
preparing and taking food for farmers. As the participant said, boys were reluctant to be
absent because they did not give more attention for their parents’ order. It can be deduced
from the following assertion that girls’ learning is not significant in some families. There
are no household chores that deter boys from attending school as compared to girls. Boys
from primary school develop self-confidence while girls develop inferiority complex and
they become afraid and shy to express themselves in a classroom context. Girls develop
the inferiority complex also from primary school and take this attitude with them to high
school. It is, therefore, not easy that girls can suddenly be compared to boys because of
the cultural and the family situations that do not encourage them to express themselves
from a young age. Following is the response from Learner-B2 in School B:
In rural schools,…girls are frequently absent from the class because their parents
need them for domestic activity like looking after children, keeping cattle and ship,
giving support during farming and crop harvesting and preparing and taking food
for farmers… But boys are reluctant to be absent. They do not give more attention
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for their parents’ order. So boys go to school by themselves without getting their
parents’ permission. Because of this, boys develop confident by themselves
starting from primary school. So boys properly attend the class but girls do not
attend properly the class. Due to this reason, girls become inefficient and develop
inferiority and then become shy to actively participate in the classroom
discussion…when girls come to high school, they have less participation in group
discussion due to the problems that they faced in primary school. (Source: Focus
group Interview)
In School C, Learner-C1, C2, C3 and C4 and in School D, Learners-D1, D2, D3 and D4
expressed their views about the factors that made girls passive when they discussed in
groups:
Girls are passive than boys and have less confidence... Culture is one factor that
influences girls during discussion. There is some cultural thinking in the society
that affects girls... So they do not think that they can perform as equal as boys.
When we work in group, girls do not answer questions because they have more
domestic activities they cannot do the given exercise and assignments. They only
come to school without doing their homework. So they face problems to participate
during discussion. (Source: Focus group Interview)
It is noticeable that many participant teachers and learners alike mentioned the issue of
cultural traditions that affect the thinking of girls and their participation at school. In
addition, the issue of domestic chores that consume more time for girls was raised as a
problem to such an extent that girls could not execute their school assignments.
Sub-theme 8: Awareness creation about gender issues by schools and government
Principals-A, B, C and D congruently stated that the work in relation to awareness
creation on gender issues was insufficient for the people and the community even if
the government made an effort by preparing and implementing gender policies in the
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Ethiopian context. Some strategies were designed to be implemented in schools and
in different sectors such as women’s youth and health centre and also in different
supporters such as NGOs that used to give support to the government and to create
people’s awareness about gender issues. This is because they said that they were not
sensitive to gender issues. These participants expressed their views:
To create awareness on gender issue in the Ethiopian context, our work is not
enough… even if a government has made good effort, there is a problem of policy
implementation when gender issue comes on the ground. So there is a shortcoming
of policy implementation in school level. Of course, direction is given about
providing tutorial class for female students but it is not practically done because
when teachers give tutorial class, they give both boys and girls, not only for
girls…The problem is created from our traditional background experiences
because women are given less attention in our traditional culture. But there is
dissimilarity among rural female learners and urban female learners. The rural
female students are more influenced by traditional culture. So they fear and shy to
communicate with each other. However, the urban female students are relatively
free to express their feelings because they have good exposure for communication.
(Source: Individual Interview)
From the above narration, it was clear that there was a shortcoming of policy
implementation at the grass root level even if direction was given with regard to
providing tutorial classes for female students because it was not practically done when
teachers gave tutorial classes for both boys and girls. It was further revealed that the
problem was created from their traditional background experiences because women
were given less attention in their traditional culture. This showed that there was a gap
with regard to gender policy implementation at the grass root level, such as the school.
DISCUSSION
Demir and Yavuz (2017:104) discuss the scholars’ views on gender role expansion and
working to prove that gender notions and roles’ conduct are the results of social
impacts functioning both familiarly and in social systems incorporating schools. On
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the other hand, in the Ethiopian context, OXFAM, in the Ethiopia Gender Snapshot,
(2017:2) and Azanaw and Tassew (2017:12511) report that improvement towards gender
equality has been obtained in terms of creating institutional arrangements on several
fronts, although gaps still persist.
Women encounter multiple obstacles to equal access, involvement and development in
the labour market because organisations and policies are formed based on traditional
gender functions, including on the anticipation that men should be the only or the chief
earners in a family. As well as perpetuate the undervaluation of care work, as presented
by the International Labour Organisation (2016: xvii).
As Agénor (2018:2) supports this view by presenting how social norms impact teachers’
perceptions and attitudes about women and their ability because perception is extremely
important to individual’s experiences. Alani et al. (2016:20) further explain that gender
roles and expectations are from their surrounding culture and then from that develop their
gender schemas. For example, women are depicted as inferior.
Relating to this idea, participants especially teachers, explained that they expected girls
and boys to perform equally and actively in the classroom but both of them did not have
active and equal participation. They presented their perception that girls had time-
constraints because they had extra-activities in their homes. As Agénor (2018:2)
mentions, norms make women stay at home and devote a lot of time to domestic tasks
and child nurturing, instead of learning. Social norms impact teachers’ perceptions and
attitudes about women and their ability. At the time of classroom observation, boys and
girls were not equally participating in teaching and learning and some participants
asserted that teachers encourage boys more than they encourage girls.
Concerning girls’ expectation of boys to take decisions in the classroom context,
participants responded that girls expected boys or others to take decisions instead of
them taking decisions on their own in the group discussion. Participants believed that
boys had the ability to do school activities better, but girls were unable to do them properly
and successfully because they were kept busy with domestic activities and that made
them to rely and expect to get help from boys and teachers. This showed that girls were
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dependent on boys’ abilities because girls believed that boys might do better than them.
This is consistent with Beyene’s (2015:11) statement that in both town and countryside
contexts, Ethiopian women have the heaviest home loads and are primarily
responsible for caregiving and unpaid public labour.
In the same way, literature reviewed by Iwu and Azoro (2017:834) presents that self-
reliance of women is low due to their capacity to learn science subjects. In addition, Liu
and Lan (2016:171) put it forward that public influences are considered to have a
noteworthy influence on educational achievement. This confirmed that girls were victims
of cultural influence because the participants stated that girls had lack of self-confidence
to take decisions on their own in the classroom. Classroom observation affirmed that girls
were still tied-up by traditional gender beliefs because there were reticent during
classroom discussions.
Regarding the leading role of boys and girls inside and outside the classroom, UNESCO
(2015:83) puts that “Girls perform domestic chores such as cooking food, fetching water
and cleaning the home while boys tend animals and help in the fields”. As Agénor
(2018:34) explains, societal rules or customs may produce partiality against assigning
women as managers and leaders. In turn, due to absence of exposure, woman leaders
may continue unfair perceptions of women’s success in leadership roles. This helps
perpetuate discrimination in high-level positions.
Concerning the leadership role in the group work, Szoltysek’s, Poniat’s, Gruber’s and
Klüsener’s (2016:1) findings confirm that: household organisation is a central originator
of social disparity. Regarding boys as family leaders and girls as child carers, teachers
theoretically believed that men and women had equal rights to lead their family. However,
they practically confirmed men as family leaders and women as child caretakers because
in the society, domestic activities were given to women. Therefore, girls and boys were
encouraged to reflect in the classroom what they did at their homes because students
were members of their societies. Such an idea is associated with the male role which
was categorised by ability, autonomy, aggressiveness, supremacy and leadership;
whereas, women are perceived as sympathetic, considerate, cooperative, fostering and
caring (Emilia, Moecharam & Syifa, 2017:206). Participants also indicated that leading
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roles were still dominated by men due to cultural pressure that hindered learners’ equal
participation in the leadership roles. During classroom observation, it was observed that
boys were still dominant leaders in the classroom context because such gender thinking
negatively affected the leading role of female students due to the prevalence of gender
stereotypes in the society. Thus, participants confirmed that boys were group leaders and
classroom monitors because girls preferred to keep silent and were shy to express their
feelings. The influence of sociocultural gender belief made girls more afraid of carrying
responsibilities in the classroom.
In the same way, researchers such as Endendijk et al. (2015) point out how gender
treatment was influenced by learners’, teachers’ and principals’ gender schema, which
was developed during childhood at home and continued through teaching-learning
processes at the school and classroom level. This idea is further supported by UNESCO
(2017:58) that women’s leadership and political contribution are still limited in a
number of nations, since women are underrepresented as electors, as well as in
the most important positions. Moreover, classroom observation confirmed that boys were
frequently group leaders and class monitors.
According to Pepin’s (2017:2) argument, it is challenging to separate power stemming
from gender norms and power derived from higher financial contributions when
breadwinning often coincides with male dominance. Learners’ response also showed that
boys were frequently assigned as group leaders due to their better participation in the
group work. They were also aware that men were leaders in ‘Kebele’ and ‘Idir’,
committees and organisations. On the other hand, daughters were not afforded identical
chances as sons to take a leadership role in the classroom. Girls became fearful and
frightened to be group leaders due to negative attitudes of their classmates. Therefore,
their leadership role was influenced by patriarchal thinking in the classroom because of
the social gender belief that emanated from the traditional thinking that men were the
leaders of their families as well as the leaders of the country.
Concerning responsibilities and roles that were performed by men and women, Endendijk
et al. (2015) and Persson (2017) point out that women take a subordinate or caretaker
role. Participants highlighted that girls have a secretary role, not a leading role in the
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group because they feared to raise questions and to elicit ideas in the classroom
discussion due to cultural thinking. Participants agreed that boys executed more
responsibilities and roles than girls. Their argument was that boys were traditionally
confident and stronger than girls. They also said that, except the willingness to do
something, girls were not successful because they lacked confidence and social
influence. This showed that girls had no social influence to accept roles and
responsibilities in the classroom. In this regard, Persson (2017:4) supports that kids are
developed to receive and embody certain gender roles and that language supports these
roles. Participants also revealed that men successfully executed their responsibility
rather than women because men do not fear and are not shy to express themselves;
whereas, women are ashamed and hide themselves beginning from their childhood.
Persson (2017:4) further confirms that “gender roles are not defined by biological factors,
but rather by a set of socially constructed norms which we adopt during our childhood.”
The finding proved that boys were competent, but girls were incompetent to take roles
and responsibilities in the classroom because the entrenched traditional gender beliefs in
the society were internalised in the mind of boys and girls starting from their childhood.
Data confirmed that boys were dominant and girls were subordinate to take roles and
responsibilities. Thus, this social belief affected the actual classroom teaching-learning
activities. During classroom observation, it was observed that boys were self-confident,
but girls were not self-confident and boys were powerful, but girls were powerless to take
roles and responsibilities in the classroom situation.
As Nasser (2016:24) points out, gender roles are influenced by history and culture. By
the same token, Beyene (2015:11) states that Ethiopian women spend more time than
men in providing unpaid work both inside and outside the home, while men are inclined
to get compensated and receive more for their fruitful labour. Supporting this,
participants shared that girls were worried about their mistakes; were considered as
fragile to play football; were embarrassed by students when they took up leadership roles;
were responsible for classroom cleaning; were ordered to clean the classroom; were
willing to come on time and do the group assignment; were overloaded by home activities
to do their assignment. However, boys had sufficient confidence to lead the group and
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present the ideas of the group. They were perceived as a strong enough to play football;
were not willing to participate in classroom cleaning because they were onlookers; were
courageous to do difficult activities; were ordered to work heavy tasks in the school
compound; were dictators and reluctant to come and do tasks within a given time; were
first to ask questions and were not loaded.
Mohammed (2016:27) presents that men are usually linked to doing advanced and
complex professional jobs receiving support from women. This is regularly done by using
illustrations such as a man as a medical doctor with a woman as a nurse or a man as a
judge with a woman as a typist. Teachers and principals similarly reported that, most of
the time, they gave the leading position to boys rather than girls; for example, assigned
as class monitors because girls were assigned as vice-classroom monitor. According to
the participants’ statement, this showed that boys were mostly dominant in the classroom
since girls had deep-rooted cultural background problems in their society. In addition,
when they went back to their home, they were always busy with household activities such
as washing dishes, preparing food, caring for children and tending to animals. As
Mohammed (2016:29) says, women are familiar with cultural roles as a housewife, taking
care of children and as typists. However, men typically symbolise a dad and a husband
being dynamic and physically strong.
In addition, the participants indicated that female teachers were reluctant to accept
responsibility in school and they pushed those responsibilities to male teachers.
Nevertheless, men were willing to accept pressure situations rather than women so
women underestimated themselves as equal to men. As these participants believed, such
actions were the result of cultural influence starting from childhood through the male
dominated community. It was indicated in the foregone discussion that female students
had some limitations to be first leaders and monitors in school. According to participants’
experiences, the first monitor was a boy and the second one was a girl because students
presented elected boys as first monitors rather than girls. This is because of the influence
of their traditional gender thinking. They also gave examples that the traffic club was given
only to male learners; whereas, HIV/AIDS and gender clubs were given to female
learners. According to their statement, in the traffic club, male learners were more
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effective than female learners because they could withstand hard pressures on the
streets.
With regard to girls’ and boys’ participation during class discussions, the reality is
stated by UNESCO (2017:59) that gender disparity in terms of access, contribution
and advancement of human rights for women is still a main challenge in sub-Saharan
Africa. Participants similarly articulated that girls had low participation and boys had
high participation in classroom activities. The reason that the participants stated was
the girls’ quietness or silence because they feared to participate as equal as boys
due to cultural influence which created a social anxiety in their minds. This social
anxiety increased the unequal contribution among male and female learners in the
actual schoolroom instructional activities. However, Clover (2015:20) indicates that
gender equality means the equal contribution of both boys and girls “in all spheres . .
. of public life”.
Eliasson, Sørensen and Karlsson (2016:1658) summarised different research findings to
state that “boys are more likely to initiate teacher interactions, to volunteer in answering
questions, and to call out answers compared to girls”. Such a claim is further supported
by Liu and Lan (2016:171) that if learners are further capable to keep their societal
interactions with others in the school, they are likely to do well educationally rather than
those who are not. This incident is a barrier wherein girls have limited participation.
Participants also indicated that girls still had many traditional influences in their
background experiences that could affect their participation in the classroom teaching-
learning activities. The influence of traditional sayings in the society was an indication that
girls had less participation and boys had high participation in the classroom discussions.
Kleven’s, Landais’s and Søgaard’s (2017:4) findings show that the feminine gender
identity is moulded during a girl’s early years based on the gender roles of her family.
School principals also indicated that male teachers were more active participants in
different committees that were found inside and outside school but female teachers were
fewer participants in different committees and department heads because women were
busy with home tasks. Additionally, they feared to properly express how they felt. For
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example, one school principal confirmed that among eight departments, men led six
departments and women led two departments. This is consistent with classroom
observation that a majority of the boys were confidently active participants, but girls,
except two or three female learners in the classroom, were passive participants.
UNESCO’s (2018:88) statement confirms that “...girls’ participation is still low.”
With regard to the division of labour between opposing gender, the participants indicated
how gendered occupations are reinforced through instructional activities because the
reinforcement of gendered occupations in the school is used to encourage sociocultural
knowledge that affected the actual teaching-learning activities. Participants raised that
boys were nominated to do heavy work and girls were nominated to do easy work in
school because there was a belief that boys were stronger than girls. They confirmed that
there was a division of labour specially in terms of performing drama because girls were
represented as janitor, nurse, wife, mother, teacher and secretary; whereas, boys were
represented as father, doctor, teacher, bank manager, pilot, judge, engineer and
policeman.
The above discussion is consistent with Emilia’s, Moecharam’s and Syifa’s (2017: 211)
statement that women are stereotyped as mothers and wives which is used to illustrate
how indoor activities were familiar to girls and outdoor activities were familiar to boys in
the school. School principals also highlighted that “domestic activities were given for
women and outdoor activities were given for men” which showed that women were
frequently engaged in indoor activities compared to men. During observation, it was
observed that traditional gender thinking was still affecting girls and limited to their
participation in the classroom instructional activities.
Boys’ and girls’ confidence in the classroom context was also discussed with participants.
Most participants asserted and confirmed that boys were overconfident, but girls were
less confident regarding participation in classroom discussions. This sociocultural
thinking cultivated traditional gender belief that highlighted male domination and female
subordination. This is consistent with Persson’s (2017:4) statement that boys undermined
girls’ performance and girls overrated boys’ performance because traditionally women
are cautious not to interfere when men are talking.
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Sixteen participants similarly indicated that boys had self-confidence to pose and answer
questions and to read a passage in the classroom. However, girls lacked self-confidence
to do those activities. On the contrary, four participants argued that not all women and
men were active and not all women and men were passive because some girls and some
boys were active and some girls and some boys were inactive.
This is supported by Persson’s (2017:23) recommendation that “teachers should be
aware of and strive to adapt to an inherent gender imbalance in today's society, an
imbalance which many believe is created and strengthened in the classroom
environment.” Therefore, the finding validated that boys were more confident to do things
without thinking about their mistakes; whereas, girls were not confident to do things
because they were more concerned about making mistakes. I also observed that boys
were confident in asking and answering questions during the English lessons, but girls
struggled with fear. Classroom observation emphasised this view that male learners were
more self-reliant than female learners in asking and answering questions during
classroom lessons.
Under the factors that made girls passive during classroom discussions, as researchers
such as Ogunleye, Olonisakin and Adebayo (2015:88) say, mothers and fathers are a
child’s first intermediaries because they are responsible for giving the necessary guided
experiences for the kid to be advantageous from a lifetime of learning. However, Persson
(2017:17) investigated that “boys spoke more all day and are generally the more talkative
group.”
While some participants said that all boys and all girls were not passive and active
because some boys and some girls were passive or active, some participants agreed that
girls were passive during classroom discussions. However, all participants similarly talked
about the factors that girls were more worried about speaking and making mistakes
because others laughed at them. Another factor was that their families at home did not
equally give the opportunities to boys and girls. This is because boys were allowed to talk
more and girls were not allowed to talk more in front of others. This is supported by
Persson’s (2017:4) discussion that boys are depicted as energetic and girls as submissive
and receivers of contempt and jeer.
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This concern is similar with Endendijk et al.’s (2015) statement that boys and girls are
shaped and guided by the gender schemas of their parents and societies that include
gender-typed information and familiarities. Likewise, Kleven et al.’s (2017:29) findings are
similar with the notion that women’s inclinations over family and career are moulded by
the gender functions that she is unprotected from during her infancy. The finding showed
that men are energetic and women are submissive because of their inferiority complex
and social anxiety and further entrenchment of gender inequality in the society. This is
similar with my observation because I saw that more male learners than female learners
were participating during schoolroom discussions. At the time of classroom observations,
traditional factors such as girls’ shyness, timidity, fear and embarrassment were still
dominantly reflecting in the classroom situation. This is emphasised by Szoltysek et al.,
(2016:6) who confirm that patriarchy encompassed both stratification of societal
achievement by gender and the supremacy of men over each other.
UNESCO (2017:78) points out that empowerment of girls and women includes
awareness-raising among people that encourages non-typecast and equal pictures of
men and women. However, there was a gap about gender policy implementation at the
grass root level. In this regard, school principals similarly indicated that the work in relation
to the creation of awareness on gender issues by schools and the government was
insufficient for the people and the community even when government made an effort by
preparing and implementing the gender policy in the Ethiopian context. They added that
the problem was created from traditional background experiences because women were
given less attention within the traditional culture. The second finding is discussed below.
6.4.1.2: Finding 2: Gender bias in classroom instructional activities
In addition to gender roles and responsibilities in instructional activities, participants
expressed gender bias in classroom instructional activities. The sub-themes are
discussed hereunder.
Sub-theme 1: Boys’ and girls’ socialisation in classroom context
In this regard, in schools-A, B, C and D, Teachers A, B, C and D similarly explained their
view about sons’ and daughters’ socialisation in the schoolroom:
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Socialisation is mostly reflected in the classroom by sitting and working girls with
girls and boys with boys. Especially, girls do not choose to sit with boys. Even we
teachers, if one girl sits with one boy and they talk their own agenda, we consider
that they created unnecessary relation…they prefer to sit girls with girls and boys
with boys…even during their break time. Actually, even if boys want to socialise
with girls, girls do not want to sit with boys. As you know, usually we Ethiopians
even including our students reflect what we do in our environment. In our traditional
experiences, just boys usually spend much of their time with boys; girls spend much
of their time with girls, especially girls with their mothers, boys with their fathers.
This is cultural experience because both boys and girls fear social criticism if they
work together… This background experience influences our students in the class.
(Source: In-depth Interview)
The above narration indicated that girls were socialised with girls and boys were
socialised with boys. Boys were familiar with their fathers and girls were familiar with their
mothers starting from their childhood. This highlighted that social and cultural background
experience affected learners’ socialisation with the contrasting gender in the school
situation. Public criticism was another factor that made male learners and female learners
not to communicate with each other.
In School A, B, C and D, most of the learners, like teachers, indicated that they chose the
same sex as classmates rather than the opposite sex because most of the time girls
preferred girls to boys and boys preferred boys. These participants added that both male
and female learners were unwilling to seat together in the classroom even if a teacher
ordered a boy to sit next to a girl because traditionally this was perceived as a taboo. The
reason was that the society criticised them if a boy was seen in public walking together
with a girl. Participants narrated:
…But in our traditional thinking, especially in a rural school, if a girl sits with a boy,
it is not good because it is considered as bad-mannered and undisciplined by
others. When a teacher orders a boy to sit with a girl, both are not willing. So when
they come in high school, girls do not like to sit with boys and boys also do not like
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to sit with girls because they developed that a boy does not sit with a girl and a girl
does not sit with a boy. (Source: Focus group Interview)
On the other hand, in School B, Learner-B1 stated that her friends were both boys and
girls. However, she said that she saw girls with girls and boys with boys in her school
because boys and girls feared social criticism to make classmate boys with girls and girls
with boys. She narrated:
My friends are both boys and girls. But the other students are not like this because
I see female learners with female learners and male learners with male learners.
The reason is that if a boy is always seen with a girl, the society considers him and
her as they have sexual relationship or their relations for sexual purpose rather
than for academic purpose. This prohibits a girl to socialise with a boy and a boy
with a girl… So it is impossible to share knowledge and experience between boys
and girls… (Source: Focus group Interview)
The above narration showed how much the society’s traditional thinking prohibited boys
and girls being classmates because the society did not see this as a positive relation of
sharing academic knowledge and experience. Society considered it as an unwanted
sexual relation. This social criticism affected girls and boys who were classmates with
boys with girls in their school.
In School C, Learner-C1 and C2 unanimously explained that their classmates were boys
who had an ability and good participation in the classroom:
Boys. I have my own criteria to choose my classmate based on their ability. If they
have good participation in the classroom, they can be my classmate. If they are not
good student, they cannot be my classmates.
There is some relation between boys and girls in classroom, or they have less
socialisation. The cause of less socialisation between boys and girls is the belief of
other person or the belief of society. Because of this, one boy and one girl think the
negative side of socialisation between boys and girls. So we socialise boys with
boys and girls with girls. (Source: Focus group Interview)
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The participants’ response showed that men and women were conscious of the negative
results of their socialisation process because the society believed that a boy had a sexual
relationship with a girl if he had a girl classmate. Their narration confirmed that girls and
boys feared social criticism to sit, work and even walk together.
On the other hand, Learner-C3 and Learner-C4 stated that their classmates were girls
because others negatively considered the relationship between boys and girls even if they
wanted boys as classmates. They expressed similar views that their classmates were
girls:
Girls. If I study or discuss with boys, other observers think that both boys and girls
create unwanted relationship. Due to this, I select to be with girls even if I want to
work with boys. (Source: Focus group Interview)
The above data underlined that boys preferred boys and girls preferred girls to escape
social criticism.
In School D, participants-D1 and D3 narrated that they preferred to have boys as
classmates because they believed that they helped each other by sitting and working
together. However, if a girl was their classmate, she only asked them to do the questions
rather than help each other. These participants explained about their classmates:
Boys. We can help each other. If I cannot do the questions, my classmate helps
me and if my classmate does not know, I help him. But if a girl is my classmate,
she does not help me. She only asks me to do the questions rather than help each
other… I see boys with boys and girls with girls. So starting from primary grades,
my classmates are boys. Because of this, I prefer to make classmates with boys
and then to sit and work together. (Source: Focus group Interview)
On the contrary, in school D, participants-D2 and D4 said that their classmates were girls
because they did not fear to communicate with each other. They stated their opinion as:
Girls. It is familiarised that girls with girls and boys with boys in our society. When I
sit in the classroom, I always sit with girls. So I do not like to sit with boys. (Source:
Focus group Interview)
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In the above narration, socialising girls with girls and boys with boys was familiar in the
society because participants confirmed that if a girl was seen discussing and walking with
a boy, others laughed at her and then she became embarrassed and would be forced to
stop walking with the boy. These participants also revealed that boys asserted that girls
had less contribution to help each other and girls perceived that it was not simple to
communicate with boys, but it was easier to communicate with girls. Therefore, the
preference of classmates among male and female learners entrenched and perpetuated
the traditional gender socialisation in the school context. The finding underscored that
sociocultural gender knowledge and experience restricted men’s and women’s
socialisation in the schoolroom; rather it perpetuated traditional gender socialisation that
prevented male and female learners from seating, working, playing and walking together
in school and after school because of social criticism. This portrayed how gender
socialisation negatively affected classroom instructional activities.
Sub-theme 2: Giving more encouragement for boys and girls in the classroom context
Teachers- A, B, C and D agreed that they gave priority to encourage and motivate girls
who had cultural influences in their society. However, these participants said that girls did
not use the chance even if they gave priority to them. Due to this reason, the four teachers
highlighted that they neglected girls and then gave boys a chance. Teachers A and B
narrated:
When I teach in the class, most of the time girls are passive even if they have high
number in the class. So I encourage girls to increase their participation. ...when I ask
questions, I give priority for the girls due to their natural behaviour and their shyness.
…at the time of answering and asking questions, giving priority for girls is to
encourage them, but the chance is equal…The reason is to avoid the cultural
influence which we brought from the society.
Teacher C shared:
As to me, I encourage girls because girls have many obstacles that hamper them.
Therefore, I can just break down those obstacles… But even if I give equal chance,
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the dominants are boys who are willing to perform different activities. Girls are not
willing to do that. Boys come first always. They are volunteers if I give some
questions. For example, I unknowingly appreciate boys by saying “Abebe, your
answer is excellent!” So I can choose boys than girls. (Source: In-depth Interview)
Teacher D added:
… Actually teachers encourage girls in classroom because we teachers know the
difference between boys’ and girls’ participation. Even if we teachers give the
chance for girls, they cannot do as equal as boys... During this time, I neglect girls
and then give the chance for boys. I give a kind of appreciation for boys by saying:
“a wonderful! A fantastic quay! Excellent!” (Source: In-depth Interview)
The above narration indicated that teachers gave priority to encourage and motivate girls
rather than boys to minimise the cultural influence which they brought from their society
but girls did not use the opportunities.
Like teachers, learners narrated that classroom teachers and other school administrators
helped and encouraged both boys and girls equally. On the contrary, they similarly
provided that teachers and other people gave more encouragement to girls because girls
were very timid to participate in the classroom and out of the classroom. In School A,
Learner-A1 stated that there was equal encouragement in his school context:
In school compound, you have classroom teachers and other school
administrators who help and encourage both boys and girls equally. They help
them by giving materials what students want. So without differentiating boys and
girls, they treat or encourage equally. (Source: Focus group Interview)
On the other hand, in school A, Learners-A2, A3 and A4, in School B, Learners-B1 and
B3, in school C, Learners-C2, C3 and C4 and in School D, Learners-D1, D2, D3 and D4
congruently explained that girls were given more encouragement in their classroom
context:
In our school, the encouragement mostly depends on girls because some girls are
afraid to participate in the clubs and out of the clubs. Then the teachers help female
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students not to be afraid in the class and out of the class…so girls need more
encouragement and help to avoid cultural influence.
…teachers always encourage girls rather than boys by giving different supportive
activities …because they have burden in their house …So girls can improve their
equal participation.” (Source: Focus group Interview)
Besides, in School C, Learner-C1 narrated that boys mostly encouraged girls because he
believed that boys had great potential:
Boys encourage mostly girls because boys have high potential. But I do not say
that girls have not their own potential. But boys have more interest to improve their
potential. (Source: Focus group Interview)
The above narration indicated that teachers and boys encouraged girls to make them
equal participants with boys. Participants highlighted that girls needed more
encouragement and help in the classroom as well as in the school to avoid cultural
influence because they had burden and cultural influence in their house.
By the same token, Principals-A, B, C and D agreed that teachers should give their time
to help students not only boys but also girls in tutorial programmes because girls had low
participation due to many challenges and burdens in their society. These principals
explained why classroom instructors should dedicate more time to motivate women than
men:
Girls have many challenges and burdens in our society. Teachers should inspire
girls and should do more to bring girls in the forefront because we did not achieve
what we expected. Female teachers should be a role model to make girls successful
and then bring them to different responsibilities. Girls can speak their problems for
female teachers without fear rather than male teachers even if male teachers are
willing to encourage girls.
Yes …We have extra learning in tutorial programmes for girls because most of them
have their own extra burdens in their house so that they have their own problems.
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... Women’s participation is low in our country so teachers should give more time to
make girls as equal as boys, and also to increase girl’s participation. So giving more
time to encourage girls is very important. (Source: Individual Interview)
In the above narration, principals highlighted that female teachers should be role models
to make girls successful and then assign them different responsibilities because girls
could share their problems with female teachers without fear rather than male teachers.
The finding exhibited that instructors provided more time to encourage female than male
learners because female learners have low participation, many challenges and burdens
in their society.
Concerning reinforcement of gender activities by school community, principals pointed
out that they did more activities to make girls successful by providing training on how to
face and overcome challenges, how to give respect for both men and women and how to
create awareness during a period that was set aside specifically to discuss menstruation.
They also stated that they taught girls about gender activities through the gender club
wherein girls got advice and this gender club also allowed teachers to provide direction
and advice for both male and female learners. These participants narrated:
…we do more activities to make girls successful, such as how girls solve their
problems, how to win when they face challenges by giving training for them and
creating awareness on menstruation period.
There is gender club which is female-centred. In this club, girls get advice about
menstruation period and also they get training about different things.
We make teachers give assistance and advice for both male and female students.
Through gender club, we teach girls about gender activities. In this club, girls are
reinforced. (Source: Individual Interview)
The data presented that in the Ethiopian school context, there are gender clubs wherein
girls are given advices and information about female issues such as menstruation and
about how they can solve the problems that they come across as women. This is a major
step of women empowerment. Boys were not left out. They are also catered for by being
given advice, guidance and counselling that is suitable for boys.
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Sub-theme 3: Raising hands during classroom lesson
Teachers- A, B, C and D similarly said that boys raised their hands more than girls
because girls feared to lift their hands either to request or respond to questions even if
they were eager to learn. These participants narrated:
…But most of the time, when we compare, boys are more participants in answering
and asking questions. Because boys are more motivated and privileged in their
society, not only in the school. So for the next generation, it is possible to break
that…
…boys raise their hands. The reason why boys raise their hands to participate is
that they do not be afraid or frightened; whereas, girls are afraid and embarrassed
because they do not have confidence as equal as boys. Boys highly assume
themselves that they can do things what they have been asked by anybody;
whereas, girls do not assume themselves that they can do or answer the question
that they are asked… (Source: In-depth Interview)
The above narration highlighted that there was a variance among male and female
learners in raising hands to ask and answer questions. Boys thought highly of themselves
and had self-confidence that they could do things when they were asked by anyone;
whereas, girls did not think highly of themselves that they could do things when they were
asked.
In School A, Learners-A1, A2, A3 and A4, in School B, Learner-B2, in School C, Learners-
C1, C2, C3 and C4 and in School D, Learners-D1, D2, D3 and D4 similarly asserted that
boys frequently raised their hands to ask questions without any fear. They added that
boys were not shy because they had confidence to give the answer to the question.
However, most of the girls were afraid to give the answer and were slow to raise their
hands and to ask questions because they lacked self-confidence:
Boys frequently raise their hands to ask questions without any fear and shy. But
when we come to girls, relatively they are slow to raise their hands and to ask
questions because of their fear.
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Girls do not ask their teacher by raising their hands even if they have
questions…But boys ask and answer questions by raising their hands when they
are asked by their teachers (Source: Focus group Interview)
The above narration indicated that boys frequently raised their hands to pose and respond
to questions without being shy. However, girls were slow to raise their hands to participate
in questions because of their anxiety. The finding emphasised that boys were brave,
motivated and confident but girls were not as brave, and were less motivated than the
boys during classroom lessons.
Sub-theme 4: Giving priority to boys and/or girls in the English classroom
Three of the four teachers agreed that they gave priority to girls. Nevertheless, they said
that girls were passive because they were worried about their mistakes. Due to this
reason, these participants stated that girls needed encouragement to develop their
confidence. They narrated to whom they gave more priority during the English lesson:
To tell you the truth, I give the first chance for girls because the number of female
learners is greater than the number of male learners. Most of the time we said girls
are passive. So I frequently encourage girls to develop their confidence… because
girls always worry about their mistakes. Girls think, “If I make mistake, everybody
will laugh at me”. When I give a chance for girls, the other students can be
motivated to ask and answer questions. But this depends on a teacher. For
instance, when girls make mistakes, the teacher may insult them. Because of this,
girls may not raise their hands again. (Source: In-depth Interview)
Contrary to this idea, Teacher D said that he gave priority to boys:
I give priority for boys because I know male students can do better than girls. The
reason why girls cannot do as boys because they assume they are lower than boys.
This is cultural background which shows boys can do better than girls. This makes
me to give priority for male students rather than female students. (Source: In-depth
Interview)
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The above data indicated that girls did not use the first chance even if they were given
priority because of their passivity and low participation.
Like teachers, in School A, Learners-A1, A2, A3 and A4, in School B, Learners- B1, B3
and B4 and in School D, Learners-D1 and D2 narrated that their teachers provided more
care to girls than to boys in asking and raising questions during the English lessons. This
is because they believed that girls needed more encouragement and support because of
their responsibilities at home that prevented them from doing their school work.
Participants explained:
…a special treatment is given for girls. They help and encourage girls to ask
questions because teachers understand what their problem is. So they give more
priority for girls than boys by considering the problem of girls …so teachers give
the chance more for girls because girls need more encouragement and help.
(Source: Focus group Interview)
In school C, Learners- C1, C2, C3 and C4 contrasted the above assertion and stated that
teachers gave an opportunity to both girls and boys. However, these participants added
that sometimes teachers gave priority to girls and finally to boys because the teachers
believed that the girls’ answers were incorrect, instead the boys’ answer was correct. This
displayed that teachers had a negative attitude towards girls. Participants revealed their
views as follows:
Teachers give opportunity for both girls and boys. But sometimes teachers first
give opportunity to girls and finally they give it to boys. The reason is that teachers
believe that girls’ answer is incorrect; whereas, boys’ answer is correct. This is
teachers’ attitude towards boys and girls. (Source: Focus group Interview)
On the other hand, Learners-D3 and D4 similarly provided that if boys or girls were clever
in the class, priority was given to those clever students. In addition, these participants
narrated that some teachers gave priority to boys and some teachers gave priority to girls
so that giving priority depended on the teachers. They explained their observation as:
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Most of the time, if boys or girls are clever in the class, priority is given for those
clever students. Some teachers give priority for boys and some teachers give
priority for girls. So it depends on the teachers. (Source: Focus group Interview)
In the above narration, learners indicated that some teachers gave priority to girls, some
teachers gave priority to boys and girls and some teachers gave priority to clever students
in asking and raising questions during the English lesson. The finding presented that some
teachers gave priority to girls to minimise the effects that the cultural influence had on
them and to increase their confidence and skills and some teachers gave priority to clever
students regardless of whether they were girls or boys.
Sub-theme 5: Better performer during the English class
Three of the four teachers agreed that boys performed better than girls because the bias
from the society enabled boys to perform better and they confidently did any activity
without worrying. Contrastingly, girls worried about their mistakes. These participants
narrated:
Even though their number is low, somewhat boys perform better things
…because girls do not want to express their feeling and their answers for different
tasks even if I give the chance for them. So boys perform better and have
confidence to do any activity without worrying; whereas, girls worry about their
mistakes.
Mostly, boys have sufficient time to study their education, or to access different
types of materials outside the school. But when girls go home, they are busy with
household activities like cooking and some other domestic activities. So girls do not
have sufficient time to read and study their exercise book and also to interact with
other students. …Even the bias that comes from the society enables boys to
perform better. (Source: In-depth Interview)
On the other hand, one teacher said that sometimes girls performed better and
sometimes boys performed better, but he said that girls were not competent even if he
gave priority to girls. He explained that:
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I say sometimes girls and sometimes boys. It depends on their background. I
cannot say more competent are girls and more competent are boys. But the chance
that I give priority is for the girls, not for boys. (Source: In-depth Interview)
The above narration showed that the performance of the learners is reliant on their
background. The narrator spelt out that he also gave the priority to girls than boys.
Like teachers in School A, Learners-A1, A2, A3 and A4, in School B, Learner-B2, in
School C, Learners-C1, C2, C3 and C4 and in School D, Learners-D1, D2, D3 and D4,
similarly spelt out that boys performed better than girls. This is because they said that
boys had a lot of time for reading and working, but girls were busy with domestic activities.
According to their statement, girls also were very afraid and confused because they had
no confidence to present their ideas, but boys had self-confidence because they had to
express what they wanted and to answer the questions. Contrastingly, girls were
frightened and that prevented them from asking what they did not understand. They
narrated:
Boys perform better than girls because boys have a lot of time for reading and
working. As we know, girls are busy by housework or house duties. Because of
this, they do not have enough time to read, to study more on their education. So
girls have less performance in the class but boys have a lot of time to work. …As
we know female students are very afraid and confused because they have no
confidence. Even if girls have knowledge, they do not present their ideas. Due to
this reason, boys have more participation.
When we are asked by teachers, boys speak what they think is good. But girls
don’t ask whether they do understand or do not understand. Because of this, girls
do not ask why the teachers answer a question like that....boys overestimate
themselves; whereas, girls underestimate themselves because they have cultural
influence in the society. (Source: Focus group Interview)
The above narration indicated that boys were better performers than girls because they
had self-confidence to participate whether they were right or wrong because they did not
care about their mistakes and also had time to study. However, girls were busy with house
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chores and then they were afraid and confused because they had no confidence. As a
result, the finding indicated that boys overestimated themselves, whereas girls
underestimated themselves because of the cultural influence in their society.
Sub-theme 6: Boys’ and girls’ treatment in the English classroom
Three of the four teachers confirmed that they treated male and female learners in the
same way in the English classroom because they said that both were their learners.
However, they said that girls were passive and fearful to express their opinions in the
class because they were not motivated in their surrounding society. So Teachers A, B
and D described their experiences about treating the male and female learners in the
subsequent narration:
I see boys and girls in the same way because both are my students. In fact, I give
girls especial attention to bring their levels into boys’ level. Except that, most of the
time, I see my students in the same manner. Why I give girls special activities is
that they are passive and fear to speak their opinion in the class. So to enhance
their speaking skill and overcome their anxiety, I give them especial activity.
…there is not division between girls and boys naturally except their gender. But
when I see the actual situation, girls are not more motivated in our surrounding
society. Even if the chance is given equally, boys are more motivated and
participants than girls. This is the cultural practice which we brought from the
preceding ones. (Source: In-depth Interview)
On the contrary, Teacher C shared that he treated girls and boys differently because
when a girl asked to go to the toilet while he was teaching, he did not allow her. However,
if a boy asked to go to toilet while he was teaching, he allowed him. This indicated that
there was gender discrimination in the way teachers treated boys and girls. Teacher C
said:
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…I support girls frequently to encourage them because they hide themselves to
practice and participate in classroom....but I sometimes treat women and men in
dissimilar ways. For example, when one girl asks to go to toilet while I am teaching,
I do not allow her. I say her, “You can go during break time!” But I do not know the
fact. She may have menstruation problem. But if a boy asks me to go to toilet, I
allow him. So we cannot similarly treat them. Due to this reason, girls frequently
need special treatment to avoid their shyness and fearfulness. (Source: In-depth
Interview)
The above data showed that some teachers treated male and female learners in the same
way and some teachers treated male and female learners in different ways. In fact, at the
time of classroom observation, it was observed that the teacher had treated their learners
in a similar way. However, what I observed was that girls had fear to express themselves
in the classroom.
Concerning boys’ and girls’ treatment in the English classroom, learners were
interviewed. In School A, Learners- A1, A3 and A4 confirmed that their teachers treated
girls in a different way because they stated the reason that girls needed more
encouragement because some girls were afraid and ashamed in the class. However,
boys needed less encouragement, according to the following narration:
… But teachers more treat girls because girls need more encouragement and boys
need less encouragement…because some girls are afraid and ashamed in the
class. So our teacher treats girls with especial treatment. (Source: Focus group
Interview)
As the finding indicated, three participants confirmed that girls are treated in a different
way wherein more encouragement is given to boys because some girls are afraid and
ashamed to participate in the classroom.
On the other hand, in School A, Learner-A2, In School C, Learners-C1, C2, C3 and C4
and in School D, Learners-D1, D2, D3 and D4 said that their instructors treated male and
female learners similarly to increase their equal participation in the classroom and also to
achieve good results. They also said in some cases their instructors treated girls and boys
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in a dissimilar way because they stated that they gave girls tutorial classes to improve
their potential. These participants narrated:
Teachers treat boys and girls equally. They give chance for both female and male
students to participate. …It is useful to increase equal contribution of male and
female learners and also to attain good results for both women and men. … Male
and female learners have a right to learn equally in the classroom. The other
reason why teachers treat both female and male learners in similar way is that girls
do not drop out their education.
Sometimes teachers understand male and female learners in the same way and
sometimes they see male students and female students in a various way. In the
schoolroom, teachers treat boys and girls in a similar way, but in tutorial class, they
treat only girls. (Source: Focus group Interview)
In the above narration, participants in School A, in School C and in School D, highlighted
that teachers gave similar treatment to girls and boys in the classroom even though
tutorial classes were provided for girls.
On the other hand, in School B, Learner-B1 stated that there was a different way of
treatment for girls and boys so that he uttered girls’ club was only for girls. He said:
Girls’ club is only for girls. But some girls are ignorant to actively participate in the
girls’ club. Our traditional culture is a source of problem about girls’ participation
because it affects their active classroom participation... (Source: Focus group
Interview)
In addition to the above data, Learner-B2 uttered that girls sat in one row alone and boys
sat in another row without sitting with girls. According to her statement, students were not
willing to mix even if their teachers made them sit together due to the influence of their
tradition. She explained her response as:
When we sit in the classroom, girls sit in one row alone and boys sit in another row
without mixing boys and girls together. This was reflected in our primary classes.
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But still now it continued in high school classes. Even if teachers make boys and
girls sit together, students are not willing to do this for the second time because
they choose to sit boys with boys and girls with girls. This is the influence of our
tradition. (Source: Focus group Interview)
The above data emphasised that instructors treated women and men in a different way
in terms of girls’ club and classroom sitting arrangements. This showed that their
traditional culture, which was a source of the problem, was encouraged through teaching-
learning activities.
Sub-theme 7: Being privileged in the classroom context
Teacher A stated that girls were more privileged than boys due to their high number in
the school. He expressed his opinion as:
In my observation, girls have been given more privilege than boys. The purpose is
that most of the learners in our school are girls. So I give more privilege to my girl
students. (Source: In-depth Interview)
Teacher B said that both were privileged for their right, but when he gave the chance to
both, boys participated more than girls. He stated:
Both are privileged in the classroom. But using their right, there is the variance
among male learners and female learners. When I give the chance for both boys
and girls, boys can participate more and girls can participate less. (Source: In-depth
Interview)
Teachers-C and D similarly explained that boys were privileged because if they had
any question, they freely asked but girls were silent because they were ashamed. They
said:
Boys are privileged in the classroom context. If a boy has any question, he can ask
freely his teacher like “Teacher, this question is not clear to me. Repeat it!” But girls
are always silent. They never say anything. For instance, if a teacher is absent a
period, boys go to the director’s office and report why the teacher did not come to
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the class. But girls mostly do not do that. They fear and shy. (Source: In-depth
Interview)
The above narration indicated that boys were more privileged than girls because the
participants mainly indicated that boys could participate more and girls could participate
less.
Learners, like teachers, stated who was more privileged in the classroom context as
follows. In School A, Learners-A1, A3 and A4 stated that girls were more privileged and
encouraged than boys because participants said that most of the girls were afraid.
Participants had a similar statement as follows:
In the classroom, girls are more privileged. Teachers pay special attention for girls.
Because of that, they get good advantage for their education. I think girls are more
encouraged than boys because most of the girls are afraid. (Source: Focus group
Interview)
As the above data presented, participants said that girls were more privileged than boys
because they affirmed that girls needed special attention.
On the other hand, in school A, Learner-A2, in School B, Learner-B4, in School C,
Learners-C1, C2, C3 and C4 and in School D, Learners-D1, D3 and D4 Learner-A2 said
that boys were more privileged in the classroom context because they believed that boys
were not afraid to participate freely. Participants responded as:
Boys frequently participate in the class. So they are privileged. But if girls are given
chance, they do not use that. They are afraid of participating in front of the class.
For instance, among 35 girls, 3 or 4 girls may actively participate in the class. But
this does not mean that girls are active participants because their number is greater
than boys’ number in the class.
Boys have a better understanding. So boys are given priority to become class
monitor and also group leader. So boys are more privileged than girls. (Source:
Focus group Interview)
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In the above narration, participants narrated that boys were privileged to participate in the
class, but girls were afraid to participate in front of the class even if their number was
greater than that of boys. It was emphasised that male learners were more privileged than
female learners to be assigned as group leaders and class monitors because learners
perceived girls as incapable of managing and controlling the group and the classroom
because of the social influence.
Sub-theme 8: Promoting gender-sensitive education and environment in school
Principals-A, B, C and D similarly narrated that gender-based education was necessary
for their learners in their school by making a joint venture with the Woreda Health Centre
and different NGOs because it could be used to promote gender-sensitive education and
environment through the girls’ club, Ethics and Moral Education. Therefore, they
expressed how they promoted gender-sensitive education and environment in their
school:
Regarding this, until now we did not do sufficient activities especially in promoting
gender-sensitive education and environment in our school but we will make an
effort to promote gender-sensitive education and environment in the future through
girls’ forum, girls’ club, gender club, Ethics and Moral Education by the cooperation
with the Woreda Health centre and different NGOs…Also we promote gender-
sensitive education and environment by giving tutorial class for girls.” (Source:
Individual Interview)
The above narration showed that there was a gap with regard to the promotion of gender-
sensitive education and environment in school.
DISCUSSION
In terms of gender bias in classroom instructional activities, Clark (2016:1) states that
unfairness is discussed through the concealed curriculum that is used as the vehicle
for the implicit scholastic, societal, and traditional messages that are transmitted to
learners while they are in school. This indicated that bias was an unconscious act
that has many influences on the learners in a schoolroom because many instructors
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circulate gender-biased actions without realising it, as suggested by Panther,
Beddoes, Cutler and Kappers (2017:5). If learners are sat down or lined up by gender,
this affirmed that female learners and male learners should be treated dissimilarly in
school. This idea showed how gender bias is reflected through teaching and learning
activities. As Ombati and Ombati (2017:130) posit, gender unfairness in the curricula
differs from nation to nation within the region. However, instructional programmes and
texts mostly strengthen inferior or indoor roles for women or girls. The sub-theme of
gender bias in classroom instructional activities is discussed hereunder.
Concerning boys’ and girls’ socialisation in the schoolroom context, what Mencía-ripley
et al. (2015:267) and Jehan and Kirmani (2015:192) elaborate on is that gender schemas
are constructed through individuals’ socialisation with others because gender schemas
are associated with individuals’ daily activities and gender related events. This view is
consistent with Ogunleye’s, Olonisakin’s and Adebayo’s (2015:89) statement that kids
are perceived as energetic participants through the socialisation process to develop their
own gender schemas because children construct knowledge about their gender identity
based on previously understood gender schemas.
Other researchers such as Kretschmer et al. (2017: 251) reviewed that learners may
select to make friends or peers with the same academic success. These researchers
(2017: 252) further say that the greatest friendship links are shaped among learners of a
similar gender. According to their statement, women have a tendency to place higher
significance on relationships categorised by emotional intimacy than men (ibid.) because
“...boys and girls employ different friendship selection criteria” (ibid.). Among their
selection criteria, shared comprehension and effective conversation in turn are
significant prerequisites for companionship creation (ibid.). Kretschmer et al. (2017:
253) further discuss that likeness increases shared comprehension and therefore
decreases the threat of clashes and discrepancies.
Participants similarly responded that girls were socialised with girls and boys were
socialised with boys because boys were familiar with their fathers and girls were familiar
with their mothers starting from their childhood. The finding indicated that girls and boys
faced social criticism that made them ashamed to sit and walk together even if they
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needed to socialise with the opposite sex. During observation, it was also clear that girls
sat with girls and boys sat with boys in the schoolroom. This is reinforced by Kretschmer
et al.’s (2017: 256) statement that nearly 90 per cent of all relationship selections were
similar gender selections. Because of this, the preference of classmate among male and
female learners encouraged traditional gender socialisation at the school level. These
researchers (2017: 251) reviewed that schools are places of strong socialisation of
gender functions because the instructions learners acquire about gender in school may
influence how they contemplate and what they trust gender impartiality.
Participants said that sociocultural gender knowledge and experience limited boys’ and
girls’ socialisation in the classroom because it encouraged boys’ socialisation with boys,
and girls’ socialisation with girls. In this regard, Yang (2015:1) reviewed the argument of
previous studies that publics’ internalised outlooks of gender typecasts are moulded by
various socialisation agents such as schools and other social processes. In the Ethiopian
culture, boys and girls learn from socialisation which is normal for women’s subjugation
and men’s hegemony. Supporting this idea, Mulatu Dea (2016:27) expresses that
women’s gender relegation is deeply entrenched not only in the present structures, but
also in the minds of both women and men. This discussion portrayed how gender
socialisation, which played an important role to develop gender schemas through different
sociocultural contexts, affected classroom instructional activities.
Clark (2016:2) provides that encouraging learners in the classroom is related to
instructional scaffolding. As Bataineh and Obeiah (2016:12) assert that when instructional
scaffolding is applied correctly, learners are encouraged to capitalise on their own
creativity, motivation and resourcefulness. In the same view, Nasser (2016:24) provides
that breaking the traditional gender role stereotypes encourages girls to become more
visual-spatial and hands-on oriented. Concerning encouragement, participants agreed
that girls who had cultural influences from their society were prioritised, encouraged and
motivated than boys because they had low participation due to many challenges and
burdens in their society.
In terms of raising hands during classroom lessons, all participants confirmed that boys
frequently raised their hands to request and respond to interrogations without being shy
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because they were courageous. However, girls were reticent and slow to raise their hands
to request and to respond to interrogations during classroom lessons. In this regard,
Habiba, Ali and Ashfaq (2016:212) state that patriarchy, as a male dominated structure,
has a long history and has existed in every society in the world.
Therefore, the finding highlighted that there were variances among male and female
learners in raising hands to ask and answer questions. Boys thought highly of themselves
that they could do things when they were asked by anyone. Contrastingly, girls did not
perceive themselves as courageous when they were asked. Even when it was said that
women and men are pleased in similar status and had the same chances to realise their
full human privileges and potential to add to political, economic, societal and traditional
progress and to be advantageous from the consequences (UNESCO, 2017:13). At the
time of observation, it was clear that there was still a great gap among female and male
learners in raising hands during asking and answering sessions because most of the boys
were confident to quickly raise their hands than girls.
Giving priority to male or female learners in the English schoolroom corresponds with
Eliasson’s, Sørensen’s and Karlsson’s (2016:1655) finding that “male teachers still
address boys more often than girls” during teacher-student interaction. Therefore,
participants stated that some teachers gave priority to girls to avoid their cultural
influence and increase their confidence and skills. Additionally, some teachers gave
priority to clever students whether they were girls or boys. But it was indicated that
girls did not use the first chance even when they were given priority because of their
passivity and low participation. During classroom lessons, it was clearly observed that
teachers tried to give priority to girls. However, most of the girls preferred to keep
silent and then teachers were enforced to give the chance to boys because, as
observed, most of the boys did not fear to participate in the classroom.
Participants ratified that boys were better performers than girls because the bias that
came from the society enabled boys to perform better and they confidently did any activity
without worrying. Whereas, girls worried about their mistakes and they were less
competent even if teachers gave priority to them. What these participants also agreed
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was that boys were over confident and girls were less confident in the social context
because of the cultural influence in their society. This finding was similar with classroom
observation because many of the girls preferred to be reticent during the English class.
However, many of the boys interactively made an effort to be better performers during the
English lessons. In this regard, Iwu and Azoro (2017:836) reviewed that the outlook and
schooling methods of teachers influence the outlook of women.
Boys’ and girls’ treatment is supported by Glaib’s (2017:85) study that social action is
isolated by sex, with women appearing typically in domestic chores and men in outdoor
activities. The finding showed that boys and girls were treated in different ways because
of girls’ shyness and fearfulness that they brought along from their surrounding society to
the school context. Treating girls in a different way indirectly encouraged learners’
traditional culture that was a source of problems in the teaching-learning activities. During
the classroom observation, it was observed that the instructor treated their learners in a
similar way. However, what I observed was that girls had fear to say something in the
classroom.
In terms of being privileged in the classroom context, some participants said that girls
were more privileged than boys because they affirmed that girls needed special
attention to remove their fear and timidity. On the other hand, some participants
emphasised that boys were more privileged than girls because they were assigned
as class monitors and group leaders because students perceived girls as incapable
of managing and controlling the group and the classroom. This is supported by
Minasyan’s (2017:91) study that “...female students are at a disadvantage in the
foreign language classroom by receiving less attention from the teacher than
that given to boys.”
With regard to promoting a gender-sensitive education and environment in the school,
the finding indicated that there was a gap in the promotion of gender-sensitive education
and the environment in the school because principals highlighted that they did not do
sufficient activities to promote gender-sensitive education and environment in their
schools. Further, they emphasised that promoting gender-sensitive education and
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environment was necessary for their students by forming a joint with the Woreda Health
Centre and different NGOs and through gender clubs, Ethics and Moral Education.
6.4.1.3 Finding 3: Gender stereotype against girls in classroom instructional
activities
Cultural background experiences of girls demonstrated challenges that arose from their
burden of household responsibilities such as cooking food, childcare and others when
they went back to their homes. This indicated that their male counterparts and their
parents through their learning challenged girls. It was also seen that traditional culture
challenged women not to speak in front of their families and classmates. All should
challenge harmful traditional gender beliefs or traditional understandings of gender.
Teachers in general school communities, such as feminists would do better to challenge
the types of stereotypes. Under this major finding, the following sub-findings are also
discussed hereunder:
Sub-theme 1: Challenges facing girls in the classroom context
The four teachers A, B, C and D had similar statements on what difficulties challenged
girls in the schoolroom. They expressed the source of the challenges that girls faced in
the schoolroom. One of the four teachers said that boys saw what girls could not do in
their classroom. According to their responses, the challenges were the negative
perception of boys towards girls, cultural background of girls, given less attention and
encouragement by their parents and communities to speak in front of others and burden
of their domestic activities. These participants narrated:
…usually boys do not believe that girls can do in their classroom. Girls have the
experiences which they brought from their cultural background. Traditionally girls
are not supported by their parents to speak as equal as boys in front of their
families. But boys are motivated by their mothers and fathers to speak in front of
them. So the influences of traditional culture are the challenges that face girls in
the classroom.
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Girls face different challenges. For example, they may have a lack of money. They
may have biological problems. If their parents are farmers, they are ordered to do
different responsibilities. When girls back to their home, they have different
responsibilities like cooking food, childcare and others. They are the late comers
for school because they carry out a lot of household responsibilities... So due to
their burden of the house work, they could not do their homework. (Source: In-
depth Interview)
The above narration highlighted that girls faced challenges in the classroom, which
originated from the girls’ families and society. Another challenge, which did not come up
in the other extracts, was that sometimes girls were faced with money challenges and
that the many responsibilities they carried out at home made them to be late comers at
school. This indicates that the education of the girl child is not important to the parents.
This justified that these challenges affected the classroom teaching-learning activities
because traditional gender beliefs of families and society created many challenges for
girls in the classroom.
Like the above teachers’ narration, in School A, Learners-A1 and A2, in school, Learner-
B3, in School C, Learners-C1, C2, C3 and C4, and in School D, Learners-D1, D2 and D3
similarly stated that girls faced challenges in the classroom because girls perceived
themselves as inferior to boys. This is because of the influence of the traditional gender
belief. In addition, they clarified that girls did not study at home because they were too
busy with domestic activities. Because of this reason, they feared and shied away from
asking and answering questions in the classroom context. Therefore, participants
narrated as follows:
Girls do not study their subject because they have domestic activities that
challenge them to attend to their education…Girls fear to participate because they
are shy to ask and answer questions…Some of the challenges can be transferred
from their friends…If a girl always asks questions from a clever boy, others
interpret it in the other side and then she will stop asking questions because of
the negative perception of others. The girls think that they are inferior to boys...
because they are influenced by traditional culture. …When they come to school,
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they do not participate in the classroom and in the group work. (Source: Focus
group Interview)
The above data underlined that traditional culture was the major challenge that made girls
consider themselves as inferior to boys in their classroom context. Girls also viewed
themselves in a negative way. They were judgemental to any girl who would be seen
asking questions from any boy in the classroom. Such a girl would be viewed in a negative
manner.
On the other hand, in School D, Learner-D4 narrated that it was always said “Wondata!”
(Bravo, well done) when a boy or a girl was the best performer of an activity. This
challenged girls not to think they were as equal as boys and made them restricted during
classroom discussions. She expressed her experience as follows:
When a boy or a girl does something in the best way, it is always said by a person,
like “Wondata!” From this saying, girls think that being a man is better than being
a woman. According to social influence, they always think that if they make
mistakes, boys laugh at them. Because of this, they retreat not to participate in the
classroom discussion. (Source: Focus group Interview)
According to the above statement, the remarks of a teacher caused girls to be more
reserved and afraid in the classroom. The saying “Wondata!” which means “bravo or
well done….” made girls to think men are superior to them. The boys’ behaviour was
not reprimanded by teachers because they openly laughed at girls in the presence of
the teachers and all these actions made the girls to retreat and keep quiet.
Sub-theme 2: Gender attitude between boys and girls in the classroom context
Teachers- A, B, C and D similarly expressed that boys degraded and embarrassed girls
by laughing at them, by considering themselves a superior and by looking down at them.
They presented their observation as:
…the attitude between boys and girls is not in a good way because boys usually
degrade girls whether girls are a class monitor or a group leader because boys
believe that girls are not equal as boys.
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…Boys cannot believe the girls’ performance…For example, if one girl makes
mistakes, the whole boys laugh at that girl. But if a boy makes mistake, the girls
are silent. They never laugh at a boy who makes a mistake…Boys look down girls.
And also girls underestimate themselves. So girls believe that boys are always
correct and right because they assume that boys cannot make mistakes. (Source:
In-depth Interview)
Boys carried the attitude that they are superior in the school. They degraded girls and no
one, not even the teacher, reprimanded them. The classroom became the battleground
for power but also for the man because girls never laughed when boys made mistakes in
class; all the boys in the class always laughed at girls. The above narration highlighted
that boys had a negative attitude towards girls because they were familiar with their
gender schema that influenced their attitude towards girls in the classroom.
Like teachers, in School A, Learner-A1, in School B, Learner-B2, in School C, Learners-
C1, C2, C3, and C4 and in School D, Learners-D1, D2 and D3 similarly stated that boys
were more powerful than girls so that they influenced girls because they thought that girls
were powerless and also girls believed that they were below boys. These participants
narrated their opinions like this:
Mostly boys embarrass girls, but girls accept as a normal due to their traditional
experiences. Boys influence girls by power because boys believe that girls who
have less power are under them and girls also believe that they are below boys.
In my class, girls believe that boys are confident and clever than girls because girls
fear and shy to express their ideas… So most of the time, girls fear boys either to
make friends or to study together. (Source: Focus group Interview)
In the above narration, participants stated that girls accepted it as normal when boys
embarrassed them because of their traditional submissive nature that was perpetuated
by the traditional and cultural beliefs of their society. This confirmed that traditional gender
experiences affected gender attitudes among men and women in the schoolroom context.
The finding indicated that boys had a negative attitude towards girls because they
considered girls as incapable of having an excellent performance in their education.
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On the other hand, Learner-D4 said that some boys embarrassed girls because they
observed it from their fathers who insulted and frightened their mothers and then they
practised it in the classroom by insulting and frightening girls. Girls on the other hand
accepted it as a norm at school because that is what they were going to experience when
they became adults. They too observed when their fathers frightened and insulted their
mothers during their childhood. She expressed her observation as:
Some boys embarrass girls…I think boys listen and observe when their fathers
insult and frighten their mothers and then boys practice it in the classroom by
insulting and frightening female students. Because of this, girls accept as a normal
when they become adult because they observe when their fathers beat and insult
their mothers. So students’ thinking depends on parents’ thinking. (Source: Focus
group Interview)
The above paragraph indicates that the apple does not fall far away from the tree.
Children practice what they see at home. The finding in the above narration indicated
that boys were more influential than girls in the classroom because they socially and
culturally constructed their superiority from their childhood. The parents’ behaviour
influenced and affected students’ behaviour in the classroom.
With regard to assertions that boys are naturally better at most sporting activities,
Principals-A and C stated that being better in sport was not naturally gender-based
because it was obtained through education and practice. They explained their opinions
as follows:
…To become successful in sport, I think it is not natural because it is obtained
through education and practice and also girls are nowadays becoming successful
in different sports. (Source: Individual Interview)
According to Principal D’s belief, if girls and boys practised various sporting activities like
playing football during their childhood, both boys and girls could equally play any sport.
However, as he said, if boys and girls played football together, boys might outperform
girls because boys are used to playing football. He presented his opinion as:
246
In my opinion, naturally both boys and girls are equal because both can play any
sport equally. But during childhood, boys mostly play football. When they become
young and adult, they are more interested in playing football. But if girls make
practice playing football during their childhood, they can play it when they are young
and adult. But if boys and girls play football together, boys may outperform rather
than girls because they are forceful… (Source: Individual Interview)
The finding pointed out that boys played football from their childhood. On the contrary,
Principal B believed that it was right to say that boys were naturally better at most sports
because boys had better energy than girls to do different tasks. He described his opinion
and reiterated that:
I think it is right. We cannot compare girls with boys together…But it is clear that
boys have better energy than girls to do different tasks. But when we compare their
strength, girls are not stronger than boys. But naturally boys’ strength is better than
girls. In my experience, mostly boys play football, but girls do not play football in
our surrounding area because there is some sort of cultural influence on girls.
When girls play football, it is believed that they develop very bad habit because
girls are forbidden to play these kinds of sports. (Source: Individual Interview)
Principal B narrated that the boys’ and girls’ strength cannot be compared because boys
are naturally stronger than girls. According to the Ethiopian traditionally culture, girls
cannot play football because it is believed that they can develop bad habits and they are
forbidden to play these kinds of sports meant for boys. In the above narration, mostly
boys played football than girls. This showed that girls were not stronger than boys.
Concerning girls’ manner of dressing and being neater, Principals-A and D similarly said
that women naturally wanted to beautify themselves by dressing well rather than men
because they used different kinds of cosmetics. However, men did not worry about their
beauty. They described their belief as:
247
Yes. Women like naturally to dress well rather than boys. This is known that women
want to beautify themselves. They use different kinds of cosmetics rather than men.
Most of the time, men do not worry about their beauty. In my opinion… some
women observe other women and imitate their styles of beautification… (Source:
Individual Interview)
On the other hand, Principals-B and C similarly discussed that it was not necessary to
wear very attractive clothes in school because both boys and girls dressed in uniforms.
They narrated their belief as follows:
Yes…If girls are more attractive than boys in school, it is not necessary to wear
very attractive clothes because both boys and girls wear uniforms, but out of school,
girls have their right to wear very attractive clothes…in this school all students wear
uniform. So there is no difference. (Source: Individual Interview)
As the finding showed, while two of the four participants said that women were more
concerned about their beauty, two of the four participants confirmed that it was not
necessary to wear very attractive clothes in school because both boys and girls dressed
in uniforms.
Discouraging gender stereotyped behaviours, school principals discussed actions in
school. Principals-A, B and C said that girls were better than boys if they had good
performance that was used to discourage gender stereotyped actions in their school.
Therefore, Principal-A narrated that:
“If girls have good performance, we say that female learners are better than male learners
because this indicates positive attitude.” (Source: Individual interview)
Principal B also expressed that at the beginning of the year, they tried to create
awareness for both boys and girls who should give respect to each other in their school:
At the beginning of the year, we try to build awareness for both boys and girls in
our school because all boys have to give respect for all girls and all girls have to
give respect for all boys…
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Principal-C described how they discouraged gender stereotyped behaviours in their
school by teaching gender equality to students:
“We discourage it by teaching gender equality for students...” (Source: Individual
interview)
By contrast, as Principal D said, domestic activities were traditionally given for women
and outdoor activities were given to men. He narrated that it was believed that women
might cook ‘wat’, prepare coffee, bake ‘injera’ and wash dishes, but a man might not do
that. As he said, in school, if there was a digging activity, they traditionally selected boys
to dig the hole for planting the seeds. He explained:
In the house, a woman may cook ‘wat’, prepare coffee, bake ‘injera’ and wash
dishes, but a man may not do that. This is traditionally familiarised. So, domestic
activities are given for women; whereas, outdoor activities are given for men. In
school, if there is a digging activity, we traditionally select boys to dig the hole for
planting the seedlings. (Source: Individual Interview)
The above data showed that gender stereotyped actions were discouraged by three
principals and encouraged by one principal in his school.
Sub-theme 3: Influence of traditional gender beliefs in the classroom situation
The four teachers expressed similar statements about the influence of traditional gender
beliefs in the classroom situation. They stated that traditional gender beliefs affected the
classroom situation because girls were afraid to perform the given classroom activities
because of their traditional background experience. They also discussed the
manifestation of traditional gender beliefs that was reflected in the actual classroom
context. Teacher A and B similarly said that girls were influenced by their traditional
gender beliefs to participate actively in the classroom activities because they were not
willing to raise their hands in the class:
When I give my students different types of classroom activities,.., especially girls
may be afraid to perform those activities. This is due to lack of their self-
confidence... For the manifestation of traditional gender beliefs, usually girls are not
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willing to raise their hands in the class because these traditional gender beliefs
influence girls not to participate in the classroom activity.
...when I teach in the classroom, girls do not want to ask the teacher and give
answer. The reason is cultural influence which they have brought from their society.
These days, the number of girls is increased in each classroom... (Source: In-depth
Interview)
Teacher C also expressed that there were traditional rules that governed the family
members and could influence male and female learners in the classroom context.
According to his idea, girls were expected to be humble, restrictive and silent:
In our society, there are different unwritten rules. Those rules can govern the family
members and that can also influence students in the classroom. For example, in
our home women may not be given a chance to speak as free as men. The society
expects girls to be humble. Parents do not allow girls to talk more and more.
Therefore, that culture may restrict them. When they come to the class, they prefer
to keep silent... (Source: In-depth Interview)
In the aforementioned narration, the examples which were been given by Teacher C
indicated that girls were not allowed to speak as free as boys by their parents.
According to Teacher D’s response, girls were still influenced by their traditional gender
thinking which they brought from their society. He said:
Girls who have traditional gender thinking in their minds act what they know outside
the classroom. Because they are still with their traditional gender thought that
brought from the society. This influences classroom situation. So the influence of
traditional gender belief that I observed is when one student tries to speak in
English, others ridicule a student by saying: ‘foreigner’. Due to this reason, others
devalue that student. (Source: In-depth Interview)
The above narration indicates that learners call other learners’ names such as “foreigner”
if one speaks English. This portrays a negative attitude by learners towards the English
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language. It is also stated that girls get ridiculed in class because of the entrenched
traditional belief that devalues girls.
By the same token, Learners-A1, A2 and A4 in School A, Learners-B2 and B3, in School
B, Learners-C1, C2, C3 and C4 in School C and Learners-D1 and D2 in School D similarly
discussed that girls get reserved not to participate actively during discussions. This is
because they consider themselves as inferior to boys because of the influence of
traditional gender beliefs. These participants continued to state that traditional gender
beliefs influenced girls’ classroom participation because, as they said, when teachers
ordered students to clean the classroom, boys were not willing to clean their classroom.
This is because traditionally, they believed that domestic tasks such as house cleaning
were given to women not to men. They narrated that:
Traditional gender belief influences especially girls’ classroom participation because
they...are more afraid than boys to actively participate in the class... And also some
works like cleaning the house materials and other domestic tasks are done by girls.
When I see my mother and father, the more jobs are given for father outside home.
This thinking comes to the classroom from the society...So, girls think that they have
less ability to participate as equal as boys.
When a teacher orders us to clean the classroom, boys go out by saying “this is
female activities” because boys hear their parents who say that house cleaning is
for women not for men. (Source: Focus group Interview)
The finding indicated that girls were introverted rather than boys to participate in the
classroom situation. This is because the traditional gender belief was the cause of their
shy nature. Therefore, the data showed that girls’ classroom cleaning encouraged
domestic activities in school.
Like teachers and learners, principals were interviewed about how gender beliefs and
attitudes were revealed in the school environment. As Principal-A stated, experiences
and commitments were given more emphasis than gender to provide responsibility
because, as he narrated, if a woman or a man had more experiences and
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commitments, she or he could do the activities. However, he stated that women were
more punctual than men in terms of reporting their performance on time, because some
men were seen to be unconcerned. He said:
We think that experience and skill are given more emphasis than gender because if
a woman has more experience and commitment than a man, she can do the activities.
If a male has more experience and commitment than a female, he can do the
activities... But in terms of reporting their performance, women submit it on time rather
than men. But some men are seen to be lezifur rather than women. (Source:
Individual Interview)
Principal B shared that 15 female teachers and two supporting female employees tried to
create awareness and give some advice and support to the girls. He narrated that:
I think we have 15 female teachers and two supporting staff women. So they try to
show what women do in school to create awareness and give some advice and
support for girls. For the new comer students in our school, all school communities
support new students who join this school. (Source: Individual Interview)
Principal-C provided that he did not see a gender problem in his school, except in his
society:
“I do not see gender problem in the school. But I see gender problem in the society.”
(Source: Individual interview).
On the other hand, Principal D described that female teachers prepared the coffee
ceremony if it was needed in school. However, male teachers arranged chairs and tables
for the coffee ceremony and chopped bread into pieces. In addition, he understood that,
in the cleaning responsibility, most of the time only women came to be hired, but, in school
guarding work, only men were employed. According to his experience, it was familiar that
women were employed as a secretary in his school and other offices because, as he said,
the vacancy by itself invited only women, not men. In his school, he added that during
flag hanging, boys were willing and excited, but girls were reluctant because of cultural
influences. He stated as:
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If coffee ceremony is needed to prepare in school, women prepare coffee...But
men arrange the chairs and tables for the party and chop bread into pieces rather
than women... In cleaning activities, most of the time only females come to be hired,
but males serve as a school guard, females do not participate in this activity. It is
also common that females are employed as a secretary in our school and other
offices because the vacancy by itself invites only females, not males...In our school,
boys are willing and excited to hang a flag, but girls are reluctant. The reason is
cultural influence which comes from the society. (Source: Individual Interview)
In the above narration, the finding indicated that traditional gender beliefs and attitudes
were prevalent in the school environment. Certain activities were allocated to men and
some to women. For example, for cleaning activities only women were hired and only
men served as school guards. Women cannot be school guards. Only women were
invited to apply for the post of secretary.
DISCUSSION
According UNESCO’s (2017:26) statement, educators must comprehend how typecasts
restrict the selections and opportunities for men and women and make obscure their
desires and variances. Additionally, teachers must be conscious of what the students
bring to the classroom condition because they are responsible to establish gender-
sensitive traits or behaviours. Other researchers such as Breda, Grenet, Monnet and
Effenterre (2018:3) further state that “More concentration has been devoted to the role of
social norms and gender stereotypes in explaining gender differences in educational
investment” because gender stereotypes are circulated through different sociocultural
contexts.
Regarding challenges facing girls in the classroom context, as Endendijk et al. (2016:142)
state, the term gender roles and stereotypes refers to our beliefs about how men and
women are anticipated to behave. Stereotypic messages instil and strengthen traditional
gender roles rather than non-traditional gender roles because traditional gender thinking
is a great challenge for gender equality or fair treatment. As Mohammed’s (2016:26) study
presents, typecasts on gender functions begin from the very commencement of birth. She
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identified that a mother who gives birth to a baby boy is praised or congratulated by the
society and her spouse. If she gives a baby girl, it is unwelcomed by the community
including her household and her spouse.
Participants expressed the source of the challenges that girls faced in the classroom. As
participants made it clear, one of these challenges was the negative perception that boys
had towards girls because of their cultural background. Cultural background experiences
of girls demonstrated challenges that arose from their burden of household
responsibilities such as cooking food, childcare and others when they went back to their
homes. This claim is supported by Clark (2016:4) that women were perceived to partake
in and supervise household tasks such as laundry, shopping, and food preparation. The
finding indicated that girls faced challenges in the classroom that originated from their
family and society. This justified that these challenges affected the classroom teaching-
learning activities because traditional gender thinking made girls passive in asking and
answering questions in the classroom context. Classroom observation supported that
most of the girls were challenged by their cultural background experiences during
classroom instructional activities.
In terms of gender attitude between male and female learners the in classroom context,
Kleven, Landais and Søgaard (2017:6) discuss that “gender attitudes are still quite
traditional.” In this regard, participants expressed that boys degraded and embarrassed
girls by laughing at them, by considering themselves as a superior and by looking down
or undermining them. This indicated that boys had a negative attitude towards girls
according to their gender schema. It was clear during observation that girls were ashamed
and demoralised by boys’ laughing during classroom discussions.
As Clark (2016:4) states, sports can be used to see men and women in a different light.
The finding indicated that boys played football starting from their childhood. In this regard,
participants affirmed that boys were more influential than girls in the classroom because
they socially and culturally constructed their superiority from their childhood. This showed
that parents’ practices and experiences affected students’ practices and experiences in
the classroom. As participants said, if boys and girls played football together, boys might
perform better than girls because boys mostly played football.
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Participants responded that some school activities encouraged gender stereotyped
behaviours or actions and some school activities discouraged gender stereotyped
behaviours or actions in school. For example, if there was a digging activity, teachers
traditionally selected boys to dig the hole for planting seedlings which was used to
encourage gender stereotyped actions. Another school activity which was used to
discourage gender stereotyped actions was teaching gender equality to students.
Concerning the influence of traditional gender beliefs in the classroom situation,
researchers such as Karkhanis and Winsler (2016: 140) argue that culture plays a role in
transforming perceptions, roles, stereotypes, attitudes, values, norms and beliefs to a
child. Similarly, fathers and mothers are a child’s primary intermediaries because they are
accountable for providing the required guided experiences for the child to be helped from
a lifetime of education. As UNESCO’s report (2015:12) presents, educators are the
“heaviest carriers of…traditional outlooks” and they make and perpetuate the gender
typecasts in the schoolroom unconsciously. Teachers’ gender outlooks can impact how
they give treatment to men and women in the schoolroom with respect to leadership.
Primary practices describe the situation for later practices, according to Burn’s (2016)
statement. Thus, it is believed that parents encourage gender-consistent behaviours in
their boys and girls because they might frequently contribute to sex variances in skills and
self-perceptions by handling their boys and girls in a different way.
As stated by Sinclair (2015:16) and Zaidi (2016:16), the traditional gender functions assist
to perpetuate gender typecasts, such as men are expected to be independent, self-
assured, confident, adventurous, hostile, violent, task-oriented and competitive.
Contrastingly, women are expected to be more passive, reliant, emotional, expressive,
gentle, friendly, people-concerned and supportive because these expectations originate
from traditional gender beliefs. Similarly, participants expressed similar statements about
the influence of traditional gender beliefs in the classroom situation because girls were
expected to be humble, restrictive and silent in their society. Consequently, participants
presented that girls had cultural influences that they brought from their society because
they did not ask and answer questions in the classroom.
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In this regard, Kretschmer et al. (2017: 253) reviewed that ...women are more dedicated
in fitting into their societal situation than men. The finding showed how learners’
traditional gender schema affected girls’ education in the classroom situation. This is
supported by UNESCO (2017:45) that the pervasiveness of certain experiences
entrenched in familial traditions does not always inspire the promotion of liberties
and privileges. Furthermore, Kretschmer et al. (2017: 252) discuss that “...norms operate
through peer pressure...” This view is consistent with classroom observation because it
was observed that girls were influenced by traditional gender beliefs through classroom
instructional activities. In the same way, Mohammed (2016:26) provides that within the
schoolroom, female learners are anticipated to be afraid and silent.
School participants described that in the cleaning occupation most of the time only women
are hired. However, in the school guarding work only men are employed and also females
were employed as a secretary and janitor in school and other offices. The finding indicated
that traditional gender beliefs and attitudes were observed in the in school environment
because there was still a gap that these activities were for males and those activities were
for females.
6.4.1.4 Finding 4: Gender inequality in classroom instructional activities
The opportunity for men or boys and women or girls in terms of gender disparity was
discussed. Sub-themes of gender inequality such as giving opportunity for boys and girls
in the English schoolroom were discussed hereunder:
Sub-theme 1: Giving opportunity for boys and girls in the English classroom
Teachers A, B, C and D detailed that they had given impartial chances to male and female
learners to encourage them to partake equally but boys perform differently from girls
because they were not occupied with domestic chores such as keeping children, cooking
food, cleaning the house at home. They narrated as:
...But sometimes I give girls more opportunity to answer some question and to
increase their speaking skill and participation as equal as boys. The reason is that
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these girls are busy by household works like keeping children, cooking food,
cleaning the house when they go back to their home...
... So in some sections, girls are more efficient and score better marks than the
boys. And in some classes, boys can get good results. I do this to equally
encourage without any separation between girls and boys because I am a facilitator
for male and female learners similarly in the classroom.
... But due to boys’ willingness, we give more chance for male learners than female
learners because female learners are not willing to perform the activity that we give.
Most of the time, we give opportunity for boys than girls.
... But I found male learners are more participants in the discussion. The reason is
that girls do not do things as I expect. Having this in mind, I am obliged to give for
boys. (Source: In-depth Interview)
The finding showed that the four teachers sought to challenge rather than build gender
inequality in classroom instructional activities by providing impartial chances to male and
female learners. Nonetheless, they confirmed that there was still a difference between
boys and girls in the manner they used the given opportunities because boys were more
willing than girls to use the given opportunities in the actual classroom context.
Like teachers, Learners-A1 and A2 in School A, Learners-C1, C2, C3 and C4 in School
C and Learners-D1, D3 and D4 in School D stated that girls performed any subjects to
improve their self-confidence and compete with boys because, as they said, this was used
to remove the traditional attitude of the society to empower girls. Contrastingly, some
teachers gave equal opportunities and some teachers did not. They narrated as:
Yes. Teachers give opportunity for girls and boys equally. The way they give this
opportunity is done by giving activities, assignments; project works…Girls perform
any subjects to improve their self-confidence and to compete with boys. The
reason is to remove the traditional attitude of the society.
Some teachers give equally and some teachers do not give equally. Even if the
opportunity is equally given, the female students do not use properly their chance
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because of cultural influence.” (Source: Focus group (Source: Focus group
Interview)
By contrast, in school A, Learners-A3 and A4, in School B, Learners-B1 and B2 similarly
stated that girls did not use the opportunities given by their teachers. This is because they
were afraid of being equal to boys during answering and asking questions:
...Girls have equal chances. But they do not use that opportunity and then boys take
the opportunity in English class because girls are afraid to use their chances in
answering and asking questions, presenting or speaking in front of students.
(Source: Focus group Interview)
On the other hand, Learner-D2 in School D stated that most of the teachers gave the
chance to students who firstly raised their hands. She explained her view as:
“Most of the teachers give the chance to students who firstly raise their hands.” (Source:
Focus group interview)
As the above narration indicated, the data specified that teachers gave equal
opportunities to boys and girls even if girls were incompetent to use the given chances
when their teachers gave it to male and female learners.
Sub-theme2: Differences between boys and girls during classroom interaction
The four teachers had similar views on the variances among male and female learners
during classroom interaction. They explained the reasons why there were dissimilarities
among male and female learners during interaction. They said that girls were shy and
were afraid due to the absence of self-assurance, low participation and self-
underestimation. On the contrary, boys considered themselves as superior because they
degraded girls by laughing at them because of their cultural experience in the society.
They said:
Yes. There are differences. When I look at, the number of girls is greater than the
number of boys in many classes. But girls’ participation is low...The reason is that
girls shy. Most of the time boys degrade girls...
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The difference may come based on the teachers’ facilitating role. If the teacher
facilitates them or gives them the chance, the communication between the teacher
and the student, the communication among the learners will be increased.
Bout...the interaction is with similar gender. Even in the school compound, when
students play football or handball, simply they choose their categories. This shows
the differences between boys and girls during interaction. (Source: In-depth
Interview)
The finding emphasised the gap that male learners and female learners did not have
equal interaction in the schoolroom because of their social and cultural orientation. In
other words, there was inequality between male and female learners during schoolroom
communication that affected the classroom teaching -learning practice.
Like teachers, Learners-A3 and A4 in School A, Learners-B1 and B3 in School B,
Learners-C2 and C3 in School C, Learners-D1 and D2 in School D similarly expressed
that boys actively participated, but girls were embarrassed to participate because most of
them did not ask and answer questions even if some girls tried to participate. These
participants narrated:
Boys ask and answer questions since they do not fear. But girls do not actively
participate...When a question is asked in the schoolroom, female learners are
embarrassed to partake even if teachers see both girls and boys equally...some
female students try to participate, but most of them are not active participants.
(Source: Focus group Interview)
The above narration emphasised that there were dissimilarities among male and female
learners during classroom interaction because boys participated more than girls during
classroom interaction.
Sub-theme 3: Feeling superior during classroom discussions
Teachers A, B, C and D expressed that boys felt superior in the classroom discussions
because priority was given to them in their culture. For example, parents became very
happy when they gave birth to a baby boy rather than a baby girl in their society. These
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participants also explained that boys came first to stand and defend any challenges in the
class. One participant added that the proverb “Silence is golden!” seemed to be suitable
for girls in the class because they always chose to be quiet because of the influence of
their cultural background. Therefore, they narrated who felt superior in classroom
discussions:
Boys feel superior. Most of the time, boys raise their hands whether their answer
is correct or incorrect. ... Most of the time priority is given for boys. For example,
parents become very happy when they born a boy. If that baby is a boy, they are
joyful really. I think this is the reason that makes boys feel superior in the class.
... Boys do not accept girls’ idea when they discuss because they do not believe
that girls’ answer or idea is right. ...In every activity, boys come first. They can
stand and defend any challenge in the class. They can interact with teacher without
any fear. When the class becomes noisy, one boy stands and says “Hello
everybody! Keep silent!”... For example, there is a proverb “Silence is gold!”...girls
always choose quietness due to the influence of their background experiences. ...
In the society, boys are bounded by different positive thoughts. But this does not
happen for girls. (Source: In-depth Interview)
The finding emphasised that boys assumed that they were superior to girls in the
schoolroom. If boys felt superior in the schoolroom, this indicated that there was a gap in
gender equality through classroom instructional activities.
As teachers said, Learner-A3 in School A, Learner-B4 in School B, Learners-C3 and C4
in School C, Learners-D1, D2, D3 and D4 in School D communicated that boys
considered girls as inferior to them because, as they stated, their society believed that
girls needed to do indoor activities and boys needed to do outdoor activities. This showed
that girls were still undermined by their society Therefore, they narrated their opinion as:
Boys feel superior to girls due to the influence of traditional gender thinking...The
factor is that boys are confident in our society. Girls may be laughed by their
classmates when they make mistakes...Still girls are underestimated through the
society. Because the society believes girls must work indoor activities but boys must
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work outdoor activities...So boys have a dictatorship role in the classroom.”
(Source: Focus group Interview)
The finding underlined that traditional thinking of the society encouraged girls’ inferiority
complex that affected boys’ and girls’ equal participation in the classroom. For that
reason, boys had a dictatorship role in the classroom because they considered
themselves as superior to girls.
Sub-theme 4: Providing special support for girls
The four teachers believed that girls should be given special support to improve their
ability and make them as equal participants because when they went to their homes, they
spent their time doing different domestic activities rather than studying. The teachers also
said that girls had many obstacles that prevented them to do better. According to their
statement, one of these obstacles was the traditional belief. This showed that girls needed
special support in the tutorial classes. Participants narrated:
...Girls need special support because most of the time, girls in our culture do not
spend much time for their education. They spend much of their time in different
domestic activities rather than studying their education. So this is one reason that
we teachers give girls special support to increase their knowledge and make them
educated as equal as boys...
...There are many obstacles that hinder girls in order to fit their education. Due to
this, we teacher give more emphasis for girls to overcome these problems.
Preparing and giving tutorial class is one means for girls to improve their ability and
to make them equal participant with boys. ... In the society, there are different
sayings that hamper or prohibit girls not to do better. (Source: In-depth Interview)
The above narration indicated that girls still had many obstacles that impeded them not
to be successful in their education. Therefore, the data collected from the participants
underlined that providing special support for girls was necessary.
Similarly, Learner-A4 in School A, Learners-B3 and B2 in School B, Learners-C1, C2, C3
and C4 in School C and Learners-D1, D2, D3 and D4 in School D similarly narrated that
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girls did not become better than boys even if they got support. As these participants said,
when girls went to their homes, they had more burdens that were used to develop their
shy and fearful nature. They discussed their responses as:
Giving special support helps girls to determine their decision in any aspects and to
make them independent by themselves...Most of the time, support is given for girls,
but they do not become better than boys... because girls have more burden or
workload when they go to their home. So they develop fearfulness and shyness.
Teachers give different opportunities for the girls to improve their participation in
different activities and describe their own ideas. So, teachers support girls by giving
tutorial classes in the opposite shift because they have burden by domestic
activities. (Source: Focus group Interview)
The above narration confirmed that providing special support for girls was helpful because
both girls and boys had an important contribution for the development of a country. As a
result, teachers supported girls by giving tutorial classes in the opposite shifts to improve
their participation.
Sub-theme 5: Reasons for boys to underestimate girls
Teacher A expressed that society was an agent for the undermining of girls and for the
overestimation of boys because it was supposed that boys were better than girls so that
boys were given priority and different chances to improve their general knowledge by
looking at films and reading books in the library. This sociocultural context gave boys an
opportunity to undermine girls. Teacher A mentioned the major reasons for boys
undermining girls:
I think the first reason is what the society creates on girls. Usually boys are given
priority. For instance, ‘Men are better than women.’ is the belief of the society.
The other thing is that boys have different chances to improve their general
knowledge like looking at films or movies. They can go to library and read much
time. This is the reason that boys underestimate girls. (Source: In-depth Interview)
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On the contrary, Teacher B elucidated that there was a slight change because girls were
becoming public figures such as being president, prime minster and a pilot in some
countries. He stated that:
The cultural background is one of the reasons for boys to underestimate girls. It
is not only in our country and in our school. It is also in the world. But these days,
girls are becoming the leaders...We can see female pilot or female president or
female prime minster in some countries. So, if we motivate girls, things can be
improved for the next generation. (Source: In-depth Interview)
According to Teacher C’s statement, boys considered that they could do everything by
themselves, but girls considered that they could not do things by themselves. He
explained as:
The reason why boys underestimate girls is that most of the time boys consider
themselves that they can do everything by themselves. But girls cannot do the
tasks. This is the problem of their attitude. (Source: In-depth Interview)
Teacher D’s response reinforced that girls did not come up with good results when they
were compared with boys because boys were positively distinguished and girls were
negatively distinguished by their society. Due to this reason, what he underlined was that
boys always looked down on girls. He discussed:
...The reasons are that girls do not come up with good result in a comparison with
boys. And also the different thought that comes from the society distinguishes
boys positively but girls negatively. Because of this, boys always assume that girls
are below them. (Source: In-depth Interview)
The finding stressed that the social and cultural background experiences of learners
endorsed boys’ super egos and girls’ inferiority. This was used to strengthen gender
inequality that affected the classroom instructional activities.
In the same way, Learners-A1, A3 and A4 in School A, Learner-B1 in School B, Learner-
C4 in School C, Learners-D1, D2, D3 and D4 in School D similarly discussed that boys
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perceived girls as inferior to them based on their traditional gender belief. Therefore, they
explained what the major reasons were that boys underestimated girls:
Boys perceive themselves as superior in their society and family due to their
traditional gender belief...The reasons are girls’ cultural background experiences.
Based on traditional gender belief, male students see themselves that they are
superior in the society and leader of the family. As to me, I think women themselves
make men think they are superior. This shows that women accept their inferiority.
(Source: Focus group Interview)
The finding underscored that boys encouraged traditional gender belief by perceiving girls
as inferior to them. This is caused by the social and cultural background experiences that
made boys underestimate girls through instructional activities.
DISCUSSION
In terms of gender equality, UNESCO (2017:13) describes “Gender equality” as balanced
privileges, accountabilities and chances for women, men, daughters, and sons. In the
same view, as Clover’s (2015:20) statement indicates, gender equality means the
balanced partaking of both men or boys and women or girls in all spheres . . . of social
life. As UNESCO (2015:10) and Powell (2016:3) put it, gender equality ensures that boys
and girls enjoy the same status and have an equal opportunity to exercise their human
rights and realise their full potential to contribute towards political, economic, social and
cultural development and to benefit from the results. Because of this statement, equitable
treatment is necessary to reduce gender imbalance and increase gender sensitivity in
instructional activities. Nonetheless, traditionally, women are perceived as inferior to men.
By contrast, Minasyan (2017:97) defines the classroom as a place where disparities
between boys and girls may be explored and challenged. In the same view, Powell’s
(2016:20) statement shows that gender disparity seems to be a worldwide problem
because the subject of disparity of men and women has always been broadly discussed
in human society. Generally, Powell says that by tradition, women have been perceived
as inferior to men in terms of their potentials, capacities and their roles in society, but both
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men and women have balanced positions because power inequalities are not a ‘natural’
effect of biological variances, but are set by the systems and cultures in which we live
(ibid).
However, Powell (2016:35) debates that gender disparity is not a problem of absence of
knowledge but rather an absence of concentration in changing imbalanced relations in
academia. On the other hand, Powell (2016:20) asks why gender disparity persists in
academic institutes even when exertions are taken to change the situation.
In terms of giving opportunities to male and female learners in the English class, the
finding showed that the four teacher participants sought to challenge rather than build up
gender inequality in classroom instructional activities by giving equal opportunities to boys
and girls. They confirmed that there was still dissimilarity between sons and daughters in
the usage of the given opportunities because sons were more willing than daughters to
use the given opportunity in the actual classroom context. This view is consistent with
classroom observation because it was observed that most of the girls feared to employ
the opportunity that was given by teachers in the classroom, but most of boys were fast
and willing to employ the opportunity.
Eliasson, Sørensen and Karlsson (2016:1658) discuss several studies to indicate that
teachers value boys’ experiences more and generally treat boys more favourably than
they treat girls. With this regard, learners approved that not all instructors gave the same
chances to boys and girls. They gave more opportunity to boys than girls because girls
participated less than boys. Hosseini’s and Hellsten’s (2015:1) study supports that men
are expected to talk rougher and are allowed to swear, while women are expected to talk
stereotypically like a lady, which means soft and careful. One of the big differences is that
women tend to be more polite than men.
Eliasson, Sørensen and Karlsson (2016:1658) reviewed different studies to show that
“teachers spend more time interacting with boys”. This statement confirms that there are
differences between boys and girls during classroom interaction because Hosseini and
Hellsten (2015:1) define classroom interaction as a term that is used to describe the
behaviour and speech in a classroom; it can also be seen as social interaction in the
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classroom. However, Kretschmer et al. (2017: 252) argue that the absence of communal
values obscures effective interaction and communication, hindering attachment
formation. In addition, Kretschmer et al. (2017: 253) reviewed various studies to confirm
that while men often interact in larger peer groups, women’s friendships are focused
in dyadic communications. Minasyan (2017:91-92) also found that female students
used interruptions mainly for cooperative reasons, such as providing assistance or
expressing agreement; whereas, male students interrupted intrusively with the aim
to gain the speaking floor or to express disagreement.
Teachers and learners had similar views on the variances among male and female
learners during classroom interaction because male learners were active participants and
female learners were fewer participants. According to Nasser’s (2016:15) statement,
there are social differences because culture and society assign gender roles and dictate
how each gender should behave. For example, boys are told to be strong and not show
emotions. Participants also explained the reasons why there was a variance among boys
and girls during interaction. They said that girls shied and feared and they had lack of
self-confidence, low participation and self-underestimation; whereas, boys considered
themselves as superior because they degraded girls by laughing at them due to their
cultural experience in the society.
Minasyan’s (2017:91) study presents that male learners have more communications
with the instructor than female learners and seem to be mostly more significant in
the educator’s perceptual field. This indicated that there was gender imbalance in
classroom interaction. The finding highlighted the gap that boys and girls did not have
equal collaboration in the class due to their societal and traditional orientation. In other
words, there was inequality between boys and girls during schoolroom collaboration that
could affect the classroom teaching-learning practice. This was confirmed during
classroom observation that boys’ interaction was greater than girls’ interaction even if
their number was lower than the girls. Girls’ interaction was lower than boys’ interaction
even if their number was greater than boys’ number. Minasyan’s (2017:91) findings
confirm that “male students take more turns in classroom interaction, and as to the
frequency of interruptions, male students interrupted more frequently in instructor-
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learner collaboration as well as in peer collaboration...” As early stated, it is believed
that through social interaction in the classroom context, learners actively explore new
information to construct their own meaning and knowledge.
Hosseini and Hellsten (2015:4) say that women’s subordination as well as gender orders
are publicly built because a gender order occurs in many institutes, just as it is present in
society. Therefore, it is recommended that teachers play a critical role in challenging
these hierarchies. However, first they ought to comprehend that male domination and
female subordination exist and that they have a right and a responsibility to alter them.
In terms of feeling superior during classroom discussions, teachers highlighted that male
learners assumed they were superior to female learners in the schoolroom. If male
learners felt superiority in the schoolroom, this indicated that there was a gap about
gender equality through classroom instructional activities. During observation, it was clear
that boys’ superiority was reflected in terms of asking and answering questions, being a
group leader and class monitor and being active participants. This is consistent with
Ghalib’s (2017:85) conclusion that “...gender differences are normalised.” This could
show that male dominance still prevails in public or semi-public spheres such as the
school.
Learners confirmed teachers’ statements that that boys who had a dictatorship role in the
classroom felt superior and girls who were still undermined in their society felt inferior
because traditional thinking of the society encouraged girls’ inferiority which affected
boys’ and girls’ equal participation in the classroom. In this regard, a study reviewed by
Clark (2016:3) suggests that men are involved in a superior variety of jobs and the
energetic participants in many outside actions in their society. This is consistent with
Buberwa’s (2016:1) discussion that “Patriarchy is systems of male domination and female
subordination.”
In terms of providing special support for learners, UNESCO (2015:10) clarifies that special
treatment can be taken to reverse the historical and social disadvantages that prevent
female and male learners from different benefits. In the same way, Bataineh and Obeiah
(2016:12) propose that students are encouraged to capitalise on their own creativity,
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motivation and resourcefulness when instructional scaffolding is applied correctly
because in instructional scaffolding, the most important feature is the peer and teacher
support.
Teachers and learners unanimously believed that girls should be given special support to
improve their ability and make them as equal participants with boys because they spend
their time doing different domestic activities rather than studying in their homes. So the
finding indicated that girls still had many obstacles that impede them not to be successful
in their education. So the data collected from the participants underlined that providing
special support for girls was compulsory. During observation, it was clear that most of the
girls were still tied by traditional gender beliefs because they feared and shied away from
asking and answering questions. Male learners laughed at them when they made
mistakes during asking and answering questions and group discussions. Therefore, the
data highlighted the need for the continuous support of girls in classroom instructional
activities.
With regard to reasons for boys undermining girls, Alexander-Scott and Holden (2016:10)
put it that gender rules guide how men and women perceive themselves as men and
women, their societal and close associations, their sexuality and the distribution of power
and resources. Because of these gender norms, these researchers (2016:9) highlight that
a man has a right to affirm power over a woman and is considered publicly superior.
Similarly, teachers and learners expressed that society was an agent for undermining
girls and for the overestimation of boys because it was supposed that men were better
than women. Thus, the girls were negatively singled out by their society. This sociocultural
context gave boys an opportunity to undermine girls.
On the other hand, some teachers explained that there was a change because girls were
becoming public figures such as being president, prime minster and a pilot in some
countries. The finding stressed that the social and cultural background experiences of
learners endorsed boys’ overestimation and girls’ underestimation that was used to
strengthen gender inequality that affected the classroom instructional activities. This view
is supported by Chikunda’s and Chikunda’s (2016:12) statement that children internalise
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significant components of the ideology about the dissimilar roles that men and women, or
boys and girls have in their society.
Chikunda and Chikunda (2016:12) view gender equality as the belief that once women
and men are visible in the same curriculum, taught by the same teacher, read the same
book because the importance of gender impartiality for progress is broadly recognised
the global context. Therefore, in terms of perception about boys and girls, teachers
agreed that they felt happy when boys and girls equally participate in the classroom.
Learners also supported that equal perception towards boys and girls was imperative to
enhancing equality between boys and girls during English lessons. Thus, the finding
showed that equal participation of boys and girls made teachers very happy. Gender
representation in Grade nine English textbook is concisely discussed in the subsequent
section.
6.4.2 EMERGING THEMES WITH REGARD TO GENDER REPRESENTATION IN GRADE NINE ENGLISH
TEXTBOOK (“ENGLISH FOR ETHIOPIA: STUDENT TEXTBOOK GRADE 9” WRITTEN BY “DONNA BAILEY”
2005 (E.C).)
In Grade 9 “English for Ethiopia: Student Textbook”, next to the cover page, the author
and the evaluators of the textbook are presented. Both the author and the evaluators are
male”. One author is depicted as male. There are also four male evaluators. The textbook
consisted of 246 pages and 12 units along with the revision of units. Finally, it has four
appendices. Appendix 1 is about the verb form. Appendix 2 is about phrasal verbs.
Appendix 3 is about vocabulary list and Appendix 4 is about listening texts.
Themes that emerged in relation to gender depiction in Grade nine English textbook were
the following: Portrayal of feminine and masculine characters in Grade nine English
textbook, language uses in relation to feminine and masculine characters, activities
performed by masculine and feminine gender and women and men pictorial
representations in the Grade nine English textbook.
This section critically examined how gender is represented in the Grade nine English
textbook and how gender representation in English textbook promoted or affected
teaching and learning for Grade nine in Ethiopia because schoolbooks have a central
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role in language classes in all types of educational institutes (Akbar, 2016:109). On
the other hand, schoolbooks may propagate gender partiality, chauvinism and
discrimination through stereotypical and unequal representations of men and women in
stories and pictures (Bromley et al., 2016:12). For instance, if I take the Grade 9 English
textbook, women have been depicted as inferior to men (e.g.as injera baker and seller,
house cleaner, animal keeper, child care giver, meal’s maker, cake maker, employees
rather than employer, teller in the market, cashier, nurse...). In other words, men are
presented as an upper gender and have the principal roles. By depicting such roles, the
idea of subordination of women is indoctrinated or instilled in the learners’ minds. In
relation to this idea, gender partialities in schoolbooks may shape gender identities in
ways that hamper development towards gender impartiality in education and the
enablement of women for social and economic growth (Bromley et al., 2016:12). This
encourages a male dominated society.
Therefore, the current Grade nine English Language Textbook used throughout Ethiopia
was examined in terms of the portrayal of feminine and masculine characters, language
use in relation to feminine and masculine characters, activities performed by male gender
and female gender and women and men pictorial representations. Thus, I explored the
stereotypical roles of women as mothers and homemakers. These were still continuous
in the existing language textbook that was used to encourage male dominance in the
classroom.
6.4.2.1: Finding 1: Portrayal of female and male characters in Grade nine English
textbook
The Grade nine English textbook showed gender variances in terms of masculine and
feminine characters. As presented in this textbook, masculine characters were depicted
to be involved in the activities taking place outside the house, while women were more
involved in the activities taking place inside the house. Therefore, men were portrayed
as outside workers:
“Addis Ababa was founded by Emperor Menelik II… Menelik planted eucalyptus
trees....” (P-235);
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“Bekele’s nephew decided to make a list of rules to follow every morning.
Bekele says in his letter that his nephew should not be afraid to take part in
things.” (p.15);
“…, my uncle is a tour operator…” (P-21);
“…the Ethiopian king Al-Nejashi ...” (P-21);
“Gebre has just been made the captain of our local football team.” (P-30),
“A man is jeweller, weaver, sculptor, metal worker, glass blower.” (p.39)
“…, he is famous as a painter and graphic artist …” (p.100);
“My uncle has been working at the school for a long time.”(p.109);
“The headmaster is talking but Abel and Jemal are at the back of the hall…”
(p.110);
“An important scientist spoke to the school on speech day. He has written many
books.” (p.125);
“My father hopes that I will work on the farm with him.”(p.130);
“My brother is out. He is not helping me with the work.” (p.147);
“The boys ran out of the kitchen noisily upsetting the pans as they did so.” (p.168);
“My father is working in his office.” (p.196);
“Men have decided …To feed my wife and 12 children…” (p.205);
“The president had been touring the exhibition before he listened to the lecture.”
(p. 224);
“My father has taken over the manager’s job.” (p. 231).
(Source: English for Ethiopia: Student Textbook Grade 9)
The aforementioned data from the textbook showed that men were defined primarily by
employment, intellectual activity as well as hobbies and skills. They were also depicted
as mentally strong and independent high achievers. Therefore, most of the
aforementioned examples showed that men were more likely to hold prestigious jobs and
positions. In other words, men were more frequently depicted in professional settings than
women.
On the contrary, women were depicted as indoor workers:
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“After school I help my mother in the house and look after my baby sister. Mother
is teaching me to cook my favourite meal of injera and watt…” (p. 18);
“A woman is potter, basket-maker, dyer, and leatherworker.” (p.39)
“There is a girl sitting alone. She is dressed up to attract the attention of the
boy.” (p.89);
“Wiezero Bontu is going to make the cake. Her mother made a beautiful cake.”
(p.111);
“The mother with the child… reveals intense desire of …… to have children.” (p.169);
“The girl spoke to quietly that nobody could hear what she was saying.” (p.168); “She
is a slow worker. She works slowly. She is a good cook. She cooks well.” (p.167);
“Making pots is basically women’s work…” (p.239);
“…I work as a doctor in the main hospital in Addis Ababa.” (P-235)
(Source: English for Ethiopia: Student Textbook Grade 9)
Figure 6.4.2.1.1: Pictures of famous people
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Source: English for Ethiopia: Student Textbook Grade 9, p.99
In the above sample pictures, it is seen that male portrayal is different from female
portrayal because the two pictures (b) and (f) show that women are doing domestic
activities, which is used to encourage traditional gender norms. Picture (a) shows a
woman who is a famous singer in Ethiopia. Picture (d) also depicts a young woman who
is a beauty contestant in Ethiopia. On the other hand, picture (c) presents a man who is
the greatest distance runner of all time. Picture (e) is also a man who is known as a stage
designer at the Yehager Fiker Theatre and as a graphic artist.
Therefore, regarding professional roles, women were not further depicted, but were
portrayed further in subsidiary roles and home life. The finding underscored that the
Grade nine English textbook encouraged traditional gender representation by assigning
women mainly in baby-sitting and domestic chores, such as cleaning, cooking or
shopping. In this case, women were portrayed as the subordinate gender because they
were regularly assigned to subordinate roles and responsibilities through the textbook.
As a result, women were significantly underrepresented in the Grade nine English
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textbook because the Grade nine English textbook, in many ways, reflected gender
stereotyped views. In other words, men were overrepresented and women were
underrepresented in the current Grade nine English textbook. Therefore, gender
representation in Grade nine English textbook was imbalanced.
6.4.2.2: Finding 2: Language use in relation to female and male characters
Regarding the order of mention, Table 5.1 in Chapter 5 shows that male dominance in
the Grade nine English textbook was evident throughout the pages like speaking first in
conversations and order of mentioning. Examples that are taken from the Grade nine
English textbook indicate that men or women were portrayed first in reading passages,
dialogues, and examples and exercises were provided:
“What is his or her name? How old is he or she?” (p.2)
“Hello! My name is Gabriel. ... My name is Fatima...” (p.7)
“Brothers or sisters” (p.11)
“As he or she answers,” (p.12)
“...in case he or she makes mistakes.” (p.15)
“...write a poem about his or her activity.” (p.54)
“You can have a boyfriend or a girlfriend...” (p.82)
“Does he or she show any sign of weakness?” (p. 89)
“The Ethiopian stars Feyisa Lelisa and Atsede Bayisa shine...” (p.102)
“He or she will die. He or she will not develop AIDS. He or she will get opportunistic
infections.” (p.119)
“Are my uncle and aunt visiting us next weekend?” (p.130)
“...your partner on his or her new words.” (p.134)
“...he or she will be able to pay the money back...” (p.138)
“...his or her agreement to pay...” (p.139)
“You are invited to stay with your uncle and aunt in America.” (p.146)
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“I have many brothers and sisters.” (p.151)
“...he/she can hear the music...” (p.164)
“...is practised by both men and women.” (p.166)
“...intimacy of men and women.” (p.169)
“The winner is the person who has no seeds left in his or her hole.” (p.173)
“...without giving his or her name!”(p.173)
“his or her interests or hobbies.” (p.173)
“He or she puts seeds...he or she wins...” (p.173)
“...No, he/she hasn’t.” (p.196)
“...Ethiopian pair Feyisa Lelisa and Atsede Bayisa claimed men’s and women’s title...”
(p.240)
“...to increase his or her wealth...” (p.242)
“...men and women dance in a circle...” (p.243)
“...men and women wear...” (p.243)
“Some dances are performed separately by men and women, while in some, men and
women dance together.” (p.244)
(Source: English for Ethiopia: Student Textbook Grade 9)
By contrast, woman first-ness was presented like “...mother or father”-(p.111); “...the
woman and the man”-(p.155) and “neither Kasech nor Berihun”-(p.179) “...woman and
man have...” (p. 243). (Source: English for Ethiopia: Student Textbook Grade 9)
The above examples of man first-ness occurred in proper nouns (e.g. Feyisa Lelisa and
Atsede Bayisa), common nouns (e.g. men and women, uncle and aunt, brothers and
sisters), possessive pronouns (e.g. his or her) and subject and object pronouns (e.g. he
or she, him or her). From those examples, men first appeared more frequently when
compared to women through the gender-biased textbook. As a result, man first-ness was
higher than woman first-ness because men were mentioned before women. Therefore,
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the finding indicated that men initiated almost all conversations in the current Grade nine
English textbook.
As seen in the data from the textbook, the major result was that gender-marked
vocabularies were included in the textbook. Therefore, gender-marked vocabularies that
were used as gender identifiers in the Grade nine English textbook were evident
throughout the pages, as the following:
“I would like to be a businessman...” (p.8);
“...by watching professional craftsmen and women” (p.42);
“I could feel my heart beat as I went into the headmaster’s office.”(p.78);
“He is young and good-looking … He married an actress who played a leading
role as a city girl. …” (p.100);
“Kibnash proved to be an acute businesswoman” (p.113);
“The host bows from the door...” (p.166);
“...two policemen went to the shop...and the night watchman met them...” (p.244);
“...said a spokesman” (p.185);
“...International Red Cross spokesman...” (p.187);
“Grandmother was playing with the baby and grandfather was sleeping on the
sofa...” (p.195);
Last Saturday I was in a big shop in Addis Ababa with one of my brothers. We were
talking to an assistant when a woman came into the shop. She was crying. She told
us that a man had stolen her purse. We ran into the street. It was full of people and
traffic. It was impossible to know where the man had gone. Just then a policeman
came into the shop. He had a purse in his hand. When the woman saw him, she was
very pleased. The policeman said that the man who had stolen it was a thief whom
they had been trying to catch for a long time. Now he was at the police station.
(p.197);
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“...policeman...” (pp.196 & 224)
“He put his name forward for chairman.” (p.231);
“...firemen are still trying to put out the fire.” (p. 240).
(Source: English for Ethiopia: Student Textbook Grade 9)
On the other hand, gender-neutral vocabularies were included like: “businessperson”
(p.12); “craftsperson” (p.54); “chairperson” (p.160); “tourist person” (s), “cyclist, people,
artist, weaver, children and builder” (p.174).... (Source: English for Ethiopia: Student
Textbook Grade 9)
According to the above examples, gender-marked vocabularies made women and
men unequal and had a hand in maintaining and strengthening gendered values
because instructional materials, in particular, school textbooks are powerful to convey
gender-biased language.
6.4.2.3: Finding 3: Activities performed by male and female gender
As presented in Table 5.1 in Chapter 5, most of the activities were performed by men and
women performed some of the activities. Examples of gender activities performed by men
were the following:
“…I (M) work in garage.” (P-235)
“...I have lots of friends and after school I usually play football or volleyball with
them. I am learning judo too, which is good fun.” (p.7)
“Three boys are playing a computer game.” (P-37)
“Four boys are playing mancala.” (P-37)
“All the boys are digging (p.45); Both the men are weaving baskets.” (p.45);
“I can’t bear it when my brother practices the guitar in the evenings.” (p.78);
“Zebida has been reading that book since he came home.” (p.109);
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“The boy has just finished washing the car.” (p.174);
“The man has just caught a fish.” (p.174);
“Men kill elephants… men hunt them…” (p.198);
Ibrahm’s Favourite free –time activity: “…one of our teachers, Mr Hailu, started a
computer club and I was the first to join! Now I’m on the club committee …I would
like to have a computer of my own at home … (p-237)
(Source: English for Ethiopia: Student Textbook Grade 9)
By contrast, examples of gender activities performed by women were:
“I (F) help my mother with some of the work. I look after my baby sister or help
with the cooking.” (p.7)
“One girl is peeling potato and carrot to prepare food.” (P-37)
“One girl is reading magazine.” (P-37)
“Chop the small red peppers and put them into the stew on the stove. Mother took
the hard green oranges from the basket outside the door.” (p.72)
“I (F) used to help my mother pick them /oranges/ from the trees on our farm. ...and
I had to clean my peeling knife to shine and glitter like glass in the sun. ...” (p. 73-4)
Figure 6.4.2.3.1: Picking orange fruits from the trees by a woman
Source: English for Ethiopia: Student Textbook Grade 9, p.73
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“Mother mixes teff flour and water to make injera....Mother allows the mixture to
ferment for several days. ...Then she bakes the injera on a clay plate over a
fire....She pours the mixture onto the baking surface.” (p.75)
“…I make pots…..which I sell to tourists.” (P-235)
“Where are you going?” asked Fanose (Female name).
“I am going to the market to buy lots of food and drink. My cousin Aret is coming to
visit me from Addis Ababa and she enjoys eating lots of healthy foods. She leads a
very healthy lifestyle,” replied Almaz (Female name).... (p.79)
“…,when preparing food for her family, Kibnesh made a few extra injera, which she
sold on the streets… a local hotel asked her to make injera for them,…” (p.113);
“...about the traditional coffee drinking ceremony in Ethiopia...” (p.157)
Figure 6.4.2.3.2: Coffee roasting by a woman
Source: English for Ethiopia: Student Textbook Grade 9, p.157
Another traditional gender activity is presented in the following sample picture.
Figure 6.4.2.3.3: Making injera for her family, local hotel
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Source: English for Ethiopia: Student Textbook Grade 9, p.113
“Halima has been learning to play the violin since she was ten.” (p.109);
...After school I (F) help my mother in the house and look after my baby sister.
Mother is teaching me to cook my favourite meal of injera and wat. ...Mary is painting
the wall. If someone opens the door, Mary will fall off the ladder. If she falls off the
ladder, she may hurt herself. (p.18)
“She held a knife in one hand and an orange in the other and scraped the outer skin
by turning the orange round.” (p.74)
“...hired women to spin, weave and dye pieces of locally-grown cotton, jute and
hemp, using skills passed on through generations.” (p. 243)
Fanose’ favourite free-time activity: I don’t belong to a club but my hobby is cooking.
I always loved watching my mother prepare our food when I was a child and she
used to give me little things to do like peeling vegetables and cutting them up.
Gradually, I learned how to make things and now I often make meals for the family.
My specialty… is cakes. I made a cake…I also help look after our animals and every
morning before school I help milk the cow. (P.236);
“Halima has been washing the clothes for half an hour.” (p.211)
“… she enjoys cooking and has made a success of her business …she performs in
restaurants and clubs.” (p.100)
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“Wiezero Bontu is going to make the cake. Her mother made a beautiful cake.” (p.111)
“The woman has washed her baby already this morning.” (p.205);
“My aunt was feeding the baby in the room” (p.206);
(Source: English for Ethiopia: Student Textbook Grade 9)
This justified that the stereotypical roles still persisted in the present Grade nine English
textbook because women were more observable in domestic and submissive activities
and were positioned in traditional roles. In other words, women were more associated
with domesticity and the household responsibilities such as cooking, cleaning and
shopping.
6.4.2.4: Finding 4: Women and men pictorial representations
Male images are 174 and female images are 117. As presented in Table 5.1, men’s
images were more than women’s images. For instance, as seen in the following sample
pictures, female pictures are four and male pictures are six. This indicated that both
genders were unequally represented in the images.
Figure 6.4.2.4.1: Keeping money in a bank
Source: English for Ethiopia: Student Textbook Grade 9, p.137
Figure 6.4.2.4.2: Pictures of teenagers doing favourite free-time activity
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Source: English for Ethiopia: Student Textbook Grade 9, p.37
In the above sample pictures, it is seen that there is gender imbalance that shows gender
inequality between men or boys and women or girls. As a result, the finding showed that
throughout the Grade nine English textbook, there were 291 images relating to different
activities.
DISCUSSION
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In terms of the portrayal of feminine and masculine characters in the Grade nine
English textbook, I expected that there were unobservable factors that affected equal
treatment of boys and girls through instructional activities. In this regard, Lee (2016:4)
states that the illustration of men and women can reflect gender disparity in different
ways because women carry on to be depicted as reticent, idle, reliant and passive
figures limited to the functions of mother and wife. This has negative implications for
female students.
In addition, Lee’s (2016) review of previous studies shows that the common low
representation of women in schoolbooks and in pictorial descriptions paralleled to men
proposals that women are less significant or less worthy of mention. Therefore, the reality
of gender representation was explored across the Grade nine English textbook.
According to Mohammed’s (2016:27) discussion, in the textbook, men are often exhibited
as police investigator, agriculturalist, thief or robber, football player, driver, horse rider,
doctor or specialist, engineer and pilot. On the contrary, women are linked with care
providing and concentrating on domestic chores such as taking care of their children
and spending in a marketplace.
According to Ebadi and Shahbazian (2015:3), in the past, women have been perceived
in a lower status than men so that the roles which were attributed to women were also
supposed as minors. This is also supported by Emilia’s, Moecharam’s and Syifa’s (2017)
statement that male characters are portrayed as more powerful agents in all their aspects
of life. Additionally, men are denoted in textbooks as criminals to illustrate a hardworking
and prison life (Mohammed, 2016:26-27). This is related to the data explored in the Grade
nine English textbook like “...the man who had stolen it was a thief whom they had been
trying to catch for a long time”, under section 5.4.2.2: Finding 2.
Similarly, Ghalib (2017:86) reveals men as performers of public engagements out of the
house and women as performers of domestic tasks. This would push the learners to
accept that men have no onus to do home-based chores and that women do not fit to do
out of home-based activities.The finding showed that gender representation in the Grade
nine English textbook encouraged the prevalence of stereotypes associated with gender
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treatment, for both girls and boys. In the textbook, the majority of the representations of
masculine and feminine characters indicated negative results in terms of gender
stereotypes and inequality because the textbook showed masculine supremacy in
representation and persistence of gender stereotypes in occupations and roles because
this revealed that female characters were portrayed holding subordinate roles. Ghalib
(2017:86) reviewed previous studies that disclose male dominance in textbooks in terms
of observability and activity. Similarly, Lee (2016:4) states that ...gender role depictions
in schooling materials influence in what way students consider, sense and perform with
regard to the two genders.
As Breda, Grenet, Monnet and Effenterre (2018:10) describe, gender stereotypes are
attached to scientists and information on the underrepresentation of women in science.
They further say that “...gender stereotypes usually attached to women in science.” So
this textbook indicated a significant increment in the appearance of male gender and an
increment in the depiction of stereotypical roles of female gender in the text. The extract
“An important scientist spoke to the school on speech day. He has written many books”
encourages men and discourages women in science.
Regarding language use in relation to female and male characters, Lee (2016) states that
man first-ness reflects the secondary status of women because when men come first,
they occupy a greater role in the community and this displays that there are gender limited
roles in the text. This is the evidence of gender inequality and bias which was included in
Grade nine English textbook such as: “I have many brothers and sisters.”; “...he/she can
hear the music...”; “...men and women dance in a circle...” and “...his or her agreement to
pay...”. This played a significant role in reinforcing some entrenched gender stereotypes
because gender bias is said to be reinforced by a wide range of educational resources.
This is supported by Wijetunga’s (2017:58) statement that first-ness means the way in
which the male pronoun/noun is positioned before the female pronoun/noun since
men were stated first more than women in all three schoolbooks. In other words, the
masculine noun frequently comes first.
As Lee (2016:5) states, gender disparity can be exposed through the structure and
dictionary of a language. In addition, Clark’s (2016:7) recommendation highlights that
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exertions have to be made to eliminate gender partiality from instructive tools. Thus,
instructors should to be conscious of the gender partiality entrenched in instructive tools
and manuscripts and need to take stages to fight this partiality because gender inequality,
which exists in the Ethiopian Grade nine English textbook, is rooted in Ethiopian culture.
In terms of gender-marked vocabularies, the result suggested that the contemporary
Grade nine English textbook used more gender-marked vocabularies than gender-neutral
vocabularies like “businessman, host, headmaster, policeman chairman, waiter, firemen,
spokesman, actress, watchman, craftsmen and women”.
Concerning the activities performed by male and female gender, studies reviewed by
Clark (2016:4) explored that women were depicted as domestic producers and
mothers; whereas, men were represented as hiker, seaman, colonel, priest or pastor,
and carpenter. Therefore, gendered activities suggested that men were more active
in social activities and women were more active in domestic activities even though
literature states that the man and spouse have the same household duties and child
care (Ebadi & Shahbazian, 2015:3). Therefore, the finding portrayed that women were
responsible for nurturing, handcrafts, cooking, cleaning and shopping and men were
responsible for physically demanding activities and sports.
In section 5.4.2.3: Finding 3, it was seen that women were overrepresented in terms of
domestic activities because both genders did not perform the same activity. This
confirmed that men had active roles, whereas women had passive roles. These are
“making cake, preparing food, vegetables, drink, and bread, borrowing money, and
making injera, spinning, weaving and dying, enjoying by cooking, helping mother by
picking oranges from the trees, cleaning knife, mixing teff flour and water to make injera
and baking injera, chopping red peppers and putting them into the stew on the stove” by
woman. On the contrary, “digging, playing football, weaving baskets, washing the car and
catching a fish, working in office by male, practising guitar” by man. These gendered
activities were gender stereotype indicators. This is supported by Clark (2016:4) who says
that women occupied jobs such as learner, maid, actress, ballet dancer, and mother. In
addition, Beyene (2015:11) strengthens that in both city and countryside areas, women
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have great home workloads and are mainly accountable for caregiving and unpaid
communal labour.
In terms of women and men pictorial representations, Yang (2015:3) says that gender
stereotype and discrepancy gender representation present in learners’ texts as well
as picture books. As previous studies (Chick & Corle, 2016) point out, gender
stereotype would be found in pictures or illustrations in terms of the activities the
characters are involved in. Beyene (2015:12) also states that “Ethiopian women own
possessions such as housing and land at a lesser ratio than men.” Bayene
(2015:11) further explains that Ethiopian women spend more time than men providing
unrewarded work both indoors and outdoors, while men have a tendency to acquire
pay and get more for their fruitful labour.
Section 5.4.2.4: Finding four suggests that the number of men in images was greater than
the number of women. Those 291 images aimed to make gender stereotype explicit to
students, and arouse students’ attentions about the issue. So in terms of pictorial
representation, men were more visible than women in the Grade nine English textbook
because 174 out of 291 depicted male characters while only 117 of them depicted female
characters. The images of women mostly were subservient and confined to domestic
activities. Women often appeared less visible than men. Supporting this idea, Ombati
and Ombati (2017: 128) state that the gender partiality in studying materials influences
female learners’ instructive achievement and performance because men are
overrepresented in images more than women. To sum up, gender typecasting and
gender partiality were still present in the current Grade nine English textbook because the
result of this analysed textbook showed that men and women were not similarly signified.
They were also portrayed in a different range of activities because female characters were
mostly visible by performing domestic activities. The following subdivision offers a
summary of this chapter.
6.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY
The intention of this research was to explore gender treatment in the Grade 9 classroom
instructional activities and how it was represented in the Grades nine English textbook in
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Ethiopia. This chapter parallels the exhibition and discussion of findings that drew from
the teachers’ interviews, learners’ interviews, principals’ interviews and the Grade nine
English textbook. In this chapter, under section 6.4.1, themes that emerged with regard
to gender treatment in classroom instructional activities were discussed in terms of
gender roles and responsibilities, gender bias, gender stereotype against girls and gender
inequality.
Under 6.4.1.1, the first major finding was gender roles and responsibilities in instructional
activities. This included sub-themes such as gender expectation in classroom context,
roles and responsibilities for women and men in school and classroom context. As well
as female learners’ and male learners’ participation during discussion, division of labour
between men and women in school, boys’ and girls’ confidence in classroom context,
factors making girls passive during classroom discussions, and awareness creation about
gender issues by schools and the government. Participants also ratified that boys were
better performers than girls because the bias that came from the society enabled boys to
perform better and they confidently did any activity without worrying. Contrastingly, girls
worried about their mistakes and they were less competent even if teachers gave priority
to them.
The second major finding was gender bias in classroom instructional activities which
covered sub-themes in terms of men’s and women’s socialisation in classroom context,
encouragement for boys and girls in the classroom context, raising hands to ask and
answer questions during classroom lessons, giving priority to male learners or female
learners in the English class. As well as better performer during the English class, men’s
and women’s treatment in the English class, being privileged in the classroom context
and promoting gender-sensitive education and environment in school. In this regard,
participants indicated that men and women were treated in various ways due to girls’
shyness and fearfulness that they brought from their society.
The third major finding was gender stereotype against girls in the classroom instructional
activities that consisted of sub-themes such as challenges facing girls in the classroom
context, gender attitude between boys and girls in the classroom context and influence of
traditional gender beliefs in the classroom situation. Participants stressed that girls had a
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cultural influence that they brought from their society because they did not ask and answer
questions in the classroom.
The fourth major finding was gender inequality in classroom instructional activities that
consisted of sub-themes such as giving opportunity to men and women in the English
class, differences between male learners and female learners during schoolroom
interaction, feeling superior during classroom discussions, providing special support for
girls, and reasons for boys to underestimate girls. The participants who were interviewed
highlighted that the social and cultural background experiences of learners endorsed
boys’ overestimation and girls’ underestimation that was used to strengthen gender
inequality that affected the classroom instructional activities. This is because society was
an agent for the underestimation of girls and for the overestimation of boys.
In this chapter, under section 6.4.2, themes that emerged with regard to gender
representation in Grade nine English textbook were discussed in terms of portrayal of
feminine and masculine characters. In addition, it was language use in relation to feminine
and masculine characters that included ‘Order of mention’ and ‘Gender-marked
vocabularies’, ‘Activities performed by male gender and female gender’ which portrayed
that women were responsible for indoor activities such as nurturing, handcrafts and
shopping and men were responsible for outdoor activities like physically demanding
activities and sports. In the textbook, ‘women and men pictorial representations showed
that 174 images out of 291 depicted male characters who were overrepresented in the
text, while 117 depicted female characters who were subservient and confined to
domestic activities. This showed how much the school textbook highly influences
learners’ outlooks and personalities towards themselves, others and society because it
plays an important function in defining learners’ perceptions of feminine and masculine
roles and responsibilities in society. The next chapter presents the study’s summary,
conclusion and recommendations.
CHAPTER 7:
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
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7.1 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this research was to investigate “gender treatment in the Grade 9
classroom instructional activities and how it was represented in the Grade 9 English
textbook in Ethiopia”. Based on this broad research aim, the intentions of this investigation
were: to explore how gender was treated in the Grade nine English classroom
instructional activities. As well as to describe how gender was represented in the Grade
nine English textbook, to determine the impact of gender treatment in classroom
instructional activities and to explore how gender representation in English textbook
promoted or affected teaching and learning for Grade nine in Ethiopia.
This final part of the study offers the summary of this research, synopsis of the scholarly
results, synopsis of the main results of this practical investigation, conclusions,
recommendations, avenues for further study, limitations of the study and concluding
remarks.
7.2 SUMMARY OF THE STUDY
Chapter one presented an overview of the study. The background of this research
highlighted that English is one of the most common means of communication in most
parts of the world. In Ethiopia, it is used as a means of communication in some
governmental organisations. It is offered as a course starting from the primary level and
is used as a means of teaching in high schools and upper educational institutions or
tertiary level. Although enormous contributions attested to the significance of foreign
language in the Ethiopian instructional scheme, based on my knowledge and observation,
the classroom instructional activities and the English textbook were not free from gender
imbalances. This encouraged me to explore the issues that impacted on gender treatment
in the classroom instructional activities and gender representation in the learner’s English
textbook. The problem statement (see Section 1.3) was explained, and the main study
enquiry (see Section 1.3.1) was stated as to how does gender treatment in the classroom
instructional activities and gender representation in learner’s English textbook promote or
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affect teaching and learning activities for Grade nine in Ethiopia? The four sub-questions
that emanated from the principal study enquiry were:
• How is gender treated in the Grade nine English classroom instructional activities?
• How is gender represented in the Grade nine English textbook?
• What is the impact of gender treatment in classroom instructional activities?
• How does gender representation in English textbook promote or affect teaching
and learning for Grade nine in Ethiopia?
Relating to the above study enquiries, the researcher provided the broad research aim
and the objectives of the study (see Section 1.4). A clear outline of qualitative study design
and methods was presented in Section 1.5. The study was located in the constructivist
research paradigm because the researcher was of the view that reality is multi-layered
and therefore, different individuals view life from different angles (see Section 1.5.1.1). I
held the view that various participants would share different personal experiences with
each research questions. The case study research type was chosen for the fact that it
empowered a profound investigation of a programme, an institution, a policy, an incident,
an activity, a procedure, or one or more persons (see Section 1.5.1.3). In-depth
interviews, non-participant observations and textbook analysis (see Section1.5.2.2) were
appropriate as the principal tools for data gathering. The data exploration procedure was
explained in Section 1.5.2.3, while ethical issues were dealt with in Section1.5.2.5. In
Section 1.6 the outline for chapter divisions was provided.
Chapter 2 gave consideration to the theoretical frameworks that underpin this research.
In this chapter, the researcher first explained the contextual framework, including policies
that were in place to encourage the fair treatment of gender between men and women in
Ethiopia (see Section 2.2). This chapter also paid attention to the theoretical framework
as it formed a valuable base for any research work. These theoretical frameworks that
were identified and discussed were the Gender Schema Theory (GST) and the
Sociocultural Theory (SCT). Gender Schema Theory (GST) (see Section 2.3.1) was
explained as a network of cognitive structures that is formed during childhood. According
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to GST, families’ gender representations are the most significant powerful factors in
modelling outlooks about gender in their children, even more so than their real
performance or the encouragement they offer (Karimi et al., 2013:207; Alani et al.,
2016:20 & Endendijk et al., 2016:2). The theories indicated how gender stereotypes are
formed during childhood. It was further explained that how such influences impact on the
manner in which the individual perceives the self, other people and situations around him
and how these perceptions are later realised in a particular environment in which the child
grows. That indicated the meeting point between gender schema and the Sociocultural
Theory.
The Sociocultural Theory (SCT) was discussed in Section 2.3.2. It was explained that the
community and culture in which a person grows up plays a significant role in the process
of meaning-making (Ahmed, 2017:6-7). The perceptions formed during childhood are
carried over to the school or workplace later in youth life and adult life. In the case of this
study, the perceptions about gender treatment in instructional activities and gender
representation in the English textbook were carried over to the teaching and learning
processes. For example, if a man or a boy grew up with the perception that a woman’s or
girl’s place was in the kitchen, that man or boy would expect a woman or a girl’s education
to assume a tea girl’s role in the school and classroom context (see Section 2.3.2.1).
The main intention of Chapter 3 was to examine relevant works on the issues of gender.
The chapter dealt with the literature review that drew from previous academic work,
different recognised reports, thesis and academic periodicals to comprehend gender
treatment in classroom instructional activities and gender representation in the English
textbooks in different contexts. The first section of the literature review covered the
introduction (see Section 3.1). Then, the second section discussed the conceptual
framework (see Section 3.2) in terms of key concepts related to the research topic:
‘Gender treatment in Grade nine classroom instructional activities and representation in
English textbook’. The third section presented the contextual framework (See Section 3.3)
by recapping the research problem, the critical research question and the rationale for
this study.
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Section 3.4 reviewed several research studies conducted on ‘gender treatment in
classroom instructional activities and representation in English textbook’ based on
relevant literature from Western, Eastern and African countries and finally on the
Ethiopian context. In any context, the issues of gender referred to the social roles,
responsibilities, rights and obligations of men and women and sons and daughters as well
as the relations among them, in a specified community at a particular period and
environment.
As the reviewed literature depicted, many studies showed that there was still a gender
gap, although many efforts had been done to assure gender equality in different countries.
The gender limit was not only in the teaching and learning processes, but it was also
reflected in different contexts. However, this gender gap was globally and nationally
revealed because of the rooted sociocultural factors about patriarchal systems in terms
of masculine supremacy and feminine underestimation.
In Chapter 4, I discussed and explained the study design and methods of the study. In
section 4.2, an explanation of the rationale for this empirical research was given. In
section 4.3, the research design was presented with a description of the research
constructivist paradigm in terms of ontology, epistemology, axiology, rhetoric and
methodology that were adopted for this study. In section 4.3.2, it was clarified that the
research employed a qualitative study approach to investigate the extent to which
instructors, learners and principals perceived and treated gender, based on their
traditional gender beliefs, attitudes and experiences.
Section 4.3.3 discussed a qualitative case study research type because this qualitative
case study was conducted to assess how gender was treated in classroom instructional
activities and was represented in Grade nine English textbook. This section also
described a multiple (collective) case study type that involved an in-depth depiction of the
location or persons, next by an examination of the data for subjects or matters, which was
used for the existing research.
In section 4.4, a discussion of research methods was provided. Section 4.4.1 presented
the nomination of study places and participants by using purposive sampling. In section
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4.4.2, a debate about data gathering tools was provided. This section included semi-
structured interviews (individual and focus group), observation and document analysis. In
sections 4.4.3 and 4.4.4, the issue of data analysis in terms of thematic analysis in order
to identify differences and similarities within the themes, as well as measures of
trustworthiness in terms of credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability
respectively were explained. In these subdivisions, an explanation of, in what way data
would be analysed, checked for honesty, coded and characterised was delivered. Finally,
Section 4.4.5 provided an account of the ethical attentions of the research investigation
in terms of permission, informed consent, privacy, anonymity and confidentiality as well
as the release and publication of the results.
The intention of Chapter 5 was to explore gender treatment in the Grade nine classroom
instructional activities and how it was represented in the Grade nine English textbook in
Ethiopia. Section 5.2 presented the research process that provided a procedure that the
researcher utilised during data gathering. Section 5.3.1 briefly outlined the profiles of the
24 participants. The data analysis process (see Section 5.3.2) was explained in terms of
thematic analysis which consisted of six steps for reading the transcribed interviews,
generating initial codes, condensing relevant codes, reviewing the potential themes,
describing and identifying the themes and generating the report within qualitative data
(Braun & Clarke, 2006, as cited in Graff et al. 2018:3). The chapter also dealt with the
presentation of findings (see Section 5.4).
Chapter 6 further presented and discussed the results harmonising with the themes that
developed from the data collected (see Section 5.4.1). Verbatim quotes from the words
of the participants were used to indicate the meanings attached to the themes. At the end
of each theme, a discussion was made (see Sections 5.4.1.1, 5.4.1.2, 5.4.1.3, 5.4.1.4;
5.4.2.1, 5.4.2.2, 5.4.2.3, & 5.4.2.4) where each theme was linked to literature or to the
academic frameworks that reinforce the research. The following themes were identified:
• Gender roles and responsibilities in instructional activities. The sub-themes were:
gender expectation in the classroom context, roles and responsibilities for women
and men in school and classroom context, female learners’ and male learners’
participation during a discussion, division of labour between sons and daughters
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in school, sons’ and daughters’ confidence in the classroom context, factors
making girls passive during classroom discussions, and awareness creation about
gender issues by schools and the government.
• Gender bias in classroom instructional activities covered sub-themes such as:
male learners’ and female learners’ socialisation in the classroom context,
encouragement for boys and girls in the classroom context, raising hands to ask
and answer questions during classroom lessons, giving priority for boys and/or
girls in the English schoolroom, better performer during the English class, male
learners’ and female learners’ treatment in the English schoolroom, being
privileged in the classroom context and promoting gender-sensitive education and
environment in school.
• Gender stereotype against girls in classroom instructional activities revealed sub-
themes such as challenges facing girls in the classroom context, gender attitude
between sons and daughters in the schoolroom context and influence of traditional
gender beliefs in the classroom situation.
• Gender inequality in classroom instructional activities exposed sub-themes such
as: giving the opportunity to male learners and female learners in the English
schoolroom, differences between boys and girls during schoolroom interaction,
feeling superiority during classroom discussions, providing exceptional support for
girls, and reasons for boys to underestimate girls.
• Gender representation in Grade nine English textbook dealt with the portrayal of
feminine and masculine characters, language use about feminine and masculine
characters which included ‘Order of mention’ and ‘Gender-neutral and gender-
marked vocabulary, activities performed by male gender and female gender, and
women and men pictorial representations’.
Chapter 7 provides a summary of the whole study (see Section 7.2), a synopsis of the
scholarly review findings (see Section 7.3.1), and a synopsis of findings for this empirical
study (see Section 7.3.2). Conclusions derived from the empirical findings were
discussed as responses to the research enquiries (see Section 7.4). The chapter further
gave recommendations (see Section 7.5) and avenues for upcoming studies (see Section
7.6), limitations of the study (see Section 7.7) and concluding remarks (see Section 7.8).
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7.3 SYNOPSIS OF THE RESEARCH FINDINGS
The summary of findings is allocated into dual partitions. The first part gives the synopsis
of the scholarly review results and the second part gives the synopsis of the findings of
this realistic research.
7.3.1 SYNOPSIS OF SCHOLARLY REVIEW FINDINGS FROM THE LITERATURE
Chapter 3 dealt with the scholarly review findings. It looked at gender treatment in
classroom instructional activities and representation in English textbooks, based on
research works from Western, Eastern and African nations.
Literature from the Western countries which were the USA, UK, Australia, Spain, Belgium,
Germany, Greece, Canada, Chile, and Sweden and others revealed that gender biases
and discriminations were manifested in terms of authority relations among sons and
daughters because gender partiality was usually existent in schoolrooms although it might
be understated and not instantly perceptible (see Section 3.4.1.1.) It was surveyed in
what way girls and boys were communicated to in the schoolroom and that women were
classified as on the contrary (Powell, 2016:62; Clover, 2015:25) because teachers,
instructors and lecturers tended to communicate with men or boys more repeatedly than
they communicate with women or girls. Further, they reacted more clearly to the
responses from men or boys.
It was also found that girls performed domestic chores such as cooking food, fetching
water and cleaning the home while boys attended to animals and helped in the fields
(UNESCO, 2015:83).
It was described that perception is extremely important to an individual’s experiences;
therefore, social norms impact teachers’ perceptions and attitudes about women and their
ability. Teachers’ gender beliefs were highly dominant in confining in what way persons
organise and describe chores or difficulties. Therefore, it was found that teachers need
to comprehend how typecasts limited the selections and chances for men and women
and obscured their wants and variances. It also found that educators were the most
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significant transporters of social, cultural and historical outlooks. In addition, they created
and perpetuated the gender typecasts in the schoolroom instinctively (UNESCO,
2015:12).
Schoolbooks and the outlooks of educators can strengthen societal customs or values
that see it proper for women to stay at home and take principal accountability for domestic
tasks, and men to play further leading roles in the global work and social decision-making
(Bao, 2016:7). Gender partiality in schoolbooks becomes nearly an unseen hindrance to
women’s impartiality inside education and outside (UNESCO, 2015:1). All instructional
materials, like textbooks, handouts or workbooks, need to be examined to determine if
they are gender-biased, gender-neutral or gender-sensitive/responsive (UNESCO,
2015:61) (see Section 3.4.1.2).
In Eastern countries, the concept of patriarchy embodied the attitudes and customs of
male supremacy (Hirschman, 2016: 35). Therefore, when men occupied the upper
responsibilities in the school directorial structure, learners tended to look at exemplars
that suggested that men occupied the responsibilities of upper position and authority.
Collins and Hahn (2016:5) discuss that learners who expressed a need to alter
inequalities failed to look at how their daily selections reinforced and were strengthened
by gendered typecasts. Gender-biased teachers discouraged girls’ schooling (Isa &
Chinen, 2016:104).
As Morales et al. (2016) discuss, male learners enjoyed highly contending
communications with instructors; they led schoolroom deeds, and they got further
consideration than female learners. Menon (2015:68) also suggests that sex disparity in
the schoolroom could offend both boys and girls. Therefore, gender equality could exist
when women and men enjoyed a similar position and had the same chance to understand
their social privileges and ability to supplement political, economic, social and cultural
growth, and to be advantageous from the outcomes (see Section 3.4.2.1 & 3.4.2.2).
In African countries, it was discussed that women’s underestimations, as well as gender
hierarchies, were publicly built because a sex hierarchy existed in various institutes, just
as it existed in people. Gender was not handed down from heaven. It was socially and
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culturally constructed to show the imbalanced treatment of men and women. It was also
suggested that society was biased against women based on cultural reasons informed by
patriarchal bias. The school textbooks, when they portray boys and girls in traditional
gender identities, formalise gender bias in the learning and teaching environment. It was
revealed that the selected primary school English textbooks continue to perpetuate
gender discrimination and bias (Nyevero, 2014:559; Ombati & Ombati, 2017: 128).
Male authors also reproduced stereotypes in their social interaction with women. It was
also confirmed that women were frequently depicted in typecast descriptions of being
loose and unsafe, particularly wherein they flouted male-controlled norms (Chitando,
2011:19; Yang, 2015:3; Chick & Corle, 2016). She exposed that gender typecasts were
still found in the schoolbooks, especially in illustrations (see Section 3.4.3.1 & 3.4.3.2).
In Ethiopia, the principal responsibility of childbearing falls on the shoulders of women.
Ethiopian women are economically, socially, culturally and politically underprivileged in
the delight of the same privileges, in gaining chances, decision-making processes and
essential resources (Ogato, 2013:358 & Beyene, 2015:12). In Ethiopia, women also were
more perceived as minor and subservient to men (Wondimu, 2014:30 & Beyene,
2015:11)). The finding suggested that challenging unfair gender values was a significant
component of intimate partner-violence avoidance approaches (Pulerwitz et al.,
2015:136). Gender inequality comes from the societal and cultural values that a person
is attached to (Haile-Giorgiss, 2008:85). Women still carry on maintaining their cultural
gender tasks of nurturing and keeping after their husbands (Semela, 2014:131; Beyene,
2015:11). The occupational roles manifested in textbooks if they ever include women,
limit the female learners to a house-wife-mother capacity (Abebech, 2008:7) because
home-based work reinforced women’s traditional roles (Tedla, 2012:10) and “gender
norms and sociocultural beliefs remain prominent drivers of the practice”
(UNICEF,2015:56) (see Section 3.4.4.1 & 3.4.4.2). However, women’s depiction in
headship and decision-making positions has gradually increased (Oxfam, 2017:3).
7.3.2 SYNOPSIS OF FINDINGS FROM THIS EMPIRICAL STUDY
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Concerning gender roles and responsibilities in instructional activities, participants agreed
that boys discharged more responsibility and roles than girls because the entrenched
traditional gender belief in the society was internalised in the mind of boys and girls
starting from their childhood. They also asserted that boys were the first-class monitors
and group leaders because they did not worry about making mistakes; whereas, girls took
up a secretary role in a group because girls were fearful and frightened to be group
leaders. This showed the influence of cultural thinking in the classroom instructional
activities because students came to the class with this traditional thinking in their mind
and chose boys as group leaders.
Some participants shared that teachers encouraged boys more, even if they made
mistakes when they spoke. Most participants remarkably highlighted that boys were
highly confident and courageous to confront their teachers by asking questions. This
showed that sons were energetic, and daughters were inactive due to further
entrenchment of gender inequality in their society. Therefore, participants similarly
expressed that girls expected boys or others to make decisions instead of taking
decisions by themselves in the classroom context because traditionally boys did not fear
to ask and answer questions in class, but girls feared to do that (see Section, 5.4.1.1).
Concerning gender bias in classroom instructional activities, participants expressed that
some teachers treated sons and daughters in the same way and some teachers treated
sons and daughters in different ways due to girls’ shyness and fearfulness that emanated
from their social and cultural environment. In addition, some participants stated that boys
were privileged to participate in class, but girls were afraid of participating in front of the
class even if their number was higher than that of boys. Some participants said that girls
were more privileged than boys because girls needed special attention.
The findings also revealed that some teachers gave priority to girls to avoid their cultural
influence and increase their confidence and skills. Further, some teachers gave priority
to bright students irrespective of the fact that they were girls or boys. Participants
indicated that girls who were socialised with girls and boys were familiar with their fathers
and girls were familiar with their mothers starting from their childhood. It was also found
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that there was a gap in the promotion of gender-sensitive education and environment in
school (see Section, 5.4.1.2).
Gender stereotype against girls in classroom instructional activities was found
because, in the classroom, girls faced challenges that originated from their family and
society. Participants also highlighted that boys had a negative attitude towards girls
because they were familiar with their gender schema that influenced their attitude towards
girls in the classroom. Participants stated that girls accepted it as standard practice when
boys embarrassed them, and this was related to their traditional experiences. They also
indicated that traditional gender beliefs influenced girls’ classroom participation because
boys were not willing to clean their classroom when teachers ordered them to do so.
Therefore, the finding indicated that cleaning the classrooms perpetuated domestic
activities in school (see Section, 5.4.1.3).
For gender inequality in classroom instructional activities, the finding highlighted the
gap that boys and girls did not have equal collaboration in the schoolroom due to their
societal and traditional orientation. In other words, there was inequality between male
learners and female learners during schoolroom interaction that could affect the
classroom teaching-learning practice. This indicated that girls still had many obstacles
that impeded them not to be successful in their education (see Section, 5.4.1.4).
Representation of woman and man characters showed gender differences because
most of the representations of masculine and feminine characters indicated negative
results in terms of gender stereotypes and inequality. The textbook showed male
dominance in representation and persistence of gender stereotypes in occupations and
roles that are played by men and women (see Section, 5.4.2.1).
Concerning language use with regard to female and male characters, the findings
revealed that men were given an opportunity to speak first than the women in the Grade
nine English textbook. That was evident throughout the conversations and men are
mentioned first and are mentioned more than women. Men were mentioned before,
women. In addition, the finding suggested that the contemporary Grade nine English
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textbook used more gender-marked vocabulary than gender-neutral vocabulary (see
Section, 5.4.2.2).
In terms of activities performed by male and female gender, the findings portrayed that
women were responsible for nurturing, handcrafts and shopping and men were
responsible for physically demanding activities and sports. It was evident that women
were overrepresented in terms of domestic activities because both genders did not
perform the same activities (see Section, 5.4.2.3). In terms of women and men pictorial
representations, it was explored that men were more visible than women in Grade nine
English textbook (see Section, 5.4.2.4).
7.4 RESEARCH CONCLUSIONS: RESPONSE TO THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The conclusions arrived at this research were stated as responses to the main study
question (See Section 1.3.1) which was: How does gender treatment in classroom
instructional activities and gender representation in English textbook promote or affect
teaching and learning for Grades nine in Ethiopia? The research questions derived from
the leading study question were:
• How is gender treated in the Grade nine English classroom instructional activities?
• What is the impact of gender treatment in classroom instructional activities?
• How is gender represented in the Grade nine English textbook?
• How does gender representation in the English textbook promote or affect teaching
and learning for Grade nine in Ethiopia?
The conclusions were discussed below as responses to the various research questions.
This is proof that empirical research indeed took place.
7.4.1 HOW IS GENDER TREATED IN THE GRADE NINE ENGLISH CLASSROOM INSTRUCTIONAL
ACTIVITIES?
The responses of the participants exposed that there was not equal treatment among
male learners and female learners to act as a group leader in the classroom context due
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to the bias of students and teachers. Male-dominated culture pressurised and hindered
girls’ and boys’ equal participation in the leadership roles because equal roles were not
allocated to girls and boys in the school. For example, the first monitor was a boy and the
second one was a girl because of the students’ expressions. Therefore, boys were
frequently treated as group leaders because they were perceived as powerful, forceful,
strong, confident, courageous and competent. They were viewed as persons who could
play football, work heavy tasks in the school compound, ask questions by raising their
hands; whereas, girls were perceived as reticent, inferior and incapable to manage and
control the group and the classroom and to raise their hands for asking and answering
questions during a classroom lesson. This was perceived as due to the influence of
traditional gender belief in their society.
As a result, there was a gender belief that men successfully carried out their
responsibilities rather than women because they did not fear nor shy away from taking
responsibility from their childhood. By contrast, girls limited themselves by not taking
leadership roles in the classroom context because they were embarrassed by the
negative attitude of their classmates. This showed that their leadership roles were
affected by patriarchal thinking in the classroom because of the gender belief emanating
from the traditional thinking that men were the leaders of the family and the country.
According to participants’ perceptions, traditional labour division was reflected in the
school in the form of classroom cleaning activities because house cleaning was
traditionally given to women only. Therefore, girls were ordered to clean the classroom
because boys were nominated to do heavy work and girls were nominated to do easy
work in school. This showed that the influence of traditional culture made women perform
indoor activities and men perform outdoor activities that indicated a division of labour
between men and women.
Some participants also revealed that girls were more privileged than boys because girls
needed special attention to remove their fear and timidness. For instance, teachers
treated girls by giving them priority to boost and inspire them to take part in asking and
raising questions during the English lesson even if they did not believe that women were
superior to males. Some participants indicated that male learners were further privileged
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than female learners because male learners were assigned as class monitors and group
leaders. Fewer participants recommended that daughters and sons would be handled in
a similar manner because treating them in a different manner could indirectly encourage
learners’ traditional culture that was a source of the problem throughout the teaching-
learning activities.
In addition, some participants reported that girls made an effort to develop their self-
confidence and competence; whereas, some participants asserted that girls were
incapable of using any given opportunity as equal to boys due to their fear of the
classroom context even though teachers gave equal opportunities to boys and girls.
Therefore, there was a recommendation that girls needed more encouragement to have
equal participation as boys in the classroom, in the school as well as in society.
7.4.2 WHAT IS THE IMPACT OF GENDER TREATMENT IN CLASSROOM INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITIES?
The negative influence of gender treatment made girls have low participation and boys
have high participation because it was revealed that boys had the confidence to do the
activities rather than girls. Nonetheless, girls were busy with domestic activities. This
unequal participation affected classroom instructional activities. The social and cultural
background experiences of learners also influenced teaching-learning activities since it
encouraged boys to have high self-esteem and girls to have low self-esteem and this
widened the gap of gender inequality.
The impact of traditional gender treatment encouraged men to choose men and women
to choose women as classmates in the classroom context because boys perceived girls
as having less contribution to help each other. Further, girls had the perception that it was
not easy to communicate with boys, but it was simple to communicate with girls.
Therefore, sociocultural gender knowledge and experience limited boys’ and girls’
socialisation because female learners were socialised with female learners and male
learners were socialised with male learners in the classroom context. In other words,
social criticism made girls and boys ashamed to sit and go together even if they needed
to socialise with the opposite sex. This created variances among male learners and
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female learners during classroom interaction since boys and girls did not have regular
communication in the schoolroom due to their societal and traditional orientation.
The impact of the traditional mind-set about the gender of the society made boys to
perceive themselves as superior to girls in the classroom and this subsequently affected
their equal participation in the schoolroom. Boys became superior performers to girls in
the English teaching-learning class context because girls got busy with household chores
after school when they returned to their homes.
Participants reported that female teachers and learners were negatively controlled by the
entrenched cultural background experiences of their society not to accept and discharge
responsibility inside and outside the classroom. For example, male teachers were
considered as active participants and female teachers as less active participants in
various committees and department heads at the school level.
Another negative impact of gender treatment in instructional activities is that it made girls
to be passive during classroom discussion because they were embarrassed by other
students when they were group leaders and class monitors. It was also the same even
when they asked and answered questions. This indicated that there were still many
traditional influences at the school level that hampered the participation of girls.
Traditional gender belief, in their society, was viewed as a source for their fearfulness and
as a hindrance of their active participation in classroom activities. Traditional gender
beliefs were originated from family and society. On the contrary, boys were recognised
as dominant participants in classroom discussions.
Boys’ and girls’ familiarity with their gender schema influenced boys’ attitude towards girls
in the class. Therefore, traditional gender thinking was one of the challenges that made
girls passive to ask and answer questions in their classroom context. This resulted from
the burden of domestic activities, their fearfulness and shyness.
Traditional gender experiences also made boys have a negative attitude towards girls
because they considered girls as incapable of performing well in their education because
they socially and culturally constructed their superiority from their childhood. This showed
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that parents’ practices and experiences affected students’ practices and experiences in
the classroom.
Participants reported that traditional gender beliefs and attitudes were experienced in the
school environment. There was still a gap that indicated what activities were for men or
boys and which activities were for women or girls. For example, female teachers prepared
the coffee ceremony if it was needed in school, but male teachers arranged chairs and
tables for the coffee ceremony and chopped bread into pieces. In addition, most of the
time, only women were hired in the cleaning chore but, for the school security work, only
men were employed. It was also usual that women were employed as secretaries in the
school and other offices because the vacancy by itself invited only women, not men.
7.4.3 HOW IS GENDER REPRESENTED IN THE GRADE NINE ENGLISH TEXTBOOK?
The textbook showed the overrepresentation of men over women and the enhancement
of the role of women as quiet and passive contrasted with the image of men as socially
active participants. So a significant large appearance of male gender and a broad
representation of stereotypical roles of female gender were found in the textbook. In other
words, men were overrepresented, and women were underrepresented in the current
Grade nine English textbook.
Men were represented to initiate almost all conversations in the current Grade nine
English textbook because when men were given the first preference, they occupied more
significant roles in the community. This was explicitly evident in gender inequality, which
was included in the textbook, and it played a significant role to reinforce some of the
entrenched gender stereotypes in society.
The textbook also portrayed women as responsible for nurturing, doing handcraft work
and shopping and men as responsible for physically demanding activities and sports. This
justified the stereotypical roles that are found in the current Grade nine English textbook
because women were more visible in indoor activities that were identified as traditional
gender roles. In other words, women were more often associated with domestic work.
Therefore, it was clear that women were overrepresented in terms of domestic activities
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because both genders did not perform the same activities. This, in turn, confirmed that
there were gender stereotype indicators in the textbook.
7.4.4 HOW DOES GENDER REPRESENTATION IN ENGLISH TEXTBOOK PROMOTE OR AFFECT TEACHING
AND LEARNING FOR GRADE NINE IN ETHIOPIA?
The findings showed that gender representation in the Grade nine English textbook
promoted the prevalence of stereotypes rather than discouraged it between both female
and male students. Therefore, in the textbook, most of the representations of masculine
and feminine characters indicated negative results in terms of sex stereotypes and
inequality. The contemporary Grade nine English textbook used more gender-marked
vocabulary even when it was supposed to use gender-neutral vocabularies such as
people, chairperson, tourist person(s) and builder.
Throughout the Grade nine English textbook, there were 291 images relating to different
activities. One hundred and seventy-four (174) out of 291 depicted male characters, while
only 117 depicted female characters that were represented as submissive characters
because they were confined to performing domestic activities. Therefore, it could be
generalised that women were revealed less noticeable than men; whereas, men were
overrepresented in images more than women. To sum up, it was clear that challenges
relating to gender inequality persisted in teachers’, principals’ and learners’ words
although progress had been made with gender treatment in classroom instructional
activities and gender representation in the English textbook. The next section discusses
recommendations according to the results of this research.
7.5 RECOMMENDATIONS
The next recommendations are presented based on these research results:
7.5.1 RECOMMENDATION FOR GENDER TREATMENT IN CLASSROOM INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITIES
Recommendation 1: Gender Roles and responsibilities in instructional activities
indicated that there was a need for more improvement in gender treatment in classroom
instructional activities because of the following reasons:
• Girls were dependent on boys because they perceived boys as better than them.
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• Girls expected boys to take decisions because traditionally, boys did not fear to
ask and answer questions in the class, but girls feared to do so.
• Girls and boys were encouraged to reflect on the discussion of what they did at
their home because students were also members of the society.
• Leadership roles were dominated by men or boys because of the cultural pressure
that hindered students from enjoying equal participation in leadership roles.
• Girls were culturally socialised not to accept roles and responsibilities in the
classroom due to the rooted traditional sex belief in the social order, which was
internalised in the mind of boys and girls starting from their childhood.
• Boys were the first class monitors and group leaders.
• Boys were most dominant in the classroom since girls had deep-rooted cultural
background problems in their society and as soon as they came back to their
families, they were always busy with household activities such as washing dishes,
preparing food, caring for children and taking care of animals.
• There was a division of labour especially in terms of performing drama and girls
played characters of being janitor, nurse, wife, mother, teacher and secretary and
boys played characters of being a father, doctor, teacher, bank manager, pilot,
judge, engineer and police officer.
• Women were frequently busy with indoor activities; whereas, men were kept busy
with outdoor activities.
• There was male domination and female subordination in the classroom, school as
well as in society.
Relating to the above points, there is a suggestion that educators and principals ought to
give more time to encourage girls more than boys because girls had low participation in
asking and answering questions, in leadership and managing the groups as well as in the
classroom due to different challenges and burdens in their society. Therefore, participants
recommended that providing specialised support for girls should be compulsory because
girls still had many obstacles that impeded them not to be successful in their education.
Both teachers and boys should give support to girls by giving tutorial classes to improve
their participation because girls were loaded with domestic activities that contributed to
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the development of the shameful and fearful attitudes that they displayed in the
classroom.
There was another recommendation that there is a need for the creation of an awareness
campaign on gender issues because there were not enough people working on such a
campaign in the community even if the government made an effort by preparing and
implementing gender policy in the Ethiopian context. This confirmed that there was a gap
in gender policy implementation on the ground. For instance, in school even if a direction
was given about providing tutorial classes for female students, it was not practically done
because when teachers gave tutorial classes, they put both boys and girls together, even
teachers were not wholly willing to give tutorial classes. It was further revealed that the
problem was also created by their traditional background experiences because women
were given less attention in their traditional culture.
Equal participation of boys and girls could be improved by teaching learners that girls
were not inferior to boys because of the cultural influence that children experience from
their childhood in school or society. Participants also recommended that girls should
consistently get advice and training to create awareness through different clubs like girls’
clubs because girls should be aware of how to face and win challenges and solve
sociocultural problems and how to give equal and fair treatment and respect for both men
and women in their environments. Teachers should have the authority to shape
classroom interactions in their way, which might take sons and daughters to have equal
participation within the classroom.
Recommendation 2: Gender bias in classroom instructional activities highlighted the
following problems:
• Social and cultural background environment affected learners’ socialisation with
the opposite sex due to social criticism towards women that made boys and girls
not to communicate and work and even not to walk together.
• The society did not see as a positive rapport between men or boys and women or
girls in which they can share knowledge and any other experience; society
considered it an unwanted sexual relationship.
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• Girls did not use the first opportunity in the classroom even when they were given
priority because of their passivity and low participation.
• Socialising women or girls with women or girls and men or boys with men or boys
was encouraged in the society because participants confirmed that if a girl was
seen discussing and walking with a boy, the others laughed at her and then she
became embarrassed and was pressurised to stop interacting with the boy.
In order to resolve the above problems, it is recommended that teachers should challenge
gender bias by teaching students about gender equality. Teachers ought to provide
balanced reassurance and chances to both girls and boys to avoid being biased because
some teachers gave priority to boys, and some teachers gave priority to girls. Further,
some teachers gave priority to only clever students whether they were girls or boys in
asking and raising questions. It was also highlighted that teachers were more influential
in breaking the girls’ silence and timidity in their classrooms.
In addition, female teachers should be role models to make girls successful and assign
them responsibilities because girls could open up about their problems to female teachers
without fear than opening up to male teachers. Other school administrators should also
equally help and inspire both women and men to minimise the cultural influence that they
bring with them from their social environment. Girls needed more encouragement and
help in the classroom as well as in the school at large in order to avoid cultural influence
because they had low participation due to many challenges and burdens in their society
even when they outnumbered the boys in the classroom.
Teachers should also treat boys and girls in the same manner in the English classroom
because both girls and boys are their learners. Therefore, both sexes should be equally
privileged inside or outside the schoolroom. Moreover, students ought to be willing to sit
boys with girls and girls with boys.
Recommendation 3: Regarding the gender stereotype against girls in classroom
instructional activities, it is recommended that teaching of gender equality to students,
school community and society could be used to discourage gender-stereotypical actions
because girls were faced with stereotype challenges that originated from girls’ families
and society and these affected the classroom teaching and learning activities. Gender-
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sensitive practice should also be more acknowledged and promoted than promoting
traditional gender thinking that made girls perceive themselves as inferior and fearful
towards boys in the classroom context.
School communities should play their roles and responsibilities to resolve the challenges
that girls experience in instructional activities because boys laugh, embarrass and
underestimate girls and this affects them and discourages them from participating during
classroom discussions.
Participants also expressed that girls accepted it as standard practice when boys
embarrassed them because of their traditional gender experiences that influenced the
boys’ attitude towards girls. Therefore, the finding indicated that boys had a negative
attitude towards girls because they considered girls as incapable of performing well in
education. This traditional gender experience, in turn, hampered gender equality;
therefore, much more emphasis is needed on gender fair-treatment to promote the
equality of women and men or daughters and sons in instructional activities.
Some boys also embarrassed girls because they observed it from home when their
fathers insulted and frightened their mothers and they then practised it in the classroom
by insulting and frightening girls. Girls also accepted that as a normal way of living in their
communities and the classroom situation. Girls experienced such treatment from their
young age, and they also observed it when their fathers frightened and insulted their
mothers during their childhood. This made boys more influential than girls. Girls were
introverts rather than boys in classroom participation. Boys socially and culturally
constructed their superiority, starting from their childhood years. Therefore, teachers’,
principals’, parents’, girls’ and boys’ mind-set about gender ought to be changed through
education, training, workshops, conferences or seminars.
In society, there were traditional rules that governed the family members and influenced
boys and girls in the schoolroom situation. As the researcher, I highly recommend that
gender-stereotyped actions should be discouraged by teachers, learners and school
administrative staff in schools. Therefore, the impact of sociocultural factors such as
masculine and feminine outlooks on daughters’ activities and behaviour should be
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understood by teachers, learners, school community and society because teachers,
principals, learners and societies at large should do better to challenge gender
stereotypes.
Recommendation 4: In connection with gender inequality in the classroom instructional
activities, the recommendation is that teachers should challenge gender inequality by
giving equal opportunity to men and women because there were still discrepancies
among boys and girls in the use of the given opportunities in the classroom context. Again,
it was recommended that husbands and sons must be the key actors in bringing about
solutions concerning women and girls’ subordination because social protection could
show a significant role in facilitating and empowering women or girls which might be used
to decrease male and female disparities.
Schools, societies, universities and other concerned bodies should work together to solve
gender inequality and promote gender equality through instructional activities because
they had human resources to support and improve girls’ education in secondary and
elementary schools by providing training for parents who had various attitudes towards
their boys and girls due to the influence of their entrenched traditional culture.
School principals also expressed that there was a gap in the promotion of gender-
sensitive education and the school environment. It is, therefore, recommended that
gender-based education is necessary for students in school and this could be achieved
by making a joint intervention with the ‘Woreda’ Health centre and different NGOs
because the joint venture could make the promotion of gender-sensitive education and
environment possible.
There is also a recommendation that continuous gender awareness should be given for
all school communities and students’ families to improve equal treatment of men and
women in teaching and learning activities. As well as make women active participants like
their male counterparts.
However, teachers should challenge gender inequality rather than encourage it in
classroom instructional activities by giving equal chances to girls and boys.
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The finding highlighted that inequality was perpetuated between boys and girls during
schoolroom interaction. Male learners participated more than female learners, and that
could affect the classroom teaching-learning practice. In order to fill this gap, equal
participation of boys and girls could be improved by teaching students that girls are not
inferior to boys because of the cultural influence that children are exposed to from their
childhood. Teachers might provide a balanced opportunity for sons and daughters to
promote gender equality through classroom instructional activities.
Therefore, the obstacles for gender-fair and equal treatment in classroom instructional
activities must be tackled to prevent it from being transmitted from generation to
generation. Special assistance ought to be delivered to girls by instructors and others to
increase their confidence and courage through classroom participation and interaction
because both girls and boys equally have an essential contribution to the development of
the country.
In order to discourage traditional gender belief and attitude, the family should start from
childhood to instruct their children about gender equality or else the problem might
continue from generation to generation.
In general, designing a gender-sensitive curriculum and creating social awareness about
it could have an essential role in encouraging woman impartiality and empowering
women. The government should play a primary role in applying affirmative action
measures for social sector occupation because gender mainstreaming, which has a
significant purpose to close the gender gap, should be implemented in different sectors
in Ethiopia.
7.5.2 RECOMMENDATION FOR GENDER REPRESENTATIONS IN THE ENGLISH TEXTBOOK
Recommendation 5: Portrayal of female and male personalities was discussed in Grade
nine English textbook. The reality of women’s and men’s depiction was observed across
the Grade nine English textbook. The identified illustrations of women in manuscripts and
pictorial descriptions associated with men suggested that women were less significant or
unworthy of being mentioned. In the textbook, women still wore pinafores. These aprons
have a discriminatory stereotype of being associated with a woman. Therefore, the
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illustration of women in a wider variety of activities and occupations should not encourage
typecasting pictures.
In the textbook, the finding indicated that men had less contribution to household chores.
This is because men were portrayed to be involved in the activities taking place outside
the house, such as prestigious positions and higher-status jobs. Examples of these are
farmer, police investigator, thief, football player, driver, horse rider, doctor, engineer and
pilot. However, women were frequently portrayed as being involved in the activities taking
place inside the house, such as cooking, cleaning, making household repairs, doing
laundry, washing the car and taking care of children in a housewife-mother capacity.
Nonetheless, both men and women ought to be depicted cooking, dusting, making
domestic maintenances, doing laundry, washing the car, and taking care of children
because it is not only women who should be associated with domestic work such as
taking care of their progenies and shopping in the marketplace. Nonetheless, men
should also be willing to share domestic activities.
Another finding showed that gender representation in the Grade nine English textbook
encouraged the prevalence of stereotypes associated with gender treatment for both
female and male students because most of the representations of masculine and feminine
characters indicated negative results in terms of female-male stereotypes and inequality.
The textbook had ample evidence concerning male dominance in representation and
persistence of gender stereotypes in occupations and roles. Therefore, textbook writers
and editors should practice different tactics to evade unfair or typecast handling of the
two genders.
The current Grade nine English textbook showed a significant increase in the portrayal of
the male gender and the representation of stereotypical roles of female gender in the text.
In other words, women were portrayed mainly doing domestic activities, and men were
portrayed as more potent agents in all their aspects of life. Therefore, the textbook should
include a fair depiction of feminine and masculine characters through a wider variety of
work-related roles and individual qualities. The invisibility of feminine characters in high
occupations was one of the significant practices of bias. There is a recommendation that
effort needs to be practised to eliminate sex partiality from instructive resources. Thus,
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instructors should be conscious of the sex unfairness entrenched in educational tools and
manuscripts, and they ought to implement stages to fight this unfairness.
Recommendation 6: Language use concerning feminine and masculine characters
In the textbook, male dominance was discovered. This reflected the secondary status of
women because when men came first, they occupied a greater role in the community and
this showed that there were gender-specific roles in the text. This was the evidence of
gender inequality that was included in Grade nine English textbook and played a
significant role in reinforcing some entrenched gender stereotypes. Men dominated
women. This demonstrated that both genders were not afforded the same opportunities
in the textbook. This might be traditionally applicable. However, textbooks should
deconstruct stereotypical images of women and men. Textbook writers and editors should
also have the responsibility to remove unfair or typecast handling of the two genders by
using comprehensive language and impartial treatment of the genders.
In terms of sex-unbiased and discernible vocabularies, the finding suggested that the
contemporary Grade nine English textbook uses more of the gender-marked vocabularies
than gender-neutral vocabularies. Therefore, the textbook should be gender-neutral
because gender-neutrality ought to be mandatory to achieve gender equality.
There was another recommendation for gender exclusion; that is, the evasion of quasi-
generics such as -man combinations (e.g. spokesman, salesman, and foreman) and the
use of symmetric phrases that include both men and women such as female and male
journalists, and cameraman/camerawoman. However, it could be more advisable to use
gender-balanced words such as persons, humans, people and that are generic for man.
Recommendation 7: Activities performed by male gender and female gender
Regarding stereotypical and biased gendered activities, the finding portrayed that women
were responsible for nurturing, handcrafts and shopping while men were responsible for
physically demanding activities and sports. This justified that stereotypical roles persisted
in the current Grade nine English textbook because women were further observable in
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domestic and submissive actions and were positioned in cultural roles. In other words,
women were more often associated with domestic chores.
These gendered activities suggested that men were more active in social activities and
women were more active in domestic activities. If male and female partialities are
available in the students’ book, gender inequality stereotypes are perpetuated and are
conveyed to them without them realising. Thus, it is recommended that instructors must
always be aware of sex unfairness in their schooling situation. Language teachers could
follow further sex sensitive and impartial materials appropriate to the progress of students
as persons.
Recommendation 8: Women and men pictorial representations
The finding indicated that the number of men in images was higher than the number of
women because those 291 images aimed to make gender stereotype explicit to students
and provoke students’ attentions about gender imbalances. This shows gender inequality
between men and women. One hundred and seventy-four (174) out of 291 depicted male
characters, while only 117 of them depicted female characters. Therefore, in terms of
pictorial representation, men were more visible than women and women were fewer than
men in the Grade nine English textbook. Therefore, the textbook writers should portray
unbiased and non-stereotypical images of women and men.
In picture representations, both genders were not equally treated because gender
imbalances were observed in the number of pictorial representations. Thus, it is
recommended that illustrations in texts should be neutral in portraying stereotypical
images of the two sexes because women were still normally related to the domestic
chores and the household and men related to waged labour outdoors. Women were
portrayed as feeble individuals, while men were portrayed as sturdy individuals. Women
were more inactive, and men were more energetic; women were less often portrayed than
men in both the printed and pictorial representations.
7. 6 AVENUES FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
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This was an inadequate study that was conducted on gender treatment in classroom
instructional activities and gender representation in English textbook in the Ethiopian
context. This study endeavoured to expose this limitation of gender treatment in
classroom instructional activities and gender representation in English textbook.
Consequently, the researcher hopes that this investigation will contribute to the promotion
of fair gender treatment in instructional activities in the classrooms and fair representation
of women and men in the schoolbooks that are employed in Ethiopia’s teaching-learning
centres. Additional studies may be carried out to get a better comprehension of the
challenges of implementing gender treatment in classroom instructional activities and
gender representation in the English textbook with a larger sample to obtain data from.
That could be effectively included in policy reforms. This study only focused on gender
treatment in classroom instructional activities and gender representation in the Grade
nine English textbook. Thus, further research may incorporate whole grades and
textbooks in Ethiopia. The present research was qualitative; nonetheless, quantitative or
mixed-method research might give various outcomes.
In conclusion, I recommend that all future research on gender treatment in classroom
instructional activities and gender representation in English textbook pay attention to
gender bias, gender stereotype, gender inequality and gender representation and
language use in textbooks to capture the reality of gender equity and fair treatment at the
grass-root level. This is the most credible research approach that can contribute to social
change and transform policies and practices that shape traditional gender thinking in
Ethiopia.
7.7 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
Within the present investigation, I set out to understand gender treatment in classroom
instructional activities and gender representation in the English textbook in Amhara
Region, North Shoa, and four General Secondary Schools from four Districts. The study
was a case study guided by sociocultural and gender schematic perspectives. The study
was also restricted to only one region out of the nine regions and one Zone out of ten
Zones in Ethiopia and four Districts out of the 24 Woredas /Districts/ in North Shoa Zone.
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The nominated participants plus institutes in which the research was carried out were
insufficient to represent all the 24 districts. Concerning these limits of the investigation,
the outcomes of this research may not be comprehensive to the whole 24 Districts in
Amhara Region, North Shoa Zone, Ethiopia. However, this does not disrepute the results
of the research because the aim was to understand gender treatment in classroom
instructional activities and gender representation in the English textbook. This
understanding opens up a new opportunity for further studies involving teachers, learners,
principals and communities.
7.8 CONCLUDING REMARKS
As a researcher and a lecturer at DebreBirhan University, I am able to acquire practical
knowledge after this research. I enjoyed the conversations with the participants. I learned
that planning to achieve specific goals might not be realised and as a student. I was to be
content with the participants who were volunteers in revealing their gender beliefs plus
practices with me. Individuals can never be forced to partake in a study, and I have
learned to respect that. I have also learned to respect people’s views and choices and
the fact that individuals do not view life in the same lens. I was enriched by teachers’,
learners’ and principals’ background experiences and the reality of gender treatment in
instructional activities at the grassroots level. I also learned that well-learned instructors
who have comprehensive information concerning masculine and feminine matters are
needed because male and female matters are not merely the issues of women but the
public as a whole. In this study, what I learned was that school communities, parents,
public seniors, spiritual heads, governmental and non-governmental chiefs ought to
perform together and work intensively and extensively to bring about changes in
traditional gender thinking and experiences that affect the classroom instructional
activities.
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APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: PROOF OF REGISTRATION
1611
A I R M A I L
ZEWDIE Z N MR STUDENT NUMBER : 4902-419-1
ZENAWI NIGUSSIE ZEWDIE
DEBRE BERHAN UNIVERSITY ENQUIRIES: [email protected]
P O BOX 445
DEBRE BERHAN -FAX : (012) 429 4150
ETHIOPIA
DATE : 2019-01-16
Dear student
Your application for registration for the study units as indicated on your
registration form has been received.
Please note that you are not yet registered and that your registration for the
indicated study units can only be finalised on receipt of the prescribed minimum
344
initial payment. In order to have your registration activated, a further amount
of R 16,250.00 is required before the appropriate closing date
for registration. The full fees for the study unit(s) below amount to R 16,250.00
.
TFCUR05 DEd - Curriculum Studies
The web address for authorizing credit card or EFT/SWIFT payment is as follows:
www.unisa.ac.za/paymentinfo
Bank deposits (not for foreign students) can be done at any branch of Standard
bank in the RSA. The deposit slip must be completed as follows:
* Credit - UNISA STUDENT DEPOSITS - The first eight blocks are for the student
number. If the student number consists of only 7 digits, then an "0" must be
filled in for the first digit of the student number.
* Leave one block open and then fill in the number 5400374721.
* Account number: 096R
Semester 1: Last date for payment is 31 January 2019
Semester 2: Last date for payment is 31 July 2019
Year modules: Last date for payment is 8 March 2019
Honours and PG Diploma year modules: Last date for payment is 30 March 2019
Master's year modules: Last date for payment is 30 March 2019
Master's and doctoral Research proposal module/dissertation/thesis: last date
for payment is 30 March 2019.
STUDY MATERIAL (where applicable) CAN BE ACCESSED ON THE UNISA WEB AFTER YOU
HAVE BEEN REGISTERED. YOU MUST REGISTER ON MYUNISA
(https://my.unisa.ac.za/portal/) FOR THIS PURPOSE.
Your application for registration or registration for additional study unit/s
will be cancelled if the relevant minimum fee and/or documents have not been
received by the University on or before the appropriate closing date. You will
then have to apply for registration for the next registration period.
If there is a credit balance on your account, it will be refunded on your
written request.
Dr F Goolam
Registrar
345
APPENDIX B: UNISA ETHICAL CLEARANCE LETTER
346
347
348
APPENDIX C: LETTER TO THE NORTH SHOA ZONE EDUCATION OFFICE FOR
REQUESTING PERMISSION TO CONDUCT RESEARCH IN FOUR DISTRICTS’ GENERAL
SECONDARY SCHOOLS, ETHIOPIA
Zewdie ZN MR Ref: 0683903652
Zenawi Nigussie Zewdie
Debre Berhan University
P O BOX 445
Debre Berhan
Ethiopia
10 July 2017
The North Sheo Zone Education Office
Debre Birhan
REF: REQUEST FOR PERMISSION TO CONDUCT RESEARCH IN CHACHA, MINJAR,
D/SINA AND MEKOY GENERAL SECONDARY SCHOOLS
I am a Lecturer at DebreBirhan University and a Doctoral Student at UNISA doing DED
in the Department of Curriculum Studies. I am kindly requesting for permission to carry
out a study in Chacha, Minjar, D/Sina and Mekoy General Secondary Schools. My study
is on Gender treatment in Grades nine classroom instructional activities and
representation in English textbook. The study aims to investigate gender treatment in
the Grade nine classroom instructional activities and how it is represented in the Grade
nine English textbook in Ethiopia.
The participants for this study are learners, teachers and principals. The study will employ
focus group interviews for learners, individual interviews for school principals and school
teachers. I also expect to use document analysis. The researcher will seek consent of
participants before the commencement of the study.
For all enquiries relating to this study you are free to contact ZN Zewdie, cell:
+251911193272, E-mail: [email protected] or my supervisor Dr KG Nkumane
at E-mail: [email protected], Tel: (012)4298713.
I greatly appreciate your help.
Yours sincerely
349
ZN ZEWDIE (MR)
350
APPENDIX D: LETTER OF PERMISSION TO CONDUCT RESEARCH IN FOUR DISTRICTS’
GENERAL SECONDARY SCHOOLS, ETHIOPIA
351
352
APPENDIX E: LETTER FOR REQUESTING CONSENT FROM PRINCIPALS AND TEACHERS
TO PARTICIPATE IN INDIVIDUAL INTERVIEW
Dear Prospective Participants,
This letter is an invitation to consider participating in a study. I, Zenawi Nigussi, am
conducting a doctoral study entitled: Gender treatment in Grades nine classroom
instructional activities and representation in English textbook at the University of
South Africa. Permission for the study has been given by Department of Curriculum
Studies and the Ethics Committee of the College of Education, UNISA. I have
purposefully identified you as a possible participant because of your valuable experience
and expertise related to my research topic.
I would like to provide you with more information about this project and what your
involvement would entail if you should agree to take part. The importance of investigating
gender treatment in the Grade nine classroom instructional activities and how it is
represented in the Grade nine English textbook in education is substantial and well
documented. In this interview I would like to have your views and opinions on this topic.
This information can be used to improve gender treatment in the Grade nine classroom
instructional processes and representation in English textbook.
Your participation in this study is voluntary. It will involve an interview of approximately 60
minutes in length to take place in a mutually agreed upon location at a time convenient to
you. You may decline to answer any of the interview questions if you so wish.
Furthermore, you may decide to withdraw from this study at any time without any negative
consequences.
With your kind permission, the interview will be audio-recorded to facilitate collection of
accurate information and later transcribed for analysis. Shortly after the transcription has
been completed, I will send you a copy of the transcript to give you an opportunity to
confirm the accuracy of our conversation and to add or to clarify any points. All information
you provide is considered completely confidential. Your name will not appear in any
publication resulting from this study and any identifying information will be omitted from
the report. However, with your permission, anonymous quotations may be used. Data
collected during this study will be retained on a password protected computer for 5 years
in my locked office.
The benefits of this study are to recommend the possible solutions about the classroom
instructional activities and current English textbook from gender perspectives because
learners, both boys and girls, learn about acceptable and unacceptable behaviours from
the textbook and classroom interactional activities and there are no known or anticipated
risks to you as a participant in this study. You will not receive any incentives for your
participation in the research.
353
If you would like to be informed of the final research findings, please contact ZN Zewdie
on cell +251911193272 or E-mail: [email protected] . The findings are
accessible for five years.
If you have any questions regarding this study, or would like additional information to
assist you in reaching a decision about participation, please contact me at
+251911193272 or by E-mail at [email protected].
I look forward to speaking to you and thank you in advance for your assistance in this
project. If you accept my invitation to participate, I will request you to sign the consent
form.
Yours sincerely
ZN Zewdie (Mr)
354
APPENDIX F: CONSENT FORM Date: ____________
CONSENT FORM
I have read the information presented in the information letter about the study in
education. I have had the opportunity to ask any questions related to this study, to receive
satisfactory answers to my questions, and add any additional details I wanted. I am aware
that I have the option of allowing my interview to be audio-recorded to ensure an accurate
recording of my responses. I am also aware that excerpts from the interview may be
included in publications to come from this research, with the understanding that the
quotations will be anonymous. I was informed that I may withdraw my consent at any time
without penalty by advising the researcher. With full knowledge of all foregoing, I agree,
of my own free will, to participate in this study.
Participant’s Name:______________________________
Participant Signature: ____________________________
Researcher Name: ______________________________
Researcher Signature: ___________________________
Date: __________________________________________
355
APPENDIX G: FOCUS GROUP CONSENT AND CONFIDENTIALITY AGREEMENT FOR
LEARNERS
I, __________________, grant consent that the information I share during the focus
group may be used by ZN Zewdie for research purposes. I am aware that the group
discussions will be audio-tape recorded and grant consent for these recordings, provided
that my privacy will be protected. I undertake not to divulge any information that is shared
in the group discussions to any person outside the group in order to maintain
confidentiality.
Participant‘s Name: ____________________________________
Participant Signature: ___________________________________
Researcher’s Name: ____________________________________
Researcher’s Signature: _________________________________
Date: _________________________________________________
356
APPENDIX H: INTREVIEW SCHEDULE (INTREVIEW QUESTIONS)
Topic: Gender treatment in Grades nine classroom instructional activities and
representation in English textbook
SECTION A: INTRODUCTION
My name is Zenawi Nigussie. I am a UNISA PhD Student, conducting a research on the
gender treatment in Grade nine classroom instructional activities and representation in
English textbook.
SECTION B: PURPOSE OF THE INTERVIEW
My research topic focuses on the role of schools in addressing how the gender treatment
in classroom instructional activities and gender representation in English textbook
promotes or affects teaching and learning for Grade nine. I am interested in knowing your
views about how gender is treated in classroom instructional activities and how it is
represented in English textbook. I would appreciate if we can spend some time talking
about this topic. The interview takes about 60 to 1:30 minutes. This information is
confidential and will be used for the purposes of research only.
Place of the interview……………………………… Date…………………… Time…………
SECTION C: DEMOGRAPHIC DATA
• Sex: Male Female
• Age in years: 25-30 30- 35 35- 40 40 and above
• Experience in the post: Below 5 years 5-10 years 10-15 years
15-20 years 20 and above years
SECTION D: SEMI-STRUCTURED QUESTIONS
Topic 1: Let’s talk about gender roles and responsibilities in your classroom. I think
that teachers may have various perceptions about gender roles and
357
responsibilities in learning and teaching practice. What is your perception about
this?
Probe: What are girls and boys expected to perform in classroom context?
Probe: Some people say that boys are expected to be as family leaders, while girls are
expected to be childcare. What is your opinion about this gender belief?
Probe: Who takes responsibilities in school? Girls or boys? Why?
Probe: In classroom context, to whom responsibilities are frequently given? Girls or boys?
Why?
Probe: Can you explain what roles and responsibilities fit boys and girls in the classroom
context.
Probe: Can you tell me who is frequently a group leader in your classroom? Girls or
boys? Why?
Probe: Who has low participation in group discussion? Girls or boys? Why?
Probe: Do you give girls and boys different roles in the English classroom?
a. How do they give?
b. Way do they give?
Probe: Who has major role in the classroom context? Girls or boys? Why?
Probe: Do you see labour division between men and women in the classroom context?
How do you explain labour division in your classroom?
Probe: Who is dominant participant in the classroom discussion? Girls or boys? Why?
Probe: Who expect decisions from others? Girls or boys? If so,
a. Why do girls expect decisions from boys instead of doing by themselves in the
classroom context?
b. Why do boys expect decisions from girls instead of doing by themselves in the
classroom context?
Probe: Do you think that girls are a few participants in the English class?
a. Why are girls a few participants?
b. Why are not girls a few participants?
358
Probe: Who mostly becomes a group leader in the classroom context? Girls or boys?
Why?
Probe: Some scholars say boys are confident in the English classroom context. Do you
agree or disagree with this belief? Why? How do you explain this belief with
evidence?
Probe: Are girls passive during discussion?
a. What are the factors that make girls passive when they discuss in group of
learners?
b. What are the factors that make girls active when they discuss in group of
learners?
Topic 2: I would like to ask you about gender bias in your classroom. Can you
explain how gender bias is reflected in your classroom context?
Probe: How is boys’ and girls’ socialisation viewed in your classroom context?
Probe: Who is given more encouragement in the classroom context? Boys or girls?
Why?
Probe: Who frequently raises hand to ask and answer questions during classroom
lesson? Boys or girls? Why?
Probe: To whom do you give more priority in asking and raising questions during the
English lesson? For boys or for girls or for both of them? Why?
Probe: Who perform better in the English classroom context? Boys or girls? Why?
Probe: Do you guide girls to discuss in open, safe and supportive environment to ensure
that girls can access discussions and manage dialogue?
a. How do you do this?
b. Why do you do this?
c. Why do not you do this?
Probe: Do you treat boys and girls in a different way or in a similar way in the English
classroom context?
a. Why is it in a different way?
b. Why is it in a similar way?
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Probe: Who is more privileged in the classroom context? Boys or girls? Why?
Probe: What is your view towards girls’ and boys’ participation in the classroom context?
Topic 3: Let’s talk about gender stereotype against girls. How is gender stereotype
reflected in classroom instructional activities?
Probe: What activities are considered as appropriate for boys and inappropriate for girls
in school context?
Probe: How do traditional gender beliefs influence classroom situation?
Probe: Do girls face challenges in the classroom context? If so, what challenges do they
face?
Probe: Who is confident in asking and answering questions an English teacher during the
English lesson? Boys or girls? Would you like to explain the reason?
Probe: In your opinion, who is usually active participant in answering and asking
questions during the English class? Boys or girls? What reasons do you think about this?
Probe: How would you compare girls and boys by their classroom participation?
Probe: What attitude do you observe towards boys and girls in classroom context?
Probe: What traditional gender beliefs do you observe when you teach in the English
class?
Probe: Some people believe that girls are naturally better at English than boys. What is
your opinion about this gender belief?
Topic 4: You may observe Gender Inequality in the English classroom. How do you
explain your observations and experiences?
Probe: Do you give equal opportunity to boys and girls in the English classroom? If so,
a. How do you do that?
b. Why do you do that?
Probe: Do girls have equal chances to perform the same as boys in the classroom?
a. How do they perform that?
b. Why do they perform that?
c. Why do not they perform that?
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Probe: Could you explain how you ensure equal participation of boys and girls in
classroom discussions?
Probe: What factors increase unequal participation between boys and girls in the English
classroom?
Probe: Do you see differences between boys and girls during classroom interaction?
What are they?
Probe: Who performs better during the English lesson?
a. Boys or girls?
b. Why boys not girls?
c. Why girls not boys?
Probe: Do you equally encourage girls and boys when you teach in the classroom? If yes,
a. How do you encourage them?
b. Why do you encourage them?
Probe: Who feels superior in classroom discussion?
a. Boys or girls?
b. How boys’ superiority is reflected in your classroom context?
c. How girls’ superiority is reflected in your classroom context?
d. Can you explain the factors why one is superior to the other?
Probe: Some scholars say that girls do not believe that they can perform as equal as
boys. Do you agree or disagree with this gender belief? Why?
Probe: Some people believe that providing special support for girls is important. Would
you like to support girls in the English classroom? If you yes, Why? If you no, why not?
Probe: Do you observe equal interaction between boys and girls during the English
classroom? If you yes, how is it reflected? If you no, explain what the reasons are?
Probe: What are the major reasons that boys underestimate girls? Can you explain the
reasons?
Probe: When girls do not participate in group discussion, what do you do? Can you share
an example?
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Probe: What happens when you equally perceive boys and girls during English lesson?
Describe what you feel.
Topic 5: Suggestion to improve gender treatment between boys and girls
What general suggestions do you have to improve equal and fair treatment between boys
and girls in the classroom instructional processes?
Thank you for your time.
APPENDIX I: EXAMPLE OF 1 TEACHER`S INTERVIEW
Questions Responses
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Topic 1: Gender roles and responsibilities. I think that teachers may have various perceptions about gender roles and responsibilities in learning and teaching practice. What is your perception about this?
My belief about gender that means the role of male and female students formally or informally in the school compound as well as in classroom, there is great difference between these two genders. This means that who is performing well and who is going to be selected towards certain in activity. As to me, beginning the time I start to teach, it is male students who do things first by confidant. And also what male teachers believe that male students will do tasks in a better way because when we try to give tasks for female students, just they are bound by different anxieties. That is social anxiety. They do have something in their mind. They become reticent and frightened. They look themselves as they cannot compete as men. They do not have much confidence.
Probe: What are girls and boys expected to perform in classroom context?
Girls and boys are expected to perform in classroom context just to do things equally. But as usual, it is the man who does things better because they assume they are not that much competent.
Probe: Some people say that boys are expected to be as family leaders, while girls are expected to be childcare. What is your opinion about this gender belief?
This is traditional norm which has been said for a long period of time. But if we encourage them, females can do like male students. But they know in mind they cannot do things as men because they hear for a lot of time as they cannot do things like that of men enough.
Probe: Who takes responsibilities in school? Girls or boys? Why?
Boys carry much responsibility. Why? Here we teachers and the society believe that male is better to hold or shoulder responsibilities than women. This comes from our background experience.
Probe: In classroom context, to whom responsibilities are frequently given? Girls or boys? Why?
Boys. Why? Actually, the reason is social belief. When I try to give actions for female students, they become afraid because they are tied by different traditions so that the teacher is obliged to give the task for male students rather than female students.
Probe: Can you explain what roles and responsibilities fit boys and girls in the classroom context?
We teachers do not want to select or categorise tasks this is for man and this is for woman. But especially female students prefer to do something especial. For
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instance, if teachers order to clean the classroom, female students first try to clean the classroom because they themselves believe that they are good at cleaning. At that time, the teacher may not tell them. “You are different person to do this special thing and also men can do this.” the teacher may not say this. But from their trend that they have, they want to do something special.
Probe: Can you tell me who is frequently a group leader in your classroom? Girls or boys? Why?
Boys. Why? Most of the time, when we give responsibility, we always see their result or Grade from the back. For instance, to select one student as their group leaders, we will see their Grade-8 results. At that time, most of the time, we will get better Grade result of boys, not girls. And also girls become afraid. When we give them the responsibility, they do not want to carry of it.
Probe: Who has low participation in group discussion? Girls or boys? Why?
Girls. Why? They feel inferiority complex. The reason why they have low participation is that they cannot do as equal as boys.
Probe: Do you give girls and boys different roles in the English classroom? a. How do they give? b. Way do they give?
No. I have never given different thing. Even though I know their outlook, I never give them. I randomly assign roles. I never select man or woman because I give the task randomly. I give group work, in the form of debate. But the chairman or winner is boys. In fact, women can perform well like boys. Based on their performance, I assign a chairman of the debate.
Probe: Who has major role in the classroom context? Girls or boys? Why?
Boys. Why? Boys feel that they are competent and girls feel that they are not competent. This makes boys feel higher and girls feel lower.
Probe: Do you see labour division between men and women in the classroom context? How do you explain labour division in your classroom?
I do not perceive division of role. I assume that both can do the task. For me, female and male can do things equally. But what know in the classroom about division of labour is that students themselves may assume this is my duty or this type of tasks belong to me and that one belongs to men, especially female students say like this. For instance, if I give the duster to
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clean the blackboard, male students always quickly run to take the duster from my hand and clean the board. This is a trend that boys clean the board.
Probe: Who is dominant participant in the classroom discussion? Girls or boys? Why?
Boys. Why? Boys assume that they can do well because they do not afraid. But female students assume they cannot equally perform things like that of males. At that time, I see when boys become a superior and a significant role player towards the task I give them.
Probe: Who expect decisions from others? Girls or boys? If so, a. Why do girls expect decisions from boys instead of doing by themselves in the classroom context? b. Why do boys expect decisions from girls instead of doing by themselves in the classroom context?
Women or girls expect men or boys or others because they assume that male students can well perform things and they can do better than females. When girls are doing the tasks together, they simply listen and even they are waiting the decision of male students about the task that they are doing because they depend on male students. Always they assume male students are better than female students. Female students also believe that male students are their framework to prove something.
Probe: Do you think that girls are a few participants in the English class? a. Why are girls a few participants? b. Why are not girls a few participants?
Yes. They are introverted when they try to participate and speak in English because they assume that there will be laughed at them. They assume others look down their English. Having this in mind, they do not try to speak.
Probe: Who mostly becomes a group leader in the classroom context? Girls or boys? Why?
Boys. Why? Boys become group leaders during different activities. Females became afraid because female students assume that they themselves are not clever and they are not good enough. But boys assume they can do better.
Probe: Some scholars say boys are confident in the English classroom context. Do you agree or disagree with this belief? Why? How do you explain this belief with evidence?
I agree. Why? As to me, in my ten year experience, most of the time, I see those boys who try to speak English rather than female students so that it is usual to see that boys participate better than girls.
Probe: Are girls passive during discussion? a. What are the factors that make girls passive when they discuss in group of learners?
Yes. Almost they are passive. What? Inferiority complex and anxiety. They feel that they are not that much enough competent like male students.
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b. What are the factors that make girls active when they discuss in group of learners?
Topic 2: Gender bias in your classroom. Can you explain how gender bias is reflected in your classroom context?
When I say gender bias, teachers may assume that this task is very difficult so that it should belong to female rather than male. Teachers may have a clear cut thought in their mind that female students cannot do as equal as males students. The teacher may insult depending on students’ sex. Teacher prefers to give task for male than female and by this teacher may impair them because most of female students are not active participants. Having this in mind, the teacher himself may bias by giving tasks.
Probe: How is boys’ and girls’ socialisation viewed in your classroom context?
When I see this socialisation, most of the time I see boys with boys and girls with girls because from their background even in their house or in their society, most of the time female students will be with female students. In the same way, when they come to school, they prefer to sit girls with girls and boys with boys. Actually, even if boys want to socialise with girls, girls do not want to sit with boys. The reason why girls do not want to sit with boys is that they will be criticised or judged that they create informal or illegal way of friendship. Because of this, they become afraid and embarrassed to sit or go with boys.
Probe: Who is given more encouragement in the classroom context? Boys or girls? Why?
Actually teachers encourage girls in classroom. Why? We teachers know the difference between boys and girls when we give them the task to participate. Even if teachers give the chance or the motivation for girls, they cannot do as equal as boys. At that time, I go back and give the chance for boys. An attention is given first for girls. Even though I do this, the girls cannot use the chance. During this time, I neglect girls and then give the chance for boys.
Probe: Who frequently raises hand to ask and answer questions during classroom lesson? Boys or girls? Why?
Boys. Why? The reason why boys raise their hands to participate is that they do not be afraid and are not frightened; whereas,
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girls are afraid and embarrassed because they do not have as equal confidence as boys. Boys highly assume that they can do things what they have been asked by anybody; whereas, girls do not assume that they can do or they can answer the question that they are asked. Boys have good background from the society to be confident.
Probe: To whom do you give more priority in asking and raising questions during the English lesson? For boys or for girls or for both of them? Why?
For boys. Why? I know male students can do better than girls. The reason why girls cannot do as that of male is that they assume that they are lower than boys. They assume that they are not the same as boys. This is also cultural background which shows boys can do better than girls and practically I have seen them who are doing better. And also this makes me to give priority for male students rather than female students.
Probe: Who perform better in the English classroom context? Boys or girls? Why?
Boys. Why? They depend on their confidence and their thought in their mind.
Probe: Do you guide girls to discuss in open, safe and supportive environment to ensure that girls can access discussions and manage dialogue? a. How do you do this? b. Why do you do this? c. Why do not you do this?
I have not done this. I have done in the same manner. I give things for both, but when I see the result, boys are better comparing to girls. Why? I assume that these female students are not much more competent like that of male.
Probe: Do you treat boys and girls in a different way or in a similar way in the English classroom context? a. Why is it in a different way? b. Why is it in a similar way?
I treat almost in a similar way. Why? Even though I know female students should be supported in a special way, they cannot bring a change. So I give the chance for all in the same way. But I know they should be supported. According to our traditional thinking problems of our society, they are the ones that should be supported.
Probe: Who is more privileged in the classroom context? Boys or girls? Why?
Boys. Why? Boys are interactive and they try to become first. When I give them asks, they do quickly or they are hurry to do the tasks and show me. Because of this, I give the chance to boys.
Probe: What is your view towards girls’ and boys’ participation in the classroom context?
My views towards the participation of boys and girls in the classroom are just about boys. Sometimes I prefer to teach boys because when I try to give special chance
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for girls, they can never come to be supported. Having this in mind, it makes me bias to prefer boys.
Topic 3: Gender stereotype against girls. How is gender stereotype reflected in classroom instructional processes?
It always highly reflected now. This is to say when students come to school, they have overgeneralisation what girls can do and what boys can do. For instance, when I ask them their hope, most of the time boys say that they would like to be doctor, a pilot or an engineer. This means boys assume that they can be what is said to be great. But when I come to girls, they may say that they will be teacher, nurse and like this. From this, I can understand that they have very serious oversimplification. And when girls go back home from school, they will do many things like cooking, baking, washing; whereas, boys go somewhere to enjoy and do different outdoor activities.
Probe: What activities are considered as appropriate for boys and inappropriate for girls in school context?
When I see being a group leader, class monitor and just parliamentary members, these responsibilities are mostly given boys rather than girls because boys are not afraid; whereas, girls are afraid. This makes girls become fewer participants and having low performance.
Probe: How do traditional gender beliefs influence classroom situation?
Girls who have in their minds act what they know outside the classroom. Because they are still with their traditional gender thought that brought from the society. This influences classroom situation.
Probe: Do girls face challenges in the classroom context? If so, what challenges do they face?
No.
Probe: Who is confident in asking and answering questions an English teacher during the English lesson? Boys or girls? Would you like to explain the reason?
Boys are confident enough in asking answering questions. The reason is that boys always know that they can do better than girls; whereas, girls do not want to think this.
Probe: In your opinion, who is usually active participant in answering and asking questions during the English class? Boys or girls? What reasons do you think about this?
The great number of participants is boys. But when I see the overall number of enrollment, the number of girls is greater than the number of boys. But in terms of participation, girls have less number than boys. Even if the number of boys is less in each class, their participation is higher
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than girls’ participation. Let us assume that in one class, there are 60 students. I think 40 of them are girls. Boys are 20 in number. But their participation is greater than girls in the class. So I can say that girls do not participate according to their great number.
Probe: How would you compare girls and boys by their classroom participation?
Boys look down girls. And also girls underestimate themselves. Boys say girls that even if girls know the answers or they can do the exercises, boys tell girls to follow and accept them without any doubt. This reflects males’ superiority and girls’ inferiority. So girls believe that boys are always correct and right because they assume that boys cannot make mistakes.
Probe: What attitude do you observe towards boys and girls in classroom context?
The traditional gender belief that I observe is when one student tries to speak in English, others ridicule a student by saying: ‘foreigner’. Due to this reason, others devalue that student.
Probe: What traditional gender beliefs do you observe when you teach in the English class?
This belief is also my view. Naturally girls are better in language. The problem is not their ability. But they assume that they cannot do better in language because they bring this idea from their society. Even though some scholars say females are naturally better for language acquisition, girls do not know this secret but what they know is that they cannot do better in language.
Topic 4: Gender Inequality in the English classroom. How do you explain your observations and experiences?
My experience or observation depending on gender inequality, there is high gender inequality from my experience. Just to see this, there are some reasons. The cultural background in every problem always becomes a significant reason because when girls try to do something special, the norm or the tradition they know before prohibit them. Boys always come to front position. Even if it has been given an affirmative action for girls, this may not enable to see them equally.
Probe: Do you give equal opportunity to boys and girls in the English classroom? If so,
I give equal opportunity. But even though I try to give equal opportunity for boys and girls, their performance is different. For
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a. How do you do that? b. Why do you do that?
example, in one class, I gave the opportunity for all students. But I found male students who more participated in the class. Then I try to regret and decide to give the chance for male students in another days. How? I give opportunity for all students in the class. But girls do not do things as I expect. Having this in mind, I am obliged to give for boys. I try to give them equal chance. But girls can do like boys.
Probe: Do girls have equal chances to perform the same as boys in the classroom? a. How do they perform that? b. Why do they perform that? c. Why do not they perform that?
Yes. How? They perform less. (b) Why? They do not assume that they can do better than boys.
Probe: Could you explain how you ensure equal participation of boys and girls in classroom discussions?
Yes. I always do to create equal participation. But when I see the result, it can never be equal because once they have heard something in their mind that females are inferior and males are superior.
Probe: What factors increase unequal participation between boys and girls in the English classroom?
The social anxiety that boys and girls know before. The traditional thought what in their mind is always challenge them not to do better.
Probe: Do you see differences between boys and girls during classroom interaction? What are they?
Yes. Boys do not be afraid but girls are afraid. And always boys try to do things quickly without shyness and fearfulness. Boys try to do things first. But girls keep silent and follow boys.
Probe: Who performs better during the English lesson? a. Boys or girls? b. Why boys not girls? c. Why girls not boys?
Boys. Why? The reason why boys perform well is that their experience or their confidence and even the bias that comes from the society enables boys to perform better.
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Probe: Do you equally encourage girls and boys when you teach in the classroom? If yes, a. How do you encourage them? b. Why do you encourage them?
From the very begriming, when I am going to give the task, I equally push or encourage them. But later having the low performance of girls, I give the chance again and again for boys. How? In every activity I have the praise: It may be word praise. This is a kind of motivation by giving like ‘very fantastic’. So I appreciate their performance by saying: “a wonderful! A fantastic quay! Excellent!” Sometimes, I give them a material like a ‘pen’.Why? To increase their performance, giving encouragement helps to avoid their anxiety and to increase their confidence. I appreciate and give them something as a reward.
Probe: Who feels superior in classroom discussion? a. Boys or girls? b. How boys’ superiority is reflected in your classroom context? c. How girls’ superiority is reflected in your classroom context? d. Can you explain the factors why one is superior to the other?
Boys. They laugh at girls’ mistakes. Boys, “Are you going to answer this question? I do not think so!” So boys become the best. They assume they are right in front of girls. This makes inferior girls. There are many factors. Boys are bounded by different positive thoughts as they are good at learning. But this does not happen for girls.
Probe: Some scholars say that girls do not believe that they can perform as equal as boys. Do you agree or disagree with this gender belief? Why?
I agree. Why? Girls do not believe that they can do as equal as boys. There are a bottle neck of problem that girls cannot think that they can do like boys. Beginning from their childhood, they listen that they are not equal with boys. Even when I take into account division of labour, much more duties about house works are given for girls. At this time, female students feel that they think such duties belong to girls because it is true that they can do such things like boys. they always assume that they are exposed to inferiority.
Probe: Some people believe that providing special support for girls is important. Would you like to support girls in the English classroom? If you yes, Why? If you no, why not?
Yes. I would like to support girls. Why? I know they are discriminated group. In the society, there are different sayings that hamper or prohibit girls not to do better. Having this in mind, I Am obliged to support girls. But even though I try to do special support for female students, I cannot find them within a change.
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Probe: Do you observe equal interaction between boys and girls during the English classroom? If you yes, how is it reflected? If you no, explain what the reasons are?
I have not observed equal interaction. The reasons why I cannot see equal interaction between boys and girls are that once they already know that boys can do better; whereas, girls cannot do better. This makes them always not to interact as equal as male students.
Probe: What are the major reasons that boys underestimate girls? Can you explain the reasons?
Yes. Girls do not come up with good result in a comparison with boys. And also the different thought that comes from the society distinguishes boys positively but girls negatively. Male students always assume that girls are below them.
Probe: When girls do not participate in group discussion, what do you do? Can you share an example?
When girls do not try to participate equally towards certain things in English classroom, I try to give them special support. That means “Why do not you participate? You can do! Why do not you try? You will not be laughed at! Please, try! You may perform better than boys! Let you try first!” I may give such appreciations for girls.
Probe: What happens when you equally perceive boys and girls during English lesson? Describe what you feel
When I see girls’ participation as equal as boys, first I feel happy. Then immediately what will come in my mind is that girls can do as equal as boys.
Topic 5: Suggestion to improve gender treatment between boys and girls What general suggestions do you have to improve equal and fair treatment between boys and girls in the classroom instructional activities?
In my suggestion, to improve the participation of girls and even it is possible to make girls greater than boys since teachers know the problem from our background, we have to cut this traditional thought to make female students competent enough like that of male students. We always give much credit and attention for female students to make them away from this traditional beliefs and social anxiety that they cannot do better as males. Unless we know their traditional belief, our female students cannot bring a change. So it is possible to fill the gap between boys and girls. Unless we do this, we cannot bring a change because girls are bounded by traditional thought and social anxiety which always make them feel inferior.
